tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/food-stamps-39243/articlesFood stamps – The Conversation2023-06-15T12:38:01Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2071002023-06-15T12:38:01Z2023-06-15T12:38:01ZFood insecurity already affects 12 million US homes – and reductions in SNAP benefits won’t help<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530255/original/file-20230606-25-5endiw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4554%2C3850&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Of the 34 million Americans who suffer from food insecurity, 9 million are children.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/serious-mixed-race-boy-with-curly-hair-royalty-free-image/554372217?phrase=sad+child&adppopup=true">Jose Luis Pelaez Inc/Digital Vision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Millions of Americans struggle to afford healthy meals and nutritious food. Known as “food insecurity,” this problem was already rising when Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, or SNAP, benefits – previously called food stamps – were <a href="https://theconversation.com/extra-snap-benefits-are-ending-as-us-lawmakers-resume-battle-over-program-that-helps-low-income-americans-buy-food-199929">cut in 35 states this spring</a>.</em>
<em>SciLine interviewed <a href="https://profiles.ucsf.edu/hilary.seligman">Hilary Seligman</a>, professor of medicine at the University of California, San Francisco, on rising grocery prices, the misconceptions about hunger in the U.S., and how food insecurity diminishes school and work performance.</em></p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Hilary Seligman discussed food insecurity in the U.S.</span></figcaption>
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<p><em>Below are some highlights from the discussion. Answers have been edited.</em></p>
<p><strong>What is food insecurity?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Hilary Seligman:</strong> Food insecurity is defined by the U.S. Department of Agriculture as the <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/food-security-in-the-u-s/definitions-of-food-security/">limited or uncertain access to enough food</a> for a healthy life.</p>
<p><strong>What are the trends in food insecurity rates?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Hilary Seligman:</strong> The most recent data suggests that about <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/ag-and-food-statistics-charting-the-essentials/food-security-and-nutrition-assistance/">1 in 10 households in the U.S. are food insecure</a>. And this rate is even higher among certain groups, like Black and brown households and households with children.</p>
<p><strong>What factors cause food insecurity?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Hilary Seligman:</strong> Food insecurity is an <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-food-insecurity-152746">inability to access enough resources</a> for your basic needs. So it’s not having sufficient money in the household to meet a food budget. And that may be because of <a href="https://moveforhunger.org/how-a-disability-can-increase-the-risk-of-food-insecurity#:%7E:">disability</a>, because of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.07.28.20163618">unemployment</a>, because of <a href="https://www.laworks.com/food-insecurity-101#:%7E:">inadequate educational opportunities</a>, or all of these root causes. </p>
<p><strong>How does inflation affect food insecurity rates?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Hilary Seligman:</strong> It’s clear that when food prices rise, households have to <a href="https://www.urban.org/research/publication/food-insecurity-trended-upward-midst-high-inflation">stretch a food budget even more</a>. People have to make difficult choices about the kind of food they eat, and the amount of food they eat. </p>
<p>In many cases, when household budgets are stretched thin, people have to shift their purchases toward foods that are cheaper. And in the U.S., cheaper foods are <a href="https://theconversation.com/ultraprocessed-foods-like-cookies-chips-frozen-meals-and-fast-food-may-contribute-to-cognitive-decline-196560">almost always less healthy for you</a>, more caloric and more deficient in vitamins and nutrients.</p>
<p><strong>How does food insecurity affect people’s health?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Hilary Seligman:</strong> Over the last couple of decades, we’ve seen that food insecurity can have a profound impact on physical health and mental health, whether children, adults or older adults.</p>
<p>These cheaper foods tend to be really <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/25/our-unequal-earth-mark-bittman-cheap-food-american-diet">highly processed, nutritionally poor, shelf-stable foods</a>. And we know these foods are bad for people’s health in the long term. They predispose people toward weight gain, diabetes, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076813512297">cardiovascular disease</a> and <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/242892/ultra-processed-foods-linked-increased-risk-cancer/">even cancer</a>. </p>
<p>We also know that when you live in a food-insecure household, it makes it difficult to afford <a href="https://www.westhealth.org/press-release/112-million-americans-struggle-to-afford-healthcare/">other things that are good for your health</a>. For example, it would make it more difficult to afford your copayment to see your primary care doctor, or your medications. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531018/original/file-20230608-13385-dubp2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A sign in a grocery store window says 'We gladly accept EBT food stamps.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531018/original/file-20230608-13385-dubp2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531018/original/file-20230608-13385-dubp2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531018/original/file-20230608-13385-dubp2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531018/original/file-20230608-13385-dubp2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531018/original/file-20230608-13385-dubp2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531018/original/file-20230608-13385-dubp2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531018/original/file-20230608-13385-dubp2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">About 12% of the U.S. population relies on the SNAP program.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/sign-alerting-customers-about-snap-food-stamps-benefits-is-news-photo/1186596443">Scott Heins via Getty Images News</a></span>
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<p><strong>How does food insecurity affect success at work or school?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Hilary Seligman:</strong> We know that food insecurity is associated with <a href="https://www.nokidhungry.org/blog/how-does-hunger-affect-learning#:%7E:">poor academic performance among children</a>. </p>
<p>Parents are probably really familiar with the way that their children behave when they’re hungry. And those same things happen in school environments when kids show up to school having not had the opportunity to eat a healthy breakfast. </p>
<p>The evidence is clear that food insecurity is associated with <a href="https://www.bigrapidsnews.com/local-news/article/Going-hungry-Student-hunger-affects-behavior-14181940.php#:%7E:">behavioral problems in school</a>, absenteeism from school and poor academic performance. And this can have lifelong consequences for children. </p>
<p>A similar thing <a href="https://www.worklifepartnership.org/food-insecurity/">plays out with adults</a>. Adults who are living in food-insecure households are less likely to be able to hold down a sufficient number of work hours to meet their household budget needs. They’re less likely to be able to devote a lot of hours to finding employment, because finding food takes a lot of time and a lot of energy.</p>
<p><strong>Are there any common misconceptions about hunger?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Hilary Seligman:</strong> One of the misconceptions is that people who are experiencing food insecurity don’t want access to a healthier diet. </p>
<p>In many, many cases, if not most cases, the evidence is clear that people at all income levels <a href="https://www.salon.com/2015/09/27/the_surprising_truth_about_poor_peoples_eating_habits_partner/">often want access to a healthier diet</a>. But in a household experiencing food insecurity, a healthier diet is simply out of reach financially. </p>
<p>Many people living in food-insecure households will tell you they <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2008/november/can-low-income-americans-afford-a-healthy-diet/">perceive fruits and vegetables to be luxury items</a>. They only splurge on fruits and vegetables when they have extra money in their budget. And so one of the things that we have to guard against is an assumption that people with lower incomes don’t want to eat a healthy diet.</p>
<p><strong>What else works to reduce or eliminate food insecurity?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Hilary Seligman:</strong> The best solution for food insecurity is <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program">SNAP</a>, which used to be called the food stamps program. </p>
<p>It is very, very clear that SNAP is <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/snap-is-linked-with-improved-nutritional-outcomes-and-lower-health-care">enormously effective at supporting food security</a> in U.S. households. And anything that reduces access to SNAP or makes it more difficult to enroll in SNAP is going to have the effect of increasing food insecurity rates in the United States. </p>
<p>An example of this would be the work requirements that will <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/06/02/1179633624/snap-food-assistance-work-requirements-congress-debt-ceiling">push people out of the SNAP program</a> and likely increase food insecurity rates. </p>
<p>Things like earned income tax credits protect families against food insecurity. Emergency stimulus checks like we saw during the COVID pandemic <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/poverty-and-inequality/robust-covid-relief-achieved-historic-gains-against-poverty-and-0">also protect families</a>. </p>
<p><em>Watch the <a href="https://www.sciline.org/health-medicine/food-insecurity/">full interview</a> to hear more.</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://www.sciline.org/">SciLine</a> is a free service based at the nonprofit American Association for the Advancement of Science that helps journalists include scientific evidence and experts in their news stories.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207100/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hilary Seligman receives funding from NIH, CDC, USDA, Feeding America, and Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Healthy Eating Research. She is the founder of Vouchers for Veggies, which receives funding from the Hellman Foundation, San Francisco Public Health Foundation, Share our Strength, and numerous others.</span></em></p>For many Americans, a healthy diet of fruits, vegetables and whole grains is beyond their reach.Hilary Seligman, Professor of Medicine, University of California, San FranciscoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2008932023-03-27T12:23:01Z2023-03-27T12:23:01ZExtra food assistance cushioned the early pandemic’s blow on kids’ mental health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516734/original/file-20230321-20-u5z17m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=51%2C25%2C5668%2C3782&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The pandemic-era expansion of SNAP benefits ended in all U.S. states by March 2023.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/asian-woman-wearing-protective-face-mask-hold-paper-royalty-free-image/1253665535?adppopup=true">aogreatkim/iStock/Getty Images Plus via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Despite the <a href="https://theconversation.com/snap-benefits-cost-a-total-of-85-6b-in-the-2020-fiscal-year-amid-heightened-us-poverty-and-unemployment-148077">heightened poverty and unemployment</a> seen when the COVID-19 pandemic got underway, many low-income U.S. children <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2023.107456">did not experience a decline in their emotional and mental health</a>, we found in a new study. </p>
<p>We looked specifically at kids whose families were participating in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-snap-can-help-people-during-hard-economic-times-like-these-133664">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a> – commonly known as SNAP – the government program that helps low-income Americans afford food. </p>
<p>The government began to boost SNAP benefits in early 2020 to help offset pandemic-driven food insecurity for participating families, which now <a href="https://theconversation.com/extra-snap-benefits-are-ending-as-us-lawmakers-resume-battle-over-program-that-helps-low-income-americans-buy-food-199929">number around 41 million</a>.</p>
<p>As a result, <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/covid-19-emergency-allotments-guidance">families got an extra US$95</a> or more per month for groceries to <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/100820/ap-089.pdf?v=5555.5">replace the meals children were missing</a> at schools that had closed. <a href="https://healthyeatingresearch.org/research/snap-waivers-and-adaptations-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-a-survey-of-state-agency-perspectives-in-2020/">Some eligibility rules were loosened</a> to expand the program’s reach, and for the first time, <a href="https://www.usda.gov/media/press-releases/2019/04/18/usda-launches-snap-online-purchasing-pilot">people could buy groceries online</a> with their SNAP benefits.</p>
<p>To learn whether these extra benefits affected children’s mental and emotional health, we analyzed five years of data collected by the <a href="https://www.nschdata.org/">National Survey of Children’s Health</a> on 30,748 low-income families with children aged 6 to 17 years. The data, which included both families who were and were not getting SNAP benefits, covered the four years prior to the pandemic, as well as 2020. </p>
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<p>Among the 8,680 families getting SNAP benefits during this period, 38% had at least one child with problems such as doctor-diagnosed mental, emotional, developmental or behavioral health issues – including anxiety and depression.</p>
<p>To assess whether the temporarily expanded benefits had an impact on these children, we conducted a “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/difference-in-differences">difference in differences</a>” analysis: We compared data regarding children whose families enrolled in the SNAP program over time with children whose families didn’t get those benefits. In addition, we considered the potential influence of several factors that could play a role, such as parents’ mental health.</p>
<p>We found that children in families getting SNAP benefits in 2020 did not generally experience any change in their mental or emotional health compared to prior years, despite the heavy stress of the pandemic.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Typically, <a href="https://www.apa.org/topics/socioeconomic-status/poverty-hunger-homelessness-children">low-income children are more at risk</a> of developing mental health or emotional problems, compared with high-income children. Our study adds to earlier evidence that SNAP benefits can lower that risk by <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302480">reducing psychological distress and improving food security</a>.</p>
<p>While 2020’s extra SNAP benefits protected children’s mental and emotional health, they did not improve it. This suggests that actually reducing food insecurity for low-income families would have required additional steps. </p>
<p>In March 2023, <a href="https://theconversation.com/extra-snap-benefits-are-ending-as-us-lawmakers-resume-battle-over-program-that-helps-low-income-americans-buy-food-19992">the federal government ended</a> the pandemic-era SNAP expansions in 35 states and territories that hadn’t yet rolled them back. With inflation driving the <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-price-outlook/summary-findings/">cost of groceries up 11.4%</a> in 2022, we believe that <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/temporary-pandemic-snap-benefits-will-end-in-remaining-35-states-in-march#_ftn2">losing these benefits</a> threatens the well-being of millions of families.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>We are now studying the <a href="https://texaswic.org/">effects of pandemic-related changes</a> to the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children, better known as WIC. </p>
<p>We are looking at, for example, how expanding WIC benefits to cover canned, frozen and dried fruits and vegetables in addition to fresh produce has affected the low-income families’ purchasing behavior. Our team for this research also includes public health and nutrition scholars <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=d4_yu0YAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Alexandra MacMillan Uribe</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=UKvdw94AAAAJ">Elizabeth Racine</a>, </p>
<h2>What is not known</h2>
<p>When we did our study, data from the years after 2020 wasn’t yet available, so we couldn’t investigate the potential impact of subsequent pandemic-related changes to SNAP benefits. Notably, in 2021, the federal government increased maximum benefit levels by 15% and <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/temporary-pandemic-snap-benefits-will-end-in-remaining-35-states-in-march">extended the extra $95 or more</a> in monthly food assistance for the lowest-income households.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200893/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Grace Melo's research related for this article was supported by funding from the Texas A&M AgriLife Institute for Advancing Health Through Agriculture.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pourya Valizadeh receives funding from the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Economic Research Service. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rodolfo M. Nayga Jr. receives funding from U.S. Department of Agriculture.</span></em></p>Expanding SNAP helped shield low-income children from some of the harm caused by economic upheaval when the COVID-19 pandemic began.Grace Melo, ACES Faculty Fellow, Texas A&M UniversityPourya Valizadeh, Research Assistant Professor of Agricultural Economics, Texas A&M UniversityRodolfo M. Nayga Jr., Professor of Agricultural Economics, Texas A&M UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1999292023-02-17T13:24:15Z2023-02-17T13:24:15ZExtra SNAP benefits are ending as US lawmakers resume battle over program that helps low-income Americans buy food<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510712/original/file-20230216-466-mfpujx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=43%2C359%2C3194%2C1796&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">For some Americans, the decline will be quite sharp.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/clark-resident-jen-valencia-still-works-part-time-for-news-photo/1363541115">Michael Loccisano/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Millions of Americans will find it harder to put enough food on the table starting in March 2023, after a <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/covid-19-emergency-allotments-guidance">COVID-19 pandemic-era boost</a> to <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a> benefits comes to an end. Congress mandated this change in <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/ea-provision-consolidated-appropriations-act-2023">budget legislation</a> it passed in late December 2022.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap">Roughly 41 million Americans</a> are currently enrolled in this program, which the government has long used to ease hunger while <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-snap-can-help-people-during-hard-economic-times-like-these-133664">boosting the economy during downturns</a>.</p>
<p>Many families enrolled in the program, commonly known as SNAP but sometimes called food stamps, stand to <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/temporary-pandemic-snap-benefits-will-end-in-remaining-35-states-in-march#_ftn2">lose an average of roughly US$90 per person a month</a>.</p>
<p>While researching SNAP <a href="https://news.richmond.edu/releases/article/-/16856/ur-political-science-professor-awarded-funding-to-advance-book-project-on-history-of-americas-food-stamp-program.html">for an upcoming book</a>, I’ve observed that this program has provided critical assistance to struggling families over the last three years. The extra benefits, which Americans can use to purchase food at the <a href="https://ncoa.org/article/where-can-i-use-snap-benefit">roughly 250,000 stores that accept them</a>, have helped millions of people weather the pandemic’s economic fallout and high inflation rates.</p>
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<h2>SNAP benefits grew during the pandemic</h2>
<p>In the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/covid-19-crisis-heaps-pressure-nation-s-food-banks-n1178731">lines at food banks grew</a> and <a href="https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2021/article/unemployment-rises-in-2020-as-the-country-battles-the-covid-19-pandemic.htm">millions lost their jobs</a>. One way that <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/6201/text">Congress responded was with legislation</a> that let the states, which administer this federally funded program, expand SNAP benefits during the public health emergency.</p>
<p>Under this temporary arrangement, all families who were eligible for SNAP could get the maximum allowable benefit amount for the size of their household. Otherwise, that maximum amount would only be available to people with no income at all. But starting in March 2023, SNAP benefits will once again be distributed everywhere on a sliding scale based on income levels.</p>
<p>Some states began to drop the extra benefits in the spring of 2021. <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/2023-benefit-changes">But 32 states</a> and the District of Columbia were still offering the extra help in February 2023. </p>
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<p>A <a href="https://www.urban.org/research/publication/effect-reevaluated-thrifty-food-plan-and-emergency-allotments-supplemental">study from the Urban Institute</a>, a think tank, estimated that the extra benefits kept 4.2 million people out of poverty at the end of 2021 and had reduced overall poverty in states still offering the benefits by 9.6% and child poverty by 14%. </p>
<p>Although the unemployment rate has recently fallen to the <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2023/02/03/jobs-report-january-2023-.html">lowest level since 1969</a>, the extra SNAP benefits have continued to help low-income families deal with soaring prices that <a href="https://www.bls.gov/news.release/cpi.nr0.htm">increased the cost of food consumed at home by 11.3%</a> in the 12 months ending in January 2023.</p>
<p>With more people enrolled in the program today than before the COVID-19 pandemic, and the distribution of extra benefits, SNAP spending reached a <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap">record $114 billion</a> in the 12 months that ended in September 2022. </p>
<h2>Looming hunger cliff</h2>
<p>Many <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2021/08/19/a-healthy-reform-to-the-supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-updating-the-thrifty-food-plan/">experts on food insecurity</a> have long argued that <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/more-adequate-snap-benefits-would-help-millions-of-participants-better">SNAP benefits have historically been too low</a>.</p>
<p>The Biden administration has already tried to boost them by adjusting the “<a href="https://theconversation.com/snap-benefits-are-rising-for-millions-of-americans-thanks-to-a-long-overdue-thrifty-food-plan-update-167876">Thrifty Food Plan</a>” – the standard the U.S. Department of Agriculture uses to set SNAP benefits based on the cost of a budget-conscious and nutritionally adequate diet.</p>
<p>As a result, benefits rose an average of $36 a month, a <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/news-item/usda-0179.21">21% increase</a>, in October 2021. That increase more than offset the expiration of a <a href="https://www.usda.gov/media/press-releases/2021/03/22/usda-increases-snap-benefits-15-funding-american-rescue-plan">temporary seven-month boost</a> in benefits that Congress had approved earlier that year.</p>
<p>SNAP benefits automatically adjust every October based on the increase in food prices in July as compared with the previous year. In 2022, they increased <a href="https://www.gobankingrates.com/saving-money/food/food-stamps-cola-update-increases-snap-ebt-benefits-starting-oct-1">12.5%</a>. But when prices are rising quickly, as is currently the case, SNAP benefits can lose a lot of ground in the months before the next adjustment.</p>
<p>Many <a href="https://frac.org/blog/close-snap-benefit-gaps">advocates for a stronger safety net</a> say that SNAP benefits are too low to meet the needs of low-income people. They are warning of a <a href="https://blog.ucsusa.org/alice-reznickova/a-hunger-cliff-is-looming-time-to-rethink-nutrition-assistance/">looming hunger cliff</a> – meaning a sharp increase in the number of people who don’t get enough nutritious food to eat – in March 2023, when the extra help ends.</p>
<p>At that point, the lowest-income families will lose <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/changes-2023-benefit-amounts">$95 in benefits a month</a>. But some SNAP participants, such as <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2023/01/25/snap-emergency-allotments-seniors/">many elderly and disabled people</a> who live alone and on fixed incomes and who only qualify for the minimum amount of help, will see their benefits plummet from $281 to $23 a month.</p>
<p>Most people on SNAP who get Social Security benefits will see their <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/changes-2023-benefit-amounts">SNAP benefits fall</a>. That’s because of the <a href="https://faq.ssa.gov/en-us/Topic/article/KA-01951#">8.7% cost of living increase</a> in Social Security benefits implemented in January 2023, which increases their income and lowers the amount of nutritional assistance they can receive. And some of these Americans may even have enough income that they no longer qualify for SNAP at all.</p>
<p>For an average family of four on SNAP, benefits will <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/a-quick-guide-to-snap-eligibility-and-benefits">fall from the maximum of $939</a> to $718, according to an estimate by the Center for Budget and Policy Priorities, an anti-poverty research group.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2022/11/23/us-food-banks-pantries-struggle/10671432002/">Food banks, already under stress</a> because of higher food costs and falling donations, are <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/food-stamps-snap-benefits-cut-in-32-states-emergency-allotments-march-2023/">bracing for higher demand</a>. Food banks in some states that ended the emergency boost in benefits early have seen a <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2022/07/19/more-states-are-forgoing-extra-federal-food-aid">30% increase</a> in need. </p>
<p>More people on SNAP also <a href="https://www.joinpropel.com/in-depth-pandemic-food-benefit-ending">reported skipping meals</a> in the states that dropped extra benefits than those that did not.</p>
<h2>Lawmakers poised to resume a longtime fight</h2>
<p>Several <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/4077/text">Democrats have proposed legislation</a> to increase SNAP benefits over the long term. But many <a href="https://thefern.org/ag_insider/snap-costs-too-much-program-needs-revisions-say-house-republicans/">Republicans want to reduce spending on SNAP</a> and put more limits on who can get the program’s benefits. </p>
<p>Debate centers around whether unemployed adults deemed capable of working should be able to get SNAP. This argument, <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/short-history-snap">almost as old as the program</a> itself, was largely set aside during the pandemic. </p>
<p>Legislation enacted in early 2020 suspended a requirement that limited benefits for adults under 50 who meet the government’s definition of able-bodied and have no dependents. They can receive no more than three months of SNAP <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/a-quick-guide-to-snap-eligibility-and-benefits">benefits every three years</a> – unless they work or participate in a work-training program at least 20 hours a week. </p>
<p>This time limit will come back when the <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2023-02-09/biden-administration-releases-covid-19-public-health-emergency-transition-road-map">public health emergency ends</a> in May 2023. </p>
<p>But many critics of SNAP have argued the <a href="https://theconversation.com/scaling-back-snap-for-self-reliance-clashes-with-the-original-goals-of-food-stamps-128839">work requirements were never effectively enforced</a>. A <a href="https://www.agri-pulse.com/ext/resources/2023/02/08/Rep.-Gaetz-SNAP-BUDGET-LETTER-to-WH-2.7.23.pdf">few Republicans</a> want to make <a href="https://thefern.org/ag_insider/snap-costs-too-much-program-needs-revisions-say-house-republicans/">tightening restrictions on SNAP benefits</a> a condition for raising the debt ceiling. At this point, it isn’t clear if they will succeed.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.axios.com/2023/02/15/snap-food-benefits-end-covid">Debate over SNAP reforms</a> is likely to come up when Congress considers the program as part of broad food and agriculture <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-2018-farm-bill-means-for-urban-suburban-and-rural-america-89605">legislation known as the farm bill</a>. Congress must act to <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/02/02/1151727273/congress-gears-up-for-another-farm-bill-heres-whats-on-the-menu">renew the program before October 2023</a>.</p>
<p>But with the <a href="https://pressgallery.house.gov/member-data/party-breakdown">House narrowly controlled by Republicans</a> and the <a href="https://ballotpedia.org/United_States_Senate_elections,_2022">Senate controlled by a slim Democratic majority</a>, I believe it will be hard to make big changes to the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199929/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tracy Roof does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More than 41 million people rely on the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program to buy their groceries. When the COVID-19 pandemic began, the program ramped up.Tracy Roof, Associate Professor of Political Science, University of RichmondLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1636262021-07-12T12:29:11Z2021-07-12T12:29:11ZPoverty in 2021 looks different than in 1964 – but the US hasn’t changed how it measures who’s poor since LBJ began his war<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410488/original/file-20210708-27-1v5n3jy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=317%2C24%2C5115%2C4194&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Poverty in America has changed since the 1960s.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/news-photo/700185625?adppopup=true">Morton Broffman/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson <a href="https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/lbj1964stateoftheunion.htm">famously declared war on poverty</a>. </p>
<p>“The richest nation on Earth can afford to win it,” he told Congress in his first State of the Union address. “We cannot afford to lose it.” </p>
<p>Yet as the administration was to learn on both the domestic and foreign battlefields, a country marching off to war must have a credible estimate of the enemy’s size and strength. Surprisingly, up until this point, the U.S. had no official measure of poverty and therefore no statistics on its scope, shape or changing nature. The U.S. needed to come up with a way of measuring how many people in America were poor.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://brownschool.wustl.edu/Faculty-and-Research/Pages/Mark-Rank.aspx">I discuss</a> in my recently published book “<a href="https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/confronting-poverty/book262548">Confronting Poverty</a>,” the approach that the government came up with in the 1960s is still – <a href="https://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/regional-economist/july-2012/understanding-poverty-measures-and-the-call-to-update-them">despite its many shortcomings</a> – the government’s official measure of poverty and used to determine eligibility for hundreds of billions of dollars in federal aid. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman carries a box of food to a car waiting at a food bank in Los Angeles" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410489/original/file-20210708-23-1f7tex8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410489/original/file-20210708-23-1f7tex8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410489/original/file-20210708-23-1f7tex8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410489/original/file-20210708-23-1f7tex8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410489/original/file-20210708-23-1f7tex8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410489/original/file-20210708-23-1f7tex8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410489/original/file-20210708-23-1f7tex8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The need for food aid exploded during the COVID-19 pandemic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/license/1297847903">Brittany Murray/MediaNews Group/Long Beach Press-Telegram via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Counting the poor</h2>
<p>Broadly speaking, poverty means not having the money to purchase the basic necessities to maintain a minimally adequate life, such as food, shelter and clothing.</p>
<p>The government came up with <a href="https://www.census.gov/topics/income-poverty/poverty.html">its official method for counting poor people</a> in the mid-1960s. </p>
<p>First, it asks, what does it cost to purchase a minimally adequate diet during the year for a particularly sized family? That number is then multiplied by three, and you have arrived at the poverty line. That’s it. </p>
<p>If a family’s income falls above the line it is not considered in poverty, while those below the line are counted as poor. </p>
<p>What about all the other basic necessities, such as housing, clothing and health care? That’s where the multiplier of three comes in. When the poverty thresholds were devised, <a href="https://www.ssa.gov/history/fisheronpoverty.htm">research indicated</a> that the typical family spent approximately one-third of its income on food and the remaining two-thirds on all other expenses.</p>
<p>Therefore, the logic was that if a minimally adequate diet could be purchased for a particular dollar amount, multiplying that figure by three would give the amount of income needed to purchase the basic necessities for a minimally adequate life. </p>
<p>Back in 1963, that <a href="https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/historical-poverty-people.html">translated into a poverty line</a> of US$3,128 for a family of four. In 2019, the same family’s poverty line <a href="https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2020/demo/p60-270.pdf">stood at $26,172</a>. For an interesting contrast, <a href="https://news.gallup.com/poll/162587/americans-say-family-four-needs-nearly-60k.aspx">that’s less than half what the average American polled</a> in 2013 said was the “smallest amount of money” a family of four needed to get by, or $58,000.</p>
<p>The federal government adjusts the poverty line annually to reflect increases in the cost of living. The cutoff itself varies by the number of people in the household, while a household’s annual income is based upon the earnings of everyone currently residing within it. </p>
<p>Using this measure, <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2020/demo/p60-270.html">10.5% of the U.S. population</a> was in poverty in 2019, the most recent data available.</p>
<p>Keep in mind, though, these thresholds represent impoverishment at its most opulent level. Among those living below the poverty line, <a href="https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2020/demo/income-poverty/p60-270.html">45% live in “deep” poverty</a>, which means they live on less than half of the official poverty line.</p>
<p>The government uses the official poverty line as the base to determine who’s eligible for a range of social programs, from Medicaid to the <a href="https://theconversation.com/scaling-back-snap-for-self-reliance-clashes-with-the-original-goals-of-food-stamps-128839">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a>. For example, to qualify for SNAP, a household <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/a-quick-guide-to-snap-eligibility-and-benefits">must be below 130% of the poverty line</a> for its size. </p>
<p><iframe id="bQ8O1" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/bQ8O1/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Other measures of poverty</h2>
<p><a href="https://ssir.org/articles/entry/beyond_the_poverty_line">Most analysts</a>, however, consider the official poverty line to be an extremely conservative measure of economic hardship.</p>
<p>A major reason for this is that families today have to spend much more on things other than food than they did in the 1960s. For example, <a href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CPIHOSNS">housing costs have surged over 800%</a> since then. </p>
<p>For that reason, some critics say the multiplier of three <a href="https://www.ssa.gov/history/fisheronpoverty.html">should be raised to four</a> or <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/testimonies/why-the-united-states-needs-an-improved-measure-of-poverty/">even higher</a>. Taking that step would result in a much larger percentage of the population being seen as in poverty, making them eligible for anti-poverty benefits. </p>
<p>In response, in 2011 the census bureau <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2020/demo/p60-272.html">developed an alternative measure of poverty</a>, called the Supplemental Poverty Measure. This method takes into account a number of factors that the official poverty measure does not, such as differences in cost of living across the country. The result pushes the poverty rate up just a tad, to <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2020/demo/p60-272.html">11.7% for 2019</a>. This measure is mostly used today by academics and researchers.</p>
<p>Another method, <a href="https://tcf.org/content/report/american-poverty-measured-relative-prevailing-standards-time/">common in many high-income countries</a>, ignores the cost of living calculations entirely.</p>
<p>The European Union, for example, defines poverty as the percentage of the population that earns below one half of whatever the median income is. For example, in the U.S., the <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2020/demo/p60-270.html">median income in 2019 was $68,703</a>, which means anyone earning less than $34,351 would be deemed poor. By that measure, the U.S. <a href="https://data.oecd.org/inequality/poverty-rate.htm#indicator-chart">would have a poverty rate of 17.8%</a>. </p>
<p>In fact, back in 1959, the poverty line for a family of four <a href="https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2020/demo/p60-270.pdf">was about half of median income in the U.S.</a> Today, it’s about a quarter, which means the federal government’s definition of who is poor hasn’t kept up with overall rising standards of living. </p>
<p>One other approach is based on the idea that poverty is more than just a lack of income and should reflect economic insecurity more broadly, such as not having unemployment or health insurance. The census recently calculated what poverty might look from this perspective and concluded <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/working-papers/2021/demo/SEHSD-WP2021-03.html">38% of Americans experienced</a> one or more aspects of deprivation in 2019. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="President Lyndon B. Johnson delivers his State of the Union address to a joint session of Congress in the House of Representatives as lawmakers and other look on." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410478/original/file-20210708-19-1bv9f5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=143%2C175%2C2851%2C1845&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410478/original/file-20210708-19-1bv9f5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410478/original/file-20210708-19-1bv9f5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410478/original/file-20210708-19-1bv9f5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410478/original/file-20210708-19-1bv9f5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410478/original/file-20210708-19-1bv9f5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410478/original/file-20210708-19-1bv9f5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lyndon B. Johnson declared a ‘war on poverty’ in 1964.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/LBJStateOfTheUnion/dbb222a20a4d4f6cb4d9fcf1842bcd4f/photo?Query=johnson%20war%20on%20poverty&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=19&currentItemNo=7">AP Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The only way to win the war</h2>
<p>Why does it matter how a society measures poverty? </p>
<p>It matters because in order to address a problem, you must have a clear understanding of its scope. By using an extremely conservative measurement such as the federal poverty line, the U.S. minimizes the extent and depth of poverty in the country.</p>
<p>An inaccurate poverty line inevitably also limits the number of impoverished people who qualify for much-needed federal and state assistance. During the COVID-19 pandemic, <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/covid-poverty-america/">millions of people would have fallen into poverty</a> were it not for less conditional coronavirus aid from the federal government, such as the <a href="https://www.irs.gov/coronavirus/economic-impact-payments">three rounds of economic impact checks</a> and <a href="https://www.dol.gov/coronavirus/unemployment-insurance">supplemental federal employment insurance</a>. </p>
<p>Many Americans in the past have been rudely surprised at just how inadequate America’s safety net is, at least in part because it’s based on outdated federal poverty thresholds. Broadening the definition of poverty would ensure it’s more likely to be there to support people in a crisis. </p>
<p>Ultimately, poverty will touch the majority of Americans at some point in their lives. My own research shows that roughly 6 in 10 Americans will spend <a href="https://confrontingpoverty.org/poverty-facts-and-myths/most-americans-will-experience-poverty/">at least one of their adult years below the official poverty line</a>. </p>
<p>But if the U.S. ever hopes to finally win the war LBJ began in 1964, the poor need to be seen in order for the government to lift them out of poverty. </p>
<p>[<em>Insight, in your inbox each day.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=insight">You can get it with The Conversation’s email newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163626/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Robert Rank does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Newer measures of poverty may do a better job of counting America’s poor, which is necessary to helping them.Mark Robert Rank, Professor of Social Welfare, Washington University in St. LouisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1480772020-10-27T12:11:30Z2020-10-27T12:11:30ZSNAP benefits cost a total of $85.6B in the 2020 fiscal year amid heightened US poverty and unemployment<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365551/original/file-20201026-23-qbftv2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=342%2C175%2C4963%2C3396&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some states make it possible to use SNAP benefits at farmers markets.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Food%20Stamps/ed0313b0c8e84f22a80bcbb9851f07df?Query=food%20AND%20stamps&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=706&currentItemNo=33">AP Photo/Robert F. Bukaty</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365563/original/file-20201026-17-bbi2y8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365563/original/file-20201026-17-bbi2y8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365563/original/file-20201026-17-bbi2y8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365563/original/file-20201026-17-bbi2y8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365563/original/file-20201026-17-bbi2y8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365563/original/file-20201026-17-bbi2y8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365563/original/file-20201026-17-bbi2y8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p>The government spent a record <a href="https://fiscal.treasury.gov/files/reports-statements/mts/mts0920.pdf">US$85.6 billion</a> on the <a href="https://theconversation.com/scaling-back-snap-for-self-reliance-clashes-with-the-original-goals-of-food-stamps-128839">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a> in the <a href="https://www.senate.gov/reference/glossary_term/fiscal_year.htm">fiscal year</a> ending in September. This sum, included in an October Treasury Department report, was about 35% higher than the $63.5 billion the federal government spent in 2019.</p>
<p>Spending on this state-administered program, which helps struggling families put food on the table, typically rises and falls in tandem with <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-snap-can-help-people-during-hard-economic-times-like-these-133664">unemployment and poverty</a>. Along with <a href="https://www.dol.gov/general/topic/unemployment-insurance">unemployment insurance</a>, SNAP is one of the most responsive programs in a recession. The most vulnerable families can get benefits within <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/recipient/eligibility">seven days</a> of applying. </p>
<p>Before the coronavirus pandemic, SNAP spending had been steadily declining since a 2013 peak of nearly <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap">$80 billion</a> following the <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-are-entering-a-recession-but-what-did-we-learn-from-the-last-one-131435">Great Recession</a>. But as the COVID-19-triggered economic crisis hit, monthly spending more than doubled, from $4.9 billion in February to $10.6 billion in June, according to <a href="https://www.fiscal.treasury.gov/reports-statements/mts/previous.html">Treasury Department data</a>.</p>
<p>The jump came from two factors. First, more people are getting benefits. Second, roughly 60% of the families who get them are eligible for more support than before.</p>
<p>Specifically, after the <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/6201/text">Families First Coronavirus Response Act</a> relief package Congress passed in March 2020, the government <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2020/10/26/trump-blocks-pandemic-food-aid-432560">temporarily offered the maximum benefit</a>, typically given only to those with no income, to all families on SNAP. Following a <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/news-item/fns-001420">5.3% increase</a> announced Oct. 1 in response to rising food costs, that maximum level stands at $680 a month for a family of four.</p>
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<p>Despite this SNAP spending boost, <a href="https://www.kpax.com/news/coronavirus/as-another-wave-of-the-pandemic-approaches-the-nations-food-banks-are-being-hit-on-three-fronts">lines at food banks</a> have grown much longer during the pandemic.</p>
<p>To help both overwhelmed food banks and struggling farmers, the U.S. Department of Agriculture launched the <a href="https://www.ams.usda.gov/selling-food-to-usda/farmers-to-families-food-box">Farmers to Families Food Box</a> Program. The government had sent by mid-October 110 million boxes of fresh fruit, vegetables, dairy products and meat to food banks and other organizations assisting <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/09/27/912486921/food-insecurity-in-the-u-s-by-the-numbers">people facing economic hardship</a>.</p>
<p>The USDA is spending about <a href="https://www.ams.usda.gov/selling-food-to-usda/farmers-to-families-food-box">$4 billion</a> to purchase the food. But the program has been <a href="https://agriculture.house.gov/calendar/eventsingle.aspx?EventID=1934">criticized</a> by <a href="https://aboutbgov.com/SMy">lawmakers</a> and anti-hunger groups as <a href="https://thecounter.org/usda-food-farmers-to-families-food-boxes-caribbean-produce-exchange/#:%7E:text=The%20concept%20is%20straightforward%3A%20USDA,thin%20air%20as%20they%20by%2D">inefficient and poorly managed</a>. Although food banks have appreciated the help, even <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2020/05/22/859853877/food-banks-get-the-love-but-snap-does-more-to-fight-hunger">people who run food banks</a> see SNAP as the best way to help the hungry.</p>
<p>In fact, in <a href="https://news.richmond.edu/releases/article/-/16856/ur-political-science-professor-awarded-funding-to-advance-book-project-on-history-of-americas-food-stamp-program.html">researching the history of SNAP</a> for an upcoming book, I found that the program long known as food stamps slowly replaced another program distributing surplus food to the needy in the 1960s. Government researchers found that giving families stamps to exchange for food in grocery stores was more efficient and effective. </p>
<p>In 2019, <a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/resource-files/SNAPsummary-7.pdf">92% of SNAP</a> spending went directly to benefits. The program boosts the economy, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-snap-can-help-people-during-hard-economic-times-like-these-133664">leading to more consumer spending and jobs</a>. SNAP also provides <a href="https://www.feedingamerica.org/about-us/press-room/feeding-america-opposes-latest-usda-proposed-snap-rule-harms-hungry-americans">nine meals</a> for every one meal supplied by Feeding America, the largest network of food banks.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Almost <a href="https://frac.org/news/2500-organizations-urge-senate-to-invest-in-critical-federal-nutrition-programs">2,500 organizations</a> serving the poor are calling for increasing maximum SNAP benefits by 15%. This would help all families on SNAP – including the 40% with the lowest incomes who have not gotten additional help so far during the pandemic. The <a href="https://appropriations.house.gov/news/press-releases/house-passes-updated-heroes-act">House passed relief legislation in May and October</a> that called for this 15% increase. As of late October, the Senate had not taken this step even though <a href="https://www.wbap.com/2020/10/23/new-study-reveals-coronavirus-pandemic-erased-20-years-of-food-security-gains-in-texas-united-states/">food insecurity has grown</a> substantially.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148077/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tracy Roof does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More Americans are getting benefits, and more of the people getting benefits are eligible for higher levels of support.Tracy Roof, Associate Professor of Political Science, University of RichmondLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1391922020-06-15T12:23:13Z2020-06-15T12:23:13ZBeing convicted of a crime has thousands of consequences besides incarceration – and some last a lifetime<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340998/original/file-20200610-34710-xnk7ua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3884%2C1703&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">These women were released from an Oklahoma prison in 2019.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Mass-Commutations-Oklahoma/506e6e324930437b9a1fe7d38e39b7f8/3/0">AP Photo/Sue Ogrocki</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At least <a href="https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/analysis-opinion/just-facts-many-americans-have-criminal-records-college-diplomas">77 million</a> U.S. adults have criminal records, including nearly <a href="https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=6226#:%7E:text=On%20December%2031%2C%202016%2C%20an,than%20on%20January%201%2C%202016">7 million currently in prison or jail or on probation or parole</a>.</p>
<p>Typically, more than 10,000 of the incarcerated <a href="https://www.justice.gov/archive/fbci/progmenu_reentry.html">leave prison</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/31/upshot/coronavirus-jails-prisons.html">nearly 200,000 churn through jails</a> every week. But because more than <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/us/coronavirus-us-cases.html">64,000 inmates and workers have become infected with the coronavirus so far</a>, killing hundreds, some <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-usa-jails-specailr/special-report-death-sentence-the-hidden-coronavirus-toll-in-us-jails-and-prisons-idUSKBN22U1V2">incarcerated people are being released ahead of schedule</a> from <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/us/coronavirus-us-cases.html">COVID-19 hotspots</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.vera.org/covid-19/criminal-justice-city-and-state-spotlights/kentucky">Kentucky</a>, for example, has reduced its jail population by 32% since March, and the state’s prison population has decreased by 7%. </p>
<p>Like most formerly incarcerated people, <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/criminal-justice/434286-criminal-justice-reform-must-do-more-than-just-shrink-prison">those newly released from prison and jail are no doubt having a hard time</a> reconnecting with loved ones and securing <a href="https://www.prisonerhealth.org/educational-resources/factsheets-2/re-entry/">health care</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4762459/">housing</a> and <a href="https://www.russellsage.org/reports/racialized-re-entry-labor-market-inequality-after-incarceration">jobs</a>. That is the case even without a pandemic accompanied by an economic crisis.</p>
<p>One thing <a href="https://scholars.org/scholar/cynthia-golembeski">I’ve learned</a> while <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=dlqN0fkAAAAJ&hl=en">researching criminal justice reform</a> and teaching college classes in prisons is that the reason the transition to life outside the corrections system is so hard is that there are <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?jurisdiction=&consequence_category=&narrow_category=&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">more than 44,000</a> indirect consequences of a criminal conviction.</p>
<p>These restrictions, which the <a href="https://www.csg.org/">Council of State Governments</a> tracks in great detail, can include everything like making it impossible to get a license to work as a barber, manicurist, plumber, driver, interior designer or midwife, to restricting where the formerly incarcerated can live, study and volunteer.</p>
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<h2>Barriers and bans</h2>
<p>These rules and regulations, which researchers like me call “<a href="https://www.sentencingproject.org/issues/collateral-consequences/">collateral consequences</a>,” tend to be broad, vague and subjective. Punishments associated with a conviction can be mandatory or discretionary. The ramifications can be temporary or permanent. </p>
<p>There are also more than <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?jurisdiction=225&consequence_category=&narrow_category=&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">1,000 federal-level statutes</a> with similar consequences for federal or state crimes. </p>
<p>Because lawyers, courts and other authorities <a href="https://ccresourcecenter.org/2016/04/15/federal-sentencing-and-collateral-consequences/">don’t have to inform defendants</a> about these restrictions, they take many of the convicted by surprise.</p>
<p>This heap of state and federal restrictions affects entire <a href="http://www.franknews.us/essays/135/135">families</a> and <a href="https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305413">communities</a>. These burdens continue long after time served, and like <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/prison-industrial-complex-slavery-racism.html">incarceration</a> itself, they <a href="https://belonging.berkeley.edu/boldpolicyideas/endinglegalbias">disproportionately affect people of color and those with low incomes</a>.</p>
<p>These barriers can limit <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?title=&jurisdiction=&consequence_category=&narrow_category=119&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">jury duty service</a>, the right to <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?title=&jurisdiction=&consequence_category=&narrow_category=76&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">hold public office</a>, the ability to get <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?title=&jurisdiction=&consequence_category=&narrow_category=41&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">driver’s licenses</a> or <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?title=passport&jurisdiction=&consequence_category=&narrow_category=&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">passports</a> and the freedom to <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?title=&jurisdiction=&consequence_category=&narrow_category=110&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">serve in the military</a>. <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?jurisdiction=&consequence_category=&narrow_category=110&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">Veterans</a> may lose their pensions, insurance and health care.</p>
<p>The number per state ranges widely, <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?title=&jurisdiction=319&consequence_category=&narrow_category=&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">from 319 in Vermont</a> to <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?title=&jurisdiction=252%2C225&consequence_category=&narrow_category=&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">2,388 in Louisiana</a>. </p>
<p>Nationwide, a hodgepodge of policies <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/telling-protesters-george-floyd-vote-remember-not-all-them-are-ncna1224011">prevent millions with felony convictions</a> from voting. An estimated <a href="https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/2018/02/19/restoring-the-vote-to-convicted-felons-is-not-just-the-right-thing-to-do-its-good-social-science/">6 million Americans lacked the right to vote</a> in the 2016 election because of those restrictions.</p>
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<h2>Employment</h2>
<p>At least <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?title=&jurisdiction=&consequence_category=234&narrow_category=&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">19,000</a> of these penalties affect <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/697507">employment and volunteering</a>.</p>
<p>More than <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?title=&jurisdiction=&consequence_category=377%2C396&narrow_category=&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">13,000</a> relate to <a href="https://ij.org/activism/legislation/state-occupational-licensing-reforms-for-people-with-criminal-records/">occupational licensing and certification</a>.</p>
<p>That’s important because <a href="https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2019/article/professional-certifications-and-occupational-licenses.htm">1 in 4 U.S. workers need mandatory occupational licenses</a> to drive trucks, fix wiring and do other commonplace jobs.</p>
<p>Some state and federal laws do limit the use of arrest and conviction records in <a href="https://www.eeoc.gov/pre-employment-inquiries-and-arrest-conviction">making hiring decisions</a>. Yet these <a href="https://www.criminalconvictiondiscrimination.com/case/macys-criminal-history-discrimination">discriminatory practices</a> <a href="https://irle.berkeley.edu/files/2020/05/Harding_Jara-Cerda-Elster-brief.pdf">remain widespread</a>.</p>
<p>What about if the previously convicted try to go back to school to fare better in the job market? There are obstacles in that path as well.</p>
<p>Certain convictions may result in partial or full denial of college admission and financial aid <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-federal-student-aid-should-be-restored-for-people-in-prison-115215">during incarceration</a> and <a href="https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/education.html">afterward</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-went-from-prison-to-professor-heres-why-criminal-records-should-not-be-used-to-keep-people-out-of-college-97038">I went from prison to professor – here's why criminal records should not be used to keep people out of college</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>SNAP</h2>
<p>In the mid-1990s, <a href="https://www.history.com/news/clinton-1990s-welfare-reform-facts">Congress and President Bill Clinton</a> endorsed a move by states to stop providing <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-snap-can-help-people-during-hard-economic-times-like-these-133664">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a> benefits to anyone with <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/criminal-justice/444024-criminal-justice-includes-food-security-we-cant-ban-the-social">drug-related felony convictions</a>. </p>
<p>The SNAP restrictions in place today vary and number over <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?title=&jurisdiction=&consequence_category=&narrow_category=54&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">100 nationwide</a>, including seven imposed by the federal government. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncsl.org/blog/2019/07/30/most-states-have-ended-snap-ban-for-convicted-drug-felons.aspx">South Carolina</a> imposes a lifetime ban on SNAP benefits due to drug-related felony convictions. <a href="https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2020/05/29/groups-fight-michigan-ban-food-stamps-after-drug-convictions/5261394002/">Michigan</a> and four other states permanently deny anyone with two or more felony drug convictions SNAP benefits.</p>
<p>Many states have <a href="https://www.networkforphl.org/resources/effects-of-denial-of-snap-benefits-on-convicted-drug-felons/">eased these restrictions</a> in recent years. But <a href="https://www.governing.com/topics/health-human-services/gov-welfare-felons-states-federal-ban-tanf-snap-pennsylvania.html">Pennsylvania Gov. Tom Wolf</a> recently signed a bill banning those with felony drug convictions and some convicted as sex offenders from receiving public benefits for 10 years. </p>
<h2>Housing</h2>
<p>At least <a href="https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/database/results/?jurisdiction=&consequence_category=239&narrow_category=&triggering_offense_category=&consequence_type=&duration_category=&page_number=1">1,000 of these restrictions</a> relate to housing.</p>
<p>Many private landlords and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/03/us/politics/criminal-justice-reform-housing.html">public housing authorities discriminate against the formerly incarcerated</a>, often <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305437">citing perceived safety risks</a> as a concern.</p>
<p>In some cities, the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2020/03/crime-free-housing-lets-police-influence-landlords/605728/">police can order landlords</a> to evict tenants, simply because they suspect criminal behavior. In Cuyahoga County, Ohio, <a href="https://www.neoch.org/cleveland-homeless-blog/2020/1/21/new-reentry-housing-committee-new-report-highlights-impact-of-criminal-convictions-on-access-to-federally-subsidized-housing">80% of Section 8 rental properties</a> can ban applicants with felony convictions.</p>
<p>In Pennsylvania, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Maine and California, <a href="https://www.povertylaw.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/WDMD-final.pdf">housing authorities view being arrested within the past five years</a> as criminal activity and the basis for barring access – even if the resident has never been convicted of a crime.</p>
<h2>Signs of change</h2>
<p>I see some reasons to expect the number of these collateral consequences to decline, beginning with housing policies.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.curbed.com/2019/6/12/18661475/housing-renting-felony-convictions">Local efforts to pass laws</a> protecting those with criminal records from housing discrimination are advancing in at least <a href="https://www.nhlp.org/wp-content/uploads/021320_NHLP_FairChance_Final.pdf">11 cities</a>. A related bill is <a href="https://nlihc.org/resource/senator-harris-and-representative-ocasio-cortez-introduce-bills-expand-access-hud-assisted">pending in Congress</a>, and the <a href="https://www.hud.gov/sites/documents/HUD_OGCGUIDAPPFHASTANDCR.PDF">Department of Housing and Urban Development</a> has informed landlords that rejecting renters or buyers based on past arrests or convictions may violate the <a href="https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/fair_housing_equal_opp/fair_housing_act_overview">Fair Housing Act</a>.</p>
<p>And a recent <a href="https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/nycha/downloads/pdf/re-entry-brochure-20151109-en.pdf">pilot program</a> in <a href="https://www.vera.org/projects/opening-doors-to-public-housing">New York and three other cities</a> supports allowing those with felony convictions to reunite with their families in public housing. </p>
<p>Change could be on the way more broadly as well.</p>
<p>By a 6-1 majority, the <a href="https://www.usccr.gov/pubs/2019/06-13-Collateral-Consequences.pdf">U.S. Commission on Civil Rights</a>, a bipartisan panel reporting to Congress, endorsed a report in 2019 that questioned the usefulness of these restrictions. The report calls for an end to all “punitive mandatory consequences that do not serve public safety, bear no rational relationship to the offense committed, and impede people convicted of crimes from safely reentering and becoming contributing members of society.”</p>
<p>[<em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139192/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cynthia Golembeski receives funding from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation as a Health Policy Research Scholar.</span></em></p>More than 40,000 restrictions, most imposed by states, leave rights, benefits and opportunities out of reach for Americans with past convictions.Cynthia Golembeski, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Health Policy Research Scholar; School of Law/School of Public Affairs and Administration J.D./Ph.D. Student, Rutgers University - NewarkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1395262020-06-11T12:19:43Z2020-06-11T12:19:43ZLife on welfare isn’t what most people think it is<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338958/original/file-20200601-95024-pyu8u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C19%2C6496%2C4842&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Public assistance programs are intended to help people up – but that's not always how recipients experience the aid.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mountaineer-offers-helping-hand-to-teammate-mtns-royalty-free-image/587516053">Ascent/PKS Media Inc./Getty</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Americans talk about people receiving public assistance – food stamps, disability, unemployment payments and other government help – they often have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1948550619829062">stereotypes and inaccurate perceptions</a> of who those people are and what their lives are like.</p>
<p>Statistics can help <a href="https://www.salon.com/2017/08/20/welfare-as-we-know-it-now-6-questions-answered_partner/">clarify the picture</a> by challenging false stereotypes of undeserving people gaming the system, but people’s stories about their own experiences can be <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/04/11/815573198/how-stories-connect-and-persuade-us-unleashing-the-brain-power-of-narrative">more memorable</a> and therefore more effective in changing minds.</p>
<p>As an anthropologist and folklorist seeking to better understand life on public assistance, I have worked with a team of researchers in North Carolina over the past seven years, recording stories people tell about welfare in America. We’ve talked to more than 150 people and recorded over 1,200 stories and found that the stories people tell about aid recipients rarely match up with the stories told by people actually receiving aid.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340171/original/file-20200605-176538-112b53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340171/original/file-20200605-176538-112b53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340171/original/file-20200605-176538-112b53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340171/original/file-20200605-176538-112b53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340171/original/file-20200605-176538-112b53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340171/original/file-20200605-176538-112b53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340171/original/file-20200605-176538-112b53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340171/original/file-20200605-176538-112b53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At the Los Angeles Regional Food Bank, food waits to be picked up by people who need it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/food-waits-to-be-distributed-at-the-los-angeles-regional-news-photo/1157611736">Mark Ralston/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>The danger of short-term solutions</h2>
<p>Pat has a story that is representative of many aid recipients. She started working at McDonald’s at age 15 to help her family make ends meet. After graduating high school, she worked in hotels, factories and big-box stores, all in physically demanding jobs. </p>
<p>At 45, she got hurt at work, and now has back problems that have rendered her unable to do the only jobs she has been trained to do.</p>
<p>Theoretically, Pat faced a choice between going to school or a training program, or finding low-wage work – but she didn’t have the luxury of looking at the long-term benefits of learning new skills. She and her family needed money right away. </p>
<p>So, like many aid recipients, she found a series of short-term solutions to that immediate need. But taking one low-paying job after another to put food on the table effectively locked her out of the opportunity to build skills she could have used to work her way out of poverty.</p>
<h2>The many causes of poverty</h2>
<p>As I explain in my forthcoming book, “<a href="https://iupress.org/9780253048035/overthrowing-the-queen/">Overthrowing the Queen: Telling Stories of Welfare in America</a>,” the reasons people find themselves needing assistance are numerous and interrelated. Many <a href="http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/109074/chapters/Understanding-the-Nature-of-Poverty.aspx">children born poor remain poor as they grow up and raise their own families</a>, inheriting the financial hardships of the past as continued pressure in the present. </p>
<p>Millions of Americans still can’t get a quality education, jobs that pay a living wage, affordable child care to offset low-wage labor or reliable transportation. But more than anything else, health problems emerged in our interviews as one of the most pervasive causes, and results, of poverty.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338962/original/file-20200601-95036-k22jta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338962/original/file-20200601-95036-k22jta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338962/original/file-20200601-95036-k22jta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338962/original/file-20200601-95036-k22jta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338962/original/file-20200601-95036-k22jta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338962/original/file-20200601-95036-k22jta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338962/original/file-20200601-95036-k22jta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338962/original/file-20200601-95036-k22jta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A homeless man gets a foot bath during a medical checkup visit in Portland, Maine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/maine-medical-center-has-partnered-with-preble-street-to-news-photo/643762000">Derek Davis/Portland Portland Press Herald via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>The real stories are often hidden from view</h2>
<p>At first glance, people receiving public aid may seem to confirm popular stereotypes. But actual stories reveal that there is much more to many recipients’ situations than outside viewers might imagine.</p>
<p>For instance, a casual observer in the grocery store could see a woman I’ll call Keira dressed immaculately, with carefully coiffed hair and manicured nails, buying her groceries with food stamps and conclude that she was one more “<a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/06/05/729294210/the-original-welfare-queen">welfare queen</a>” gaming the system.</p>
<p>But as a newly single mother of two who had just gone through a divorce, Keira was trying to find a home and a job in a new city. Her clothing and appearance reflected the life she had recently led, and the jobs she was applying for, not excessive or illegitimate aid benefits. Keira’s use of food stamps was temporary. She soon found two jobs and is able to help put her children through college.</p>
<p>Aid is less temporary for others. “Davey” often smokes outside the local homeless shelter. He knows cigarettes are not good for him, but they provide him comfort as he deals with a degenerative joint disease, broken spine, and extensive nerve damage that went undiagnosed for years because he didn’t have health insurance. He eventually got the health care he needed and has applied for disability, but he lost his job and his home and will likely never walk again.</p>
<p>“Lilly” has a dog, even though she needs food stamps to feed herself and gets free health care. She was homeless for a while until she was able to afford a room in a boarding house and then qualify for subsidized housing. But it wasn’t always this way. Lilly was married with a home and a thriving Avon business. </p>
<p>After only a few years of marriage, she realized that if she stayed with the physically and emotionally abusive man she had married, she might not survive. She escaped, only to find herself in a new town with no money, no home, no family and no job. Her dog may seem like an unnecessary expense, but he provides crucial comfort for Lilly as she moves toward self-sufficiency.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338961/original/file-20200601-95009-zxsac1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338961/original/file-20200601-95009-zxsac1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338961/original/file-20200601-95009-zxsac1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338961/original/file-20200601-95009-zxsac1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338961/original/file-20200601-95009-zxsac1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338961/original/file-20200601-95009-zxsac1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338961/original/file-20200601-95009-zxsac1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338961/original/file-20200601-95009-zxsac1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Painted rectangles help keep homeless people’s tents spread out in San Francisco.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/rectangles-are-painted-on-the-ground-to-encourage-homeless-news-photo/1214738469">Josh Edelson/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Running in place</h2>
<p>Many people told us stories that illuminated one of the problems they found most frustrating with the current welfare system: An increase in income can result in a corresponding reduction in benefits. Rather than climbing a ladder to success with each promotion, they remain on a treadmill.</p>
<p>“Louise” lives in public housing and pays rent based on her income. But as a home care nurse, her income fluctuates depending on her patients’ needs. Less care means less money for Louise to pay her rent and feed her children. </p>
<p>“I can’t tell you how discouraged I have felt,” she told us. “I have cried. Every time when I start another job, I know I got to report that income. And the people at grant housing said, ‘Well, because you have a certain amount of hours, you have pay [coming in].’ But my patient just got moved, so my income is not going to be the same. And the housing guy just said, ‘Well, we can’t keep adjusting the rent.’”</p>
<p>But as she says, “They’re supposed to adjust my rent.” Louise felt that agencies were quick to lower her benefits when she was making more money, but reluctant to raise them when she was making less. </p>
<p>In some places, that trap may be loosening a bit. Some states such as Minnesota have allowed aid recipients to <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/articles/from-welfare-to-work-making-welfare-a-way-station-not-a-way-of-life/">keep a greater portion of their benefits as they begin working</a>. In North Carolina, some local housing authorities offer their residents a program that matches a portion of their savings to help them build their own safety net. </p>
<p>These stories show only some of the range of problems aid recipients face and the complex systems that can make it more difficult for them to make ends meet. But they provide a crucial, if often overlooked, perspective in helping to clarify public perception, public opinion and, importantly, public policy.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139526/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Mould has served on a grant to assess a pilot project for the United Way. </span></em></p>The stories people tell about welfare rarely match up with the stories told by people actually receiving aid.Tom Mould, Professor of Anthropology and Folklore, Butler UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1336642020-03-27T17:49:19Z2020-03-27T17:49:19ZHow SNAP can help people during hard economic times like these<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323331/original/file-20200326-132985-40ehou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C68%2C3800%2C1808&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The government helps tens of millions of Americans buy groceries.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/customers-bagging-there-products-at-the-tills-in-forest-news-photo/614265074">Jeff Greenberg/Getty</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/16/economy/job-losses-coronavirus/index.html">A record number of Americans</a> are seeing their hours cut or losing their jobs due to the initial economic repercussions of the coronavirus pandemic. How will millions of <a href="https://www.dol.gov/ui/data.pdf">newly jobless</a> families keep putting food on the table?</p>
<p>They might get some help from the <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a>. The nation’s largest anti-hunger system helped about <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap">35 million low-income people buy groceries</a> in 2019, down from a peak of over 47 million in 2013 in the aftermath of the Great Recession. </p>
<p>After repeatedly trying to <a href="https://theconversation.com/scaling-back-snap-for-self-reliance-clashes-with-the-original-goals-of-food-stamps-128839">scale back SNAP</a> the White House recently agreed to Congress’s efforts to ramp it back up. The <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/6201/text">Families First Act</a>, which President Donald Trump signed into law on March 18, included an additional US$1 billion in funding for other nutrition programs and will let more people enroll in SNAP nationwide. The measure also permits the states, which administer this federal program, to temporarily offer higher monthly benefits to many families.</p>
<p>Based on the research I’m doing for an <a href="https://news.richmond.edu/releases/article/-/16856/ur-political-science-professor-awarded-funding-to-advance-book-project-on-history-of-americas-food-stamp-program.html">upcoming book</a> about SNAP’s history, I believe this expansion of the program will not just ease the personal economic pain brought on by this crisis. SNAP also <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2019/july/quantifying-the-impact-of-snap-benefits-on-the-us-economy-and-jobs/">pumps more money</a> into local communities, as it’s designed to do whenever the economy weakens.</p>
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<h2>Help for low-income people</h2>
<p>SNAP helps a wider range of people than many other parts of the safety net. Almost two-thirds of recipients are <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/characteristics-supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-households-fiscal-year-2018">children, elderly or disabled</a>. But it is also available to able-bodied adults with and without children, working or not – <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/12/04/trump-administration-tightens-work-requirements-snap-which-could-cut-hundreds-thousands-food-stamps/">albeit with some restrictions</a>.</p>
<p>SNAP offers a family of four a maximum benefit of $646 a month. The average person on SNAP gets around <a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/resource-files/SNAPsummary-2.pdf">$130 a month</a> – about $1.40 per person per meal. That might not sound like much to you, but it can make a big difference to anyone facing severe economic hardship.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/characteristics-supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-households-fiscal-year-2018">More than 80% of families on SNAP</a> have incomes at or below the federal poverty line, which is $26,200 for a family of four.</p>
<p>People who apply for SNAP get their benefits <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/facts">within 30 days and sometimes within a week</a>. The funds come on a debit-type card that can be used at roughly <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/resource/snap-retailer-management-year-end-summaries">260,000 retailers</a> including grocery stores, convenience stores and even some farmers markets.</p>
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<h2>Helping the economy</h2>
<p>The number of people on SNAP typically tracks how well the economy is doing. Losing a job is the <a href="https://frac.org/wp-content/uploads/frac-facts-snap-strengths.pdf">most common reason</a> people turn to SNAP.</p>
<p>Economists have found that every percentage point increase in the unemployment rate boosts the number of people on the program <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1257/pol.20140016">by 15%</a>. SNAP recipients <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/benefit-redemption-patterns-supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program">spend their benefits quickly</a>, injecting those dollars directly into the economy. </p>
<p>Use of SNAP is so widespread that the Center for Budget and Policy Priorities, a think tank, estimates based on its analysis of USDA data that <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/snap-boosts-retailers-and-local-economies">10% of all the food</a> U.S. families consume at home is purchased with SNAP.</p>
<p>Most SNAP funds are spent in big box or large grocery stores. But SNAP spending can account for <a href="https://www.dailyyonder.com/snap-plays-outsized-role-economy-rural-grocers/2017/08/04/">20-30% of sales</a> – <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-03-15/coronavirus-pandemic-saves-poor-americans-from-food-stamp-cuts">or more</a> – for smaller, independent retailers in depressed areas helping keep these stores open.</p>
<p>Retailers, producers, distributors and marketers all benefit from SNAP purchases. SNAP benefits <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2019/july/quantifying-the-impact-of-snap-benefits-on-the-us-economy-and-jobs/">increase spending on food</a>. But because some or all of a family’s food costs are covered by SNAP, they also have more money to spend on other things.</p>
<p>Recent studies have estimated that each $1 of SNAP benefits spent expands the economy by <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap/economic-linkages/">$1.54</a> to <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/44748/7996_err103_1_.pdf">$1.79</a> during a recession.</p>
<p>In fact, government economists concluded that SNAP <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/93169/err-263.pdf?v=1509.3">got more bang for the buck</a> in terms of creating jobs during the Great Recession than other federal and state assistance.</p>
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<h2>Families First Act</h2>
<p>The new <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/6201">law changes who can get SNAP</a> and revises other aspects of the program. States will be able to use SNAP benefits to help families with children who get <a href="https://theconversation.com/americas-poorest-children-wont-get-nutritious-meals-with-school-cafeterias-closed-due-to-the-coronavirus-133341">free or reduced-price meals at school</a> but whose schools have closed.</p>
<p>Until the coronavirus crisis is over, the law <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2019/02/01/2018-28059/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-requirements-for-able-bodied-adults-without-dependents">suspends a cap</a> that had limited benefits to just three months over a three-year period for able-bodied adults without kids under 18. Designed to require able-bodied people to get a job in order to get help, this cap normally applies to people who are aren’t working or are working less than 20 hours a week.</p>
<p>The suspension prevents <a href="https://www.supermarketnews.com/laws-regulations/snap-rule-change-would-cut-food-stamp-benefits-700000-recipients">roughly 700,000 people</a> from being kicked off the program, as the Trump administration had planned. </p>
<p>The law also allows states to offer some people getting SNAP benefits <a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/resource-files/SNAP-COVID-EmergencyAllotmentsGuidance.pdf">additional emergency aid</a>. This could mean several hundred <a href="https://www.wavy.com/news/virginia/virginias-snap-program-will-issue-emergency-benefits-amid-coronavirus-crisis/">extra dollars</a> for these families to stock up on food for at least a while. Some states have already <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/programs/fns-disaster-assistance/fns-response-covid-19/snap-emergency-allotments-current-snap">gotten approval</a> from the federal government to make these additional benefits available in March.</p>
<p>Finally, the law gives states <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/usda-states-must-act-swiftly-to-deliver-food-assistance-allowed-by-families">more administrative flexibility</a> to make it easier to keep people on SNAP and add new applicants. For example, stressed state agencies may be allowed to relax a requirement that all applicants be interviewed in person or over the phone before they can get benefits.</p>
<h2>Costs are unclear</h2>
<p>Low-wage workers, such as those who work for hotels, restaurants, bars and stores will be especially hard hit by the sharp economic downturn the new coronavirus is causing. These workers often live paycheck to paycheck and many more of them will need help than before.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/03/16/food-banks-are-seeing-volunteers-disappear-food-supply-evaporate-coronavirus-fears-mount/">Food banks and pantries</a> are scrambling for volunteers and donations and will not be able meet the soaring need. To be clear, even in good times, food banks typically offer only <a href="https://www.politico.com/story/2017/09/03/food-banks-fight-congress-food-stamp-cuts-242268">10% of the food assistance SNAP provides</a>.</p>
<p>Unlike some government programs, there is no set spending limit on SNAP. It covers benefits for all who qualify for help, regardless of what it’s going to cost.</p>
<p>No one knows yet how many more people will enroll in the program or what the total tab will be. But I believe the gains reaped as a result will be well worth it.</p>
<p>[<em>Get facts about coronavirus and the latest research.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=upper-coronavirus-facts">Sign up for our newsletter.</a>]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133664/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tracy Roof does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The food aid program helps low-income families put food on the table and injects money straight into struggling local economies. It will be critical throughout the crisis the coronavirus is stoking.Tracy Roof, Associate Professor of Political Science, University of RichmondLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1288392020-02-27T14:03:01Z2020-02-27T14:03:01ZScaling back SNAP for self-reliance clashes with the original goals of food stamps<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315375/original/file-20200213-10980-od3d1q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">SNAP can help low-income families eat a more balanced diet.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/rebecka-ortiz-offers-a-sample-of-pasta-that-was-being-given-news-photo/454627849">Michael S. Williamson/The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Trump administration officials are trying to cut enrollment in the <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/trump-administration-proposal-could-cause-millions-lose-food-stamps-n1092866">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a>, known as <a href="https://www.feedingamerica.org/take-action/advocate/federal-hunger-relief-programs/snap">SNAP</a> but still sometimes called “food stamps.” They say that too many people are getting this aid in a strong economy.</p>
<p>The program helped <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap">about 35 million</a> low-income people buy food in 2019. The average recipient gets <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/overview">US$128.60 a month</a>, about $1.40 per person per meal.</p>
<p>In December 2019, <a href="https://www.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2019-12/perdue-lipps-snap-reform-audio-120419.mp3">Agriculture Secretary Sonny Perdue</a> announced changes that require more SNAP recipients to work or lose their benefits. While speaking with reporters, he alluded to what he called the “original intent of food stamps” – moving “more able-bodied recipients off of SNAP benefits toward self-sufficiency.” </p>
<p>The Trump administration is also seeking to take more executive actions that would cut back the eligibility of some elderly, disabled and working poor households. All told, these measures could affect <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/presidents-2021-budget-would-cut-food-assistance-for-millions-and-radically">up to 10 million people</a>. And the government is taking additional steps bound to <a href="https://apnews.com/e069e5a84057752a8535b1abe5d2ba6d">discourage legal immigrants from seeking SNAP and other food assistance</a>.</p>
<p>But while researching the <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1017/S1537592712002277">history of food stamps</a> and writing a <a href="https://news.richmond.edu/releases/article/-/16856/ur-political-science-professor-awarded-funding-to-advance-book-project-on-history-of-americas-food-stamp-program.html">book about the topic</a>, I have found the government didn’t create this program to push people into jobs, as Perdue suggests, but to help those in need get enough to eat.</p>
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<h2>Tracing SNAP’s origins</h2>
<p>In the 1950s, improved farming practices helped American farmers grow way more food than they could sell. To keep the price of commodities like wheat and corn from tanking, the government had to buy and hold the surpluses. At one point storage costs alone were over <a href="http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/cqresrre1959030400">$1 billion a year</a>.</p>
<p>Yet, millions of Americans went hungry. Journalists found children within blocks of the Department of Agriculture <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30016266?seq=1">rummaging through the garbage</a> for food. Many missed school for lack of energy.</p>
<p>Welfare benefits in many states were too small to allow families to buy enough food. In at least a dozen states, families that included an adult capable of work could not even get cash assistance. But there weren’t enough jobs to go around during recessions or in depressed areas. Coal country became a symbol of the problem. Shocks to the industry led to widespread and long-term joblessness. The workers ran out of unemployment benefits and their families <a href="https://www.jfklibrary.org/archives/other-resources/john-f-kennedy-speeches/clarksburg-wv-19600418">struggled to eat</a>.</p>
<p>Alarmed by the hunger he saw campaigning in <a href="http://www.wvculture.org/history/1960presidentialcampaign/jfklibrary/19600420mounthopesp.html">West Virginia</a>, President John F. Kennedy established a pilot food stamp program in a few depressed areas. The families who took part <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Food-Stamp-Program-Evaluation-Projects/dp/1391980166">bought more food and improved their diets</a>.</p>
<p>The government found that local stores also benefited from increased sales, and the effects boosted local economies. Supporters argued a national program would both improve social welfare and provide a new way to cushion the blow from economic downturns. Congress made the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3743805?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">program permanent in 1964</a>.</p>
<h2>Creating food stamps</h2>
<p>In the late 1960s, an <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/video/hunger-in-america-the-1968-cbs-documentary-that-shocked-america/">influential CBS documentary</a>, an <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED036566">investigative report from a panel of doctors</a> and congressional investigations shocked the public with heartbreaking images. These reports painted a stark picture of widespread hunger and ailments caused by poor diets in the richest country in the world.</p>
<p>Responding to pressure from the public, President <a href="https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/special-message-the-congress-recommending-program-end-hunger-america">Richard Nixon</a> pledged to end hunger in America, declaring “That hunger and malnutrition should persist in a land such as ours is embarrassing and intolerable.”</p>
<p>By 1974, poor people in every county in the nation could get food stamps – the only anti-poverty assistance with uniform national benefit and eligibility standards. Unlike most social programs targeting the elderly, disabled, children and parents, the government intentionally made food stamps available to almost all low-income people. By 1980, the U.S. had made big strides toward <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/hunger-in-america-the-federal-response/oclc/691132259">eliminating severe malnutrition and reducing hunger</a>.</p>
<p>But many poor people still didn’t get food stamps because recipients had to spend a share of their income to buy them. A <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/leghistory/food-stamp-act-1977">1977 law ended that requirement</a> and made it easier to enroll. These changes and a <a href="https://money.howstuffworks.com/stagflation1.htm">souring economy</a> sent the number of people on food stamps soaring to over <a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/resource-files/SNAPsummary-2.pdf">22 million in 1981</a>, from 17.65 million in 1979.</p>
<h2>Deserving help</h2>
<p>As the number of people getting food stamps grew, so did suspicions that some who didn’t need or deserve the help were <a href="https://time.com/4711668/history-food-stamp-fraud/">abusing the program</a>. Critics then and now felt food stamps encouraged dependency and discouraged work.</p>
<p>Presidents <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1975/10/26/archives/president-wants-to-cancel-food-stamps-for-many-fords-tax-plan-has.html">Gerald Ford</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/04/us/food-stamps-program-it-grew-reagan-wants-cut-it-back-budget-targets.html?pagewanted=all">Ronald Reagan</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1981/03/17/us/debate-opens-on-cuts-in-food-stamps.html">conservatives in Congress</a> tried to reduce the number of Americans getting food stamps and crack down on fraud. But the program continued <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3330180">to grow amid a weak economy</a>.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/archives/TIMELINE2.HTM">1996 welfare reform package</a> passed by a Republican-led Congress and <a href="https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2016/10/welfare-reform-snap-food-cuts/">reluctantly signed by President Bill Clinton</a> cut benefits, denied food stamps to most legal immigrants and limited adults who were able-bodied, childless and unemployed to three months of food stamps over three years. It also made it easier for states to <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/food-stamps-and-welfare-reform/">deny food stamps to some people</a>.</p>
<p>To combat fraud, the law required states to replace paper stamps with electronic benefit cards by 2002. The share of food stamp benefits sold for cash or illegally exchanged at stores plummeted from 3.8 cents on the dollar in 1995 to <a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-07-53-highlights.pdf">1 cent in 2005</a>.</p>
<p>From 1996 to 2000, the number of people on food stamps fell by over <a href="https://snapvisualizations.net/yearly-trends?field_year_number_value%5Bmin%5D=1985&field_year_number_value%5Bmax%5D=2018&order=title&sort=asc">8 million to 17 million</a>. </p>
<p><iframe id="oN4RG" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/oN4RG/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Growing again</h2>
<p>Part of the drop in use of food stamps was due to a <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=46896">booming economy</a>. But the share of those eligible for the program who actually got food stamps also fell steeply <a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/resource-files/Trends2010-2017.pdf">from 75% in 1994 to 54% in 2001</a>. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/589707">Lawmakers and other policymakers grew concerned</a> that families facing hunger were falling through the cracks.</p>
<p>Regulatory changes and a <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2012/march/what-s-behind-the-rise-in-snap-participation/">2002 law</a> signed by President George W. Bush made signing up for food stamps and staying on the program easier. Benefits for most legal immigrants were restored. The law also gave the states more flexibility and incentives to enroll more people.</p>
<p>The 2008 farm bill made more people eligible for help and increased benefits. It also changed the name of the program to the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program to <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/short-history-snap#1999">ease the stigma associated with it</a>.</p>
<p>The number of people getting these benefits increased in <a href="https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2012/jan/17/newt-gingrich/newt-gingrich-says-more-people-have-been-put-food-/">seven out of the eight years</a> of George W. Bush’s presidency, even in good economic times. The share of people eligible for the program who enrolled soared from <a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/resource-files/Trends2010-2017.pdf">56.4% in 2003 to 70.6% in 2008</a> – and continued to rise to 83.8% in 2017.</p>
<p>After the Great Recession hit at the end of 2007, the number of people on food stamps grew steeply from 26.3 million to a peak of 47.6 million in 2013 – roughly <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/08/16/chart-of-the-week-food-stamp-enrollment-by-state-over-time/">15% of the population</a>. A <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=74689">2009 economic stimulus bill</a> signed by President Barack Obama temporarily increased benefits and suspended the three-month time limit for unemployed adults without children through 2013. Government economists determined that SNAP spending was more effective than any other federal program in <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/93169/err-263.pdf?v=1509.3">fighting the economic downturn</a>, increasing consumer spending and creating jobs.</p>
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<h2>Lingering food insecurity</h2>
<p>Despite the improving economy and the expiration of stimulus provisions, almost 8 million <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/trends-supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-participation-rates-fiscal-year-2010">more people remained eligible in 2017 than before the economy hit the skids</a>: 45.2 million versus 37.2 million in 2007. This mostly happened because of <a href="https://www.kansascityfed.org/publications/research/er/articles/2018/1q18edmiston-structural-cyclical-trends">changing demographics</a>, <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/snap-helps-millions-of-low-wage-workers">low wages</a> and other factors, rather than expanded eligibility.</p>
<p>The Trump adminstration’s proposed 2021 budget would <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/presidents-2021-budget-would-cut-food-assistance-for-millions-and-radically">cut SNAP spending</a> by nearly 30% over the next 10 years. However, it <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-budget-foodstamps/nine-u-s-lawmakers-who-were-once-on-food-stamps-ask-trump-not-to-shrink-program-idUSKBN2071BM">seems unlikely that Congress</a> would approve that funding level.</p>
<p>I’m concerned that if the White House gets its way, either through the budget process or other means, it would increase food insecurity now and make the program <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2019/12/04/new-snap-rule-change-just-made-it-harder-to-combat-future-recessions/">less responsive to the next economic downturn</a>.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/128839/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tracy Roof has received a residential fellowship grant from Virginia Humanities to study the history of the food stamps program and several grants to visit archives for her research on this topic.</span></em></p>This pillar of the American safety net originated as a solution to the paradox of hunger in the midst of plenty.Tracy Roof, Associate Professor of Political Science, University of RichmondLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1316252020-02-14T13:45:10Z2020-02-14T13:45:10ZAI algorithms intended to root out welfare fraud often end up punishing the poor instead<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315449/original/file-20200214-10991-1w81qo2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=38%2C0%2C4997%2C1433&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Automated algorithms – not humans – are increasingly making decisions about who's eligible for welfare benefits.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">gorodenkoff/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>President Donald Trump <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/videos/2020-02-10/trump-says-budget-proposal-seeks-to-cut-waste-and-fraud-video">recently suggested</a> there is “tremendous fraud” in government welfare programs. </p>
<p>Although there’s very little evidence to back up his claim, he’s hardly the first politician – <a href="https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/insights/industry/public-sector/fraud-waste-and-abuse-in-entitlement-programs-benefits-fraud.html">conservative or liberal</a> – to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/10/business/president-trump-budget-cuts.html">vow to crack down</a> on fraud and waste in America’s social safety net. </p>
<p>States – which are charged with distributing and overseeing many federally funded benefits – are taking these <a href="https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/9/4/20835692/conservative-think-tank-foundation-for-government-accountability-food-stamps-snap-poverty-welfare">fraud accusations</a> seriously. They are <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2017/05/24/what-happens-when-states-go-hunting-for-welfare-fraud">increasingly turning to artificial intelligence and other automated systems</a> to determine benefits eligibility and ferret out fraud in a variety of benefits programs, from <a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-19-115#summary">food stamps</a> and <a href="https://www.ncsl.org/research/health/fighting-medicaid-fraud-sl-magazine.aspxto%20determine%20eligibility%20and%20detect%20fraud">Medicaid</a> to <a href="https://www.govtech.com/data/Aiming-Analytics-at-Our-35-Billion-Unemployment-Insurance-Problem.html">unemployment insurance</a>. </p>
<p>Of course, government agencies should ensure that taxpayer dollars are spent effectively. The problem is these automated decision-making systems <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2017/05/24/what-happens-when-states-go-hunting-for-welfare-fraud">are sometimes rife with errors</a> and designed in ways that punish the poor for being poor, leading to <a href="https://slate.com/human-interest/2018/03/automating-inequality-author-virginia-eubanks-on-how-algorithms-can-punish-the-poor.html">tragic results</a>. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://law.ubalt.edu/faculty/profiles/gilman/">clinical law professor</a> who has researched safety net programs and has represented low-income clients in public benefits cases for over 20 years, I believe it’s essential these systems are designed in ways that are fair, transparent and accountable to prevent hurting society’s most vulnerable. </p>
<h2>Facts about fraud</h2>
<p>First, it’s important to make one thing clear: The evidence suggests incidents of user fraud in government welfare programs are rare. </p>
<p>For instance, the food stamp program, formally called the <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a>, currently <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/policy-basics-the-supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap">serves about 40 million people</a> monthly at an annual cost of US$68 billion. Despite regular <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/01/04/when-it-comes-hungry-americans-weve-lost-our-heart/">denigration</a> of food stamp recipients, <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/integrity/fraud-FNS-fighting">less than 1%</a> of benefits go to ineligible households, according to the federal government. </p>
<p>And, of those families, the majority of overpayments <a href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R45147.pdf">result from mistakes</a> by recipients, state workers or computer programmers as they navigate complex regulatory requirements – not any intent to defraud the system.</p>
<p>As for Medicaid, which provides health insurance for low-income people, <a href="https://www.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/10-things-to-know-about-medicaid-setting-the-facts-straight/">research has shown</a> that the bulk of fraudulent activity is <a href="https://scholarship.shu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1610&context=shlr">committed by health care providers</a> – not by the <a href="https://www.medicaid.gov/medicaid/program-information/medicaid-and-chip-enrollment-data/report-highlights/index.html">64 million</a> needy people that use the program.</p>
<p>Within unemployment insurance, the “improper payment” rate for 2019 <a href="https://www.dol.gov/general/maps">is 10.6%</a>, which includes payments that should not
have been made or that were made in an incorrect amount, but intentional <a href="https://oui.doleta.gov/unemploy/pdf/UI_Improper_PaymentRates.pdf">fraud</a> estimates are much lower. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315331/original/file-20200213-11044-9erngu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315331/original/file-20200213-11044-9erngu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315331/original/file-20200213-11044-9erngu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315331/original/file-20200213-11044-9erngu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315331/original/file-20200213-11044-9erngu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315331/original/file-20200213-11044-9erngu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315331/original/file-20200213-11044-9erngu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There’s little evidence of fraud in the food stamps program.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Spencer Platt/Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>When algorithms fail</h2>
<p>Nonetheless, many states seem to be adopting systems that assume criminal intent on the part of the needy. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-19-115#summary">Many states have begun using</a> “sophisticated data mining” techniques to identify fraud in the food stamp program, according to the General Accountability Office. Another <a href="https://www.govtech.com/data/Aiming-Analytics-at-Our-35-Billion-Unemployment-Insurance-Problem.html">report</a> identified 20 states using AI tools in unemployment insurance. And the <a href="https://www.medicaid.gov/about-us/messages/?entry=47649">federal government</a> is providing support to state Medicaid programs to <a href="https://www.ncsl.org/research/health/fighting-medicaid-fraud-sl-magazine.aspx">upgrade</a> their decades-old technology with <a href="https://rtcom.umn.edu/database/state-hcbs-assessment-tools/search?page=10">more advanced software</a>. </p>
<p>These types of <a href="https://ainowinstitute.org/aap-toolkit.pdf">automated decision-making systems</a> rely on algorithms, or mathematical instructions. Some algorithms use machine learning – a form of artificial intelligence – to replace decisions that would otherwise be made by humans. They analyze large sets of data to recognize patterns or make predictions. </p>
<p>But officials should approach these systems with caution. The results for low-income families with little margin for error <a href="https://slate.com/human-interest/2018/03/automating-inequality-author-virginia-eubanks-on-how-algorithms-can-punish-the-poor.html">can be disastrous</a>. </p>
<p>For instance, in Michigan, a $47 million automated fraud detection system adopted in 2013 made roughly 48,000 fraud accusations against unemployment insurance recipients – a <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/riskfactor/computing/software/michigans-midas-unemployment-system-algorithm-alchemy-that-created-lead-not-gold">five-fold increase</a> from the prior system. <a href="https://www.metrotimes.com/news-hits/archives/2015/10/05/uia-lawsuit-shows-how-the-state-criminalizes-the-unemployed">Without any human intervention</a>, the state demanded repayments plus interest and civil penalties of four times the alleged amount owed.</p>
<p>To collect the repayments – <a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/ca6/18-1296/18-1296-2019-01-03.html%22%22">some as high as $187,000</a> – the state garnished wages, levied bank accounts and intercepted tax refunds. The financial stress on the accused <a href="https://www.metrotimes.com/detroit/criminalizing-the-unemployed/Content?oid=2353533&storyPage=2">resulted in evictions</a>, divorces, destroyed credit scores, homelessness, <a href="https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2019/12/22/government-artificial-intelligence-midas-computer-fraud-fiasco/4407901002/">bankruptcies</a> and even suicide. </p>
<p>As it turns out, a state review later determined that <a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/ca6/18-1296/18-1296-2019-01-03.html/">93% of the fraud determinations were wrong</a>. </p>
<p>How could a computer system fail so badly? The computer was programmed to detect fraud when claimants’ information conflicted with other federal, state and employer records. However, it did not distinguish between fraud and innocent mistakes, it was fed incomplete data, and the computer-generated notices were designed to make people inadvertently admit to fraud. </p>
<p>Michigan is not an outlier. Program-wide algorithmic errors have similarly plagued Medicaid eligibility determinations in states such as <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2018/02/19/586387119/automating-inequality-algorithms-in-public-services-often-fail-the-most-vulnerab">Indiana</a>, <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2018/3/21/17144260/healthcare-medicaid-algorithm-arkansas-cerebral-palsy">Arkansas</a>, <a href="https://www.aclu.org/blog/privacy-technology/pitfalls-artificial-intelligence-decisionmaking-highlighted-idaho-aclu-case">Idaho</a> and <a href="https://www.portlandoregon.gov/civic/article/635472">Oregon</a>.</p>
<p>And the issue isn’t just an American one. Many countries such as <a href="https://logicmag.io/justice/austerity-is-an-algorithm">Australia</a> and the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2019/oct/17/benefits-of-welfare-robots-and-the-need-for-human-oversight">U.K.</a> are embracing these types of systems and encountering similar problems. The United Nations special rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25156">issued a report</a> in October that warned governments across the world to “avoid stumbling zombie-like into a digital welfare dystopia” as they automate their social welfare systems. </p>
<p>In a closely watched decision, a court in the Netherlands <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/feb/05/welfare-surveillance-system-violates-human-rights-dutch-court-rules">recently halted a welfare fraud detection system</a>, ruling that it violates human rights. The decision is likely to bring closer scrutiny to these systems worldwide, although Americans <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/europe-limits-government-algorithm-us-not-much">have fewer legal protections</a> than their European counterparts. </p>
<h2>Algorithms aren’t magic</h2>
<p>AI won’t magically root out what little fraud there is from the welfare rolls. </p>
<p>Mistakes can happen when software <a href="https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1166&context=law_lawreview">developers translate</a> complex regulatory requirements into code and when they make programming errors. The massive sets of data fed into automated systems inevitably will contain some inaccuracies and omissions. And algorithms can also replicate embedded societal <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/algorithmic-bias-detection-and-mitigation-best-practices-and-policies-to-reduce-consumer-harms/">biases</a> and end up discriminating against marginalized groups.</p>
<p>Without a human in the decision-making loop, these mistakes become compounded as they flow through multiple data-sharing systems.</p>
<p>To avoid these problems, state and other governments should ensure the systems they install are <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2017/02/08/theme-7-the-need-grows-for-algorithmic-literacy-transparency-and-oversight/">transparent</a> in how they function, are <a href="https://www.acm.org/binaries/content/assets/public-policy/2017_usacm_statement_algorithms.pdf">accountable</a> for mistakes and <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2017/05/24/what-happens-when-states-go-hunting-for-welfare-fraud">don’t incentivize</a> private contractors hired to design them to kick people off the rolls to make more money. States should also make sure representatives from all groups affected are involved in their creation and monitoring. </p>
<p>In my research and legal work, I have found automated fraud detection is too often built on the assumptions that computers are magic and fraud among the poor is endemic. State officials should flip those assumptions and make computers work for the people rather than against them.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re too busy to read everything. We get it. That’s why we’ve got a weekly newsletter.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklybusy">Sign up for good Sunday reading.</a> ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/131625/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Professor Gilman's law clinic has represented individuals affected by automated decision making in public benefits programs.</span></em></p>States are increasingly turning to machine learning and algorithms to detect fraud in food stamps, Medicaid and other welfare programs – despite little evidence of actual fraud.Michele Gilman, Venable Professor of Law, University of BaltimoreLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1209632019-07-29T12:24:59Z2019-07-29T12:24:59ZRestricting SNAP benefits could hurt millions of Americans – and local communities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285879/original/file-20190726-43140-cyc1q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">SNAP benefits help millions of families put food on the table.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dinner-poor-family-food-child-problem-1269889723?src=80JZd_ZuCFlJLKFq7P8ERQ-1-77&studio=1">JACEK SKROK/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The U.S. Department of Agriculture is trying to restrict access to <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/policy-basics-the-supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a> benefits. </p>
<p>SNAP is the primary way the government helps low-income Americans put food on the table. According to the government’s own calculations, an estimated <a href="https://www.usda.gov/sites/default/files/documents/BBCE_Fact_Sheet_%28FINAL%29_72219-PR.pdf">3.1 million people</a> could lose SNAP benefits, commonly referred to as food stamps, through a <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/pressrelease/usda-011319">new proposal</a> that would change some application <a href="https://apnews.com/f6de66f4f4894fa688ef5919c646cb29">procedures and eligibility requirements</a>.</p>
<p>We are <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=kDJHyCEAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">nutrition</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=UkM3jA4AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">food policy</a> researchers who have studied the effects of SNAP on the health and well-being of low-income Americans. Should this change go into effect, we believe millions of Americans, especially children, and local communities would suffer.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285770/original/file-20190725-136744-awwdqa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285770/original/file-20190725-136744-awwdqa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285770/original/file-20190725-136744-awwdqa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285770/original/file-20190725-136744-awwdqa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285770/original/file-20190725-136744-awwdqa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285770/original/file-20190725-136744-awwdqa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285770/original/file-20190725-136744-awwdqa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285770/original/file-20190725-136744-awwdqa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Americans access their SNAP benefits through cards issued by the states.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://snaped.fns.usda.gov/ebt-cards-several-states">United States Department of Agriculture</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Helping families and the economy</h2>
<p>SNAP helped <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap">39.7 million Americans</a> buy food in 2018.</p>
<p>Federal research has found that the program <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap/">reduces hunger</a>, particularly in children – who make up <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap/charts/snap-participants-by-age/">44% of its beneficiaries</a>.</p>
<p>Hunger and poor nutrition harm <a href="https://frac.org/research/resource-library/hunger-health-impact-poverty-food-insecurity-poor-nutrition-health-well">children’s health and hinder their development</a>. Kids who don’t get enough to eat have more <a href="https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/108/1/44">trouble at school</a> and are more likely to experience <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/132.4.719">mental health problems</a>. <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.3386/w18535">One research team</a> found that people who had access to SNAP as children earned higher incomes and were less likely to develop chronic diseases like diabetes once they grew up.</p>
<p>“My eating habits have improved where I can eat more healthy than before,” a Massachusetts woman who had recently been approved for SNAP told us. “It is like night and day – the difference between surviving and not surviving.” </p>
<p>SNAP benefits also ripple through the economy. They lead to money being spent at local stores, freeing up cash to pay rent and other bills. Every US$1 invested in SNAP generates <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap/economic-linkages/">$1.79 in economic activity</a>, according to the USDA.</p>
<h2>Trying again and again</h2>
<p>The Trump administration has repeatedly attempted to slash SNAP and make it harder for people who qualify for benefits to get them.</p>
<p>Its <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/presidents-budget-would-shift-substantial-costs-to-states-and-cut-food">2018, 2019 and 2020</a> <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/presidents-budget-would-cut-food-assistance-for-millions-and-radically">budget proposals</a> all called for <a href="https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18259789/trumps-2020-budget-proposal-cuts">cutting spending on food stamps</a> by about 25%. </p>
<p>The Trump administration also worked with Republicans in Congress to try to <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-gops-poor-arguments-for-doubling-down-on-snaps-work-requirements-96778">tighten eligibility requirements</a>. Had this policy been implemented, all beneficiaries between the ages of 18 and 59 deemed “<a href="https://www.politico.com/story/2018/12/11/farm-bill-compromise-passage-1013284">able-bodied</a>” would have had to prove they were working at least 20 hours per week or were enrolled in school. According to <a href="https://www.cbo.gov/publication/53819">government projections</a>, some 1.2 million Americans would have eventually lost their benefits as a result.</p>
<p>Congress, which would have needed to approve the change for it to take effect, rejected it in December 2018. The White House then sought to change work requirements <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-trump-administration-wants-to-tighten-snap-work-requirements-bypassing-congress-109865">through a new rule</a> that has not yet taken effect.</p>
<p>In July 2019, the Trump administration again sought to restrict access to food stamps without any input from Congress, this time by going through <a href="https://theconversation.com/welfare-as-we-know-it-now-6-questions-answered-81367">Temporary Assistance for Needy Families</a> – a program that gives low-income families with children cash to cover childcare and other expenses.</p>
<p>Currently, most states automatically enroll families in SNAP once they obtain TANF benefits. The new rule would prevent states from doing this. Even though 85% of TANF families also get SNAP benefits, the vast majority of them still <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/family-income-support/tanf-benefits-remain-low-despite-recent-increases-in-some-states">live in poverty</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.regulations.gov/document?D=FNS-2018-0037-0001">government is seeking comments</a> from the public about this proposed change through September 23, 2019.</p>
<h2>Replacing food stamps with ‘harvest boxes’</h2>
<p>Other changes to SNAP could also take a toll.</p>
<p>The Trump administration’s proposed budgets have also called for changing how the government helps low-income families get food they have trouble affording. Its 2019 budget proposal called for replacing half of SNAP benefits with what it called “<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-fdrs-food-stamps-to-trumps-harvest-boxes-the-history-of-helping-the-poor-get-enough-to-eat-91813">harvest boxes</a>” of nonperishable items like cereals, beans and canned goods.</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/heq.2018.0094">research we conducted</a> with low-income Americans, 79% of SNAP participants opposed this proposal, with one of the primary reasons being not being able to choose their own foods. </p>
<p>“People who are struggling are already demoralized,” a New Mexico woman who uses SNAP benefits told us. “Being able to make our own food decisions is something that keeps us feeling like human beings.”</p>
<p>Congress rejected the concept but the <a href="https://www.thepacker.com/article/trump-revives-harvest-box-proposal-save-billions">White House included it again</a> in its 2020 budget draft.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.feedingamerica.org/about-us/press-room/feeding-america-opposes-harmful-snap-proposed-rule-released-usda">Advocates for food aid</a> fear that recent proposals to change how SNAP works would reduce the share of Americans who get these benefits by making it harder to qualify and enroll in the program. Should this major transformation ever occur, children and families won’t have access to critical benefits that help them avoid going hungry. </p>
<h2>Tracking the demand for food stamps</h2>
<p>Although the Trump administration has until now largely failed in its effort to cut SNAP spending, the number of people getting food stamps <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/snap-caseload-and-spending-declines-have-accelerated-in-recent-years">is already declining</a>. This trend began during the Obama administration, in the <a href="https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/great_recession_of_200709">aftermath of the Great Recession</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="7DrJe" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/7DrJe/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Since the economy is <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-economic-expansion-just-hit-a-record-for-the-longest-ever/">doing well overall</a>, the number of people on food assistance programs has fallen. The reason for the decline is that the number of people who are eligible for these <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap/economic-linkages/">benefits rises when the economy falters</a> and falls when conditions improve. As a result, the government is spending less on food stamps without cutting the SNAP budget. </p>
<p>Case in point, <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/snap-caseload-and-spending-declines-have-accelerated-in-recent-years">7 million people</a> have already left SNAP due to better economic stability. In parallel, federal spending on SNAP budget has dropped from $78 billion in 2013 to $64 billion in 2019. </p>
<p><iframe id="iHoEP" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/iHoEP/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>If the Trump administration wants to shrink SNAP, reduce costs and have fewer low-income Americans receive benefits, we believe that the best thing it can do is to keep working to improve the economy – particularly for low-income Americans, who have been <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/snap-caseload-and-spending-declines-have-accelerated-in-recent-years">reaping fewer benefits</a> from the improving economy than others in recent years.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120963/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cindy Leung receives funding from the National Institutes of Health to study the effects of child food insecurity, and has previously received funding from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation to study SNAP and children's health.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julia A. Wolfson has received funding from the University of Kentucky Center for Poverty Research through funding by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. </span></em></p>With Congress rebuffing efforts to cut benefits, the White House is trying to change the rules.Cindy Leung, Assistant Professor of Nutritional Sciences, University of MichiganJulia A. Wolfson, Assistant Professor of Health Management and Policy, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1188162019-07-10T12:07:25Z2019-07-10T12:07:25ZSelecting groceries ahead of time helps some shoppers make healthier choices<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282104/original/file-20190701-105182-1q7a7ji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Yeah, right
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/shopping-cart-full-food-supermarket-aisle-350102345?src=t_AbbjFSKcqkXE94nM589w-1-4&studio=1">Shutterstock.com/Davizro Photography</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I often toss items into my grocery cart that I have vowed to never buy again. </p>
<p>Maybe I cave into my 3-year-old’s demands for sugary cereal and cookies. Or perhaps I fail to resist my own urge to snack on chocolate-covered raisins. </p>
<p>I’m not alone. Most <a href="https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/chapter-2/current-eating-patterns-in-the-united-states/">Americans consume more added sugar</a>, saturated fat and sodium – and fewer servings of fruits and vegetables – than nutritionists recommend. <a href="https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet">Our diets</a> are a major reason why about <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html">40% of U.S. adults</a> are obese, and run an outsized risk of developing health problems such as <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/effects/index.html">Type 2 diabetes and heart disease</a>.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=PVj6uMYAAAAJ&hl=en">behavioral economist</a>, I get to study the underlying preferences behind common behaviors. When grocery pre-ordering services like <a href="https://www.instacart.com/">Instacart</a> and <a href="https://www.peapod.com/">Peapod</a> first emerged, I was sure they would fix my self-control problems at the supermarket. Pre-ordering my family’s food and having it delivered seemed like a great way to avoid impulse purchases. </p>
<h2>Self-control</h2>
<p>It might not be surprising to learn that self-control – or the lack of it – drives many personal decisions. It explains why <a href="http://doi.org/10.1257/aer.96.3.694">people buy gym memberships and then rarely set foot in the gym</a>, make <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2803">poor snack choices</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/260971">fail to save enough for retirement</a>.</p>
<p>Behavioral economists refer to these <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0262.00252">self-control problems</a> as “<a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095737736">dynamic inconsistency</a>.” In terms of food, this means what people want to eat for the sake of their health in the future often doesn’t match what they’re consuming this minute to satisfy the cravings they have right now. In other words, you might put items in your Instacart to eat later that you wouldn’t put in your grocery cart to munch on the way home from the store.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282103/original/file-20190701-105200-boevng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282103/original/file-20190701-105200-boevng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282103/original/file-20190701-105200-boevng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282103/original/file-20190701-105200-boevng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282103/original/file-20190701-105200-boevng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282103/original/file-20190701-105200-boevng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282103/original/file-20190701-105200-boevng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282103/original/file-20190701-105200-boevng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Instacart is partnering with many supermarket chains, including Aldi.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/1283268658?studio=1&size=huge_jpg">Jeff Bukowski/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Can pre-ordering groceries help shoppers avoid making impulse purchases and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdz030">make healthier choices</a> instead? I teamed up with University of California, San Diego economists <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=qdh_iZsAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Charles Sprenger</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=AZDVYOIAAAAJ&hl=en">Sally Sadoff</a> to find out.</p>
<p>We partnered with grocery stores in <a href="https://www.northgatemarket.com/locations?gclid=Cj0KCQjwov3nBRDFARIsANgsdoHhpKoi63_GBhtj9t5UQWAPa74BzW63JtKNesOntKrT9TKOlaR0CscaAof1EALw_wcB">Los Angeles</a> and <a href="https://www.facebook.com/louis.groceries/">Chicago</a> to collect data on the impact of pre-ordering groceries.</p>
<h2>Apples and carrots</h2>
<p>To keep things simple, we initially offered about 400 customers the choice of 10 free foods from a set of 20. Some of the foods on offer were clearly healthy – apples, carrots and the like. Others were obviously not – greasy potato chips, sugary candy bars and so on.</p>
<p>Half of the customers taking part in our studies were Chicagoans and half were Angelenos. To recruit, we set up tables in a busy section of the stores, asking passersby to complete a short questionnaire and select their free food.</p>
<p>Because my research emphasizes policies that could help people facing economic hardship, we worked with stores that were located in low-income neighborhoods – nearly half of the grocery shoppers who participated told us they got <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a> benefits from the nation’s largest program designed to alleviate hunger. The <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/online-purchasing-pilot">U.S. Department of Agriculture is now piloting</a> a pre-ordering program for people like these who get SNAP benefits, which are also known as food stamps.</p>
<p>Conducting the study in two places helped us see if the results would be different depending on the demographics because most of the Chicago participants were black and most of the Los Angeles participants were Latino.</p>
<h2>Supermarket experiment</h2>
<p>Ideally we would have compared the food that shoppers buy when they pre-order with what happens when they go to the store, but there would have been too many variables, such as pricing and convenience, that might have muddied our results. Instead, we created experimental conditions and asked people to choose among them if they wanted something free by pre-ordering it a week ahead. </p>
<p>When we delivered the food a week later, we surprised customers with the chance to change their order because we wanted to compare the food people would order for their future self versus the the food they wanted right away. Based on prevailing <a href="http://doi.org/10.1257/aer.89.1.103">economic theories</a>, we hypothesized that people would swap healthier foods for less healthy foods. </p>
<p>And that’s exactly what happened. About 40% of the customers taking part in our study made at least one exchange. The foods most people ended up with were higher in calories, fat and added sugar than their pre-ordered foods. For instance, they might swap out a red pepper for a bag of Doritos or an orange for a Snickers bar. </p>
<p>These findings suggest that many people are “dynamically inconsistent” – the choice they pick for their future self is different from the choice they pick when they get to eat the food immediately. And, they are inconsistent in the predicted direction – they’re much more likely to swap out the pepper for the Doritos than the other way around.</p>
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<h2>The more things change …</h2>
<p>We also wanted to see whether letting people decide whether to pre-order changes things. So we went back to the same participants the next week and asked them to make the same pre-ordering decisions. This time, after they placed their orders, we asked a simple question:</p>
<p>“Do you want the option to make exchanges, or do you want to stick to your pre-ordered choices?”</p>
<p>About half of our customers wanted the option to make exchanges, while the other half wanted to stick to their pre-ordered choices. We found that the people who stood by their pre-ordered choices were the most likely to want pre-ordering. The people who made exchanges earlier were much less likely to want it.</p>
<p>This suggests that simply offering pre-ordering won’t help people with self-control problems make better choices when they buy food. And those are the ones who would potentially get the biggest benefits from going that route.</p>
<p>However, we found that the people who changed their mind in the first week were not very likely to choose to stick to their pre-ordered choices – they wanted to have the option to make exchanges again. The people who were already pretty good at standing by their pre-ordered choices were the same people who didn’t want the freedom to stray from them.</p>
<p>This suggests that when people have a choice, the people who do want to pre-order probably benefit from it less those to don’t.</p>
<h2>Not enough</h2>
<p>What we did observe is that pre-ordering may help many people make healthier choices. At the same time, we saw that just offering pre-ordering alone, as SNAP is doing to give its beneficiaries the same flexibility as all shoppers get, does not bring on better food choices since not everyone takes advantage of it.</p>
<p>In my view, the answer, however, is not to deny people the freedom to change orders. Instead, a better strategy would be finding <a href="https://theconversation.com/do-people-like-government-nudges-study-says-yes-85567">ways to nudge people</a> into pre-ordering who might otherwise not consider it. They might be the ones who need it the most. </p>
<p>Nudges could take the form of informing shoppers about the benefits of choosing to pre-order. It could also take the form of incentives or perks associated with pre-ordering.</p>
<p>Tell me about it … while I’m tossing chocolate-covered raisins into my grocery cart.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118816/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anya Samek receives funding from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).</span></em></p>A study found that grocery shoppers who could change their orders were more likely to swap produce for junk food than the other way around.Anya Samek, Associate Professor (Research) of Economics, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and SciencesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1183212019-06-24T11:59:01Z2019-06-24T11:59:01ZUS poverty statistics ignore millions of struggling Americans<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280250/original/file-20190619-171188-1i4qpwj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Unemployment and a loss of health insurance are two problems not necessarily captured in official poverty measures.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/unemployed-stressed-young-asian-business-man-1246781203?src=Bvpw7M6OkPsLsdDgywxjWQ-1-2&studio=1">tuaindeed/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Who counts as poor in the U.S. today?</p>
<p>Measuring the share of the population that experiences poverty is important to understanding and monitoring how the country’s economy is doing. It also informs the administration of safety net programs, such as Medicaid and food stamps. </p>
<p>Poverty is measured in the U.S. in two ways – but both focus on a lack of income. Currently, those who may have some income but lack other key necessities, like health insurance and access to quality education, are invisible in official poverty data. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.mppn.org/">Other countries</a>, like Colombia and Mexico, as well as <a href="http://hdr.undp.org/en/2018-MPI">international organizations</a> like the United Nations Development Program, are ahead of the U.S. when it comes to considering the many dimensions of poverty.</p>
<h2>Measuring by income alone</h2>
<p>The first way that the U.S. monitors poverty is through the official poverty measure. This compares a family’s pre-tax income to a threshold. For instance, in 2017, a family of four was considered poor if their pre-tax income fell below about US$26,000. </p>
<p>Using this measure, in 2017, 12.3% of the U.S. population, or 39.7 million people, <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2018/demo/p60-263.html">were in poverty</a>. </p>
<p>The second, newer measure is the Supplemental Poverty Measure. This is an income-based measure that reflects more comprehensively the resources and needs of families, adjusted to geographic differences in housing costs. It adjusts after-tax income by adding resources, such as food stamps, and taking away essential expenditures, such as medical out-of-pocket and childcare expenses. </p>
<p>According to this measure, in 2017, 13.9% of the population, or 44.9 million people, <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2018/demo/p60-265.html">were poor</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280252/original/file-20190619-171192-g1e5te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280252/original/file-20190619-171192-g1e5te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280252/original/file-20190619-171192-g1e5te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280252/original/file-20190619-171192-g1e5te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280252/original/file-20190619-171192-g1e5te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280252/original/file-20190619-171192-g1e5te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280252/original/file-20190619-171192-g1e5te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280252/original/file-20190619-171192-g1e5te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The experience of poverty is not exclusively about income.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Foreclosure-Rates/0d35934913734531a144baf78cd578cb/16/0">AP Photo/David Zalubowski</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, people who are not deemed “poor” by these measures may still be struggling and disadvantaged in many ways. The experience of poverty is not exclusively about income. </p>
<p>Say a family of four has an income of US$50,000 and two employed adults but does not have health insurance. One child becomes chronically ill, and the family incurs high out-of-pocket medical expenses, defaults on their mortgage and gets evicted from their home.</p>
<p>This family’s sudden multiple deprivations are currently invisible to policymakers, analysts and journalists looking only at income poverty.</p>
<h2>Measuring as multiple deprivations</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12291">In a April 2016 study</a>, we applied <a href="https://ophi.org.uk/research/multidimensional-poverty/alkire-foster-method/">a multidimensional measure of poverty</a> to the U.S.</p>
<p>Using this method, called the Alkire-Foster measure, we looked at five different types of deprivation: income level below the official poverty threshold; poor health; education below a high school level; unemployment for at least the last week; and insecurity due to a lack of health insurance. </p>
<p>We considered individuals or families with two or more deprivations to be poor. Our example family above has at least two deprivations: poor health due to a chronic illness, as well as economic insecurity due lack of health insurance.</p>
<p>Using data from the Current Population Survey, a survey collected by the U.S. Census Bureau, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12291">our study found</a> that, in addition to the 40 million Americans who are income-poor, another 5%, or 16 million people, experience at least two deprivations.</p>
<h2>Not low-income, but struggling</h2>
<p>In May, the <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2019/acs/acs-40.html">U.S. Census Bureau published a report exploring a new multidimensional poverty measure</a> which uses the American Community Survey. </p>
<p>Their measure incorporates more and somewhat different dimensions compared to our study: economic security, education, housing quality, neighborhood quality and standard of living.</p>
<p>Strikingly, like in our study, the Census Bureau study found that about 5% of the population, or 16 million Americans, experienced multidimensional poverty in 2017, but are not income-poor. </p>
<p>In other words, according to both studies, 16 million Americans are struggling, yet they do not show up on poverty monitoring radar screens and may not be eligible for assistance programs. </p>
<p>Trends over time can look different through this multidimensional lens. <a href="http://www.accessecon.com/Pubs/EB/2019/Volume39/EB-19-V39-I2-P122.pdf">We found that</a>, from 2013 to 2016, both the income poverty rate and the multidimensional poverty rate decreased significantly. However, in 2017, the decline in multidimensional poverty stalled due to a rise in the share of Americans without health insurance, while income poverty continued to go down, albeit at a slower rate.</p>
<h2>Moving forward</h2>
<p>While there is no magic bullet for poverty, we feel that it certainly cannot be addressed only through raising wages or increasing the number of jobs.</p>
<p>As the <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22533&LangID=E">United Nations Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights</a> noted during his 2017 visit to the U.S., “There are indispensable ingredients for a set of policies designed to eliminate poverty. They include: democratic decision-making, full employment policies, social protection for the vulnerable, a fair and effective justice system, gender and racial equality and respect for human dignity, responsible fiscal policies, and environmental justice.”</p>
<p>A lack of income is not the whole story about poverty. We believe that the Census Bureau and other U.S. organizations that play a role in poverty reduction should adopt a multidimensional measure of poverty, in addition to existing income-based measures. It will provide a comprehensive tool to monitor and address Americans’ disadvantages.</p>
<p>[ <em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118321/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Debra Brucker received funding from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services' National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research under grant numbers 90RT5022-01-00 and 90RTGE00010100. The findings do not necessarily represent the policy of the Department of Health and Human Services and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sophie Mitra does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In the US, poverty is measured by income level. But that measure misses many other aspects of poverty – like unemployment, poor health and a lack of health insurance.Sophie Mitra, Professor of Economics, Fordham UniversityDebra Brucker, Research Associate Professor at Institute on Disability, University of New HampshireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1186622019-06-14T12:44:49Z2019-06-14T12:44:49ZAmericans don’t agree on whether the poor should chip in or do work in exchange for aid<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279418/original/file-20190613-32373-1uxgj4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most adults under 49 without kids must work 20 hours a week to get food stamps.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Government-Shutdown-New-Jersey/d48718af4d46484bb288619805331bdb/1/0">AP Photo/Julio Cortez </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Americans don’t agree on how safety-net programs should work. For example, Republicans are pushing to strengthen work requirements for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, also known as SNAP or <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-trump-administration-wants-to-tighten-snap-work-requirements-bypassing-congress-109865">food stamps</a>, and co-payments for <a href="https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/3/11/18260622/trump-budget-health-care">Medicaid</a>, which provides low-income people with health insurance. Democratic lawmakers and consumer advocates argue that such obligations <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/02/21/politics/democrats-medicaid-waivers/index.html">deny or strip benefits</a> from those who need them most.</p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=PVj6uMYAAAAJ">behavioral economist</a>, meaning I study the underlying preferences that drive human behavior and decision-making. To see whether the American public wants the government to make <a href="https://www.vox.com/2018/7/26/17465068/work-requirements-medicaid-snap-republican-cartoon">public benefits contingent</a> upon these kinds of requirements, I conducted a study that measured how much of their own money people would <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2018.10.011">donate to food aid programs</a> if recipients had to contribute some of their own time or money to get benefits.</p>
<p>Not surprisingly, my research team found that the public is split on this issue as well.</p>
<h2>Trade-offs</h2>
<p>Economists have been writing and wondering about the costs and benefits of what we call <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20130267">contribution requirements</a> since the 1970s. If no one knows whether recipients value the aid, the thinking goes, then perhaps small fees and other mandates can make it easier to see <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1809683">who values and perhaps needs it most</a>. </p>
<p>This works for all kinds of folks, not just the poor. Any of your neighbors might take a bag of kale harvested from your garden if you offer it for free. Chances are, only those who actually plan to cook the greens or turn them into a salad would be willing to pay even a pittance for it.</p>
<p>However, a trade-off is that work requirements and other contingencies <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/345/6202/1279">are costly</a> enough for recipients that some of the people who absolutely need a hand won’t get it. A large body of <a href="https://www.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/the-effects-of-premiums-and-cost-sharing-on-low-income-populations-updated-review-of-research-findings/view/print/">research has found</a> that Medicaid copays and premiums, for example, lead to people who need health coverage not getting any, even if they’re set at just a dollar.</p>
<p>Together with <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California San Diego</a> economist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=AZDVYOIAAAAJ&hl=en">Sally Sadoff</a>, I decided to do a study to see whether the public is aware of these trade-offs, and how they influence support for these programs. This is critical because policymakers need to respond to the preferences of the public.</p>
<h2>The value of chipping in</h2>
<p>We contacted nearly 5,000 Americans we located through a <a href="https://uasdata.usc.edu/index.php">representative survey panel</a> over the internet. Our approach was simple: Participants got US$8 if they completed our surveys.</p>
<p>Prior to one survey, we asked them how much of that money we were paying them they’d be willing to donate toward food aid programs that we administer through the University of Southern California. In these programs we personally established in partnership with a Los Angeles grocery store, low-income people get bags of fruits and vegetables worth $10.</p>
<p>To learn more about what influences decisions people make about giving, we created different ways that the aid recipients had to contribute to get bags of healthful food. The study’s participants fell into three groups at random. Members of each one heard one of the following things about the produce:</p>
<ul>
<li>Recipients get it for free</li>
<li>Recipients pay $1 </li>
<li>Recipients pay $5 </li>
</ul>
<p>We modeled these programs after co-pay requirements, or the idea that people in need should pay something in exchange for public benefits. Some states like <a href="https://www.healthinsurance.org/montana-medicaid/">Montana</a> and <a href="https://www.thecommonwealthinstitute.org/2018/09/28/medicaid-premiums-and-copayments-will-make-it-harder-for-low-income-virginians-to-access-needed-care/">Michigan</a> already require small <a href="https://www.kff.org/health-reform/state-indicator/premium-and-cost-sharing-requirements-for-selected-services-for-medicaid-expansion-adults/">premiums and co-pays from Medicaid recipients</a>. Other states are phasing in this cost-sharing approach.</p>
<p>Much of the debate regarding the safety net centers around <a href="http://www.aei.org/spotlight/federal-work-requirements-debate/">work requirements</a> – the idea that “able-bodied” aid recipients should do paid work or be in school to be eligible for aid.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.governing.com/topics/health-human-services/gov-medicaid-work-requirements-judge-arkansas-indiana-kentucky.html">Indiana and New Hampshire</a> are both phasing in Medicaid work requirements. <a href="https://www.modernhealthcare.com/government/judge-blocks-medicaid-work-requirements-kentucky-and-arkansas">Arkansas and Kentucky</a> have tried to do that too, with the Trump administration’s encouragement, but a judge blocked them in March 2019.</p>
<p>Some charities impose work requirements too. People who get new homes through <a href="https://habitatgnh.org/homeownership/requirements-for-homeownership-applicants/">Habitat for Humanity</a>, for example, must put in some “sweat equity” time by helping to build their own place to live. </p>
<p>As a way to ask recipients to give their time rather than spend some money, three other groups of participants in our survey were instead asked to donate to our program at the grocery store in which:</p>
<ul>
<li>Recipients get registered immediately</li>
<li>Recipients must spend 5 minutes registering for the programs</li>
<li>Recipients must spend 25 minutes registering for the programs</li>
</ul>
<p>We compared the likelihood of donating any amount and found the most support for the food aid program in which recipients must pay $1, and less support for the free program or the program in which recipients have to pay $5. We also found programs that require recipients to contribute some of their time to be more popular among donors than those that don’t.</p>
<p>Our findings led us to conclude that many people prefer small contribution requirements rather than big ones or there being none at all. At the same time, we determined that most Americans consider bigger demands as too burdensome. Based on what we learned from a detailed questionnaire, we believe this is because they see it as an effective way to get food aid to those who value it most.</p>
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<h2>Can they afford it?</h2>
<p>In a follow-up study, we surveyed people about <a href="https://evidencebase.usc.edu/what-types-of-food-aid-programs-do-americans-prefer-and-why/">which approach they would support</a> out of six options. This time, we replaced the no-wait-time one with making people wait for 45 minutes.</p>
<p>The free program without any obligation to wait was the most popular, garnering 29% support, followed closely by $1-payment option, at 26% and the one with a 5-minute wait time, at 23%. In contrast, only 12% said they would support the $5 payment requirement. Hardly anyone, just 3%, said they would want to make people wait 45 minutes and just 8% preferred a 25-minute wait time.</p>
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<p>We also asked participants to rate how much they agree with common reasons for supporting each program. For example, we asked whether having families pay for the program is a good way to identify those who most value nutritious food. About half agreed with this and similar sentiments. About half also expressed concerns that low-income families may not be able to afford to pay that much.</p>
<p>In other words, typical Americans – just like <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/06/11/730639328/trump-wants-to-limit-aid-for-low-income-americans-a-look-at-his-proposals">political and thought leaders</a> – are apparently split between a preference for helping people out for free and imposing costs on people who need a hand.</p>
<p>[ <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=thanksforreading">Thanks for reading! We can send you The Conversation’s stories every day in an informative email. Sign up today.</a></em> ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118662/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anya Samek receives funding from FAIR - the Centre for Experimental Research on Fairness, Inequality and Rationality, at the Norwegian School of Economics. She is affiliated with the Science of Philanthropy Initiative. This research was partly funded by the Templeton Foundation through the Science of Philanthropy Initiative.</span></em></p>When asked to donate money they had earned through participating in a study, average people tended to choose the less onerous requirements rather than big ones.Anya Samek, Associate Professor (Research) of Economics, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and SciencesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1134222019-06-03T12:41:27Z2019-06-03T12:41:27ZGetting poorer while working harder: The ‘cliff effect’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276117/original/file-20190523-187143-tkgp78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Average Walmart workers make twice the federal minimum wage but may still qualify for public benefits.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Walmart-Lab-Store/4f56edaf208e4f8abd078677c46b1aba/3/0">AP Photo/Mark Lennihan </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Forty percent of all <a href="https://www.urban.org/research/publication/despite-labor-market-gains-2018-there-were-only-modest-improvements-families-ability-meet-basic-needs">working-age Americans sometimes struggle</a> to pay their monthly bills. </p>
<p>There is no place in the country where a family supported by one minimum-wage worker with a full-time job can live and <a href="https://reports.nlihc.org/sites/default/files/oor/OOR_2018.pdf">afford a 2-bedroom apartment</a> at the average fair-market rent. </p>
<p>Given the pressure to earn enough to make ends meet, you would think that low-paid workers would be clamoring for raises. But this is not always the case. </p>
<p>Because so many American jobs don’t earn enough to pay for food, housing and other basic needs, many low-wage <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/most-working-age-snap-participants-work-but-often-in-unstable-jobs">workers rely on public benefits</a> that are only <a href="https://theconversation.com/3-myths-about-the-poor-that-republicans-are-using-to-support-slashing-us-safety-net-89048">available to people in need</a>, such as housing vouchers and Medicaid, to pay their bills.</p>
<p>Earning a little more money may not automatically increase their standard of living if it boosts their income to the point where they lose access to some or all of those benefits. That’s because the value of those lost benefits may outweigh their income gains.</p>
<p>I have researched this dynamic, which experts often call the “<a href="https://www.umb.edu/csp/research">cliff effect</a>,” for years to learn <a href="https://www.umb.edu/csp/about/team/bios/susan_r_crandall">why workers weren’t succeeding</a> at retaining their jobs following job training programs. Chief among the one step forward, two steps back problems the cliff effect causes: Low-paid workers can become reluctant to earn more money due to a fear that they will get worse off instead of better.</p>
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<h2>Trapped</h2>
<p>“My supervisor wants to promote me,” a woman who gets housing assistance through the federal <a href="https://affordablehousingonline.com/section-8-housing">Section 8 housing voucher program</a>, who I’ll call Josie, told me. “If my pay goes up, my rent will go up too. I don’t know if I’ll be able to afford my apartment,” Josie, a secretary at a Boston hospital, said. </p>
<p>These vouchers are available to Americans facing economic hardship, <a href="https://www.thebalancesmb.com/section-8-housing-eligibility-requirements-2125017">based on multiple criteria</a>, including their income. Josie was worried that the bump up in pay that she’d get from the promotion would not make up for the loss of help she gets to pay her rent.</p>
<p>Given the possibility of a downside, many Americans in this situation decide it’s better to decline what on the surface looks like a good opportunity to escape poverty.</p>
<p>This uncertainty leads workers like Josie to forgo raises rather than take the risk of getting poorer while working harder. Having to stress out about potentially losing benefits that keep a roof over their heads and food on their table prolongs their own financial instability.</p>
<p>The pain isn’t just personal. Josie’s whole family misses out if she passes on an opportunity to earn more. The government loses a chance to stop using taxpayer dollars to cover benefits to someone who might not otherwise need them. The hospital can’t take full advantage of Josie’s proven talents.</p>
<h2>Not always</h2>
<p>Some low-paid <a href="https://www.circlesusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/WF_PULSE_REPORT_Outling_the_Disincentives_infographic_8_2016.pdf">workers do get farther behind</a> when they should be getting ahead following a raise. But getting higher pay doesn’t always <a href="https://www.umb.edu/csp/research">make anyone worse off</a>. Whether it does or not depends on a lot of intersecting factors, like the local cost of living, the size of the raise, the size of the family and the benefits the worker receives.</p>
<p>The cliff effect is something social workers see their clients encounter all the time. And it’s maddeningly impossible to figure out for the people experiencing it and researchers like me alike.</p>
<p>Some benefits, notably the <a href="https://theconversation.com/four-charts-that-show-who-loses-out-if-the-white-house-cuts-food-stamps-78648">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a>, the nation’s largest program designed to alleviate hunger, do include some incentives for recipients to earn more. SNAP, as today’s version of food stamps is known, <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/the-supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-includes-earnings-incentives">tapers its phaseout for eligibility</a> as incomes grow, rather than rendering people ineligible as soon as their pay crosses a single threshold.</p>
<p>But low-wage workers, such as those in food service, hospitality and retail have no way of knowing what to expect if they get SNAP benefits in combination with other government programs, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/ben-carsons-effort-to-reform-housing-safety-net-would-deepen-poverty-by-hurting-poorest-americans-95745">housing vouchers</a> and Medicaid.</p>
<p>At the heart of this problem is that the help millions Americans derive from the nation’s safety net comes from a <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-2019-government-shutdown-is-just-the-latest-reason-why-poor-people-cant-bank-on-the-safety-net-109691">fragmented system</a>. Sorting out the repercussions of a higher income is nearly impossible because the safety net consists of a wide array of benefits programs administered by federal, state and local agencies. Each program and administrator has its own criteria, rules and restrictions.</p>
<p>Because that trepidation is sometimes unfounded, my colleagues at <a href="https://www.prohope.org/">Project Hope Boston</a>, a multi-service agency focused on moving the city’s families up and out of poverty, and I started to do something about it.</p>
<h2>Fixing it</h2>
<p>To help families assess risks tied to the cliff effect, we advised the <a href="https://www.cominghomedirectory.org/coming-home-post/massachusetts-department-transitional-assistance-dta/">Massachusetts Department of Transitional Assistance</a>, which oversees state-administered safety net programs, to create a <a href="https://www.umb.edu/editor_uploads/images/centers_institutes/center_social_policy/Cliff_Effects_slides.1.29.19_CC.SRC.pdf#page=23">digital tool</a>. Social workers are already using a preliminary version of it to show low-wage workers what they can probably expect to happen to their benefits if they earn more money.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275990/original/file-20190522-187182-1ibr30t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275990/original/file-20190522-187182-1ibr30t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275990/original/file-20190522-187182-1ibr30t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275990/original/file-20190522-187182-1ibr30t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275990/original/file-20190522-187182-1ibr30t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275990/original/file-20190522-187182-1ibr30t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=913&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275990/original/file-20190522-187182-1ibr30t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=913&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275990/original/file-20190522-187182-1ibr30t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=913&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You have to consider a lot of variables to see whether someone will experience the cliff effect.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.umb.edu/editor_uploads/images/centers_institutes/center_social_policy/Cliff_Effects_slides.1.29.19_CC.SRC.pdf">Massachusetts Department of Transitional Assistance</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Commonwealth of Massachusetts plans to put this tool online for all to use by Summer of 2019.</p>
<p>After plugging information about variables like how many members are in the household, what benefits everyone receives, the costs of their regular expenses like rent, child care and medical bills, they become better able to make informed choices about their career opportunity based on their family’s personal financial situation. </p>
<p>But workers need more than just a tool, they need help getting over the cliff. We also help workforce development programs implement the state’s new <a href="http://commcorp.org/programs/wctf-current-grants/">Learn to Earn initiative</a>, which gives low-income families the financial coaching they need to make educated decisions that could affect their bottom line.</p>
<p>This problem is becoming increasingly urgent because <a href="https://www.nelp.org/publication/raises-coast-coast-2019/">dozens of states, cities and counties</a> are enforcing <a href="http://www.ncsl.org/research/labor-and-employment/state-minimum-wage-chart.aspx">higher minimum wages</a>, and employers are voluntarily raising pay as well, including <a href="https://www.mprnews.org/story/2019/04/04/target-raises-minimum-wage-to-13">Target</a> and <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2018/10/02/amazon-raises-minimum-wage-to-15-for-all-us-employees.html">Amazon</a>. Some places, <a href="https://www.mass.gov/info-details/massachusetts-law-about-minimum-wage">including Massachusetts</a> and the cities of <a href="https://www.mprnews.org/story/2019/04/25/local-minimum-wage-hikes-emerge-as-capitol-sticking-points">Minneapolis and St. Paul</a> in Minnesota, are even phasing in $15-an-hour minimums. </p>
<p>But the reality is that even after some of the biggest minimum wage increases enacted at the state level lately, many families are not earning enough to pay for housing and other basic needs <a href="https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/100216/despite_labor_market_gains_in_2018_there_were_only_modest_improvements_in_families_ability_to_meet_basic_needs.pdf">without help</a> – for which they may no longer qualify. Several states, including <a href="https://ascend.aspeninstitute.org/reducing-the-cliff-effect-to-support-working-families/">Colorado and Florida</a>, are seeking solutions. </p>
<p>This complicated and frustrating challenge is just one symptom of an overarching problem. In addition to boosting wages, it will take major policy changes, like making <a href="https://www.bostonfed.org/publications/communities-and-banking/2017/winter/combining-earnings-with-public-supports-cliff-effects-in-massachusetts.aspx">child care more universally available</a> and affordable, to offset the skyrocketing costs of living for American workers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113422/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan R. Crandall directs the Center for Social Policy in the McCormack Graduate School at the University of Massachusetts Boston, which received funding from the Oak Foundation and The Boston Foundation to support its cliff effect research. The Center advised the Massachusetts state government on its cliff effects digital tool and Learn to Earn program.</span></em></p>Stressing out about potentially losing benefits can prolong financial instability. Solving this problem will help low-paid workers and everyone else.Susan R. Crandall, Director, Center for Social Policy, UMass BostonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1144982019-04-17T10:54:55Z2019-04-17T10:54:55ZA political stalemate over Puerto Rican aid is leaving all US disaster funding in limbo<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/268889/original/file-20190411-44810-lbiyka.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Three-year-old Ailianie Hernandez waits with her mother, Julianna Ageljo, to apply for Puerto Rico's nutritional assistance program.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/APTOPIX-Puerto-Rico-Dwindling-Funds/0bf6aae598eb49bcbed70aebf897d00c/1/0">(AP Photo/Carlos Giusti</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Senate Democrats recently blocked <a href="https://www.politico.com/story/2019/04/09/disaster-relief-legislation-congress-1335771">US$13.5 billion</a> in relief for Americans whose lives were disrupted by hurricanes, tornadoes, wildfires, flooding and other natural disasters. The objections had to do with Puerto Rico.</p>
<p>In addition to aid for Kansas, Missouri, Iowa and Nebraska, this bill included $600 million to cover six months’ worth of nutritional assistance requested by Puerto Rican Gov. Ricardo Rosselló. But Democrats refused to back the bill because it lacked funds that would <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-01/democrats-block-disaster-relief-bill-over-funds-for-puerto-rico">protect the island from floods</a> and <a href="https://www.warren.senate.gov/oversight/letters/warren-colleagues-seek-update-from-fema-army-corps-on-power-restoration-efforts-in-puerto-rico">rebuild its electrical grid</a>.</p>
<p>The result is an impasse between a Congress that wants to assist a U.S. territory in distress and a hostile White House. As the daughter of Puerto Ricans who moved to the mainland and a <a href="https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/iupra/research/index.php">policy analyst of racial inequities</a>, I’m concerned that the Trump administration’s neglect of Puerto Rico is <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-racial-bias-driving-trumps-neglect-of-puerto-rico-85662">based in racial bias</a>.</p>
<h2>Complaints</h2>
<p>President Donald Trump has <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-racial-bias-driving-trumps-neglect-of-puerto-rico-85662">vocally opposed</a> disaster relief for Puerto Ricans almost since Hurricane Maria made landfall in September 2017. Within two weeks of that storm, which <a href="https://theconversation.com/death-count-debates-overshadow-the-real-story-hurricane-maria-was-partly-a-human-made-disaster-102465">killed an estimated 3,000 people</a>, Trump accused Puerto Ricans in a series of tweets of wanting “<a href="https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/353216-trump-criticizes-san-juan-mayors-poor-leadership-during-puerto-rico">everything to be done for them</a>.”</p>
<p>Not much has changed. Since January 2019, Trump has reportedly dismissed the need for emergency food aid on the island as “<a href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/nidhiprakash/trump-food-stamps-puerto-rico-shutdown">excessive and unnecessary</a>.”</p>
<p>Rosselló responded by urging Trump to stop treating Puerto Ricans as “<a href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/03/28/politics/ricardo-rossell-donald-trump-puerto-rico-funding/index.html">second-class</a>” U.S. citizens. He seems to have reached a breaking point after avoiding being critical of the president. When CNN asked if he felt working with Trump was like “dealing with a bully,” Rosselló replied, “If the bully gets close, I’ll punch the bully in the mouth.”</p>
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<h2>Part of the US</h2>
<p>Puerto Rico has been <a href="https://www.history.com/news/puerto-ricos-complicated-history-with-the-united-states">part of the United States since 1898</a>. The island’s residents are <a href="https://theconversation.com/are-puerto-ricans-really-american-citizens-73723">U.S. citizens</a>.</p>
<p>Yet Trump has repeatedly ignored these basic facts by asserting that money to aid Puerto Rico takes money away from priorities on the U.S. mainland. “<a href="https://twitter.com/GlennThrush/status/1110997946609426433">We could buy Puerto Rico four times over</a>” with this aid money, he reportedly said in late March.</p>
<p>Some things operate differently in Puerto Rico, though, including the safety net. Puerto Ricans, for example, lack access to the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, the nutritional benefit system formerly known as food stamps and today better known as SNAP. Instead, Puerto Rico operates its own <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/how-is-food-assistance-different-in-puerto-rico-than-in-the-rest-of-the">Nutrition Assistance Program</a>, or NAP. </p>
<p>Hurricane Maria did so much damage to Puerto Rico’s economy that nearly <a href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/nidhiprakash/puerto-rico-food-stamp-cuts-disaster-relief">300,000 more</a> Puerto Ricans became poor enough to be eligible for its nutrition assistance – a roughly 30% increase in beneficiaries. Without the additional $1.27 billion in funding that Congress approved in September 2017, the greater need would have meant that everyone getting this help would have had to make do with less, as the cost of this program is generally <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/disaster/commonwealth-puerto-rico-disaster-nutrition-assistance">capped at around $2 billion</a> per year. </p>
<p>Puerto Rico’s nutrition assistance program differs from SNAP in another critical way: The threshold is much lower. Americans in families of three on the mainland can be eligible for food stamps if their income totals <a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/snap/COLAMemoFY19.pdf">$1,732 per month</a>. Puerto Rican families of the same size may not earn more than $4,901 per year – <a href="https://www.benefits.gov/benefit/363">$408 per month</a> – and get their own version of SNAP benefits. Because of this distinction, fewer Puerto Rican families get nutritional assistance benefits than would be the case if they earned the same incomes on the mainland.</p>
<p>The poverty rate in Puerto Rico is <a href="https://datausa.io/profile/geo/puerto-rico/?compare=united-states">nearly 44%</a>, triple the national average poverty rate. That’s especially problematic given that <a href="https://estadisticas.pr/files/inventario/indice_de_costo_de_vida/2018-11-20/One_pager_COLI_2017Q3_2018Q3.pdf">Puerto Rico ranks among the most expensive</a> places in the U.S. to buy groceries.</p>
<h2>Slashed benefits</h2>
<p>Even before Hurricane Maria struck, the territory’s nutritional benefits program was already failing to meet the nutritional needs of low-income Puerto Ricans amid a <a href="https://qz.com/1091341/puerto-ricos-eye-popping-economic-situation-in-charts/">prolonged recession</a>.</p>
<p>And once the disaster relief funds Congress appropriated for this purpose <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/blog/without-immediate-federal-action-14-million-puerto-rico-residents-face-food-aid-cuts">ran out in March 2019</a>, Puerto Rico was forced to slash benefits for the 1.35 million people getting nutrition aid. </p>
<p>While nutritional assistance funds should certainly be a high legislative priority, so should protecting Puerto Rico from future floods and fixing the island’s power grid. Puerto Rico experienced an <a href="https://www.vox.com/identities/2018/8/15/17692414/puerto-rico-power-electricity-restored-hurricane-maria">11-month power outage</a>, the longest blackout in American history and the second-longest in world history after Hurricane Maria.</p>
<p>The House, unlike the Senate, passed a <a href="https://appropriations.house.gov/news/press-releases/house-passes-emergency-disaster-appropriations-bill">$14.2 billion disaster relief bill</a> in January. </p>
<p>A new House version, about 25% bigger, would cover <a href="https://www.3newsnow.com/news/2019-flood/rep-axne-successfully-includes-ia-in-house-emergency-disaster-bill-funding">$17.2 billion in expenditures</a>. As lawmakers entered their two-week spring recess in mid-April without sending legislation to Trump to at least consider signing, Puerto Rico, Iowa and other disaster-struck regions remained in limbo.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/114498/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Lluveras does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Trump has repeatedly misconstrued the territory as not being part of the United States. But it is.Lauren Lluveras, PhD candidate in African & African Diaspora Studies, The University of Texas at AustinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1120882019-03-06T11:39:44Z2019-03-06T11:39:44ZThe shutdown brought people who rely on SNAP an extra helping of economic hardship<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262228/original/file-20190305-48432-1mf1frd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">People use SNAP benefits to buy food.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/supermarket-aisle-interior-blur-background-empty-1247136772">Kwangmoozaa/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Millions of the poorest Americans are probably feeling the aftershocks of the partial government shutdown weeks after it ended.</p>
<p>One big reason for that is how it disrupted the flow of <a href="https://theconversation.com/four-charts-that-show-who-loses-out-if-the-white-house-cuts-food-stamps-78648">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a> benefits. Florida, <a href="http://www.statenews.org/post/ohio-readjust-food-stamp-distribution-again-month-and-next">Ohio</a>, <a href="http://www.nbc12.com/2019/02/19/march-snap-benefits-be-issued-early/">Virginia</a> and many other states are <a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/snap/SNAP-March-Issuance.pdf">adjusting their monthly disbursements</a> to avoid making SNAP recipients go <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/many-snap-households-will-experience-long-gap-between-monthly-benefits-even">50 days or more</a> without any assistance. But the distribution schedule will be altered in many cases through mid-April. </p>
<p>We are <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=R2yT_tAAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">health economists</a> who <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=8UmC90sAAAAJ&hl=en">have studied</a> how public policies affect <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=svDqgPEAAAAJ&hl=en">low-income people</a>. We have found that the timing of when benefits through the program, commonly referred to as SNAP or food stamps, are disbursed affects everything from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3428">what and how much people eat</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.06.007">how well children learn</a> to how likely they are to visit the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3284673">emergency room</a>. </p>
<h2>Disrupted scheduling</h2>
<p>More than <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap">40 million Americans</a> get benefits from SNAP, the nation’s largest program designed to alleviate hunger. All households receiving SNAP benefits get them only once a month through <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/what-electronic-benefits-transfer-ebt">Electronic Benefit Transfer cards</a>, which work like debit cards. The actual date varies in part because the states have <a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/snap/Monthly-Issuance-Schedule-All-States.pdf">flexibility</a> in how they administer this federally funded program managed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.</p>
<p>Out of concern that the government shutdown might jeopardize funding, the USDA told the states to distribute benefits that were slated for February <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/pressrelease/2019/000319">in January</a>. This change occurred even though the shutdown ended in January and we are seeing ample evidence that it <a href="https://citylimits.org/2019/03/04/snap-gap-poor-families-shutdown-hunger/">disrupted SNAP distribution schedules</a>.</p>
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<h2>Fewer calories</h2>
<p>Most SNAP households <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/hec.3428">spend their benefits soon</a> after their disbursement, making it a struggle to keep food on the table before the next time their benefits arrive. Brown University economist <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2004.05.003">Jesse M. Shapiro</a> observed a 10 to 15 percent decline in caloric consumption between the first and last week of the benefit month. </p>
<p>Having less to eat appears to take a toll on the academic performance of many children. When we assessed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.06.007">low-income students’ test scores</a>, we found significant declines in performance in the final week before their families received their SNAP benefits – when those children were more likely to eat less. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/0002831218761337">Other researchers</a> have reached similar conclusions.</p>
<p>Additional research has shown that school children have more <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16317128">behavioral problems</a> and discipline issues at the end of the period between SNAP benefit disbursements. </p>
<p>The timing of when food stamp benefits are dispatched may also have something to do with an increase in trips to the emergency room. Emergency room visits by people who get benefits but have not gotten any for nearly a month are more likely caused by <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26491120">asthma</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19776137">anemia</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17436030/">diabetes</a> or <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3649100/#bib44">hypoglycemia</a> – a condition caused by a very low level of blood sugar.</p>
<p>We believe that this happens partly because of people spending some of their own money on food – instead of insulin, inhalers and other medications. Even without schedule changes, we believe that SNAP benefits are too low, leading to rationing and other hard choices when they run out after a few weeks. For the Americans who rely on them, the disruption due to the shutdown only made this problem worse.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/112088/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Even without any disruption, SNAP benefits tend to run out before the next disbursement arrives.Orgul Demet Ozturk, Associate Professor of Economics, University of South CarolinaChad Cotti, Professor of Economics; Economics Department Chair, University of Wisconsin-OshkoshJohn Gordanier, Clinical Associate Professor of Economics, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1098652019-01-22T11:50:11Z2019-01-22T11:50:11ZThe Trump administration wants to tighten SNAP work requirements, bypassing Congress<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254438/original/file-20190118-100273-1kfp3fr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fewer people getting SNAP benefits can lead to more skipped meals.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/internet-food-shop-super-market-close-252432673?src=75GMwELry4HAFVmJjojbgw-1-10">maradon 333/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Trump administration wants to <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/a-quick-guide-to-snap-eligibility-and-benefits">tighten even further longstanding restrictions</a> on who is eligible for the <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/short-history-snap">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-2018-farm-bill-means-for-urban-suburban-and-rural-america-89605">farm bill</a>, which gets updated every five years or so, spells out who can participate in <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/eligible-food-items">SNAP</a>, the assistance program previously known as food stamps. The most recent version of this legislation, which President Donald Trump signed into law on Dec. 20, 2018, left out new limits on the eligibility of adults without children. Those limits were part of the House version, but Congress dropped them prior to the bill’s passage.</p>
<p>But that same day, the U.S. Department of Agriculture proposed a rule that would <a href="https://www.apnews.com/c5589ee23db2440eba8ea75002f009e3">restrict access anyway</a>.</p>
<p>Having researched <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=lmFGKs4AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">food assistance programs</a>, I’ve seen that the consequences of having too little to eat are daunting. When people can’t afford food, <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=84466">they may skip meals</a>, which leads to increased stress and poor nutrition. For people with chronic diseases like diabetes, meal-skipping can even make them <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4215698/">more prone to hospitalization</a> when their blood sugar gets too low. </p>
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<h2>Trying for decades</h2>
<p>When <a href="https://theconversation.com/welfare-as-we-know-it-now-6-questions-answered-81367">President Bill Clinton</a> and the Republican-led Congress <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/104th-congress/house-bill/3734/text">overhauled the welfare system</a> in 1996, they imposed some work requirements for SNAP participants.</p>
<p>To get these benefits, non-disabled adults between the ages of 18 and 49 without children are required to do paid work or be enrolled in a job training program for at least 20 hours a week. If they fail to find work or enroll in training, they can only participate in the program once every three years for up to three months.</p>
<p>Despite these rules, which <a href="https://prospect.org/article/fewer-food-stamps-hunger-persists">block access to millions</a> of adults, nearly <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap">40 million</a> poor Americans in roughly 20 million households rely on SNAP. Even though the average SNAP recipient just gets about <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/chart-book-snap-helps-struggling-families-put-food-on-the-table">US$1.40 per meal</a>, research indicates that this program <a href="https://www.urban.org/research/publication/how-much-does-snap-reduce-food-insecurity">reduces food insecurity</a> by nearly 30 percent. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.agri-pulse.com/articles/11753-new-usda-proposal-would-tighten-snap-waiver-requirements">Policymakers argue</a> that these restrictions improve economic security by encouraging people to join the labor force. And most do join the labor force. A report the <a href="https://food.berkeley.edu/research-database/long-term-benefits-of-the-supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program/">White House Council of Economic Advisers</a> released during the Obama administration found that work rates among SNAP recipients had risen steadily since the 1990s.</p>
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<p>However, does joining the labor force really improve economic security? The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, a think tank, found that <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/poverty-and-inequality/work-requirements-dont-cut-poverty-evidence-shows">requiring safety net program recipients to work</a> did not make them better off. In some cases, work requirements have plunged people deeper into poverty.</p>
<p>Additionally, researchers at <a href="https://inequality.stanford.edu/publications/media/details/did-welfare-reform-increase-employment-and-reduce-poverty">Stanford and Johns Hopkins universities</a> have observed that the jobs poor people take have remained largely low-paying. This means they still need SNAP because they don’t earn enough to keep food on the table. </p>
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<h2>Bypassing Congress</h2>
<p>Although SNAP is federally funded, the <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/state-options-report">states administer the program</a>. Currently, state governments can <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/abawd-waivers">request waivers for SNAP time limits</a> on benefits for people with work requirements for multiple reasons, including if their local jobless rate is at least 20 percent above the national average for a recent 24-month period. Based on the <a href="https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.nr0.htm">current national unemployment rate</a>, the proposed new rule would bar states from applying for this waiver unless their <a href="https://www.apnews.com/c5589ee23db2440eba8ea75002f009e3">unemployment rate is at least 7 percent</a>. </p>
<p>Among other changes, the federal government would <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/states-have-requested-waivers-from-snaps-time-limit-in-high-unemployment">limit the flexibility states now have</a> to exercise a degree of discretion in exempting non-disabled adults without kids from the three-month time limit.</p>
<p>The public will get <a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-change-federal-policies-heres-how-83919">two months to comment</a> on these new rules. If this rule were to go into effect as is, <a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/snap/ABAWDtoOFR.pdf#page=42">more than 750,000 people could lose SNAP benefits</a>, according to the draft language. For now, people who rely on SNAP <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/pressrelease/2019/000319">can still use their benefits</a> – as long as the government shutdown doesn’t go past February. After then, unless Congress passes legislation specifically funding SNAP, the program’s fate is unknown.</p>
<p>This administrative route to bypassing congressional consensus is not how American democracy is supposed to work – nor is it the norm, as <a href="https://www.agriculture.senate.gov/newsroom/dem/press/release/ranking-member-stabenow-statement-on-usda-nutrition-assistance-rule">Sen. Debbie Stabenow, a Michigan Democrat</a>, explained when the USDA proposed this rule.</p>
<p>“Congress writes laws and the Administration is required to write rules based on the law,” she said, “not the other way around.”</p>
<p>This democracy works because of the <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/us-government/checks-and-balances">checks and balances</a> between the three branches of government. When one branch chooses to override this separation of powers, I believe democracy – just like SNAP participants’ benefits – is jeopardized.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109865/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lindsey Haynes-Maslow receives funding from the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program-Education (SNAP-Ed).</span></em></p>In some cases, these restrictions have plunged people deeper into poverty.Lindsey Haynes-Maslow, Assistant Professor of Agriculture and Human Sciences, North Carolina State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1096912019-01-14T11:41:43Z2019-01-14T11:41:43ZThe 2019 government shutdown is just the latest reason why poor people can’t bank on the safety net<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253579/original/file-20190114-43510-fx8i4t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Unreliable policies can make poverty more stressful.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/adult-woman-sitting-look-worried-on-728818369">Rawpixel/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I conduct a lot of in-depth interviews with people like a woman I’ll call Angie as part of my work as a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=w2vYJJkAAAAJ&hl=en">political scientist</a> who studies poverty and public policy. When I asked the low-income mother of two, who works multiple jobs but still struggles to care for her family, about her experience with government assistance programs, she expressed dismay over benefit cuts.</p>
<p>“The people who make these rules … they don’t have any poor people in their family,” she told me. “That is why they are willing to chop so many services for the poor.” </p>
<p>People living in poverty are now bracing for that kind of chopping as a result of the partial government shutdown that began in December. By the <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/government-shutdown-are-food-stamps-snap-wic-benefits-paid-2019-1">three-week mark</a>, most safety-net benefits were still being funded. But should the impasse drag on, that could change.</p>
<p>In my view, the added <a href="https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2018/1/19/16907138/government-shutdown-2018">economic hardship</a> brought on would highlight an enduring aspect of American public policy: Government benefits can be <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/privatizing-risk-without-privatizing-the-welfare-state-the-hidden-politics-of-social-policy-retrenchment-in-the-united-states/9EE821F912D000130BC9C6094C4B2686">unreliable</a>. They can be <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/dismantling-the-welfare-state/1EF58A90413CCE29F65E0E99F9138DC2">cut</a> or eliminated arbitrarily. </p>
<h2>Fragmented help</h2>
<p>As I’ve explained in a <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/fragmented-democracy/9A69DF1567190EF38883D4766EBC0AAC">book published in 2018</a>, the nation’s systems for aiding Americans who have trouble making ends meet are fragmented. Different programs housed in multiple agencies serve distinct populations, with all of this happening in different ways across states and localities.</p>
<p>That means government shutdowns do not sever all assistance at once. In this instance, Congress has already passed the appropriations bills funding agencies like Health and Human Services, so <a href="https://khn.org/news/how-the-government-shutdown-affects-health-programs/">Medicaid, Medicare</a> and many other programs that agency runs are relatively safe.</p>
<p>Other federal agencies are more likely to see their funds dry up during this particular shutdown, especially the departments of agriculture and housing.</p>
<p>USDA and HUD are responsible for many programs that directly and indirectly keep low-income Americans fed and housed. The USDA’s <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a>, more commonly called SNAP, helps more than 19 million low-income households. HUD’s Housing Choice Vouchers, better known as <a href="https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/public_indian_housing/programs/hcv/about/fact_sheet">Section 8</a>, help more than 2 million American families struggling to keep a roof over their heads. </p>
<p>These programs, which together cost about US<a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/pd/SNAPsummary.pdf">$83 billion</a> a year, still <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/blog/npr-series-highlights-need-to-strengthen-rental-assistance">fail to meet the needs</a> of all the Americans who live in poverty. But they nonetheless play a critical role in keeping the most vulnerable Americans afloat. </p>
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<p>On top of SNAP, the USDA runs housing programs that assist hundreds of thousands of <a href="https://www.rd.usda.gov/programs-services/multi-family-housing-rental-assistance">rural renters</a>, <a href="https://www.rd.usda.gov/programs-services/single-family-housing-direct-home-loans">home buyers</a>, <a href="https://www.fsa.usda.gov/programs-and-services/farm-loan-programs/index">owners of small farms</a> and <a href="https://www.rd.usda.gov/programs-services/farm-labor-housing-direct-loans-grants">farm workers</a>. In addition to its Section 8 vouchers, HUD funds and manages programs that help <a href="https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/housing/mfh/progdesc/eld202">elderly people</a>, people with <a href="https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/housing/mfh/progdesc/disab811">disabilities</a>, people with <a href="https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/comm_planning/aidshousing">HIV/AIDS</a>, and people facing <a href="https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/comm_planning/homeless/programs">homelessness</a>. </p>
<p>Some of these, such as three USDA programs that help rural people rent, repair and buy homes, <a href="https://nlihc.org/article/government-shutdown-now-third-week-impacts-housing-programs-and-tenants">are not operating</a> due to the shutdown. Others are <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/white-house/because-shutdown-more-1-000-affordable-housing-contracts-have-expired-n955971">jeopardized</a>. Yet more, including <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/usda-to-fund-snap-for-february-2019-but-millions-face-cuts-if-shutdown">SNAP, could be paused</a> in another month or two should Congress and the White House fail to agree on how to fund the entire government by then.</p>
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<h2>Constant change</h2>
<p>It’s hard for anyone to keep track of, but this patchwork of timelines is all too familiar to low-income Americans. A <a href="http://www.people-press.org/interactives/political-polarization-1994-2017/">hyperpolarized</a> political environment marked by ever <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/kentucky/articles/2018-08-30/facing-shortfall-kentucky-mulls-ending-medicaid-expansion">shifting policies</a> produces volatility and instability for those who count on the safety net during times of need.</p>
<p>In my interviews with low-income people around the country, this unreliable nature of government often comes up. While people express deep gratitude for the help they get, they also say they can’t bank on it.</p>
<p>Getting public benefits was “becoming more of a struggle,” said John, a low-income disabled man from Michigan. “They’re cutting back on a lot of benefits for people and they’re trying to make it harder and harder to where you just give up.”</p>
<p>To be sure, I do not believe that any policies should be stagnant. But I do think that they should change to better serve the needs of those they target, and that they should only be phased out when no longer needed.</p>
<p>In contrast, the <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/">Trump administration’s latest proposed budget</a> <a href="https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2018/2/12/16996832/trump-budget-2019-release-explained">hinges on cutting</a> crucial programs. In some cases it would scrap longstanding anti-poverty programs like the <a href="https://www.lsc.gov/media-center/publications/2017-lsc-numbers">Legal Services Corporation</a>, a nonprofit established by Congress in 1974 to help low-income Americans get lawyers.</p>
<p>If <a href="https://www.usnews.com/opinion/thomas-jefferson-street/articles/2018-02-14/donald-trumps-budget-doesnt-matter">history</a> is any indication, many of these proposed cuts won’t happen. Still, Trump’s budget sets the tone of federal priorities, leaving millions of low-income Americans uncertain of whether the government will continue to assist them.</p>
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<h2>Shutting down democracy</h2>
<p>When I asked Angie, who lives in Michigan, why her Medicaid benefits were cut, leaving her uninsured, she said that “it has a lot to do with politics.” I hear that refrain often.</p>
<p>Many low-income Americans know that their ability to access SNAP, Section 8 vouchers and other benefits depends on what politicians do. But that does not mean they are likely to vote for candidates who might make a difference in their lives – or anyone else for that matter.</p>
<p>Political science research has demonstrated <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/lessons-of-welfare-policy-design-political-learning-and-political-action/1BFEE6A53F8E201A9E836613AEF405AB">again</a> and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0003122410363563">again</a> and <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/fragmented-democracy/9A69DF1567190EF38883D4766EBC0AAC">again</a> that negative experiences with safety-net programs can lead people to disengage from government, avoid the voting booth and shun the political sphere. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://read.dukeupress.edu/jhppl">forthcoming academic article</a> that I co-authored with University of Missouri political scientist <a href="https://politicalscience.missouri.edu/people/haselswerdt">Jake Haselswerdt</a>, we provide statistical evidence that people are less likely to vote after public benefits get slashed or go away.</p>
<p>Likewise, many of the people I’ve interviewed told me they were convinced that they had “very little influence” and that “no one listens.” It’s hard to argue with their perspective, given how <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/blog/seniors-families-and-others-risk-losing-housing-as-shutdown-continues">vulnerable the safety net becomes</a> during government shutdowns.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109691/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jamila Michener has received funding from the Russell Sage Foundation and from the Institute for Research on Poverty. </span></em></p>Medicaid and Medicare benefits appear safe for now. But SNAP food assistance and many other programs could be disrupted.Jamila Michener, Assistant Professor of Government, Cornell UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1096482019-01-11T11:45:42Z2019-01-11T11:45:42ZMore solutions needed for campus hunger<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253341/original/file-20190110-43525-1cq5z51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">As many as half of America's college students face campus hunger.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-woman-unhappy-see-empty-fridge-117362950?src=Hqk8wW7f4eyj3tUivdEL0A-1-5">Stokkete/www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A <a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-19-95">new federal report</a> does a good job of explaining what many researchers have been saying for a decade – food insecurity among college students is a serious national problem.</p>
<p>As one University of California, Berkeley student revealed in an interview for a 2018 <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212267218306932">research article</a> I helped write: “Food is always on my mind: ‘Do I have enough money? Maybe I should skip a meal today so I can have enough food for dinner.‘”</p>
<p>However, when it comes to offering up solutions, the new report from the Government Accountability Office comes up short. </p>
<p>My experience as <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=0oxSme8AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">one who has researched campus hunger</a> goes back to 2014, when colleagues and I conducted the first public university system wide survey of campus hunger. We found that over <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19320248.2017.1374901">40 percent</a> of University of California students – about half of all undergraduates and one out of every four graduate students – faced food insecurity. That is more than three times the national household rate of <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/90023/err-256.pdf?v=0">12 percent</a>. Food security is <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/food-security-in-the-us/">generally defined</a> as access at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19320248.2017.1374901">findings on campus hunger</a> <a href="https://www.ucop.edu/global-food-initiative/best-practices/food-access-security/">have been replicated</a> in the University of California system, the California State University <a href="https://www2.calstate.edu/impact-of-the-csu/student-success/basic-needs-initiative/Documents/BasicNeedsStudy_phaseII_withAccessibilityComments.pdf">system</a> and in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19320248.2018.1484316">colleges throughout the nation</a>.</p>
<h2>Effects of an empty stomach</h2>
<p>For those who are food secure, it might be easy to scoff at the notion that somehow college students can’t find enough to eat. The reality is hunger among college students has psychological impacts that affect student performance. For instance, in a 2018 study, colleagues and I found students experiencing food insecurity had a <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1359105318783028">lower grade point average</a> than students not facing food insecurity.</p>
<p>Researchers and I also found that not having access to enough food at all times <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1359105318783028">increased a student’s risk</a> for poor mental health. This, in turn, increases their risk for lower grades.</p>
<p>So what does the latest federal report – released 10 years after the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19650961">first</a> study documenting hunger on campus – say about the problem and what should be done about it?</p>
<p>The new federal report states that from nine to over 50 percent of America’s college students face food insecurity. The report also reveals that of the two to three million students at-risk for food insecurity who were potentially eligible for participating in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program – more commonly known as SNAP – only 43 percent were receiving those benefits.</p>
<h2>More solutions needed</h2>
<p>The report recommends that government administrators do more to make students aware of their potential eligibility for SNAP benefits. The low participation rate in SNAP may stem from lack of awareness of exemptions for eligibility. Or it could have to do with the stigma of receiving food assistance. Some organizations recommend campus-based initiatives to combat food insecurity in order to <a href="https://www.clasp.org/press-room/news-clips/food-insecurity-college-campuses">lessen the stigma</a> associated with receiving food assistance for students. </p>
<p>Will better SNAP guidance end student hunger? In my view as one who has been looking at this issue for some time, not entirely. </p>
<p>For example, college students cannot get SNAP benefits unless they meet certain criteria, such as working at least 20 hours a week and attending school full-time. This rule should perhaps be rethought in light of how <a href="https://www.byu.edu/hr/sites/default/files/effects_of_student_employment.pdf">difficult</a> it is to go to school full-time, keep up one’s grades and work more than 20 hours a week.</p>
<p>What else can we do to fix student hunger? Updating college student financial aid is one solution. For instance, the purchasing power of the Pell grant – a federal grant for low- to middle-income students – is at a <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/blog/2018-funding-bill-should-boost-pell-grants">40-year low</a>.</p>
<p>Another solution is to <a href="https://diverseeducation.com/article/83705/">extend</a> the Federal School Lunch Program, which could help pick up the slack for the lost purchasing power of the Pell grant.</p>
<p>In my view, more assistance should also be given to <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2018/11/anxiety-depression-mental-health-graduate-school/576769/">graduate students</a>, who also face campus hunger but who were not mentioned in the new federal report.</p>
<p>Lastly, students must be better educated on things such as financial aid, personal budgeting and self-advocacy. At a time when the cost of going to college is becoming more difficult to cover, it’s more important than ever to help students succeed and be healthy so that they can lead future generations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109648/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suzanna Martinez does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new federal report on food insecurity on college campuses does a good job of laying out the scope of the problem but falls short when it comes to solutions.Suzanna Martinez, Academic Researcher, University of California, San FranciscoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/999272018-07-20T10:36:15Z2018-07-20T10:36:15ZWhy the war on poverty in the US isn’t over, in 4 charts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228296/original/file-20180718-142435-1v01jtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">About 12.7 percent of Americans lived below the poverty line in 2016.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">StanislauV/shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On July 12, <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/cea-report-expanding-work-requirements-non-cash-welfare-programs/">President Trump’s Council of Economic Advisers concluded</a> that America’s long-running war on poverty “is <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Expanding-Work-Requirements-in-Non-Cash-Welfare-Programs.pdf">largely over</a> and a success.” </p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=q_7k-4IAAAAJ&hl=en">I am a researcher who has studied poverty</a> for nearly 20 years in Cleveland, a city with one of the country’s highest rates of poverty. While the council’s conclusion makes for a dramatic headline, it simply does not align with the reality of poverty in the U.S. today. </p>
<h2>What is poverty?</h2>
<p>The U.S. federal poverty line is set annually by the federal government, based on algorithms developed in the 1960s and adjusted for inflation. </p>
<p><a href="https://aspe.hhs.gov/poverty-guidelines">In 2018, the federal poverty line</a> for a family of four in the contiguous U.S. is $25,100. It’s somewhat higher in Hawaii ($28,870) and Alaska ($31,380). </p>
<p>However, the technical weaknesses of the federal poverty line are well known to researchers and those who work with populations in poverty. This measure considers only earned income, ignoring the costs of living for different family types, receipt of public benefits, as well as the value of assets, such as a home or car, held by families. </p>
<p>Most references to poverty refer to either the poverty rate or the number of people in poverty. The poverty rate is essentially the percentage of all people or a subcategory who have income below the poverty line. This allows researchers to compare over time even as the U.S. population increases. For example, <a href="https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2017/demo/P60-259.pdf">12.7 percent of the U.S. population</a> was in poverty in 2016. The rate has hovered around 12 to 15 percent since 1980. </p>
<p>Other discussions reference the raw number of people in poverty. In 2016, <a href="https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2017/demo/P60-259.pdf">40.6 million people lived in poverty</a>, up from approximately 25 million in 1980. The number of people in poverty gives a sense of the scale of the concern and helps to inform the design of relevant policies. </p>
<p>Both of these indicators fluctuate with the economy. For example, the poverty population grew by 10 million during the 2007 to 2009 recession, equating to an increase of approximately 4 percent in the rate. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2017/demo/P60-259.pdf">The rates of poverty over time by age</a> show that, while poverty among seniors has declined, child poverty and poverty among adults have changed little over the last 40 years. Today, the poverty rate among children is nearly double the rate experienced by seniors.</p>
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<p><a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/cea-report-expanding-work-requirements-non-cash-welfare-programs/">The July report by the Council of Economic Advisers</a> uses an alternate way of measuring poverty, based on households’ consumption of goods, to conclude that poverty has dramatically declined. Though this method may be useful for underpinning an argument for broader work requirements for the poor, the much more favorable picture it paints simply does not reconcile with the observed reality in the U.S. today.</p>
<h2>Deserving versus undeserving poor</h2>
<p>Political discussions about poverty often include underlying assumptions about whether those living in poverty are responsible for their own circumstances. </p>
<p>One perspective identifies certain categories of poor as more deserving of assistance because they are victims of circumstance. These include children, widows, the disabled and workers who have lost a job. Other individuals who are perceived to have made bad choices – such as school dropouts, people with criminal backgrounds or drug users – may be less likely to receive sympathetic treatment in these discussions. The path to poverty is important, but likely shows that most individuals suffered earlier circumstances that contributed to the outcome. </p>
<p>Among the working-age poor in the U.S. (ages 18 to 64), approximately 35 percent are not eligible to work, meaning they are disabled, a student or retired. Among the poor who are eligible to work, fully 63 percent do so. </p>
<p>Earlier this year, <a href="http://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/economy-budget/397188-house-and-senate-farm-bills-set-contrasting-visions-for">lawmakers in the House proposed</a> new work requirements for recipients of SNAP and Medicaid. But this ignores the reality that a large number of the poor who are eligible for benefits are children and would not be expected to work. <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/who-is-poor-in-the-united-states-a-hamilton-project-annual-report/">Sixty-three percent of adults</a> who are eligible for benefits can work and already do. The issue here is more so that these individuals cannot secure and retain full-time employment of a wage sufficient to lift their family from poverty. </p>
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<h2>A culture of poverty?</h2>
<p>The circumstances of poverty limit the odds that someone can escape poverty. Individuals living in poverty or belonging to families in poverty often work but still <a href="https://www.unitedwayalice.org/home">have limited resources</a> – in regard to employment, housing, health care, education and child care, just to name a few domains. </p>
<p>If a family is surrounded by other households also struggling with poverty, <a href="https://www.childtrends.org/child-trends-5/five-ways-neighborhoods-concentrated-disadvantage-harm-children">this further exacerbates their circumstances</a>. It’s akin to being a weak swimmer in a pool surrounded by other weak swimmers. The potential for assistance and benefit from those around you further <a href="https://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/pubs/pdf/rr12-776.pdf">limits your chances</a> of success. </p>
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<p>Even the basic reality of family structure feeds into the consideration of poverty. Twenty-seven percent of female-headed households with no other adult live in poverty, dramatically higher than the 5 percent poverty rate of married couple families.</p>
<p>Poverty exists in all areas of the country, but the population living in high-poverty neighborhoods <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/u-s-concentrated-poverty-in-the-wake-of-the-great-recession/">has increased over time</a>. Following the Great Recession, some 14 million people lived in extremely poor neighborhoods, more than twice as many as had done so in 2000. Some areas saw some dramatic growth in their poor populations living in high-poverty areas.</p>
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<p>Given the complexity of poverty as a civic issue, decision makers should understand the full range of evidence about the circumstances of the poor. This is especially important before undertaking a major change to the social safety net such as broad-based work requirements for those receiving non-cash assistance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/99927/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert L. Fischer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A White House Council concluded that the war on poverty is “largely over.” But, while poverty among seniors has declined, poverty among adults and children as changed little over the last 40 years.Robert L. Fischer, Co-Director of the Center on Urban Poverty and Community Development, Case Western Reserve UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/968802018-05-23T10:38:51Z2018-05-23T10:38:51ZA healthy diet isn’t always possible for low-income Americans, even when they get SNAP benefits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/220030/original/file-20180522-51127-gszd9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Everyone needs to eat their veggies.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/family-enjoying-healthy-meal-together-son-206848177?src=oWWQ0VdBGzmZGMzkJl3g9Q-1-75">wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While researching <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=lmFGKs4AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">how hard it is for low-income Americans to eat healthy on tight budgets</a>, I’ve often found a mismatch between what people want to eat and the diet they can afford to follow. This made me wonder what eating right costs and how much of this tab gets covered by the largest federal nutrition program, commonly known as SNAP or food stamps.</p>
<p>To find out, I teamed up with <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/kranti-mulik-7974a0a/">Kranti Mulik</a>, an agricultural economist.</p>
<h2>MyPlate and SNAP</h2>
<p>We based our nutrition assumptions on <a href="https://www.choosemyplate.gov/browse-audience">MyPlate</a>, the federal government’s dietary guidelines, which account for differences according to age and gender. The guidelines spell out what you should eat from five food groups: fruits, vegetables, grains, dairy and protein – including meat, beans, eggs, tofu and other soy-based products, nuts and seeds.</p>
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<p>SNAP benefits also vary, based on household income and how many eligible people live in a given household.</p>
<p>These modest benefits, which average <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/chart-book-snap-helps-struggling-families-put-food-on-the-table#part2">about US$1.40 per meal</a>, reduce the number of people who would otherwise <a href="https://www.urban.org/research/publication/how-much-does-snap-reduce-food-insecurity">go hungry at the end of each month</a> by nearly 30 percent, according to Urban Institute economist <a href="https://www.urban.org/author/caroline-ratcliffe">Caroline Ratcliffe</a>.</p>
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<h2>Meal accounting</h2>
<p>Conversations around healthy eating often leave out cooking time. But to estimate the monthly shortfall for people living in economic hardship who get SNAP benefits, we took into account not just grocery prices and SNAP benefits but the effort eating home-prepared meals requires. </p>
<p>This includes traveling to stores and shopping for ingredients, as well as prepping, cooking and serving meals and cleaning up afterwards. To estimate this value, economists have used the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.109.119594">average U.S. hourly wage rate</a>, multiplying it by the time it takes to prepare meals. They find that labor is worth 40 percent of what Americans spend on food that they eat at home.</p>
<p>For people who rely on SNAP benefits, the labor costs can be daunting. They may <a href="https://theconversation.com/will-requiring-food-stamp-retailers-to-sell-more-healthy-food-make-it-easier-for-snap-recipients-to-eat-better-55443">not live close to supermarkets</a> or <a href="http://americannutritionassociation.org/newsletter/usda-defines-food-deserts">any stores that sell produce</a>. They might not own cars and lack access to transit, and they might lack the basic cooking equipment needed to prepare meals.</p>
<p>The government does not officially bill SNAP as covering everything that beneficiaries spend on food – that’s why the word <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/short-history-snap">supplemental is part of the program’s name</a>. In 2016, however, it estimated that Americans could afford to feed a family of four a healthy diet for as little as <a href="https://www.cnpp.usda.gov/USDAFoodPlansCostofFood/reports">$588 a month</a> – less than the $649 that a family of four can get at most in SNAP benefits. Remember, this amount excludes the labor of preparing meals.</p>
<p>We calculate that it would take about $1,100 per month, including labor, to keep food on this hypothetical family’s table. According to our calculations, SNAP covers about half – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1499404617307625">between 43 and 60 percent</a> – of what following a MyPlate diet costs after taking into account the labor required for meal preparation. </p>
<p>For households that purchase only fresh produce, grains, dairy and meat, this shortfall is much bigger than for those buying canned, frozen fruits and vegetables. Serving a meal of freshly steamed broccoli, whole-wheat pasta and roast chicken costs more than heating up canned diced tomatoes and red beans to eat with white rice.</p>
<p>Besides, many breadwinners who have to stretch their food dollars work multiple jobs or have other constraints on their time. For them, every hour spent on meal preparation can amount to an hour’s worth of pay lost.</p>
<h2>$600 more per month</h2>
<p>Based on our model, we found that a family of four with two adults and two teens or tweens would need to spend more than $600 per month in addition to their SNAP benefits, if they ate only fresh produce, grains, meat and dairy.</p>
<p>That same household would need to spend almost $500 more than the maximum SNAP benefits if they ate a vegetarian diet with a mix of fresh, frozen and canned fruits and vegetables – and derived their protein from tofu and other soy-based products, beans, eggs, nuts and seeds.</p>
<p>Even excluding the labor it takes to put food on the table, that family would need to spend at least $200 monthly on top of its members’ SNAP benefits to consume a healthy diet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/96880/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lindsey Haynes-Maslow began this research while working for the Union of Concerned Scientists.</span></em></p>Accounting for grocery prices and the effort eating home-prepared meals requires, the benefits commonly called food stamps fall far short of paying enough for the poor to eat right.Lindsey Haynes-Maslow, Assistant Professor of Agriculture and Human Sciences, North Carolina State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/967782018-05-18T10:41:23Z2018-05-18T10:41:23ZThe GOP’s poor arguments for doubling down on SNAP’s work requirements<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219501/original/file-20180517-26290-15xxk5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">More than 40 million Americans rely on SNAP for groceries.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Faster-Food-Stamps/cb234d5d00184abf93214b3e6e7a76a2/1/0">AP Photo/Seth Wenig</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Republicans aim to tighten the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program’s work requirements as part of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-2018-farm-bill-means-for-urban-suburban-and-rural-america-89605">farm bill</a> Congress is debating.</p>
<p>These changes would cut spending on this nutritional benefit for the poor – commonly called SNAP or food stamps – by more than <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/blog/6-takeaways-from-cbo-estimate-of-house-agriculture-committee-snap-proposals">US$17 billion over the next decade</a> and reduce the number of Americans getting these benefits by about 1.2 million.</p>
<p>As an <a href="https://umdearborn.edu/users/pksmith">economist who studies nutrition policy</a>, I’m discouraged by continuing pushes to <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/presidents-budget-would-cut-food-assistance-for-millions-and-radically">cut SNAP</a>. By many measures, SNAP is fulfilling its mandate to <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/food-stamp-act-1964-pl-88-525">meet an essential human need</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219481/original/file-20180517-26258-1anakh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219481/original/file-20180517-26258-1anakh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219481/original/file-20180517-26258-1anakh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219481/original/file-20180517-26258-1anakh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219481/original/file-20180517-26258-1anakh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219481/original/file-20180517-26258-1anakh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219481/original/file-20180517-26258-1anakh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219481/original/file-20180517-26258-1anakh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A supermarket in Muncie, Ind., that accepts SNAP payments.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/muncie-circa-march-2017-sign-retailer-596629331?src=xlgwiVihi99ykhVMtvqPQA-1-0">Jonathan Weiss/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Some fact-checking</h2>
<p>Under new federal rules that <a href="http://thehill.com/homenews/house/387855-white-house-urges-support-for-house-farm-bill">President Donald Trump says he would sign</a>, SNAP <a href="https://www.factcheck.org/2018/05/facts-on-food-stamp-work-requirements/">work requirements would change</a> and be subjected to new layers of scrutiny. Just about all adults between the ages of 18 and 59 would have to work. The states, which administer this federally funded program, would lose their <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/house-farm-bills-snap-changes-are-a-bad-deal-for-states-and-low-income">enforcement discretion</a>, with the rules becoming stricter and less flexible.</p>
<p>To justify these changes, White House Budget Director Mick Mulvaney and other Republicans have long argued that the government wastes money on aiding “<a href="http://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/05/24/529831472/trump-wants-families-on-food-stamps-to-get-jobs-the-majority-already-work">able-bodied</a>” people who ought to provide for themselves.</p>
<p>But nearly <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/characteristics-supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-households-fiscal-year-2016">two-thirds of SNAP participants</a> are children, elderly or disabled and thus not expected to work. What’s more, 44 percent of Americans who rely on SNAP live in a household with at least some earnings. Furthermore, when able-bodied adults who aren’t caring for a dependent qualify for SNAP benefits, they <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/facts-about-snap">lose them within three months</a> if they aren’t working at least 20 hours a week. The farm bill would raise this federal minimum to 25 hours in 2026, and the states may set a minimum of up to 30 hours.</p>
<p>Research indicates that these <a href="https://www.irp.wisc.edu/publications/media/webinars/2015/Dec2-2-2015-Webinar-SNAP.pdf">benefits go where they are intended</a>: to the poor. It’s true that some people get benefits who shouldn’t, and others who should get benefits don’t. But SNAP’s approximately 3 percent “<a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/snap-quality-control-error-rates">error rate</a>” is <a href="https://paymentaccuracy.gov/high-priority-programs/">much lower</a> than for Medicaid, Medicare, unemployment insurance and most other big government programs. Losses due to SNAP recipients selling their benefits amount to only about <a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/ops/Trafficking2012-2014.pdf">1.5 percent of the program’s total benefits</a>, according to the USDA. </p>
<p>That is why economists generally regard SNAP as an efficient and effective program. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174793/original/file-20170620-29242-4ynrfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174793/original/file-20170620-29242-4ynrfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174793/original/file-20170620-29242-4ynrfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174793/original/file-20170620-29242-4ynrfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174793/original/file-20170620-29242-4ynrfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174793/original/file-20170620-29242-4ynrfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174793/original/file-20170620-29242-4ynrfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174793/original/file-20170620-29242-4ynrfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">States currently don’t have to fund SNAP, but they cover some of the program’s administrative costs and issue the cards beneficiaries use to redeem benefits.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://snaped.fns.usda.gov/ebt-cards-several-states">USDA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Encouraging work</h2>
<p>The Trump administration and GOP lawmakers say job requirements <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/saphr2hr_20180515.pdf">make the poor more self-sufficient</a>.</p>
<p>But <a href="http://www.cbpp.org/research/the-relationship-between-snap-and-work-among-low-income-households?fa=view&id=3894">research indicates that SNAP benefits do little to discourage paid work</a>. More than half of the <a href="http://www.cbpp.org/research/the-relationship-between-snap-and-work-among-low-income-households">non-disabled, working-age adults getting these benefits work</a>. Even more – 80 percent – are employed the year before or afterwards.</p>
<p>Besides, SNAP benefits average <a href="http://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/a-quick-guide-to-snap-eligibility-and-benefits">just $1.40 per meal per person</a>, offering a meager incentive to remain unemployed.</p>
<h2>The economics</h2>
<p>The program currently <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/policy-basics-the-supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap">costs around $70 billion</a> a year, <a href="http://econofact.org/welfare-and-the-federal-budget">around 2 percent of the federal budget</a>. It helps millions of vulnerable Americans by reducing <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01621459.2012.682828">food insecurity</a> and <a href="https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=24621">economic hardship</a> and solves other problems indirectly.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=84466">food insecurity increases the risk of many ailments</a>. Children who get too little to eat are more likely to have anemia, asthma, cognitive problems and behavioral problems. Food-insecure working-age adults report more hypertension and sleeping problems. Seniors who don’t eat right are more likely to experience depression. Children of pregnant women who get food assistance are less likely to <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20130375">become obese or have hypertension or diabetes</a>.</p>
<p>Low-income Americans who lose SNAP benefits would probably have more health problems, and the harm can be lasting. This bodes badly for low-income Americans’ ability to support themselves.</p>
<p>And since SNAP automatically responds to the business cycle, the program stimulates local and national economies during economic downturns. Each $5 the government spends on <a href="http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=44749">SNAP triggers $9 of economic activity</a> and every $1 billion in benefits <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap/economic-linkages/">creates roughly 9,000 jobs</a>, economists estimate.</p>
<p>The upshot is that lots of people could soon be spending less on food and thousands of Americans could lose their jobs – mostly in retail and farming. And more Americans will eventually suffer during the next economic downturn.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an article <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-trump-teams-poor-arguments-for-slashing-snap-79710">originally published on June 25, 2017</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/96778/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patricia Smith does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cutting the program formerly known as food stamps would hurt low-income Americans and the whole economy.Patricia Smith, Professor of Economics, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/918132018-02-15T11:37:40Z2018-02-15T11:37:40ZFrom FDR’s food stamps to Trump’s harvest boxes: The history of helping the poor get enough to eat<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206394/original/file-20180214-174997-1ewc7k1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The first food stamps program, created amid the Great Depression, lasted four years. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://docs.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/images/photodb/27-0844a.gif">Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Trump administration would like to <a href="http://www.supermarketnews.com/laws-regulations/trump-s-proposed-budget-makes-changes-snap">slash what the government spends on food</a> for low-income Americans.</p>
<p>Its latest budget proposal calls for reducing Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) outlays by US$200 billion over the next decade and replacing about half of the aid delivered through this mainstay of the American safety net with what it’s calling “<a href="https://www.politico.com/story/2018/02/12/food-stamps-trump-administration-343245">harvest boxes</a>” of nonperishable items like pasta, canned meat and peanut butter. <a href="https://www.agri-pulse.com/ext/resources/pdfs/Americas-Harvest-Box.pdf">Agriculture Secretary Sonny Perdue</a> says this new approach would cut costs and give states, which administer the SNAP program, “flexibility.” </p>
<p>While <a href="https://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9781137520913">researching the history of SNAP</a> and other government efforts to help Americans who face economic hardship get enough to eat, I have been struck by how, while the leaders who pioneered the program and its precursors were Democrats, it has long benefited from bipartisan support. Even as other welfare spending was cut, the kind of assistance that used to be called food stamps has persisted.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/8uwDjPIphdg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">This USDA video, which includes some graphic images, recounts the history of food stamps.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>SNAP’s backstory</h2>
<p>As part of his <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/nslp/history_4">New Deal</a>, President Franklin D. Roosevelt broke with a governmental tradition of leaving the job of fighting hunger entirely to charities.</p>
<p>Initially, his administration sought to alleviate the spiking poverty rate brought about by the Great Depression by directly distributing surplus pork, dairy products, flour and other surplus food to people who had trouble getting food on the table. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206448/original/file-20180214-124893-by3srg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206448/original/file-20180214-124893-by3srg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206448/original/file-20180214-124893-by3srg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206448/original/file-20180214-124893-by3srg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206448/original/file-20180214-124893-by3srg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206448/original/file-20180214-124893-by3srg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=585&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206448/original/file-20180214-124893-by3srg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=585&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206448/original/file-20180214-124893-by3srg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=585&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A mother loading children, potatoes, cabbage and butter obtained through a New Deal-era program into a wagon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Associated-Press-Domestic-News-Illinois-United-/6cbe8e8058e4da11af9f0014c2589dfb/4/0">AP Photo</a></span>
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<p>FDR’s administration then adopted a new model in 1939 that used food stamps for the first time in a short-lived program. Low-income people could buy stamps and redeem them for groceries worth 50 percent more than what they spent – as long as they spent the bonus ones on items designated as “surplus,” such as eggs, butter and beans. </p>
<p>Beneficiaries could, for example, pay $10 for $15 worth of stamps. They would be free to spend the orange-colored stamps they’d get with the $10 from their own pockets on any groceries they wanted. The $5 in free blue-colored stamps that came as a bonus, however, could buy only surplus food.</p>
<p>The program ended four years later amid the <a href="http://prospect.org/article/way-we-won-americas-economic-breakthrough-during-world-war-ii">economic and employment boom</a> World War II brought about. But some lawmakers continued to support the concept of establishing a permanent version. </p>
<p>President John F. Kennedy, who had expressed shock upon witnessing dire poverty in <a href="https://livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe50s/money_09.html">West Virginia</a> when he ran for office, immediately made food stamps widely available again through an <a href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=58853">executive order</a> that expanded a <a href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=8801">small-scale USDA program</a> already in place. Like its FDR-era precursor, the measure required beneficiaries to spend some of their own money before they could get this assistance.</p>
<p>Lyndon B. Johnson, Kennedy’s successor, signed the <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/short-history-snap">Food Stamp Act of 1964</a>, codifying the program, which took another decade to spread nationwide.</p>
<p>Republicans also championed food stamps. President Richard Nixon expanded the program’s reach during his administration. Senator Bob Dole, a Kansas Republican, led the charge with Sen. George McGovern, a South Dakota Democrat. Working together, they got the <a href="http://doleinstitute.org/timeline/event/food-and-agriculture-act-of-1977/">Food and Agriculture Act of 1977</a> passed. </p>
<p>Following that law’s enactment, beneficiaries no longer had to buy the food stamps. The measure also made <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/pressrelease/2013/fns-001213">food stamp fraud much harder</a> to pull off and therefore rare by introducing <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/short-history-snap">federal funding for states to crack down</a> on abuses and introducing incentives for low error rates.</p>
<p>Food stamps then survived the <a href="https://theconversation.com/welfare-as-we-know-it-now-6-questions-answered-81367">welfare overhaul of 1996</a>, which sharply restricted eligibility for other kinds of government assistance for the poor. Yet lawmakers left the food stamp program intact, making it the only remaining option available for millions of low-income Americans.</p>
<p>In 2002, President <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137520920_1">George W. Bush</a> expanded access to this nutritional support program for immigrants with legal status in a concrete example of what he meant when he embraced “<a href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?169821-1/compassionate-conservatism">compassionate conservatism</a>.”</p>
<p>Six years later, the government rebranded the program as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program. By that point, the stamps themselves had been gradually replaced across the country with a more modern mechanism. Americans eligible for these benefits were instead getting their groceries subsidized electronically at checkout counters by using <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/ebt/general-electronic-benefit-transfer-ebt-information">plastic cards known as EBTs</a> – as mandated when the government undertook <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/short-history-snap">welfare reform</a>. Among other things, the cards made it harder to commit fraud because no one could sell the stamps instead of using them to buy their own groceries.</p>
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<p>For the most part, the federal government has avoided getting involved with the direct distribution of food. Exceptions include its decision to give “<a href="https://www.csmonitor.com/1982/1021/102153.html">government cheese</a>” to the poor during the recession of the early 1980s and a longstanding practice of distributing food – especially <a href="http://seedsofnativehealth.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Hunts.pdf">nonperishable items</a> – on <a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/fdpir/pfs-fdpir.pdf">Indian reservations</a>.</p>
<p>The bid to fight hunger with stockpiled processed cheese during the Reagan administration proved relatively brief and hard to pull off for logistical reasons. But “government cheese” has lived on through punchlines in <a href="https://youtu.be/TOryVF_iM9Q?t=1m31s">movies</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xv2VIEY9-A8">TV shows</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zyvMdqvH2zg">music</a>.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The late Chris Farley warned two characters in this ‘Saturday Night Live’ sketch that they could wind up ‘eating a steady diet of government cheese.’</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Carrying on</h2>
<p><a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/pd/29SNAPcurrPP.pdf">More than 40 million Americans</a> now get food assistance through SNAP, a federal program administered by the states. Large shares of the households getting these benefits include children or members who earn money but not enough to make ends meet. And the program has a proven track record of reducing <a href="https://poverty.ucdavis.edu/article/food-stamps-helped-reduce-poverty-rate-study-finds">poverty and hunger</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://time.com/5155362/trump-cut-food-stamps/">total tab</a>, which <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/blog/snap-caseloads-and-costs-still-falling">rises when the economy falters</a> and declines during boom times, was about $68 billion in 2017.</p>
<p>I believe that Trump’s harvest-box concept would be a logistical nightmare to carry out. In the <a href="https://newfoodeconomy.org/trump-snap-harvest-boxes-blue-apron-infrastructure-cost/">rather unlikely</a> event that the cuts he seeks do happen, it would become harder for low-income people to get healthy food.</p>
<p>That, in turn, would increase the already large burden on <a href="http://www.feedingamerica.org/our-work/food-bank-network.html">food banks</a> and other nonprofits helping the many Americans who slip through the safety net in good times and bad to avoid hunger.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Feeding America, a nonprofit network of food banks, describes how SNAP works.</span></figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91813/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matt Gritter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>SNAP and its precursors have weathered plenty of efforts to shrink the safety net. Its decades of bipartisan support make it likely to survive this one.Matt Gritter, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Angelo State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/807252017-09-04T23:24:36Z2017-09-04T23:24:36ZDon’t blame food stamps for obesity in America<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184022/original/file-20170830-24286-1r3oavj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Despite the stereotypes, most obese Americans aren't poor.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usdagov/15834774635">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/us/articles/2017-04-08/republicans-hope-trump-amenable-to-food-stamp-restrictions">Politicians</a> and <a href="http://www.scholarsstrategynetwork.org/brief/why-poverty-leads-obesity-and-life-long-problems">scholars</a> sometimes cast obesity as a problem that largely afflicts the poor. But as most obese adults aren’t poor and most low-income adults aren’t obese, this is a misconception.</p>
<p>As a researcher who looks into these demographics, I find the intersection of obesity and income among Americans to be much more complex than commonly held myths suggest. </p>
<p>Left unaddressed, misunderstandings about the links between poverty and obesity can end up justifying anti-poverty budget cuts. In light of the Trump administration’s efforts to slash spending on the <a href="https://theconversation.com/four-charts-that-show-who-loses-out-if-the-white-house-cuts-food-stamps-78648">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a>, widely known as food stamps, I would like to clarify the connections between obesity, income and SNAP. </p>
<h1>Most people with obesity aren’t low-income</h1>
<p>The more than 33 percent of U.S. adults who have a body mass index (BMI) – weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters – of 30 or higher meet the common <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/adult/defining.html">definition of obesity</a>. For instance, someone who is 5'9" and weighs at least 203 pounds would be obese.</p>
<p>Only 20 percent of these adults with obesity <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db50.pdf">are considered poor</a> <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/eligibility">enough to qualify for SNAP</a> benefits, such as belonging to a family of four living at 130 percent of the poverty line on an annual income of about US$31,600. </p>
<p>In fact, 41 percent of adults with obesity belong to households earning at least 350 percent of the poverty line – more than $86,100 a year.</p>
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<h2>Food stamps</h2>
<p>Some critics, like <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2017/07/12/politics/steve-king-food-stamps-border-wall-cnntv/index.html">Rep. Steve King</a>, an Iowa Republican, assume safety net programs such as SNAP are making the obesity epidemic worse among low-income Americans instead of better. </p>
<p>But there’s <a href="http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/%7Egwallace/Papers/Debono,%20Ross,%20&%20Berrang-Ford%20(2012).pdf">little research</a> backing up that theory, and the <a href="https://www.snaptohealth.org/snap/snap-and-obesity-the-facts-and-fictions-of-snap-nutrition/">program itself</a> rejects it. </p>
<p>Some studies have found that SNAP participation increased likelihood of obesity among women, but not men. Middle Tennessee State University economist Charles Baum estimated in 2007 that SNAP benefits increased the likelihood that a woman would be obese by <a href="https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/32855/PDF">2 to 5 percent</a>.</p>
<p>However, other studies have found <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/192f/aa282469d2a4035d663c9ddd4bb4d5e8b864.pdf">no link</a> between SNAP and obesity. Some research has even found evidence that food stamps <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1499404610003866#bib17">decrease</a> the likelihood of obesity. </p>
<h2>Different trends for men and women</h2>
<p>As you drill into the data, it gets even harder to generalize about the links between obesity rates and income. The percentage of Americans in a given group that is obese, or the obesity rate, can vary widely according to factors like gender and ethnicity, as well as class.</p>
<p>Obesity rates are highest, at 42 percent, among <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0099158">low-income women</a> regardless of ethnicity. Poor <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db50.pdf">women of color</a> are even more likely to be obese, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, which tracks these rates for non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks and Mexican-Americans. Some 54.7 percent of low-income black women are obese versus 39.2 percent of poor white women, for example.</p>
<p>The picture is very different <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db50.pdf">for men</a>, with less variation between income and obesity across racial and ethnic lines. The share of men living in poverty who are obese stands at only 29.2 percent, and they are less likely than men with higher income levels to have this condition.</p>
<p>Another difference between male and female obesity rates: <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html">Men of color</a> with incomes well above the poverty line are significantly more likely to be obese. But that is not the case for white men.</p>
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<h2>What’s at stake?</h2>
<p>The Trump administration wants to <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/whitehouse.gov/files/omb/budget/fy2018/msar.pdf">cut 25 percent of SNAP’s budget</a> over the next decade. There’s a lot at stake with this proposed spending cut, which would total $193 billion and could hurt some of the most vulnerable Americans who have a wide array of BMIs.</p>
<p>Nearly 42 percent of SNAP households eke by on incomes at or below half the poverty line. For a family of four, that amounts to $12,300 or less. What’s more, almost two-thirds of the Americans benefiting from SNAP are children, elderly or people with disabilities. </p>
<p>Stereotyping low-income Americans and criticizing safety net programs won’t do anything about the national obesity epidemic. Instead, we need to encourage the government to do more to improve American health across the board.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80725/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tasia Smith does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The notion that obesity mostly afflicts the poor is a misconception.Tasia Smith, Evergreen Assistant Professor, College of Education, University of OregonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.