tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/illegal-fishing-3340/articlesIllegal fishing – The Conversation2024-01-03T16:00:11Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2193672024-01-03T16:00:11Z2024-01-03T16:00:11ZWe used AI and satellite imagery to map ocean activities that take place out of sight, including fishing, shipping and energy development<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566911/original/file-20231220-19-b20mqb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4839%2C3265&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many commercial fishing boats do not report their positions at sea or are not required to do so.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/aerial-view-of-small-fishing-boat-in-open-ocean-royalty-free-image/1285320085">Alex Walker via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Humans are racing to harness the ocean’s vast potential to power global economic growth. Worldwide, ocean-based industries such as fishing, shipping and energy production generate at least <a href="https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264251724-en">US$1.5 trillion</a> in economic activity each year and support <a href="https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264251724-en">31 million jobs</a>. This value has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2019.12.016">increasing exponentially</a> over the past 50 years and is expected to double by 2030. </p>
<p>Transparency in monitoring this “blue acceleration” is crucial to prevent <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3553458">environmental degradation</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0461en">overexploitation</a> of fisheries and marine resources, and <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2023/10/16/the-crimes-behind-the-seafood-you-eat">lawless behavior</a> such as illegal fishing and human trafficking. Open information also will make countries better able to manage vital ocean resources effectively. But the sheer size of the ocean has made tracking industrial activities at a broad scale impractical – until now.</p>
<p>A newly published study in the journal Nature combines satellite images, vessel GPS data and artificial intelligence to <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06825-8">reveal human industrial activities across the ocean</a> over a five-year period. Researchers at <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org/">Global Fishing Watch</a>, a nonprofit organization dedicated to advancing ocean governance through increased transparency of human activity at sea, led this study, in collaboration with <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ArWZ7X0AAAAJ&hl=en">me</a> and our colleagues at Duke University, University of California, Santa Barbara and <a href="https://skytruth.org/">SkyTruth</a>.</p>
<p>We found that a remarkable amount of activity occurs outside of public monitoring systems. Our new map and data provide the most comprehensive public picture available of industrial uses of the ocean.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566373/original/file-20231218-27-k4cjbr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A world map shows large areas where industrial fishing activity is not publicly tracked or recorded." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566373/original/file-20231218-27-k4cjbr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566373/original/file-20231218-27-k4cjbr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566373/original/file-20231218-27-k4cjbr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566373/original/file-20231218-27-k4cjbr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566373/original/file-20231218-27-k4cjbr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566373/original/file-20231218-27-k4cjbr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566373/original/file-20231218-27-k4cjbr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Data analysis reveals that about 75% of the world’s industrial fishing vessels are not publicly tracked, with much of that fishing taking place around Africa and South Asia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Global Fishing Watch</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<h2>Operating in the dark</h2>
<p>Our research builds on existing technology to provide a much more complete picture than has been available until now. </p>
<p>For example, many vessels carry a device called an automatic identification system, or AIS, that automatically broadcasts the vessel’s identity, position, course and speed. These devices <a href="https://shipping.nato.int/nsc/operations/news/2021/ais-automatic-identification-system-overview">communicate with other AIS devices nearby</a> to improve situational awareness and reduce the chances of vessel collisions at sea. They also transmit to shore-based transponders and satellites, which can be used to <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org/our-map/">monitor vessel traffic and fishing activity</a>.</p>
<p>However, AIS systems have blind spots. Not all vessels are required to use them, certain regions have poor AIS reception, and vessels engaged in illegal activities may <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-fishing-boats-go-dark-at-sea-theyre-often-committing-crimes-we-mapped-where-it-happens-196694">disable AIS devices</a> or <a href="https://youtu.be/Azm4yKKIlqE?si=vvng8to_Hsa13E1p">tamper with location broadcasts</a>. To avoid these problems, some governments require fishing vessels to use proprietary vessel monitoring systems, but the associated vessel location data is usually confidential.</p>
<p>Some offshore structures, such as oil platforms and wind turbines, <a href="https://www.amsa.gov.au/safety-navigation/navigation-systems/automatic-identification-systems-offshore-structures">also use AIS</a> to guide service vessels, monitor nearby vessel traffic and improve navigational safety. However, location data for offshore structures are often incomplete, outdated or kept confidential for bureaucratic or commercial reasons.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566375/original/file-20231218-23-bd69hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Fishermen wade into the ocean, pulling large nets." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566375/original/file-20231218-23-bd69hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566375/original/file-20231218-23-bd69hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566375/original/file-20231218-23-bd69hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566375/original/file-20231218-23-bd69hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566375/original/file-20231218-23-bd69hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566375/original/file-20231218-23-bd69hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566375/original/file-20231218-23-bd69hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fishermen haul their nets by hand from the beach in Muanda, Democratic Republic of Congo. Unregulated fishing by foreign trawlers and other factors have depleted fishing stocks and impoverished local fishermen.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/fishermen-haul-their-nets-by-hand-from-the-beach-in-muanda-news-photo/1237283044">Alexis Huguet/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Shining a light on activity at sea</h2>
<p>We filled these gaps by using artificial intelligence models to identify fishing vessels, nonfishing vessels and fixed infrastructure in 2 million gigabytes of satellite-based <a href="https://sentinels.copernicus.eu/web/sentinel/missions/sentinel-1">radar images</a> and <a href="https://sentinel.esa.int/web/sentinel/missions/sentinel-2">optical images</a> taken across the ocean between 2017 and 2021. We also matched these results to 53 billion AIS vessel position reports to determine which vessels were publicly trackable at the time of the image.</p>
<p>Remarkably, we found that about 75% of the fishing vessels we detected were missing from public AIS monitoring systems, with much of that activity taking place around Africa and South Asia. These previously invisible vessels radically changed our knowledge about the scale, scope and location of fishing activity.</p>
<p>For example, public AIS data wrongly suggests that Asia and Europe have comparable amounts of fishing within their borders. Our mapping reveals that Asia dominates: For every 10 fishing vessels we found on the water, seven were in Asia while only one was in Europe. Similarly, AIS data shows about 10 times more fishing on the European side of the Mediterranean compared with the African side – but our map shows that fishing activity is roughly equal across the two areas.</p>
<p>For other vessels, which are mostly transport- and energy-related, about 25% were missing from public AIS monitoring systems. Many missing vessels were in locations with poor AIS reception, so it is possible that they broadcast their locations but satellites did not pick up the transmission.</p>
<p>We also identified about 28,000 offshore structures – mostly oil platforms and wind turbines, but also piers, bridges, power lines, aquaculture farms and other human-made structures. Offshore oil infrastructure grew modestly over the five-year period, while the number of wind turbines more than doubled globally, with development mostly confined to northern Europe and China. We estimate that the number of wind turbines in the ocean likely surpassed the number of oil structures by the end of 2020.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566913/original/file-20231220-23-fa89lc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="World map with locations of wind turbines, oil and gas platforms and other structures highlighted along coastlines." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566913/original/file-20231220-23-fa89lc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566913/original/file-20231220-23-fa89lc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566913/original/file-20231220-23-fa89lc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566913/original/file-20231220-23-fa89lc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566913/original/file-20231220-23-fa89lc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566913/original/file-20231220-23-fa89lc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566913/original/file-20231220-23-fa89lc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Researchers combined machine learning and satellite imagery to create the first global map of offshore infrastructure, spotlighting previously unmapped industrial use of the ocean.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Global Fishing Watch</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<h2>Supporting real-world efforts</h2>
<p>This data is freely available through the Global Fishing Watch <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org/datasets-and-code/">data portal</a> and will be maintained, updated and expanded over time there. We anticipate several areas where the information will be most useful for on-the-ground monitoring:</p>
<p>– <strong>Fishing in data-poor regions</strong>: Shipboard monitoring systems are too expensive to deploy widely in many places. Fishery managers in developing countries can use our data to monitor pressure on local stocks. </p>
<p>– <strong>Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing</strong>: Industrial fishing vessels sometimes operate in places where they should not be, such as <a href="https://hakaimagazine.com/news/the-african-coastline-is-a-battleground-for-foreign-fleets-and-artisanal-fishers/">small-scale and traditional fishing grounds</a> and <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/fishing-illegal-oceana-going-dark-marine-protected-areas-2018-4">marine protected areas</a>. Our data can help enforcement agencies identify illegal activities and target patrol efforts.</p>
<p>– <strong>Sanction-busting trade</strong>: Our data can shed light on maritime activities that may breach international economic sanctions. For example, <a href="https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1718/resolutions">United Nations sanctions</a> prohibit North Korea from exporting seafood products or selling its fishing rights to other countries. Previous work <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abb1197">found more than 900 undisclosed fishing vessels</a> of Chinese origin in the eastern waters of North Korea, in violation of U.N. sanctions. </p>
<p>We found that the western waters of North Korea had far more undisclosed fishing, likely also of foreign origin. This previously unmapped activity peaked each year in May, when China bans fishing in its own waters, and abruptly fell in 2020 when North Korea closed its borders because of the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZRLW-3Niseg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Better monitoring may help nations coordinate offshore activities in busy regions like the North Sea.</span></figcaption>
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<p>– <strong>Climate change mitigation and adaptation</strong>: Our data can help quantify the scale of greenhouse gas emissions from vessel traffic and offshore energy development. This information is important for enforcing climate change mitigation programs, such as the European Union’s <a href="https://climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/transport/reducing-emissions-shipping-sector_en">emissions trading scheme</a>. </p>
<p>– <strong>Offshore energy impacts</strong>: Our map shows not only where offshore energy development is happening but also how vessel traffic interacts with wind turbines and oil and gas platforms. This information can shed light on the environmental footprint of building, maintaining and using these structures. It can also help to <a href="https://skytruth.org/cerulean/">pinpoint sources of oil spills</a> and other marine pollution. </p>
<p>Healthy oceans <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/why-care-about-ocean.html">underpin human well-being</a> in a myriad of ways. We expect that this research will support evidence-based decision-making and help to make ocean management more fair, effective and sustainable.</p>
<p><em>Fernando Paolo, senior machine learning engineer at Global Fishing Watch; David Kroodsma, director of research and innovation at Global Fishing Watch; and Patrick Halpin, Professor of Marine Geospatial Ecology at Duke University, contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219367/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The study described in this article was funded by Oceankind, Bloomberg Philanthropies and National Geographic Pristine Seas. The European Space Agency made radar and optical imagery freely available, and Google provided computing resources and technical support. Jennifer Raynor has worked at National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, and currently serves on the Board of Trustees for Global Fishing Watch.</span></em></p>A new study reveals that 75% of the world’s industrial fishing vessels are hidden from public view.Jennifer Raynor, Assistant Professor of Natural Resource Economics, University of Wisconsin-MadisonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2013252023-04-26T11:05:40Z2023-04-26T11:05:40ZAfrica’s oceans are being protected to serve the interests of big foreign corporates<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517141/original/file-20230323-20-j8ckry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">French marine commandos operate on a speed boat off the coast of Somalia, in the Gulf of Aden.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AYMERIC VINCENOT/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Africa’s valuable ocean resources have drawn the interest of foreign nations, particularly those <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0964569119301620?via%3Dihub">in</a> <a href="https://www.subsea.org/list-of-oil-and-gas-companies-in-africa/">the West</a> and <a href="https://www.nbr.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/publications/sr98_inroadsandoutposts_may2022.pdf#page=18">Asia</a>. </p>
<p>How they exploit these resources can be problematic because these oceans offer a wide range of important resources – from fish to minerals and hydrocarbons – that are <a href="https://www.un.org/africarenewal/sites/www.un.org.africarenewal/files/Africa%27s_Blue_Economy_A_policy_handbook.pdf#page=pagex">also crucial</a> to the continent’s economy and food security. </p>
<p>But, in some countries, foreign interests dominate. For instance, the continent’s <a href="https://www.offshore-energy.biz/africa-turning-into-hotspot-for-oil-gas-exploration-as-investments-reach-5-1-bln-in-2022/">oil exploration</a>, <a href="https://www.shippingandfreightresource.com/bollore-africa-logistics-now-a-part-of-the-worlds-largest-container-lines-stable/">shipping</a>, <a href="https://www.nbr.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/publications/sr98_inroadsandoutposts_may2022.pdf#page=9">ports infrastructure</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/african-marine-rules-favour-big-industry-leaving-small-scale-fishers-in-the-lurch-171829">industrial fishing</a> sectors are sometimes dominated by foreign companies. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/angola-oil-and-gas">Angola’s oil production</a>, for example, is dominated by the major international oil exploration and production companies including Total (France) with a 41% market share, Chevron (US) with 26%, Exxon Mobil (US) with 19%, and BP (UK) with 13%.</p>
<p>And so, despite these waters being vital to African countries and their citizens, foreign actors will act in a way that’s in their best interests - at times to the detriment of African countries and citizens.</p>
<p>One illustration of this relates to maritime (ocean) security. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) stipulates that coastal countries <a href="https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part5.htm">are responsible</a> for managing the security of their territorial waters (up to 12 nautical miles from their shorelines) and that of their exclusive economic zones, between 12 and 200 nautical miles from their shoreline. This includes protection against unlawful acts at sea, such as illegal fishing, piracy and armed robbery, terrorism and other related crimes. </p>
<p>However, the same convention <a href="https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf#page57=pagenumber">allows other countries</a> to act, against <a href="https://www.un.org/depts/los/piracy/piracy_legal_framework.htm#:%7E:text=UNCLOS%20provides%20that%20all%20States%20have%20an%20obligation,and%20seize%20the%20property%20on%20board%20%28art.%20105%29.">piracy</a>, for example, in the exclusive economic zones.</p>
<p>Drawing on our expertise on African maritime governance and security, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01436597.2023.2167706#metrics-content">we reviewed</a> literature, databases of policy documents and maritime security reports, to explore how non-African countries selectively frame what constitutes threats. How these threats are framed determines the response to them and how those response are resourced. The effect is that it undermines a holistic notion of maritime security that would benefit the African people.</p>
<p>We argue that the focus by non-African countries is on piracy and armed robbery at sea which threaten resource extraction, transportation and safety. They hardly focus on the protection of Africa’s marine resources, in particular from pollution and illegal fishing caused by foreign powers. </p>
<p>This approach is illogical. It fails to recognise that there’s a <a href="https://www.navy.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/Soundings_No_8.pdf">link</a> between deprivation and maritime crimes, including piracy and armed robbery at sea. African coastal communities, many of whom are already <a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-depleting-fish-stocks-may-pose-a-threat-to-regional-security-105168">marginalised and deprived</a>, are highly dependent on marine resources. The depletion of these resources only <a href="https://theconversation.com/west-africas-fisher-women-are-experts-at-coping-with-job-insecurity-but-policymakers-are-using-their-resilience-against-them-188027">worsens their situation</a>. Failure to prioritise the protection of African marine resources will push people further into poverty and continue the cycle of insecurity at sea.</p>
<h2>Fighting piracy</h2>
<p>The foreign focus on piracy is clear. Over 20 United Nations Security Council Resolutions or presidential statements have been issued on piracy in the Gulf of Aden (East Africa) and the Gulf of Guinea (West and Central Africa).</p>
<p>Piracy is a problem. It can involve kidnap for ransom and, in extreme cases, can lead to the death of crew members. Between 2005 and 2012, pirates in the Gulf of Aden received an estimated <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01436597.2023.2167706#metrics-content">US$500 million</a> ransom. Almost <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01436597.2023.2167706#metrics-content">2,000 sailors</a> were kidnapped and many were killed. </p>
<p>At the heights of piracy in the Gulf of Guinea, pirates accrued about <a href="https://www.unodc.org/documents/nigeria/publications/UNODC_GMCP_Pirates_of_the_Niger_Delta_between_brown_and_blue_waters.pdf#page=11">US$4 million</a> every year. </p>
<p>The first UN resolutions on piracy in Africa were introduced in the <a href="http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/doc/1816">Gulf of Aden</a> in 2008 and in the <a href="https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/573/21/PDF/N1157321.pdf?OpenElement">Gulf of Guinea</a> in 2011. Since then, <a href="https://www.un.org/peacebuilding/sites/www.un.org.peacebuilding/files/documents/pbc_written_advice_to_security_council_on_piracy_in_the_gulf_of_guinea_-_approved.pdf#:%7E:text=The%20Commission%20welcomes%20the%20decrease%20in%20the%20incidents,activities%20beyond%20their%20nodal%20point%20in%20West%20Africa.">piracy incidents</a> have reduced in both Gulfs. </p>
<h2>Fish and the environment</h2>
<p>But the problem is, the focus of African nations needs to be on the protection of fish stocks and the environment which affects the livelihoods and food sources of African citizens. Some threats – like <a href="https://tribuneonlineng.com/how-oil-spill-illegal-poaching-leave-nigerias-fishing-industry-vulnerable/">oil pollution</a> and illegal fishing – are often perpetrated by foreign entities. </p>
<p>Fish is a source of <a href="https://theconversation.com/african-marine-rules-favour-big-industry-leaving-small-scale-fishers-in-the-lurch-171829">food and income</a> for millions of Africans. When there’s less fish catch, poverty increases as do the number of out of school children and poor health. </p>
<p>Yet, as we found during our research, no UN resolutions exist for environmental degradation or marine resource plunder. This is typically caused by <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/dec/06/this-place-used-to-be-green-the-brutal-impact-of-oil-in-the-niger-delta">pollution</a> and <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/0eb523ca-5d41-11ea-8033-fa40a0d65a98">illegal fishing</a> perpetrated by foreign companies and distant water vessels. </p>
<p>An agreement to put an end to harmful fisheries subsidies, which enable overfishing and illegal fishing, was adopted at the World Trade Organisation’s ministerial conference in 2022. But, to date, <a href="https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/rulesneg_e/fish_e/fish_acceptances_e.htm">only four countries</a> have accented to the agreement.</p>
<p>Along with pollution, overfishing and illegal fishing are key factors that contribute to the depletion of Africa’s fish stocks, pushing people into poverty. In West Africa, for instance, the income of small-scale fishers <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2016/05/16/safety-and-sustainability-for-small-scale-fishers-in-west-africa">decreased by up to 40%</a> between 2006 and 2016. Reduced catch also led to a decrease in the availability, and an increase in prices, of fish for local consumption. </p>
<h2>Illegal fishing</h2>
<p><a href="https://adf-magazine.com/2022/01/illegal-fishing-emerges-as-africas-main-maritime-security-threat/">Illegal fishing</a>, perpertrated largely by foreign fleets, exacerbates the depletion of fish stocks. It has a <a href="https://www.interpol.int/en/News-and-Events/News/2021/Depleting-fish-stocks-fueling-transnational-crime">massive impact</a> on economies. In West Africa it costs six countries <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2017.00050/full?source=post_page">an estimated US$2.3 billion</a> every year. </p>
<p>Despite the international coalition’s success in neutralising piracy in the Gulf of Aden, illegal fishing by foreign vessels <a href="https://globalinitiative.net/analysis/illegal-fishing-somalia">continues</a> to pose a significant threat to the food and economic security of millions of Africans. </p>
<p>What’s ironic is that illegal fishing <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19480881.2012.730747">has been cited</a> as a major contributory factor to piracy in the Gulf of Aden. And in the <a href="https://www.unodc.org/documents/nigeria/documents/UNODC_Pirates_of_the_Niger_Delta_between_brown_and_blue_waters.pdf">Gulf of Guinea</a>, historical pollution by foreign oil companies, and resulting deprivation, gave way to militancy which <a href="https://www.unodc.org/documents/nigeria/publications/UNODC_GMCP_Pirates_of_the_Niger_Delta_between_brown_and_blue_waters.pdf">morphed into</a> piracy. </p>
<p>Conceivably, as more people are pushed into poverty, more people are pushed towards criminal activities, including piracy-related activities. </p>
<h2>Shifting focus</h2>
<p>Focusing mainly on piracy isn’t the solution. Its <a href="https://issafrica.org/iss-today/gulf-of-guinea-piracy-a-symptom-not-a-cause-of-insecurity">root causes</a> – depleted fish stocks, loss of livelihoods and poverty – need to be addressed.</p>
<p>Maritime safety and security in Africa will only be achieved when the same level of attention and resources that are given to countering piracy by African governments and their foreign counterparts is extended to sustainable fisheries and curbing of marine pollution. </p>
<p>Achieving this balance requires several clear actions.</p>
<h2>5 steps to be taken</h2>
<p>First, the African Union and Regional Economic Communities must take collective action to push for an end to exploitative relationships in the continent’s ocean resources. This includes urging the UN to recognise illegal fishing and associated crimes as grave security threats.</p>
<p>International partners must go beyond rhetoric and stop financing the exploitation of the continent’s resources through <a href="https://theconversation.com/eu-targets-fragile-west-african-fish-stocks-despite-protection-laws-125679">subsidies that allows for legal exploitation of depleted</a> species and illegal fishing.</p>
<p>Secondly, African states should adopt a holistic approach to maritime security that encourages cooperation and collaboration across sectors, as outlined in the <a href="https://au.int/sites/default/files/newsevents/workingdocuments/33832-wd-african_union_3-1.pdf">AIMS 2050</a> and <a href="https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/37286-treaty-african_charter_on_maritime_security.pdf">Lomé Charter</a>. This approach should use piracy countermeasures to combat illegal fishing and associated activities. </p>
<p>Third, to understand the impact of threats to maritime security and resource extraction, African voices (at the community level) should be reflected in the formulation of policies and strategies. </p>
<p>Fourth, while successful in reducing piracy, the current approach to maritime security in Africa is not sustainable. The root causes of insecurity, such as youth unemployment and environmental degradation, should be addressed. This requires urgent attention with a focus on <a href="https://theconversation.com/review-of-nine-african-blue-economy-projects-shows-what-works-and-what-doesnt-143841">social and ecological well-being</a>.</p>
<p>Finally, the reduction in incidents of piracy and armed robbery at sea, especially in the Gulf of Guinea, is due to <a href="https://www.un.org/peacebuilding/sites/www.un.org.peacebuilding/files/documents/pbc_written_advice_to_security_council_on_piracy_in_the_gulf_of_guinea_-_approved.pdf#:%7E:text=The%20Commission%20welcomes%20the%20decrease%20in%20the%20incidents,activities%20beyond%20their%20nodal%20point%20in%20West%20Africa.">cooperation, collaboration and coordination between regional navies and their partners</a>. This approach is widely recognised as sustainable. It should be maintained, and indeed extended to address other security threats at sea.</p>
<p>Taking these steps will ensure that no one is left behind and that the continent’s prospects for future prosperity are not undermined.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201325/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ifesinachi Okafor-Yarwood receives funding from the Scottish Funding Council. She is affiliated with the African Studies Association UK. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Freedom C. Onuoha does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The current focus by extra-regional actors is an elite project that undermines a maritime security strategy that would benefit the African people.Ifesinachi Okafor-Yarwood, Lecturer, University of St AndrewsFreedom C. Onuoha, Professor of Political Science, University of NigeriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1966942022-12-21T13:41:01Z2022-12-21T13:41:01ZWhen fishing boats go dark at sea, they’re often committing crimes – we mapped where it happens<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502060/original/file-20221220-22-3bbpfo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C7%2C5152%2C3430&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Workers flood a Vietnamese-flagged boat caught operating illegally off West Kalimantan, Indonesia on May 4, 2019 in order to sink it.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/IndonesiaIllegalFishing/495acf8677984e80b8f47d00e0ee4d35/photo">AP Photos/William Pasaribu</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In January 2019, the Korean-flagged fishing vessel Oyang 77 sailed south toward international waters off Argentina. The vessel had a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2019/oct/14/ship-of-horrors-life-and-death-on-the-lawless-high-seas-podcast">known history of nefarious activities</a>, including underreporting its catch and illegally dumping low-value fish to make room in its hold for more lucrative catch. </p>
<p>At 2 a.m. on Jan. 10, the Oyang 77 turned off its location transponder at the edge of Argentina’s <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/eez.html">exclusive economic zone</a> – a political boundary that divides Argentina’s national waters from international waters, or the high seas. At 9 p.m. on Jan. 11, the Oyang 77 turned its transponder back on and reappeared on the high seas. For the 19 hours when the ship was dark, no information was available about where it had gone or what it did.</p>
<p>In a study published in Nov. 2022, I worked with colleagues at <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org/">Global Fishing Watch</a>, a nonprofit that works to advance ocean governance by increasing transparency of human activity at sea, to show that these periods of missing transponder data actually <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abq2109">contain useful information</a> on where ships go and what they do. And authorities like the <a href="https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/IIIS/Pages/IUU-FISHING.aspx">International Maritime Organization</a> can use this missing data to help combat illegal activities at sea, such as overfishing and exploiting workers on fishing boats. </p>
<p>Illegal fishing causes economic losses <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004570">estimated at $US10 billion to $25 billion annually</a>. It also has been linked to human rights violations, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07118-9">forced labor</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.589000">human trafficking</a>. Better information about how often boats go dark at sea can help governments figure out where and when these activities may be taking place.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Go1FVcV2PJ8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Countries can combat illegal, unreported and unauthorized fishing by checking paperwork, verifying catches and sharing information across borders.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Going dark at sea</h2>
<p>The high seas are the modern world’s Wild West – a vast expanse of water far from oversight and authority, where outlaws engage in illegal activities like <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/538736/the-outlaw-ocean-by-ian-urbina/">unauthorized fishing and human trafficking</a>. Surveillance there is aided by location transponders, called the <a href="https://www.navcen.uscg.gov/automatic-identification-system-overview">Automatic Identification System</a>, or AIS, which works like the <a href="https://apps.apple.com/us/app/find-my-iphone/id376101648">Find My iPhone app</a>.</p>
<p>Just as thieves can turn off phone location tracking, ships can disable their AIS transponders, effectively hiding their activities from oversight. Often it’s unclear whether going dark in this way is legal. AIS requirements are based on many factors, including vessel size, what country the vessel is flagged to, its location in the ocean and what species its crew is trying to catch.</p>
<p>A ship that disables its AIS transponder <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/02/world/middleeast/china-oil-iran-sanctions.html">disappears from the view</a> of whomever may be watching, including authorities, scientists and other vessels. For our study, we reviewed data from two private companies that combine AIS data with other signals to track assets at sea. <a href="https://spire.com/spirepedia/automatic-identification-system/#:%7E:text=Automatic%20Identification%20System%20(AIS)%20is,domain%20awareness%20through%20vessel%20tracking.">Spire</a> is a constellation of nanosatellites that pick up AIS signals to increase visibility of vessels in remote areas of the world. <a href="https://www.orbcomm.com/en/solutions/maritime">Orbcomm</a> tracks ships, trucks and other heavy equipment using internet-enabled devices. Then, we used machine learning models to understand what drove vessels to disable their AIS devices.</p>
<p>Examining where and how often such episodes occurred between 2017 and 2019, we found that ships disabled their transponders for around 1.6 million hours each year. This represented roughly 6% of global fishing vessel activity, which as a result is not reflected in global tallies of what types of fish are being caught where. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501996/original/file-20221219-24-ip2srh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="World map showing zones where large shares of boats disable their transponders" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501996/original/file-20221219-24-ip2srh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501996/original/file-20221219-24-ip2srh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501996/original/file-20221219-24-ip2srh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501996/original/file-20221219-24-ip2srh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501996/original/file-20221219-24-ip2srh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501996/original/file-20221219-24-ip2srh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501996/original/file-20221219-24-ip2srh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This map shows the fraction of fishing vessel activity hidden by AIS disabling events from 2017 to 2019. Heavy AIS disabling occurred adjacent to Argentina, West African nations and in the northwest Pacific – three regions where illegal fishing is common. In contrast, the disabling hot spot near Alaska occurs on intensively managed fishing grounds and likely represents vessels going dark to avoid competition with other boats.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Global Fishing Watch</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Vessels frequently went dark on the high-seas edge of exclusive economic zone boundaries, which can obscure illegal fishing in unauthorized locations. That’s what the Oyang 77 was doing in January 2019. </p>
<h2>Laundering illegal catch</h2>
<p>The AIS data we reviewed showed that the Oyang 77 disabled its AIS transponder a total of nine times during January and February 2019. Each time, it went dark at the edge of Argentinean national waters and reappeared several days later back on the high seas. </p>
<p>During the ninth disabling event, the vessel was spotted <a href="https://fiskerforum.com/korean-trawler-detained-by-argentina/">fishing without permission in Argentina’s waters</a>, where the Argentinean coast guard intercepted it and escorted it to the port of Comodoro Rivadavia. The vessel’s owners were later fined for illegally fishing in Argentina’s national waters, and their <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.31230/osf.io/juh98">fishing gear was confiscated</a>.</p>
<p>AIS disabling is also strongly correlated with transshipment events – <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/09/26/world/asia/china-fishing-south-america.html">exchanging catch, personnel and supplies</a> between fishing vessels and refrigerated cargo vessels, or “reefers,” at sea. Reefers also have AIS transponders, and researchers can use their data to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00240">identify loitering events</a>, when reefers are in one place long enough to receive cargo from a fishing vessel.</p>
<p>It’s not unusual to see fishing vessels disable their AIS transponders near loitering reefers, which suggests that they want to hide these transfers from oversight. While transferring people or cargo can be legal, when it is poorly monitored it can become a means of laundering illegal catch. It has been <a href="https://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/Issue_Paper_-_TOC_in_the_Fishing_Industry.pdf">linked to forced labor and human trafficking</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1135458346310389760"}"></div></p>
<h2>Valid reasons to turn off transponders</h2>
<p>Making it illegal for vessels to disable AIS transponders might seem like an obvious solution to this problem. But just as people may have legitimate reasons for not wanting the government to monitor their phones, fishing vessels may have legitimate reasons not to want their movements monitored. </p>
<p>Many vessels disable their transponders in high-quality fishing grounds to hide their activities from competitors. Although the ocean is huge, certain species and fishing methods are highly concentrated. For example, <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-bottom-trawls">bottom trawlers</a> fish by dragging nets along the seafloor and can operate only over continental shelves where the bottom is shallow enough for their gear to reach. </p>
<p>Modern-day pirates also use AIS data to intercept and attack vessels. In response, ships frequently disable their transponders in historically dangerous waters of the <a href="https://maritime-executive.com/article/indian-ocean-high-risk-designation-to-be-withdrawn-at-end-of-2022">Indian Ocean</a> and the <a href="https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/monthly-forecast/2022-11/gulf-of-guinea-piracy.php">Gulf of Guinea</a>. Making AIS disabling illegal would leave fishing vessels more vulnerable to piracy. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502002/original/file-20221219-20-juvhft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An electronic screen shows triangles, representing nearby ships, within concentric circles." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502002/original/file-20221219-20-juvhft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502002/original/file-20221219-20-juvhft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502002/original/file-20221219-20-juvhft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502002/original/file-20221219-20-juvhft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502002/original/file-20221219-20-juvhft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502002/original/file-20221219-20-juvhft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502002/original/file-20221219-20-juvhft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An AIS-equipped system on board a ship presents the bearing and distance of nearby vessels in a radarlike display format.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_identification_system#/media/File:Ais_dcu_bridge.jpg">Clipper/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Instead, in my view, researchers and maritime authorities can use these AIS disabling events to make inferences about which vessels are behaving illegally.</p>
<p>Our study reveals that AIS disabling near exclusive economic zones and loitering reefers is a risk factor for unauthorized fishing and transshipments. At sea, real-time data on where vessels disable their AIS transponders or <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/03/world/americas/ships-gps-international-law.html">change their apparent position using fake GPS coordinates</a> could be used to focus patrols on illegal activities near political boundaries or in transshipment hot spots. Port authorities could also use this information onshore to target the most suspect vessels for inspection. </p>
<p>President Joe Biden signed a national security memorandum in 2022 pledging U.S. support for <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/06/27/fact-sheet-president-biden-signs-national-security-memorandum-to-combat-illegal-unreported-and-unregulated-fishing-and-associated-labor-abuses/">combating illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing</a> and associated labor abuses. Our study points toward a strategy for using phases when ships go dark to fight illegal activities at sea.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196694/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heather Welch received funding from Catena and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Office of Law Enforcement for this work.</span></em></p>Understanding when, where and why fishing vessels sometimes turn off their transponders is a key step toward curbing illegal fishing and other crimes on the high seas.Heather Welch, Researcher in Ecosystem Dynamics, University of California, Santa CruzLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1959092022-12-07T04:12:27Z2022-12-07T04:12:27ZJailing Indonesians for shark finning in Australian waters doesn’t solve the real driver – poverty<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499428/original/file-20221207-16-8t1zto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=93%2C59%2C5568%2C3615&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last week, four Indonesian fishermen <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-11-28/indonesian-fishermen-fined-after-fishing-in-australian-waters/101707274">were convicted</a> for taking shark fins and poaching fish in Australian waters. The four men were spotted off remote Niiwalarra/Sir Graham Moore island in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, more than 150 nautical miles inside Australia’s exclusive economic zone. </p>
<p>But is fining them up to A$6,000 – a huge sum for these men – likely to stop sharks being killed? Hardly. The reality is, they have no capacity to pay the sum. Instead, they’ll likely serve a month or so in jail and return to Indonesia. There, they’ll face the same problem driving them into Australian waters – poverty. </p>
<p>Desperate Indonesian fishers are setting out across the Arafura Sea in record numbers, with <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-11-11/indonesia-australia-illegal-fishing-priority-g20/101640876">46 fishing boats</a> detected since June this year. Many gamble with their lives – and <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-08-23/why-indonesian-fishermen-sneak-into-australian-waters/101321960">some have lost</a>. Authorities have found <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-08-29/suspected-illegal-indonesian-fishing-camp-kimberley-coast/101373634">illegal fishing camps</a> on Niiwalarra Island, alongside shark carcasses with their fins taken. </p>
<p>Shark fins are sought mainly in Chinese markets for use in a high-status soup and in traditional medicine. Demand has seen wholesale slaughter of these predators, essential to the proper functioning of ocean ecosystems. We’re hardly blameless – Australia exports <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/study-names-australia-as-a-major-source-for-shark-fin-trade-20201027-p5692n.html">tonnes of shark fin</a> each year. We have to find a better way of protecting sharks in our waters – some of the last healthy populations on the planet. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499429/original/file-20221207-22-29psdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Shark fins" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499429/original/file-20221207-22-29psdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499429/original/file-20221207-22-29psdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499429/original/file-20221207-22-29psdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499429/original/file-20221207-22-29psdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499429/original/file-20221207-22-29psdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499429/original/file-20221207-22-29psdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499429/original/file-20221207-22-29psdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Desperate fishers take the valuable fins - and leave the shark to die.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Would you risk your life for a shark fin?</h2>
<p>While Indonesia’s economy is growing strongly, there’s a huge divide between rich and poor. The waters around its thousands of islands are fished heavily, and Indonesian fishers catch seven million tonnes a year, <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/sustainable-fishing-by-2025-what-is-the-current-situation-in-indonesia/a-60134067">second only to China</a>. </p>
<p>But heavy fishing means many fish stocks are now low, and tensions have risen between larger trawlers and small-scale fishers from villages. If you’re from a poor village and there’s nothing left to catch locally, where do you go? </p>
<p>You can admire the courage of fishers who set out in very small, barely seaworthy vessels with rudimentary fishing equipment to cross the Arafura to poach fish. In reality though, it’s a mix of courage and poverty-driven desperation. A <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322361883_A_Review_on_Indonesian_Fishermen_Prosperity_in_the_Coastal_Area">2018 report</a> found fisher monthly income was roughly A$50 per month, well below the minimum wage in coastal regions.</p>
<p>You can see the choice many face. Continue in poverty – or try to catch sharks, knowing a fin can sell for as much <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-08-16/sharks-fin-overfishing-lombok-tourism/12434698">as a month’s wages</a>. </p>
<p>Not all shark fins are the same. Particularly prized are fins from the critically endangered <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/39385/2918526">scalloped hammerhead shark</a>. These sharks have fins with a high thread count, meaning they are desirably fibrous. Killing of these sharks for their fins has <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/39385/2918526">almost wiped out</a> populations in parts of their range – but they’re still relatively abundant in Australian waters.</p>
<h2>How is Australia responding?</h2>
<p>The Australian Defence Force has a near-constant presence watching for fishers through its <a href="https://www.defence.gov.au/operations/resolute">Operation Resolute</a> and assisting with <a href="https://www.afma.gov.au/international-compliance">enforcement efforts</a> run by Australia’s fisheries management authority.</p>
<p>Enforcement ranges from “educating” fishers found inside Australian waters and sending them on their way to confiscating equipment and catch to criminal charges. Australia and Indonesia <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-11-11/indonesia-australia-illegal-fishing-priority-g20/101640876">regularly talk</a> about illegal fishing. And Australia has signed up to shark protection efforts <a href="https://www.fao.org/ipoa-sharks/background/about-ipoa-sharks/en/#:%7E:text=The%20objective%20of%20the%20IPOA,and%20chimaeras%20(Class%20Chondrichthyes).">internationally</a>.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-you-can-help-protect-sharks-and-what-doesnt-work-186031">How you can help protect sharks – and what doesn't work</a>
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<p>Despite this, the issue is worse than ever. Last decade, an average of 20 foreign fishing boats <a href="https://www.afma.gov.au/sites/default/files/afma-annual-report-2021-22.pdf">were intercepted</a> each year. Last financial year, it soared to a staggering 337. Sharks aren’t the only drawcard – fishers take finfish and sea cucumber too. </p>
<p>Why? The pandemic. Indonesia was hit hard, with tourism drying up and many people losing income. But another is that sharks are vanishing from their usual ranges. To find them, you have to go further afield. </p>
<h2>Why are sharks still killed for their fins?</h2>
<p>Eating shark fins is good for no one. There are no identifiable health benefits. There’s no taste you couldn’t get from eating cartilage from farm animals instead. And when you eat the fin, you’re <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2016/mar/10/shark-fin-soup-a-dangerous-delicacy-for-humans-and-sharks-alike">likely to get</a> a dangerous dose of mercury, which accumulates up the food chain. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499430/original/file-20221207-4043-t3utfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="shark fin soup" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499430/original/file-20221207-4043-t3utfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499430/original/file-20221207-4043-t3utfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499430/original/file-20221207-4043-t3utfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499430/original/file-20221207-4043-t3utfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499430/original/file-20221207-4043-t3utfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499430/original/file-20221207-4043-t3utfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499430/original/file-20221207-4043-t3utfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shark fin soup has long been an expensive high status meal in Chinese culture, as in this 2009 photo from a Hong Kong restaurant.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">BionicGrrl/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>From the shark’s perspective, it’s a <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/restaurants-sell-shark-fin-soup-despite-state-bans">particularly gruesome</a> way to die. Fins are typically cut from the shark while it’s alive. When released back to the water, it will either sink and drown, get eaten by another predator, or die from blood loss.</p>
<p>Sharks and their close cousins, rays, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-01-28/alarming-70pc-decline-in-shark-and-ray-numbers-study-says/13096442">have been decimated</a>, with populations of 18 key species falling a disastrous 70% since the 1970s. They’ve been caught as bycatch by trawlers and longliners, sought for their fins or their oily livers, or killed out of fear. </p>
<p>While there’s occasional <a href="https://oceanographicmagazine.com/news/cop19-protection-for-sharks-achieved/#:%7E:text=The%2019th%20Conference%20of%20the,54%20shark%20species%20increased%20protection.">good news</a>, it is difficult to be optimistic.</p>
<p>Our slaughter of an estimated 100 million sharks a year is <a href="https://europe.oceana.org/importance-sharks-0/">devastating for nature</a>. Before we began killing them wholesale, shark numbers were much higher. Healthy shark populations act as a <a href="https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/sharks-how-a-cull-could-ruin-an-ecosystem">stabilising force</a> on prey species and keeps ecosystems in balance. Tiger sharks keep seagrass beds healthy by eating the turtles which graze them. </p>
<p>Killing sharks can destroy other fisheries. Losing large sharks <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sharks-overfishing-idUSN2919371720070329">led to the end</a> of the North Carolina scallop fishery. Without large sharks, cownose ray populations exploded, and the hungry rays ate all the scallops. </p>
<h2>So what can we do to save our sharks from desperate fishers?</h2>
<p>This is a wicked problem. “Education” is hardly going to stop fishers who know precisely why they’re here and what risks they’re taking, as the steep rise in illegal fishing suggests. Fines they can’t pay and the inconvenience of short prison sentences are clearly not doing the job.</p>
<p>You might wonder why we can’t get advance warning of fishers heading into our waters. Even modern radar struggles to spot small wooden boats across millions of square kilometres of ocean, and surveillance planes and patrol boats can’t be everywhere. Besides, until the vessels reach Australia’s exclusive economic zone, they have every right to be on the high seas. </p>
<p>In 2011, China launched a campaign to make shark fin soup unpopular, driving demand down 80%. But demand is <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2018/02/14/even-as-china-turns-away-from-shark-fin-soup-the-prestige-dish-is-gaining-popularity-elsewhere-in-asia/">still high</a> in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and rising fast in places like Vietnam and Thailand. Wider campaigns like this are needed. </p>
<p>We should also help Indonesia find more sustainable ways of tending its own fisheries, and tackling coastal community poverty. </p>
<p>Jailing and fining fishers is a knee-jerk solution. As long as shark fin soup is on the menu and as long as we have valuable sharks, there will be fishers desperate enough to come into Australian waters to hunt them. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/crimes-at-sea-when-we-frame-illegal-fishers-as-human-and-drug-smugglers-everyone-loses-152231">Crimes at sea: when we frame illegal fishers as human and drug smugglers, everyone loses</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Zoe Schmidt contributed to the research basis for this article</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195909/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony Marinac is a partner in Pacific Maritime Lawyers, a law firm which routinely represents various Australian seafaring industries, occasionally including Australian fishers. He also served aboard patrol boats as a Transit Security Officer on Operation Resolute in 2008-09.</span></em></p>Fining and jailing Indonesian fishers taking shark fin is a knee-jerk solution. As long as sharks keep vanishing and demand for shark fin soup remains high, illegal fishing will continue.Anthony Schuyler Marinac, Lecturer, College of Business, Law and Governance, James Cook UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1922612022-11-02T02:12:59Z2022-11-02T02:12:59ZFishing kills at least 24,000 fishers every year – yet most countries are still refusing to adopt international safety rules<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491850/original/file-20221026-2505-y8o5dv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5472%2C3628&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dashu/Freepik</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fishing is <a href="https://www.arinite.co.uk/the-worlds-most-dangerous-countries-for-workers">one of the most dangerous jobs in the world</a>.</p>
<p>The International Labour Organisation has estimated that every year, fishing vessel accidents claim as many as <a href="https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_071324/lang--en/index.htm">24,000 fishers’ lives</a>. This figure is more than <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2018/10/the-cape-town-agreement-explained">10 times more lives claimed than in accidents on merchant ships</a> which transport either cargo or passengers.</p>
<p>Unlike safety of merchant vessels, which is governed by the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (<a href="https://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Safety-of-Life-at-Sea-(SOLAS),-1974.aspx">SOLAS</a>), safety of fishing vessels has fallen through the cracks, making it largely unregulated and unmonitored. </p>
<p>Unsafe fishing vessels are also linked to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and may contribute to <a href="https://www.fao.org/responsible-fishing/resources/detail/en/c/1316896/#:%7E:text=Abandoned%2C%20lost%20or%20otherwise%20discarded%20fishing%20gear%20(ALDFG)%20is,that%20is%20increasingly%20of%20concern.">abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear</a>, which is becoming a global concern as it can be a navigational hazard and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/faf.12596">major source</a> of ocean plastic pollution. </p>
<p>Yet, there is currently no international treaty governing the safety of fishing vessels that has entered into force.</p>
<h2>Fishing vessel safety under international law</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fishing vessels at Mui Ne Fishing Harbour in Vietnam.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maxpixel</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.un.org/depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm">167 states and the European Union</a> have ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which obliges every state to ensure safety at sea for all ships flying its flag.</p>
<p>For decades, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), the United Nations’ specialised agency for regulating international shipping, <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2018/10/the-cape-town-agreement-explained">hasn’t succeeded in bringing regulatory instruments on fishing vessel safety</a> into force.</p>
<p>The latest treaty on fishing vessel safety is the Cape Town Agreement, which was adopted in 2012 to update, amend, and replace the previous treaty: the 1993 Torremolinos Protocol. However, there are only 17 contracting parties with just over 1,000 eligible fishing vessels to date – far from the minimum requirements for the Agreement to enter into force.</p>
<p>The Cape Town Agreement <a href="https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/CapeTownAgreementForFishing.aspx">states</a> the conditions to ensure the seaworthiness of fishing vessels of 24 metres in length and over. It requires the availability of life-saving appliances, <a href="https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/CapeTownAgreementForFishing.aspx">communications equipment, and fire protection</a> on fishing vessels.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Baca juga:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-government-now-has-a-much-needed-regulation-on-the-recruitment-of-migrant-fishers-from-indonesia-what-next-181946">The government now has a much-needed regulation on the recruitment of migrant fishers from Indonesia. What next?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In October 2019, during <a href="https://www.imo.org/en/About/Events/Pages/Torremolinos-Conference-safe-fishing-legal-fishing.aspx">an IMO-led conference on fishing vessel safety and illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing</a>, there was a momentum for the Cape Town Agreement to gain wider support.</p>
<p>During and after the conference, a total of 51 states <a href="https://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/formidable/18/2012-Cape-Town-Agreement-on-the-Implementation-of-the-Provisions-of-the-1993-Torremolinos-Protocol.pdf">declared their commitment to ratify the Cape Town Agreement</a> by the tenth anniversary of the adoption of the agreement, which was 11 October 2022. </p>
<p>Since the 2019 Conference, however, the Agreement has only gained four additional ratifications, far below expectations. The tenth anniversary of the Agreement has now passed and the Agreement still has not entered into force.</p>
<h2>What about Indonesia?</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Migrant fishers was categorised as vulnerable workers especially in unsafe fishing conditions." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Indonesian Migrant Workers Union and Greenpeace Indonesia held a peaceful protest outside the Presidential Palace in Jakarta, asking the president to ratify regulations to protect Indonesian migrant fishers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.greenpeace.org/indonesia/cerita/44956/ingin-melindungi-abk-indonesia-ini-salah-satu-caranya/">Adhi Wicaksono/Greenpeace</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many Asian states are among <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cc0461en/cc0461en.pdf">the world’s top seafood producers</a>. At least <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cc0461en/cc0461en.pdf">two-thirds of 4.1 million global fishing vessels</a> are flagged to Asian states. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, none of the Asian states are parties to the Cape Town Agreement.</p>
<p>Indonesia, the world’s second largest seafood producer, claims to have <a href="https://news.kkp.go.id/index.php/kkp-sederhanakan-proses-pendaftaran-kapal-perikanan/">more than 600,000 fishing vessels</a> in 2014.</p>
<p>The exact number of Indonesian fishing vessels remains unknown. But the majority of Indonesian fishing vessels are small-scale fleets, which are likely beyond the scope of the Cape Town Agreement.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Baca juga:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indonesias-patron-client-system-both-a-bane-and-hope-for-sustainable-fisheries-132011">Indonesia's patron-client system: both a bane and hope for sustainable fisheries</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Many Indonesian fishers also work for foreign fishing vessels. The <a href="https://meetings.wcpfc.int/node/13863">latest data</a> shows 186,430 Indonesian nationals working on board Malaysian fishing vessels; 12,278 on Taiwanese fishing vessels; and 4,885 people on South Korean fishing vessels in 2018.</p>
<p>Sadly, none of these countries are parties to the Cape Town Agreement. Thus, it is very likely that their domestic regulations on fishing vessel safety vary. Leaving it to each country to regulate fishing vessel safety is problematic, as some countries can be more lenient than others. </p>
<p>An international regulation like the Cape Town Agreement would resolve this problem, by ensuring uniform minimum standards that are applicable to all states.</p>
<h2>How to protect more lives at sea</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Both fishing vessel and merchant vessel workers have the same right to work in a safe environment at sea." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A fishing boat at sea.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">FAO</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Governance of fishing vessel safety is more than a century behind that of commercial shipping, even though fishers’ lives are just as priceless as seafarers. </p>
<p>As both workers have the same right to work in a safe environment at sea, fishing vessels shall receive equal attention as commercial shipping. Thus, wider ratification to the Cape Town Agreement is necessary.</p>
<p>Countries with large numbers of migrant fishers, like Indonesia, should have the highest interest to ensure that the Cape Town Agreement enters into force as soon as possible. This is critical to ensure that their nationals are not working on substandard fishing vessels that could put their lives in danger. </p>
<p>We must hope that more nations will finally act and ratify the Cape Town Agreement, so that we’re no longer losing tens of thousands of fishers’ lives at sea every year.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192261/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dita Liliansa tidak bekerja, menjadi konsultan, memiliki saham, atau menerima dana dari perusahaan atau organisasi mana pun yang akan mengambil untung dari artikel ini, dan telah mengungkapkan bahwa ia tidak memiliki afiliasi selain yang telah disebut di atas.</span></em></p>Every year, it’s estimated as many as 24,000 fishers die in fishing vessel accidents. That’s more than 10 times more lives claimed than on merchant ships, carrying cargo or passengers. Why?Dita Liliansa, Ocean Law & Policy Research Associate, National University of SingaporeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1901282022-10-11T13:08:20Z2022-10-11T13:08:20ZThe 5 biggest threats to West Africa’s oceans – and what to do about them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485775/original/file-20220921-26-wiob4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C0%2C4734%2C2997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plastic bottles and other waste are some of the contaminants destroying the oceans.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/plastic-bottles-and-other-waste-float-in-the-water-near-the-news-photo/483002322">Issouf Sanogo/AFP via Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The natural resources that form ocean ecosystems can play a significant role in the socio-economic growth and development of nations. </p>
<p>West Africa has a variety of marine and coastal ecosystems, found within the Atlantic Ocean. This is one of the most diverse and economically important fishing zones in the world and provides an income for many through fishing, shipping, logistics and mining. </p>
<p>But unregulated and unsustainable exploitation has degraded the ecosystems severely. Threats have come from land based sources of pollution, insecurity and piracy, illegal and harmful fishing practices, and climate change. </p>
<p>These multiple stressors have had a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320957474_Emerging_%20Challenges_Threatening_the_Atlantic_and_Indian_Oceans_in_Africa">negative impact</a> on the ecological integrity and health of West Africa. They are causing an alarming decline in fishery resources, loss of coral reefs and seashells, coastal erosion, ocean acidity and rising sea levels.</p>
<p>For over 20 years I have worked as a marine biologist, conducting numerous studies on the Nigerian coastal waters. In this period, I have seen the impact of natural processes and human development. It is vital that scientists like myself highlight the biggest challenges that West African nations must focus on to save the ocean. </p>
<p>The ocean <a href="https://www.census.gov/newsroom/stories/ocean-month.html">produces</a> over half of the world’s oxygen and absorbs 50 times more carbon dioxide than the atmosphere. Its health is key to survival. </p>
<h2>1. Plastic waste</h2>
<p>Millions of tonnes of plastic <a href="https://www.ijaar.org/articles/Volume5-Number11/Sciences-Technology-Engineering/ijaar-ste-v5n11-nov19-p1.pdf">leak from land-based sources</a> into the oceans yearly. </p>
<p>The pollution of marine ecosystems in the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Guinea by plastic and associated contaminants has adverse effects. </p>
<p>In a recent <a href="https://fjs.fudutsinma.edu.ng/index.php/fjs/article/view/113">study</a>, we showed how ingesting plastic fragments affects crabs. We explored the implications for food safety as well as the growth and productivity of marine resources. We saw that ingesting plastic caused reduced food intake, delayed growth, cell damage and abnormal behaviour in aquatic organisms.</p>
<p>There is an urgent need to effectively manage plastic waste, replace single-use plastics and introduce plastic-free alternatives in West Africa.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-plastic-pollution-is-harming-the-environment-steps-to-combat-it-are-overdue-177839">Nigeria's plastic pollution is harming the environment: steps to combat it are overdue</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Oil spillage and oily waste</h2>
<p>Exploration and exploitation of petroleum resources in oil-rich countries like Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria is another big threat. It has led to leakage of crude oil and petroleum products and discharge of untreated waste and chemical <a href="https://books.google.com.ng/books?hl=en&lr=&id=TS33XBkRZhsC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Exploration+and+exploitation+of+petroleum+resources+in+oil-rich+countries+like+Equatorial+Guinea+and+Nigeria+in+the+Gulf+of+Guinea+has+led+to+leakages+of+crude+oil+and+petroleum+products,+discharges+of+untreated+waste+from+petrochemical+industries+and+asso&ots=acXxKWALMP&sig=U0NJaOV1E7lg44GwNgRNMIRgTuE&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">into marine ecosystems</a>. These substances are a major source of potentially toxic heavy metals in the ocean. </p>
<p>In a recent <a href="https://www.banglajol.info/index.php/JBS/article/view/54830">study</a>, we reported high concentrations of heavy metals in tissues of edible aquatic snails (gastropod). This has implications for the health of human consumers if there is eventual bioaccumulation and biomagnification.</p>
<p>Sabotage, bunkering (loading ships with oil) and equipment failure are also risks.</p>
<p>The regular use of chemicals in cleaning operations at ports can introduce certain <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320957474_Emerging_Challenges_Threatening_the_Atlantic_and_Indian_Oceans_in_Africa">trace elements</a> which ecosystems can’t deal with. </p>
<p>Monitoring and prevention of these risks must be improved. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ships-risky-fuel-transfers-are-threatening-african-penguins-121575">Ships' risky fuel transfers are threatening African Penguins</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Man holding some dead fish on a beach" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ocean pollution is killing fishes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/man-holds-out-small-fish-recently-killed-as-acid-waste-is-news-photo/1236298965">from www.gettyimages.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Illegal fishing</h2>
<p>The extensive theft of local fish by foreign trawlers has left communities <a href="https://www.pviltd.com/more-measures-needed-to-curb-illegal-fishing-by-foreign-vessels-on-nigerias-waters">poorer</a>.</p>
<p>The unregulated and continuous exploitation of local fisheries has resulted in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165783621002848">overfishing</a> of over 50% of fisheries stock. <a href="https://www.unodc.org/nigeria/en/press/west-africa-loses-2-3-billion-to-maritime-crime-in-three-years-as-nigeria--unodc-rally-multi-national-efforts-to-thwart-piracy-in-the-gulf-of-guinea.html">Reports</a> show that once abundant fish species like blue fin tuna are increasingly endangered. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing costs West African nations’ economies up to <a href="https://www.unodc.org/nigeria/en/press/west-africa-loses-2-3-billion-to-maritime-crime-in-three-years-as-nigeria--unodc-rally-multi-national-efforts-to-thwart-piracy-in-the-gulf-of-guinea.html">$2.3 billion annually</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-illegal-fishing-off-cameroons-coast-worsens-maritime-security-168952">Illegal fishing</a> is quickly becoming a regional crisis. Governments should strictly enforce appropriate sanctions. </p>
<p>Conservationists advocate creating expansive marine reserves to protect the biodiversity of the oceans.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/illegal-fishing-is-a-major-threat-to-africas-blue-economy-61176">Illegal fishing is a major threat to Africa's blue economy</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4. Ocean acidity</h2>
<p>Ocean acidity or ocean acidification is a reduction in the pH of the ocean over an extended time. It is caused by uptake of carbon dioxide (CO₂), a greenhouse gas emitted by human activities. The ocean’s average pH is now around 8.1, which is basic (or alkaline). But as the ocean continues to absorb more carbon dioxide, the pH decreases and the ocean becomes more acidic. </p>
<p>This has contributed to the loss of corals on a global scale as their calcium skeletons are <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/press-room/news-release/scientists-identify-how-ocean-acidification-weakens-coral-skeletons">weakened</a> by more acidic water. This also erodes and affects the formation of shells of shellfish.</p>
<p>It has thus brought changes in relative species dominance, potentially leading to ecosystem shifts in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358544995_Potential_Impacts_of_Ocean_Acidification_in_Cameroon_Marine_and_Coastal_Ecosystems_Central_Africa.">coastal waters of West Africa</a>. </p>
<p>Every West African country must adopt simple measures to reduce greenhouse gases. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-managing-ocean-acidification-is-crucial-for-south-africa-54607">Why managing ocean acidification is crucial for South Africa</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>5. Bioinvasion</h2>
<p>Invasive species of plants, animals and microbes are among the greatest threats to the world’s <a href="https://www.reabic.net/journals/mbi/2012/1/mbi_2012_1_borokini_babalola.pdf">oceans</a>. <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-we-found-a-way-to-track-alien-marine-species-along-south-africas-coast-149938">Shipping</a> and maritime activities are responsible for most accidental species translocation globally. Over 80% of the volume of international trade is transported by <a href="https://unctad.org/webflyer/review-maritime-transport-2021">sea</a>. The percentage is even higher for developing countries, including Nigeria, which has a coastline of about 852km. </p>
<p>Ship ballast water (held in ships for stability) is a <a href="https://archive.iwlearn.net/globallast.imo.org/ballast-water-as-a-vector/index.html">principal vector</a>. It aids the spread of toxic phytoplankton and occurrence of <a href="https://serc.carleton.edu/eslabs/carbon/6b.html">algal blooms</a> that produce toxins harmful to aquatic animals. </p>
<p>Invasive species often adapt to new areas quickly as they can tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions, grow very fast, are often bigger, carnivorous, and reproduce faster than endemic species.</p>
<p>The spread of the invasive South American water hyacinth, <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em>, for instance, is <a href="https://phys.org/news/2019-06-nigeria-lagos-aquatic-weed-plagues.html">damaging transport links</a> in Nigeria’s economic capital, Lagos. It forms <a href="https://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=jest.2012.128.136#">a thick mat</a> that impedes navigation and halts fishing.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/alien-species-are-moving-across-oceans-faster-climate-change-will-accelerate-this-184415">Alien species are moving across oceans faster: climate change will accelerate this</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What to do about it</h2>
<p>There are moves under way to tackle these <a href="https://www.iddri.org/en/publications-and-events/blog-post/west-africa-mobilising-protect-marine-environment">threats</a>. Four protocols have been adopted by 22 parties to the <a href="https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/oceans-seas/what-we-do/working-regional-seas/regional-seas-programmes/west-and">Abidjan Convention</a>: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>the <a href="https://abidjanconvention.org/themes/critai/documents/meetings/plenipotentiaries/working_documents/en/LBSA%20Protocol%20English%2022%20June%202012.pdf">Grand Bassam Protocol</a>, which aims to combat pollution from activities on land</p></li>
<li><p>the <a href="https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00WGWG.pdf">Pointe-Noire Protocol</a>, for integrated coastal zone management</p></li>
<li><p>the <a href="https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00WGWF.pdf">Calabar Protocol</a>, for sustainable mangrove management</p></li>
<li><p>the <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/AFR0161372017ENGLISH.pdf">Malabo Protocol</a> on environmental norms and standards related to offshore oil and gas activities. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Through awareness campaigns, ordinary people can learn <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/ocean/help-our-ocean.html">10 simple things</a> they can do anywhere and anytime to help save the oceans. </p>
<p>Coastal states in the West African sub-region where the maritime sector is critical to the economy should lead the transformation for a more resilient and sustainable ocean through the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-african-countries-can-harness-the-huge-potential-of-their-oceans-77889">blue economy</a>. The blue economy promotes economic growth, social inclusion and preservation of livelihoods, while sustaining the environment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190128/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aderonke Omolara Lawal-Are does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The oceans bordering West African countries are in grave danger from pollution; checking further degradation is crucial for human survival.Aderonke Omolara Lawal-Are, Professor of Marine Sciences, University of LagosLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1894712022-09-12T01:00:25Z2022-09-12T01:00:25ZWhere is your seafood really from? We’re using ‘chemical fingerprinting’ to fight seafood fraud and illegal fishing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483426/original/file-20220908-9292-419un6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C6000%2C3359&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/assorted-seafood-in-a-market-2031994/">Photo by Chait Goli/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fake foods are invading our supermarkets, as foods we love are substituted or adulterated with lower value or unethical <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JFC-09-2020-0179/full/html">goods</a>.</p>
<p>Food fraud threatens human health but is also bad news for industry and sustainable food <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/I8791EN/">production</a>. Seafood is one of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X14003246">most traded food products</a> in the world and reliant on convoluted supply chains that leave the the door wide open for seafood <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12571-018-0826-z">fraud</a>.</p>
<p>Our new <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/faf.12703">study</a>, published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/faf.12703">Fish and Fisheries</a>, showcases a new approach for determining the provenance or “origin” of many seafood species.</p>
<p>By identifying provenance, we can detect fraud and empower authorities and businesses to stop it. This makes it more likely that the food you buy is, in fact, the food you truly want to eat.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman walks through a seafood market." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Seafood is one of the most traded food product in the world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-waling-on-market-in-meat-and-fish-section-123013/">Photo by Saya Kimura/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-technology-will-help-fight-food-fraud-85783">How technology will help fight food fraud</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Illegal fishing and seafood fraud</h2>
<p>Wild-caught seafood is vulnerable to illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing.</p>
<p>Illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing can have a devastating impact on the marine environment because:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>it is a major cause of overfishing, constituting an estimated one-fifth of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/faf.12462">seafood</a> </p></li>
<li><p>it can destroy marine habitats, such coral reefs, through destructive fishing methods such as blast bombing and cyanide fishing</p></li>
<li><p>it can significantly harm wildlife, such as albatross and turtles, which are caught as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320714003140">by-catch</a>.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>So how is illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing connected to seafood fraud?</p>
<p>Seafood fraud allows this kind of fishing to flourish as illegal products are laundered through legitimate supply <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/I8791EN/">chains</a>.</p>
<p>A recent <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2003741117">study</a> in the United States found when seafood is mislabelled, it is more likely to be substituted for a product from less healthy fisheries with management policies that are less likely to reduce the environmental impacts of fishing.</p>
<p>One <a href="https://usa.oceana.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/fraud_gap_report_final_6_6_16.pdf">review</a> of mislabelled seafood in the US found that out of 180 substituted species, 25 were considered threatened, endangered, or critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).</p>
<p>Illegal fishing and seafood fraud also has a human cost. It can:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>adversely affect the livelihoods of law-abiding fishers and seafood <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128015926000048">businesses</a></p></li>
<li><p>threaten food security</p></li>
<li><p>facilitate human rights abuses such as forced labour and <a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-030-32811-5_127-1.pdf">piracy</a> </p></li>
<li><p>increase risk of exposure to pathogens, drugs, and other banned substances in <a href="https://usa.oceana.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/fraud_gap_report_final_6_6_16.pdf">seafood</a>.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>The chemical fingerprints in shells and bones</h2>
<p>A vast range of marine animals are harvested for food every year, including fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca9229en/">echinoderms</a>.</p>
<p>However, traditional food provenance methods are typically designed to identify one species at a time. </p>
<p>That might benefit the species and industry in question, but it is expensive and time consuming. As such, current methods are restricted to a relatively small number of species.</p>
<p>In our study, we described a broader, universal method to identify provenance and detect fraud. </p>
<p>How? We harnessed natural chemical markers imprinted in the shells and bones of marine animals. These markers reflect an animal’s environment and can identify where they are from.</p>
<p>We focused on a chemical marker that is similar across many different marine animals. This specific chemical marker, known as “oxygen isotopes”, is determined by ocean composition and temperature rather than an animal’s biology. </p>
<p>Exploiting this commonality and how it relates to the local environment, we constructed a global ocean map of oxygen isotopes that helps researchers understand where a marine animal may be from (by matching the oxygen isotope value in shells and bones to the oxygen isotope value in the map).</p>
<p>After rigorous testing, we demonstrated this global map (or “isoscape”) can be used to correctly identify the origins of a wide range of marine animals living in different latitudes. </p>
<p>For example, we saw up to 90% success in classifying fish, cephalopods, and shellfish between the tropical waters of Southeast Asia and the cooler waters of southern Australia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Mussels lie on an ice bed at a shop." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Demand for seafood remains strong around the world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/pile-of-fresh-mussels-on-white-surface-with-sour-lemons-6397652/">Photo by Julia Volk/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What next?</h2>
<p>Oxygen isotopes, as a universal marker, worked well on a range of animals collected from different latitudes and across broad geographic areas.</p>
<p>Our next step is to integrate oxygen isotopes with other universal chemical markers to gives clues on longitude and refine our approach.</p>
<p>Working out the provenance of seafood is a large and complex challenge. No single approach is a silver bullet for all species, fisheries or industries. </p>
<p>But our approach represents a step towards a more inclusive, global system for validating seafood provenance and fighting seafood fraud. </p>
<p>Hopefully, this will mean ensure fewer marine species are left behind and more consumer confidence in the products we buy.</p>
<p><em>Dr Jasmin Martino, a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, contributed to this research and article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189471/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zoe Doubleday receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, and the Australian Academy of Science.</span></em></p>Traditional food provenance methods are typically designed to identify one species at a time. So we worked out a new approach, as part of a broader effort to combat seafood fraud and illegal fishing.Zoe Doubleday, Marine Ecologist and ARC Future Fellow, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1827492022-05-24T18:16:35Z2022-05-24T18:16:35ZThe future of fishing and fish — and the health of the ocean — hinges on economics and the idea of ‘infinity fish’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465070/original/file-20220524-22-jw6gdn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=59%2C59%2C4932%2C3270&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fish stocks are in decline around the world, in part because of the way we value nature and fail to account for their long-term benefits. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/the-future-of-fishing-and-fish-—-and-the-health-of-the-ocean-—-hinges-on-economics-and-the-idea-of--infinity-fish-" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p><em>Editor’s note: This story is part of a series that also includes live interviews with some of Canada’s top social sciences and humanities academics. Click <a href="https://www.meetview.ca/sshrc20220525/">here</a> to register for this free event, on May 25, at 1 p.m. EDT, co-sponsored by The Conversation and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council.</em></p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2021-0089">Indigenous Elders recently shared their dismay about the unprecedented decline in salmon populations</a> in British Columbia’s three largest salmon-producing rivers. Research produced by my team found that the Coho salmon catch off the southern B.C. coast has declined to only about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2019.04.002">five per cent of the peak catch</a>, which dates back to the early 1900s. </p>
<p>The decrease in <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/help/glossary/eea-glossary/fish-stock">fish stocks</a> is a global problem. <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/cod-moratorium-of-1992">Cod stocks off Newfoundland</a>, <a href="https://allafrica.com/stories/201709070732.html">pilchard along the coast of Namibia</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.8336">spring-spawning herring off Norway</a> and <a href="https://usa.oceana.org/responsible-fishing-modern-day-pacific-sardine-collapse-how-prevent-future-crisis/">sardines off California</a> have all collapsed in the past five decades or so. Globally, more than 100 million tonnes of fish are plucked from the ocean each year, equivalent to over 100 million mature cows in weight! </p>
<p>According to the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 34 per cent of the world’s fish stocks are overfished. But other organizations, including the <a href="https://www.minderoo.org/global-fishing-index/">Global Fish Index</a>, estimate that roughly half of marine fish stocks are overexploited. </p>
<p>These depletions are partly due to the way we value — or rather don’t value — nature. The inappropriate valuation of the goods and services nature provides us with is a fundamental reason why we have failed to take good care of the ocean and the environment at large. It is undermining humankind’s ability to achieve what I call “<a href="https://infinity.fish/">infinity fish</a>”: passing on a healthy ocean to our children and grandchildren so they too can have the option to do the same.</p>
<h2>The price isn’t right</h2>
<p>When it comes to fish, some economists say all will be fine if we just get “the price right.” I say get the value and valuation right and we will be in a better position to live in harmony with nature. Assigning the correct value to fish will help societies assess the long-term cost of depleting the ocean of too many fish, too quickly, in too many parts of the ocean. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A person standing in a small boat throws a fishing net into the ocean." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465066/original/file-20220524-18-uqnga6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465066/original/file-20220524-18-uqnga6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465066/original/file-20220524-18-uqnga6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465066/original/file-20220524-18-uqnga6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465066/original/file-20220524-18-uqnga6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465066/original/file-20220524-18-uqnga6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465066/original/file-20220524-18-uqnga6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">More than 80 per cent of global fisheries subsidies go to large-scale industrial fishing fleets.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Marine fisheries are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-23168-y">vital for the livelihoods of tens of millions of people worldwide</a>. They contribute directly and indirectly to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10818-010-9090-9">food and nutritional security</a> of billions by delivering seafood and generating tens of millions of jobs and incomes, especially in the least developed coastal countries of the world, where the ocean supplies up to 20 per cent of the animal protein people consume.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ocean-warming-is-changing-the-relationship-coastal-communities-have-with-the-ocean-122599">Ocean warming is changing the relationship coastal communities have with the ocean</a>
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<p>Wild fish stocks are a renewable resource that can continue to provide food and livelihoods to people forever — if they’re used wisely. Mathematically, anything that continues to provide a positive gain, no matter how small, will add up to infinity. </p>
<p>No one wants a dead ocean. To avoid that, we need to adopt an infinity fish way of thinking: a proper and complete valuation of the full range of the ocean’s benefits — seafood, carbon sequestration, recreation, culture, heat absorption — beyond what we sell in the market. </p>
<h2>Discounting nature away</h2>
<p>A key challenge to economics is how to value benefits from marine ecosystems in a comprehensive manner and in a way that captures their long-term diverse values. We have to meet this challenge if we are to have any chance of achieving infinity fish. </p>
<p>A key obstacle to achieving infinity fish is that, as humans, we tend to view anything close to us, both temporally and spatially, as large and weighty, while we give little or no importance to anything more distant. This tendency, which is partly captured by the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.cje.a013636">economic concept of discounting</a>, has been a big stumbling block to our ability to live in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2003.11.012">harmony with nature</a>.</p>
<p>Essentially, discounting, which reduces benefits to be received in the future to its value today, makes us want to frontload our benefits and backload our costs. This tendency partly explains why <a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6417333">we continue to overexploit biodiversity</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1059199">deplete marine</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01017">fish stocks</a> in particular. It also partly explains why we keep <a href="http://users.telenet.be/j.janssens/CommentsSPM4web.pdf">polluting the environment with carbon dioxide</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/reep/rez007">and plastic</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Aerial view of fishing trawlers in the ocean." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465067/original/file-20220524-12-x9cg52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465067/original/file-20220524-12-x9cg52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465067/original/file-20220524-12-x9cg52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465067/original/file-20220524-12-x9cg52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465067/original/file-20220524-12-x9cg52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465067/original/file-20220524-12-x9cg52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465067/original/file-20220524-12-x9cg52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Closing the high seas to fishing would have an immense positive effect on fish stocks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Once individuals, communities and societies calculate the true values, we will be able to develop the guiding principles we need to live in harmony with nature. It would motivate us to: </p>
<ul>
<li>effectively <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00358533.2012.661532">manage fish stocks</a>;</li>
<li>deal with the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3354/meps11135">drivers of overfishing</a>;</li>
<li>eliminate or redirect <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abm1680">harmful fisheries subsidies</a>;</li>
<li>rebuild and restore <a href="http://kenyacurrent.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/SunkenBillionsRevisited-embargoed14Feb17.pdf">depleted fish stocks</a>;</li>
<li>avoid <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/f2011-171">oil spills</a> and marine plastic pollution;</li>
<li>eliminate <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz3801">illegal and illicit trade in fish catch</a>;</li>
<li><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/srep08481">close the high seas</a> (areas beyond national jurisdiction) to fishing;</li>
<li>treat climate change as <a href="https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1019&context=fes-pubs">the crisis that it is</a>.</li>
</ul>
<p>Ultimately, we need to avoid harmful policies that encourage negative actions by people on nature, such as handing <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.539214">more than 80 per cent of global fisheries subsidies to large-scale industrial fishing fleets</a>, to the disadvantage of small-scale coastal fishers, including artisanal and subsistence fisheries. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/putting-an-end-to-billions-in-fishing-subsidies-could-improve-fish-stocks-and-ocean-health-163470">Putting an end to billions in fishing subsidies could improve fish stocks and ocean health</a>
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<h2>Future generations</h2>
<p>From the ocean, good things come, and to the ocean, bad things go. </p>
<p>People take what they want or need from the ocean, pulling those goods into our economic, cultural and social systems. In turn, we generate lots of waste, including greenhouse gases, which are absorbed by the ocean and increase sea surface temperatures, raise sea levels and boost ocean acidity, among other negative impacts.</p>
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<img alt="Three people carrying two nets of fish on the beach between them." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465069/original/file-20220524-13-77qtj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465069/original/file-20220524-13-77qtj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465069/original/file-20220524-13-77qtj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465069/original/file-20220524-13-77qtj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465069/original/file-20220524-13-77qtj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465069/original/file-20220524-13-77qtj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465069/original/file-20220524-13-77qtj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Achieving ‘infinity fish’ would allow us to pass on a healthy ocean to our children and grandchildren.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Clearly, we must take the good things from the ocean more wisely and within the limits of nature, while reducing the pollution that reaches the ocean to the barest minimum. We must also ensure that what we take out of the ocean is used to meet the
needs of as many people as possible, especially, the most vulnerable among us.</p>
<p>To achieve infinity fish, we need an interdisciplinary approach, founded on partnerships that allow scientists, Indigenous Peoples, governments, businesses, NGOs and civil society to co-create solutions. </p>
<p>The ocean is huge: it covers 70 per cent of the Earth’s surface. But it is not too big to protect — we have the brains and empathy needed to collectively ensure we achieve infinity fish for future generations. We just need to get the values and valuations right. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464583/original/file-20220520-18-x2dwff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464583/original/file-20220520-18-x2dwff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464583/original/file-20220520-18-x2dwff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464583/original/file-20220520-18-x2dwff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464583/original/file-20220520-18-x2dwff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=251&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464583/original/file-20220520-18-x2dwff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=251&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464583/original/file-20220520-18-x2dwff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=251&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.meetview.ca/sshrc20220525/">Click here to register for In Conversation With Rashid Sumaila.</a></span>
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</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182749/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rashid Sumaila receives funding from SSHRC, NSERC, the Pew Charitable Trusts, Oceana. In addition to the University of British Columbia, he is affiliated with National University of Malaysia as a Distinguished International Professor. </span></em></p>Humans have failed to take good care of the ocean — and the environment at large — because we undervalue its goods and services.Rashid Sumaila, Director & Professor, Fisheries Economics Research Unit, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1689522021-09-29T15:04:14Z2021-09-29T15:04:14ZHow illegal fishing off Cameroon’s coast worsens maritime security<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423823/original/file-20210929-18783-1mw0gog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A man removes water from a fishing boat in Idenau, Cameroon. Illegal activity by foreign fishing companies has depleted fishing stocks. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ann Johansson/Corbis via Getty Images)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In Cameroon there is growing awareness that there’s a direct relationship between illegal and unregulated activity in the fisheries sector, and maritime security in the waters off the country’s coast.</p>
<p>Like most countries along Africa’s Atlantic coast, addressing illegal fishing and fisheries crimes is challenging for Cameroon. Earlier this year the European Commission <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_621">called out</a> the country for failing to control vessels engaged in illegal fishing under the country’s flag. It also pointed to weak governance, including poor knowledge of the scale of illegal fishing.</p>
<p>In a recent <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19392206.2021.1982241?journalCode=uafs20#.YUxa6m1ZGHg.twitter">research paper</a> I looked at how Cameroon’s fisheries sector allows for unscrupulous actors to use fishing activities and fishing assets to engage in criminal activities.</p>
<p>I also sought to assess the implications for Cameroon’s maritime security. I analysed existing research and media reports, talked to military officers and other state agents, representatives of fishing community organisations and civil society actors.</p>
<p>My study shows both artisanal and industrial fishing vessels being intercepted and used for smuggling fuel, arms, other contraband and illegal migrants. </p>
<p>This affects national security greatly. The Cameroon navy is increasingly wary that fishing vessels are being used to smuggle weapons into Cameroon from neighbouring countries, particularly Nigeria. In addition, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/cameroon-equatorial-idINLC51095420090112">confrontations</a> between Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea’s Navy officers over fishing rights in the Campo border settlement – and continuous tension between Cameroon and Nigerian authorities over illicit fishing activities in Bakassi peninsula – are important national security concerns. </p>
<p>Efforts to combat fishing and fisheries crime must recognise the relationship between the sector and maritime security. And there must be efforts to ensure cooperation with locals as well as non-state actors. These include fisheries-based community groups and civil society organisations.</p>
<h2>Cameroon’s dependency on fishing</h2>
<p>Millions of Cameroonians depend on fisheries for their livelihoods. </p>
<p>In a report, the Ministry of Finance says that the fisheries sector <a href="https://www.cabri-sbo.org/uploads/bia/cameroon_2017_approval_external_enacted_budget_ministry_of_finance_eccas_french_1_2.pdf">contributed</a> 3% of Cameroon’s US$39 billion gross domestic product (GDP) in 2019. It is projected to stay the same in coming years. Marine capture fishing <a href="http://www.minfi.gov.cm/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/2021_FINANCE_LAW_REPORT_ON_THE_NATION_S_ECONOMIC_SOCIAL_AND_FINANCIAL_SITUATION_AND_OUTLOOK.pdf">operations account</a> for 83% of fish production in the country. Nearly 80% is from <a href="http://www.minfi.gov.cm/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/2021_FINANCE_LAW_REPORT_ON_THE_NATION_S_ECONOMIC_SOCIAL_AND_FINANCIAL_SITUATION_AND_OUTLOOK.pdf">marine small-scale fisheries</a>. This supports the livelihoods of millions of Cameroonians especially women who mostly depend on fish trade for their livelihood. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cameroon-cant-afford-to-continue-ignoring-crime-in-fisheries-sector-124519">Cameroon can't afford to continue ignoring crime in fisheries sector</a>
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<p>. </p>
<p>Fishing equally constitutes an important part of the socio-cultural system in coastal communities building social cohesion. </p>
<p>But the fishery sector faces numerous challenges. One is illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and fisheries crimes. </p>
<p>In my paper I map the extent of illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing and fisheries crimes off the country’s coast. I noted that these activities are a threat to Cameroon’s blue economy development, marine safety, ocean health and human resilience, and by extension national security. </p>
<h2>My research</h2>
<p>I found that in both industrial and artisanal sectors, illegal and unregulated fishing issues include: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>violation of fishing zones,</p></li>
<li><p>use of prohibited chemicals,</p></li>
<li><p>fishing in breeding grounds,</p></li>
<li><p>non-declaration of catch data,</p></li>
<li><p>landing of catch in foreign ports and poor regulations and ineffective enforcement of existing laws.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Alongside these are criminal practices that are directly related to fishing such as corruption and document fraud. Some actors use the fisheries sector and its assets for crime. This includes drug and arms trafficking, illegal immigration and human rights abuses. </p>
<p>I also found that both industrial and artisanal fishing is dominated by foreign vessels and crew. An estimated 70 industrial fishing vessels that operate in Cameroonian maritime area come from mainly China and Nigeria. Some operate in partnership with Cameroonian entrepreneurs though details of such alliances are murky. </p>
<p>Meanwhile over 80% of artisanal fishers come from Nigeria, Ghana, Benin and Togo. Fisheries officers are concerned that this foreign dominance exacerbates illegal fishing and fisheries crime practices. This is because they explore their transnational social and economic networks to enhance illicit activities. For instance, small-scale fishing entrepreneurs bring in workers from their countries of origin, sometimes illegally. They are sometimes subjected to poor working and living conditions and have no labour protection. </p>
<p>Illegal fishing and fisheries crime leads to depleting fish stocks. Illegal catches by foreign industrial vessels alone <a href="http://www.seaaroundus.org/doc/publications/wp/2015/Belhabib-et-al-Cameroon.pdf">rose</a> from 2,300 tons in the 1980s to 95,000 tons in the 2000s. These estimates mask the true scale of the problem especially as the number of industrial vessels fishing illegally has <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X19303264">increased</a> in recent years. </p>
<p>The same is true for the economic cost of illegal fishing and fisheries crime. A recent <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7043925/">study</a> estimated that illegal fishing leads to a tax revenue loss of between US$9000 to US$14000 per year. According to a <a href="https://www.businessincameroon.com/fish/1006-7192-cameroon-a-new-fishing-boat-boarded-and-search-on-wouri-river-for-illegal-fishing">government estimate</a>, the overall cost of illegal fishing alone is about US$33 million a year. </p>
<p>Depleting fisheries means small scale fishers struggle to access enough fish. The lack of fish and dwindling fishing activities means small-scale fisherfolks have to seek alternative livelihoods. A lack of opportunities in fishing communities also breeds discontent. </p>
<h2>The way forward</h2>
<p>To address illegal and unregulated fishing, endemic governance challenges, that have plagued the sector for decades, must be resolved. There must also be recognition of the link between illegal fishing and fisheries crime. </p>
<p>I identify a number of steps that need to be taken.</p>
<p>There needs to be effective regulation of who fishes, where and when in Cameroon’s maritime area. </p>
<p>Regulation of how fish is processed either for local consumption or export is equally important.</p>
<p>Ensuring transparency along the Cameroon fisheries value chain – from vessel registration to market – is also essential. To achieve this the Ministry of Fisheries and Animal Industries must ensure transparency in matriculating licensing fishing vessels and in monitoring control and surveillance of fishing operations. </p>
<p>All industrial fishing partnership agreements must be transparent. To this end a national open registry system must be set up. And the government must do more to involve Cameroonians in the sector. It took a step in the right direction by promoting and <a href="https://www.ifad.org/en/web/latest/-/news/cameroon-receives-us-1-million-grant-from-united-nations-agency-to-promote-aquaculture-entrepreneurship">facilitating</a> the greater involvement of local people in fishing activities. </p>
<p>The transnational nature of fisheries crime practices requires inter-agency cooperation both within Cameroon and other countries. Understanding the social networks and economic partnerships of the various agencies will help focus resources to tackle actors and their illegal proceeds.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168952/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maurice Beseng received funding from Coventry University Research Studentship Awards to conduct this research.</span></em></p>Efforts to combat illegal fishing and fisheries crime must recognise the relationship between the sector and maritime security.Maurice Beseng, Research associate, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1605532021-06-01T15:10:18Z2021-06-01T15:10:18ZHow illegal fishing harms Nigeria and what to do about it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/403578/original/file-20210531-15-3lacp4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Illegal fishing increases food and economic insecurities in Nigeria. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/fishermen-display-their-catch-at-the-revived-argungu-news-photo/1207148780?adppopup=true">Pius Utomi Ekpei/AFP via Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Like most countries in West Africa, Nigeria’s coastal waters contain diverse species of fish, which <a href="https://fish.cgiar.org/publications/fish-food-systems-nigeria-review-0">contribute to the food and economic security of its people</a>. </p>
<p>Small-scale fishing operations contribute <a href="http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/NGA/en">80% of locally produced fish</a> and <a href="https://juniperpublishers.com/ofoaj/OFOAJ.MS.ID.555677.php#:%7E:text=Artisanal%20fishing%20includes%2090%25%20of,for%20their%20livelihood%20%5B14%5D">support</a> the livelihoods of 24 million Nigerians. <a href="https://theconversation.com/women-are-a-mainstay-of-fishing-in-west-africa-but-they-get-a-raw-deal-159283">Seventy three percent</a> of those involved in fisheries in Nigeria are women. </p>
<p>The overall GDP contribution from fishing – small scale and industrial – was <a href="https://nigerianstat.gov.ng/download/1229">0.84% in 2019 and 1.09% in 2020</a>. </p>
<p>The fisheries sector is therefore a route to socioeconomic development in Nigeria. But it also faces threats. </p>
<p>One of these is <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/20414005.2018.1562287?journalCode=rtlt20">environmental pollution</a>, primarily from the oil industry. Pollution degrades the maritime environment, destroys fish stocks and reduces the catch. </p>
<p>Another threat is illegal fishing, as our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19392206.2020.1724432?journalCode=uafs20&#.XljN4Cgt3I0">previous research </a> has found. Our current <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/geography-sustainable-development/people/imoy1">research</a> continues to explore how women, in particular, are affected by and responding to these threats.</p>
<p>The first step is to understand the scale and complexity of illegal fishing and associated crime, and why it is happening.</p>
<h2>Scale and costs</h2>
<p>Recently, the Nigerian House of Representatives <a href="https://thenationonlineng.net/nigeria-loses-70m-to-illegal-fishing/">noted</a> that the country loses $70 million each year to illegal fishing. This includes loss of licence fees, revenue from taxation and the value that could have been accrued from legitimate fishing by local vessels.</p>
<p>Other sources estimate the cost of illegal fishing in Nigeria as much higher, citing anywhere between <a href="https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2019/09/16/report-nigeria-loses-600m-annually-to-illegal-fishing/">$600 million</a> and <a href="https://studies.aljazeera.net/en/reports/2012/06/2012612123210113333.html">$800 million</a> each year. </p>
<p>The variation in these figures reveals the difficulties in calculating the costs of clandestine activity. It’s also a result of budgetary neglect of the Nigerian Federal Fisheries Department. The department lacks the capacity to monitor, survey and control vessels operating in Nigeria.</p>
<p>Vessels from <a href="https://chinadialogueocean.net/8338-nigeria-fishers-criminals-imports-climate-change/">China, the European Union</a>, and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/faf.12436">Belize</a> are notable for illegally exploiting Nigerian waters. </p>
<p>Despite varying estimates, all sources agree that the economic losses caused by illegal fishing in Nigeria are high. But the figures alone paint a superficial picture of the true costs of illegal fishing. Illegal fishing does not occur in isolation. </p>
<h2>Fisheries crime</h2>
<p>Fisheries crime denotes a vast and diverse <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2913-5">category</a> of illegality and criminality that aids or accompanies illegal fishing. Such crimes can include corruption, customs fraud, human and drugs trafficking and piracy. Illegal fishing and fisheries crime also threaten <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/we-have-the-tools-to-tackle-illegal-fishing-lets-use-them">human rights</a>. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19392206.2020.1724432?journalCode=uafs20&#.XljN4Cgt3I0">previous research </a> found that illegal fishing was undermining people’s livelihoods. The lack of government support to address illegal fishing and protect livelihoods within fishing communities further pushes people into poverty. This makes them vulnerable to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19392206.2020.1724432?journalCode=uafs20&#.XljN4Cgt3I0">criminal networks</a>. </p>
<p>Fisherfolks may end up <a href="https://www.maritime-executive.com/blog/countering-gulf-of-guinea-piracy-towards-2025">participating in</a>, and being victimised by, fisheries crime as a result. This is <a href="https://www.icc-ccs.org/reports/2020_Annual_Piracy_Report.pdf">evidenced</a> in increasing criminality through rising incidents of piracy and armed robbery at sea throughout Nigeria’s coastal communities. </p>
<p>Maritime insecurity also has a gender dimension. <a href="https://theconversation.com/women-are-a-mainstay-of-fishing-in-west-africa-but-they-get-a-raw-deal-159283">Women in West African fisheries</a> face unique challenges and risks such as poor access to capital, growing competition for access to depleting fish stocks, and policy exclusion. </p>
<h2>Neglect and poor regulations</h2>
<p>Despite the important contribution that fishing makes to the livelihoods of Nigerians, government neglects this sector. This is evident in the <a href="https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/more-news/416939-less-than-2-of-nigerias-budget-allocated-to-capital-agriculture-projects-official.html">marginal budgetary allocation</a> the sector receives yearly. </p>
<p>The Monitoring, Control and Surveillance Department of Nigeria’s Federal Fisheries Department is critical to managing Nigeria’s fisheries. Yet no <a href="https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.789143">budgetary allocation</a> has been made to it in the last 15 years. </p>
<p>The Monitoring, Control and Surveillance Department lacks patrol vessels, and is therefore unable to monitor the activities of vessels operating in Nigeria. In 2017, the government <a href="https://punchng.com/govt-to-purchase-patrol-vessels-to-protect-waterways/">announced plans</a> to purchase patrol vessels, but it hasn’t done so yet.</p>
<p>The sector doesn’t receive enough funding to function effectively. Nigeria’s Fisheries Department operates within the country’s Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, which was allocated less than <a href="https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/more-news/416939-less-than-2-of-nigerias-budget-allocated-to-capital-agriculture-projects-official.html">2%</a> of the national budget in 2019. </p>
<p>Existing fisheries regulation is also inadequate. Nigeria’s fisheries are governed by the <a href="http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/nig18399.pdf">Sea Fisheries Act of 1992</a>. These regulations are outdated and ill-equipped to address the current scale and severity of growing fisheries crime. </p>
<p>For example, in June 2020, a vessel, Hai Lu Feng 11, was fined <a href="https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/06/arrested-chinese-vessel-slammed-n3million-fine/#:%7E:text=THE%20recently%20arrested%20and%20released%20Chinese%20fishing%20vessel,Maritime%20Administration%20and%20Safety%20Agency%2C%20NIMASA%2C%20has%20said.">₦3 million </a> (under $7,300) for switching off its Vessel Monitoring System while in <a href="https://www.un.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/NGA_1978_Decree.pdf">Nigeria’s Exclusive Economic Zone</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/w9633e/w9633e.pdf">Vessel Monitoring System</a> is designed to provide estimates of fishing activity in near real time. Switching the system off suggests an intent to evade detection by the authorities. But this fine is tiny when considering the millions of dollars that illegal fishing costs the Nigerian economy each year.</p>
<h2>Solutions to illegal fishing</h2>
<p>Solving the problem of illegal fishing in Nigeria requires that the Federal Department of Fisheries is supported to operate effectively. As the agency charged to ensure the sustainable exploitation of Nigeria’s fisheries, it must be adequately funded. </p>
<p>Current fisheries regulations must also be updated to reflect the current realities and impacts of fisheries crime.</p>
<p>A holistic and collaborative approach is critical to addressing fisheries crime. A national maritime security strategy is needed to guide and facilitate inter-agency and regional cooperation. The strategy should include the establishment of an information-sharing platform. </p>
<p>The capture of the pirates that targeted Hai Lu Feng 11 vessel by the Nigeria navy was <a href="https://fcwc-fish.org/our-news/fcwc-regions-interagency-cooperation-leads-to-arrest-of-vessel-hijackers">supported</a> by the <a href="https://fcwc-fish.org/">Fisheries Committee for the West Central Gulf of Guinea</a>. This was through the regional online communications platform established under the <a href="https://fcwc-fish.org/projects/watf">West Africa Task Force</a>. </p>
<p>This shows that cooperation between fisheries agencies and other maritime enforcement agencies is critical to stemming the tide of illegal fishing – and other crime at sea.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/160553/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ifesinachi Okafor-Yarwood receives funding from the Scottish Funding Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sayra van den Berg Bhagwandas receives funding from the Scottish Funding Council. </span></em></p>Nigeria must address illegal fishing, which depletes the country’s fish stocks, undermines livelihoods and pushes people into poverty.Ifesinachi Okafor-Yarwood, Lecturer, University of St AndrewsSayra van den Berg Bhagwandas, Postdoctoral researcher, University of St AndrewsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1535912021-01-26T14:17:44Z2021-01-26T14:17:44ZAttacks at sea aren’t all linked to piracy. Why it’s important to unpick what’s what<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379951/original/file-20210121-13-187c0s6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Nigerian Navy Special forces pretend to arrest pirates during a joint military exercise with the French navy.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Pius Utomi Ekpei/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/four-attacks-in-one-week-show-the-rising-risk-of-west-african-piracy">Pirate attacks</a> against merchant ships off the African coast have been reported regularly over the past decade. And despite measures to suppress it, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259425417_Piracy_in_Somalia_A_Challenge_to_The_International_Community">Somalia-based piracy</a> remains a concern. On the other side of the continent, the <a href="https://iccwbo.org/media-wall/news-speeches/imb-piracy-report-2020/">Gulf of Guinea</a> is now viewed as presenting a much more serious piracy problem. </p>
<p>Last year a record 130 crew members were kidnapped in 22 separate incidents, according to the <a href="https://www.icc-ccs.org/index.php/1301-gulf-of-guinea-records-highest-ever-number-of-crew-kidnapped-in-2020-according-to-imb-s-annual-piracy-report">International Maritime Bureau</a>. The cluster of attacks in November and December has once again led to alarming headlines about the <a href="http://portfolio.cpl.co.uk/BIMCO/202012/cover/">Gulf of Guinea</a> being the world’s <a href="https://www.defenceweb.co.za/featured/gulf-of-guinea-confirmed-as-world-piracy-hotspot/">piracy hotspot</a>.</p>
<p>But an increase in officially reported attacks does not necessarily mean that the actual number of attacks has increased. And individual cases must be <a href="https://www.dirksiebels.eu/publications/2021/01/04/gulf-of-guinea-piracy-in-2020/">analysed</a> carefully. Attacks against small cargo ships trading solely in the Gulf of Guinea, for example, are often linked to criminal disputes or other illicit activities at sea. These incidents are very different from random attacks targeting merchant ships in international trade which are solely aimed at kidnapping seafarers to collect a large ransom and are, therefore, a profit-driven crime.</p>
<p>Similarly, <a href="https://safety4sea.com/two-suspicious-approaches-in-gulf-of-aden-in-24-hours/">reports</a> about suspicious approaches against merchant ships off Somalia are still frequent. Most are related to smuggling operations between the Horn of Africa and the Arabian peninsula or simply to everyday fishing activities.</p>
<p>Pirate attacks may grab most headlines, but maritime security is important for wider reasons. Illicit activities at sea limit the potential benefits of economic activities linked to the sea – what’s referred to as the “blue economy”. This includes maritime trade, fishing activities, offshore oil and gas production or coastal tourism. Also, criminality at sea and on land are closely linked. Government agencies need to recognise this if security is to be improved.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/gulf-of-guinea-fighting-criminal-groups-in-the-niger-delta-is-key-to-defeating-piracy-130480">Gulf of Guinea: fighting criminal groups in the Niger Delta is key to defeating piracy</a>
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<h2>Many problems, few resources</h2>
<p>Piracy remains arguably the most visible symptom of <a href="https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/the-challenge-of-governance-in-the-gulf-of-guinea">insecurity at sea</a>. But coastal states also have other reasons to be concerned about it.</p>
<p>Illegal fishing, for example, has a direct impact on coastal communities where artisanal fishing is one of the few opportunities to earn a living. Smuggling on maritime routes even affects government income directly. Virtually all African countries rely heavily on customs revenues. When fuel, cigarettes or agricultural goods are smuggled, no import or export duties are paid. Less money can then be spent on schools, roads or hospitals, as <a href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9783030226879">my research</a> has shown.</p>
<p>Governments are also concerned about drug trafficking or weapons smuggling at sea, underlined by <a href="https://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/africa-new-regional-anti-piracy-agreement/">international agreements</a> which have been adopted by the majority of African coastal states. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9783030226879">Limited monitoring</a> of maritime trade allows for a steady flow of pharmaceutical products – including fake drugs – into Africa as well as lucrative exports of unlicensed timber or illegal wildlife products.</p>
<p>Despite the widespread impacts, maritime security has only come into the political focus over the past decade. African countries have <a href="https://issafrica.org/iss-today/promising-signs-of-africas-global-leadership-on-maritime-security">initiated</a> international meetings about it. The African Union adopted a maritime <a href="https://au.int/en/maritime">strategy</a> in 2014 and held a follow-up summit in Togo’s capital Lomé in 2016. But progress has been <a href="https://www.africaportal.org/features/maritime-security-implementing-aus-aim-strategy/">limited</a>. National governments have largely failed to take concrete actions. Strategies aren’t supported by financial and human resources.</p>
<p>Even Ghana, where a comprehensive <a href="https://996227d1-de16-4875-a76e-7ece4d3917bc.filesusr.com/ugd/a5e83a_ffc206114be34849b92d89655812abd7.pdf">maritime strategy</a> has been under development for years, is still unable to provide reliable <a href="https://safety4sea.com/ghana-wants-more-investment-to-improve-maritime-security/">funding</a> for patrol boat operations. </p>
<h2>The way forward</h2>
<p>Some examples highlight that it is possible to provide more security at sea. In West Africa, Nigeria is leading the way with its $195 million <a href="http://www.apanews.net/en/news/nigerian-press-focuses-on-plans-to-commence-195m-deep-blue-project-in-2021-others">Deep Blue project</a>, scheduled to be fully operational in the coming months. This project is primarily aimed at better surveillance and enforcement across the country’s Exclusive Economic Zone, an area that stretches out up to 200 nautical miles (around 360 kilometres) from the coastline.</p>
<p>Benin, Gabon and Tanzania have partnered with environmental organisations like <a href="https://www.seashepherdglobal.org/our-campaigns/iuu-fishing/">Sea Shepherd</a> to combat illegal fishing in their waters. Such non-traditional partnerships may help overcome short-term challenges and focus on urgent problems.</p>
<p>But it’s necessary to build capacity for the long term.</p>
<p>In many African countries, the blue economy could help to increase economic growth and development, although it should not be limited to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.00586/full">economic gains</a>. Acknowledging the needs of local communities and environmental sustainability are equally important. Investments can yield direct benefits which are five times higher than the initial outlay, according to a <a href="https://oceanpanel.org/sites/default/files/2020-07/Ocean%20Panel_Economic%20Analysis_FINAL.pdf">recent study</a>. And the inclusion of <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/covid-19-four-sustainable-development-goals-help-future-proof-global">Sustainable Development Goal 14</a> on ocean resources could strengthen efforts to recover from the economic impacts of COVID-19.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lift-for-maritime-sector-in-kenya-and-djibouti-after-fall-in-piracy-128073">Lift for maritime sector in Kenya and Djibouti after fall in piracy</a>
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<p>Despite some alarming <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/05/global-sea-piracy-coronavirus-covid19/">headlines</a>, there is no evidence to suggest that the coronavirus pandemic has had an immediate <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5f3f8460cb3933732c1b3650/t/5f984316e606836d108ed586/1603814171548/Whitepaper+Maritime+Security+Post+Covid+Sep+2020_sml.pdf">impact</a> on security threats at sea. But growth forecasts have been <a href="https://www.africanews.com/2020/12/30/covid-19-takes-its-toll-on-african-economy/">slashed</a> and governments are unlikely to prioritise spending on navies and other maritime agencies. </p>
<p>Security concerns <a href="https://issafrica.org/iss-today/elections-and-instability-as-africa-enters-2021">on land</a> are much more immediate threats, and even relatively limited <a href="https://set.odi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/The-evolving-fiscal-and-liquidity-stimulus-packages-in-response-to-COVID-19-in-Sub-Saharan-Africa.pdf">stimulus packages</a> are another burden for government budgets.</p>
<p>A closer analysis of sea piracy is important for law enforcement and longer-term prevention whether these are solely aimed at pirates or at organised criminal groups. It is also important for shipping companies because it affects the threat assessment when attacks are linked to criminal activities and aimed at specific ships rather than random targets.</p>
<p>Short-term solutions for long-standing problems are impossible. Even small steps, however, are important to improve maritime security in the medium to long term. That would be in line with the <a href="https://au.int/en/maritime">AU’s maritime strategy</a> which highlights the blue economy’s potential contribution to economic growth and development across the continent.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153591/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dirk Siebels does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sea piracy often grabs the headlines, but it is just one of many symptoms of insecurity at sea.Dirk Siebels, PhD (Maritime Security), University of GreenwichLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1522312021-01-20T01:29:50Z2021-01-20T01:29:50ZCrimes at sea: when we frame illegal fishers as human and drug smugglers, everyone loses<p>Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing costs economies up to <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/6/9/eaaz3801">US$50 billion</a> globally each year, and makes up to <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0004570">one-fifth</a> of the global catch. It’s a huge problem not only for the <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/ca9229en/CA9229EN.pdf">59.5 million</a> people who depend on fisheries for their livelihoods, but also for the environment. </p>
<p>Many philanthropic and environmental organisations <a href="https://www.unodc.org/unodc/about-unodc/campaigns/fisheriescrime.html">think of illegal fishing</a> as a “transnational crime”, involving organised criminals operating vessels on the high seas, smuggling drugs, weapons and people. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.589000/full">our research</a> found this depiction is, by and large, not true. </p>
<p>When illegal fishing is falsely represented like this, it can lead to ineffective investments and misguided policies, such as the requirement of over-the-top transparency and the criminalisation of desperate fishers. </p>
<h2>The reality at sea looks very different</h2>
<p>Most crimes associated with fishing <a href="https://blog.csiro.au/busting-illegal-fishing-and-associated-crime/">are actually</a> related to increasing fishing revenues or decreasing operating costs — not human, weapons and drug trafficking. </p>
<p>We looked at more than 300 events of illegal fishing reported in the media across the Asia-Pacific region, where <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/ca9229en/CA9229EN.pdf">over 50%</a> of the world’s seafood comes from. And we found only six events involved additional associated crimes like drug possession. </p>
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<img alt="Infographic of results of associated crimes with fisheries indicating three seperate business models; harvest, cargo and venue, each with different crimes associated." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375604/original/file-20201217-17-f2hzcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375604/original/file-20201217-17-f2hzcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375604/original/file-20201217-17-f2hzcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375604/original/file-20201217-17-f2hzcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375604/original/file-20201217-17-f2hzcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375604/original/file-20201217-17-f2hzcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375604/original/file-20201217-17-f2hzcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The crimes associated with fisheries at sea. There are separate business models linked to different crimes with minimal evidence of mixing across them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Visual knowledge</span></span>
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<p>Serious crimes still do occur on fishing vessels, such as human rights abuses linked to reducing labour costs, or the use of illegal gear to increase catches and revenue. However, these crimes fall within a fishing business model where, ultimately, a lack of profitability drives illegal behaviour. </p>
<p>This lack of revenue is a result of the over-exploitation and mismanagement of fish stocks, and is exacerbated by the <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/355/6332/eaai9214/tab-figures-data">effects of climate change</a> on the distribution of fish. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/it-might-be-the-worlds-biggest-ocean-but-the-mighty-pacific-is-in-peril-150745">It might be the world's biggest ocean, but the mighty Pacific is in peril</a>
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<p>Such illegal behaviour does have serious consequences, as shown in <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5045746/">Buoyancy</a>, a 2019 film about forced labour on Thai fishing boats. </p>
<p>While the film is fictional, it’s inspired by the true conditions and events that can happen at sea, after the writer-director interviewed fishers who’d been trafficked on trawlers. He <a href="https://finearts-music.unimelb.edu.au/about-us/news/bouyancy">said</a> while the ill treatment of workers portrayed in the film is extreme, it’s a mild version of the reality.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Buoyancy is inspired by the real-life plight of workers sold into Southeast Asia’s fishing industry.</span></figcaption>
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<p>We surveyed Vietnamese fishers for our research. They told us fish stock depletion in domestic waters and their displacement from disputed waters in the <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/specials/china-illegal-fishing-fleet/">South China Sea</a> means they’re driven as far afield as Palau and Australia in search of catches. </p>
<p>This is illegal, as these fishers are not permitted to catch fish in these countries. </p>
<p>The fishers say they are aware of the high chance of being caught, and feel shame at home when they’re convicted for illegal fishing. Still, the need to make a living forces these marginalised people to make risky choices.</p>
<h2>When transparency is too radical</h2>
<p>A popular proposal for addressing illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing has been increasing the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X20301172">transparency of fisheries</a>. For example, environmental NGOs are pressing countries to share vessel tracking data and, in some cases, making this data publicly available.</p>
<p>While transparency can help reduce illegal fishing, the key question is: transparency at what cost? </p>
<p>Public ship-tracking data reveals fishing locations to competitors. For fishers, knowledge of these locations informs their business, and being forced to share it undermines their competitive advantage. </p>
<p>Likewise, the use of surveillance also comes with big caveats. Organisations working to fight illegal fishing commonly <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6378/904.full?ijkey=pcDBTrA0MvYpg&keytype=ref&siteid=sci">use anti-collision messages</a> that vessels send each other to track vessels without their consent.</p>
<p>Re-purposing this safety system for the surveillance of fishing vessels may undermine its effectiveness for increasing safety at sea. Even vessels operating legally may not want their positions posted on publicly available websites. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/poor-filipino-fishermen-are-making-millions-protecting-whale-sharks-122451">Poor Filipino fishermen are making millions protecting whale sharks</a>
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<p>Yes, data sharing and oversight is necessary among consumers, the supply chain and the regulators. But it’s unclear why outside parties, indeed the public, need access to this data. </p>
<p>Compare this to online fraud: web servers aren’t required to make all data on users and content publicly available. Just as e-commerce is a legitimate activity, and those in the system are entitled to protect their commercial advantages, so is fishing a legitimate activity with similar rights, within a well-regulated system. </p>
<p>In the end, oversight is essential for a well-functioning regulatory system, but so-called “radical transparency” is counterproductive.</p>
<h2>Investing wisely</h2>
<p>The member countries of the United Nations have committed to address illegal fishing as a component of the <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/oceans/">UN Sustainable Development Goals</a>. But as the clock is ticking toward the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda">2030 delivery date</a>, a clear-eyed assessment of the link between the problem and solutions is needed. </p>
<p>All those involved in combating illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing should have a clear understanding of what illegal fishing is, its drivers and participants, what crimes are likely associated with it, and what the most effective solutions are. </p>
<p>Confusing smugglers using former fishing vessels with fishers, or making investments in radical transparency and surveillance that make enforcement more complicated, are counterproductive. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/us-china-fight-over-fishing-is-really-about-world-domination-145977">US-China fight over fishing is really about world domination</a>
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<p>To help government and industries across the world address illegal fishing, we need more investment in better targeted data analysis and <a href="https://research.csiro.au/iuu/case-studies/hydrophones/">technologies</a> and to <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/Research/OandA/Areas/Marine-resources-and-industries/Marine-monitoring-and-surveillance/Capacity-building-in-Indonesia">build the skills</a> of surveillance officers to improve identification of illegal fishing.</p>
<p>This would allow us to focus money and time to understand and solve the complex challenge illegal fishing poses. Given the limited scale of funding for combating illegal fishing and meeting the UN Sustainable Development Goals, it’s critical the global community invests wisely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152231/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Britta Denise Hardesty receives funding from the Australian Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organization, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, and the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Wilcox receives funding from the Australian Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organization, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, and the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessica Ford receives funding from the Australian Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organization, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, and the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mary Mackay receives funding from the Australian Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organization.</span></em></p>When illegal fishing is misrepresented, it leads to poor investments and misguided policies that don’t help the actual problem.Britta Denise Hardesty, Principal Research Scientist, Oceans and Atmosphere Flagship, CSIROChris Wilcox, Senior Principal Research Scientist, CSIROJessica Ford, Senior Research Scientist, CSIROMary Mackay, Postdoctoral Fellow, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1459772020-09-21T12:15:57Z2020-09-21T12:15:57ZUS-China fight over fishing is really about world domination<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358865/original/file-20200918-18-1oeb43k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C4%2C3000%2C1989&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">China has clashed with neighbors over its fishing in the contested South China Sea, pictured here. Controversially, Chinese fishermen also venture as far as Argentina and Ecuador.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/fishing-boats-set-sail-for-fishing-after-the-four-and-a-news-photo/1272762923?adppopup=true">Yao Feng/VCG via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>China’s aggressive, sometimes illegal fishing practices are the latest source of conflict with the United States.</p>
<p>China has the <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/how-chinas-expanding-fishing-fleet-is-depleting-worlds-oceans">world’s largest fishing fleet</a>. Beijing claims to send around 2,600 vessels out to fish across the globe, but some <a href="https://www.odi.org/publications/16958-china-s-distant-water-fishing-fleet-scale-impact-and-governance">maritime experts say</a> this distant-water fishing fleet may number nearly 17,000. The United States has fewer than 300 distant-water ships. </p>
<p>According to the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/lawofsea.html#:%7E:text=The%20law%20of%20the%20sea%20is%20a%20body%20of%20customs,peaceful%20relations%20on%20the%20sea.&text=The%20United%20Nations%20(UN)%20held,resulted%20in%20a%201958%20Convention.">1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a>, nations control marine resources within a 200-mile “exclusive economic zone”; beyond that are international waters. While the U.S. never signed the treaty, it has declared a 200-mile offshore exclusive economic zone.</p>
<p>Bolstered by generous subsidies and at times protected by armed coast guard cutters, Chinese fishermen have been illegally fishing near the Korean Peninsula and in the South China Sea, a <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-why-is-the-south-china-sea-such-a-hotly-contested-region-143435">hotly contested area claimed by six countries</a>. By exploiting these waters <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/how-chinas-expanding-fishing-fleet-is-depleting-worlds-oceans">China has come to dominate the international squid market</a>. Nearly half of this catch is exported to other Asian nations, Europe and the United States.</p>
<p>Chinese ships have even <a href="https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2013/11/curbing-chinas-massive-destructive-distant-water-fishing-fleet/#:%7E:text=China%20created%20its%20distant%20water,mirrored%20China's%20overall%20economic%20surge.">pushed as far as Africa</a> and <a href="https://taskandpurpose.com/analysis/china-fishing-boats-ecuador">South America</a>, where fishermen have been known to remove their identifying flags to avoid detection. In 2017 Ecuador caught 20 Chinese fishermen in the environmentally protected Galapagos Marine Reserve and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ecuador-environment-galapagos/ecuador-jails-chinese-fishermen-found-with-6000-sharks-idUSKCN1B81TS">sentenced them to four years in prison</a> for capturing thousands of sharks, the primary ingredient in a Chinese delicacy, shark fin soup.</p>
<p>In August, <a href="https://twitter.com/SecPompeo/status/1289896501234110464">U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo criticized</a> China for “<a href="https://www.state.gov/on-chinas-predatory-fishing-practices-in-the-galapagos/">predatory fishing practices</a>” that violate “the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of coastal states.” </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358864/original/file-20200918-16-y0sgm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Police escort a man off a bus" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358864/original/file-20200918-16-y0sgm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358864/original/file-20200918-16-y0sgm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358864/original/file-20200918-16-y0sgm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358864/original/file-20200918-16-y0sgm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358864/original/file-20200918-16-y0sgm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358864/original/file-20200918-16-y0sgm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358864/original/file-20200918-16-y0sgm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A crew member of the Chinese-flagged ship confiscated by the Ecuadorean navy arrives for a court hearing in the Galápagos Islands on Aug. 25, 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/crew-members-of-the-chinese-flagged-ship-confiscated-by-the-news-photo/863641990?adppopup=true">Juan Cevallos/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>China’s Foreign Ministry said Pompeo was just trying “<a href="https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/xwfw_665399/s2510_665401/t1804582.shtml">stir up trouble for other countries</a>.”</p>
<p>But Pompeo’s rebuke is about more than fish. Governments often use the fishing industry to advance their diplomatic agenda, as my work as a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=rDxMAlQAAAAJ">historian of fishing and American foreign relations</a> shows. The United States used fishing, directly and indirectly, to build its international empire from its founding through the 20th century. Now China’s <a href="https://chinaus-icas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/American-Perspectives-on-the-Belt-and-Road-Initiative.pdf">doing it, too</a>. </p>
<h2>Fishing its way from independence to imperialism</h2>
<p>Before the 1800s, when international law began to define maritime rights, restrictions on fishing depended wholly on what a given nation could enforce. </p>
<p>That’s why, at the Paris negotiation to end the Revolutionary War in 1783, future president <a href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/6wh90-3.asp">John Adams insisted that Great Britain recognize the right of Americans to fish</a> the North Atlantic. Its rich waters were full of cod and mackerel, but that’s not all: The <a href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/paris.asp">fishing rights Adams won in 1783</a> extended the young country’s presence well into the sea.</p>
<p>Because American fishing rights were recognized alongside American statehood, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/jearlyrepublic.36.3.493">my research shows</a>, generations of U.S. diplomats associated the two. In 1797, Secretary of State Timothy Pickering called American fisheries “the fairest fruits of independence.” </p>
<p>Even so, for decades after independence, the U.S. and Great Britain quarreled over international fishing, leading to many new and renegotiated treaties. At each turn, the Americans uniformly defended their right to fish the North Atlantic, even threatening war to do so. </p>
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<img alt="Black and white drawing of a ship at sea" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357940/original/file-20200914-20-uo7e3e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=60%2C3%2C731%2C564&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357940/original/file-20200914-20-uo7e3e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357940/original/file-20200914-20-uo7e3e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357940/original/file-20200914-20-uo7e3e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357940/original/file-20200914-20-uo7e3e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357940/original/file-20200914-20-uo7e3e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357940/original/file-20200914-20-uo7e3e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">North Atlantic fisheries were closely tied to American independence.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">George Brown Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industry of the United States</span></span>
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<p>By the 1860s, international fishing had become a key component of <a href="https://newrepublic.com/article/153038/how-america-reinvented-empire-review-daniel-immerwahr">America’s newly expansionist foreign policy</a>. Between 1850 and 1898, the U.S. annexed numerous overseas territories, among them Alaska, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Guam and the Philippines. Today this empire gives both American fishing vessels and the U.S. military a global reach.</p>
<p>Secretary of State William Henry Seward, who purchased Alaska and its rich North Pacific waters under Andrew Johnson in 1867, also tried unsuccessfully to <a href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/08/16/american-imperialists-have-always-dreamed-of-greenland/">buy Greenland and Iceland</a>, hoping to further extend American fishing claims across the North Atlantic. During archival research I learned that Seward’s like-minded successor, Hamilton Fish, toyed with the idea of purchasing the Canary Islands, near northwest Africa, as a naval depot and a base for American fishermen.</p>
<h2>Cold War fish</h2>
<p>For a time around the turn of the 20th century, fishing took a back seat to <a href="https://www.visitthecapitol.gov/exhibitions/artifact/naval-appropriations-act-fiscal-year-1891-battleship-act-1890-june-30-1890">military might</a> in the U.S.’s international power plays. </p>
<p>After World War II, though, Washington again turned to marine resources to serve its foreign policy agenda. This time the government used what I call “fish diplomacy” to help build a more America-friendly world order.</p>
<p><a href="https://networks.h-net.org/system/files/contributed-files/env-roundtable-5-2.pdf">American diplomats of the 1940s used the notion of “maximum sustainable yield”</a> – that is, the idea that there is a level of fishing that maximizes the number of fish caught without damaging the long-term health of fisheries – to expand American maritime influence. </p>
<p>The idea was more political tool than <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/70/2/245/797356">scientific discovery</a>, as historian <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=5EhQDX4AAAAJ&hl=en">Carmel Finley has thoroughly explored</a>. But the U.S. used this faux sustainability argument to pass laws and agreements that limited foreign incursions into American waters while giving American fishermen freer reign over the world’s oceans. </p>
<p>Citing <a href="https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v01/d324">maximum sustainable yield</a>, the <a href="https://iea.uoregon.edu/treaty-text/1945-presidentialproclamationcoastalfisherieshighseasentxt#:%7E:text=In%20view%20of%20the%20pressing,the%20future%20may%20be%20developed">Truman administration declared conservation zones</a> to protect certain fisheries in 1945. This move essentially <a href="https://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/article/fish-unlimited-how-maximum-sustained-yield-failed-fishermen/">barred Japanese salmon fishermen from Alaska’s Bristol Bay</a>. Just a few years later the State Department cited maximum sustainable yield to <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1227781">argue against restricting U.S. tuna fishing in Latin American waters</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358869/original/file-20200918-14-17kj8wk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Black and white image of a fishing boat" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358869/original/file-20200918-14-17kj8wk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358869/original/file-20200918-14-17kj8wk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358869/original/file-20200918-14-17kj8wk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358869/original/file-20200918-14-17kj8wk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358869/original/file-20200918-14-17kj8wk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=586&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358869/original/file-20200918-14-17kj8wk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=586&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358869/original/file-20200918-14-17kj8wk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=586&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A fishing boat moored in San Juan, Puerto Rico, in 1947.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/puerto-rican-fishing-boat-moored-in-san-juan-after-its-news-photo/3360891?adppopup=true">Rotkin/Three Lions/Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>As the Cold War developed in the 1950s, fish diplomacy helped the U.S. shore up allies to <a href="https://contingentmagazine.org/2019/05/01/overfishing-is-a-choice/">counter the Soviet Union</a>. </p>
<p>Washington gave generous subsidies to expand the fishing fleets of various countries – most notably Japan, whose war-ravaged economy was revived in part by the U.S. boat-building subsidies that resurrected its own <a href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/bestor/files/bestor_2014_eaa.pdf">once vital empire-building fishing industry</a>. The U.S. also lowered tariffs for strategically located fishing nations like Iceland, making their main export, cod, cheaper for Americans to buy.</p>
<p>[<em>The Conversation’s science, health and technology editors pick their favorite stories.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-favorite">Weekly on Wednesdays</a>.]</p>
<p>Of course, the U.S. also fought communism with mutual defense alliances, arms sales to friendly nations and direct military interventions. But fishery politics was part of its Cold War plan. </p>
<p>This history helps explain why the U.S. now sees China’s enormous fishing fleet and international trawling as threat. In sending its fishermen far and wide, Beijing has, wittingly or not, followed America’s lead.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/145977/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Blake Earle does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Chinese fishermen are illegally trawling South American waters, inflaming tensions with the US. But for centuries Washington used aggressive fishing to expand its overseas presence, too.Blake Earle, Assistant Professor of History, Texas A&M UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1433732020-08-13T07:04:53Z2020-08-13T07:04:53ZResearch explains why Susi Pudjiastuti was left out of Jokowi’s second-term cabinet<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349893/original/file-20200728-35-11m98jw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Then Minister of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Susi Pudjiastuti during a 2016 tour of the USS New Orleans in the Java Sea.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/compacflt/28821451306/in/photolist-29PSXMb-pyVQed-SezWjh-QsFzaC-KeGute-2cw4frQ-SC888t-qvBsej-SzEGwj-SPoUVt-SezU7m-RwUzWq-SKNdKf-SezMFL-SzEE6s-RwUzkq-SC81bH-ND62YV-qvvbrD-SezR6S-SPoWMz-SC83Pt-SPoWXz-NbzGVJ-NbzJuW-Rzt4dx-SezS1s-SC83fT-NbzNGd-NsJTr1-NbzCfb-2cuEsDs-KwtmsA-NbzDTS-MF4zQi-NvhFor-2cq66vL-NbzFRj-ND6bFK-L1WcWN-2cq68xw-2b6PapP-YxtYQ5-KURtmf-QmHMPN-YW8j6V-2boxcz9-L8mHTm-KeutSu-SNps27/">USS Pacific Fleet/Brandon Cyr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Eyebrows were raised when President Joko “Jokowi” Widodo omitted former fisheries minister Susi Pudjiastuti from his <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-his-new-cabinet-indonesias-president-jokowi-prioritises-national-stability-over-everything-else-125736">new cabinet</a> in October 2019.</p>
<p>Projecting a tough stance on illegal fishing, Susi was <a href="https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/10/23/no-susi-no-party-netizens-lament-departure-of-popular-minister.html">a political superstar</a> during Jokowi’s first term.</p>
<p>Despite Susi’s public approval, however, the president chose former congressman <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2019/10/indonesias-ex-fisheries-minister-susi-pudjiastuti-leaves-big-shoes-to-fill/">Edhy Prabowo</a> to succeed her. As someone close to Prabowo Subianto – Jokowi’s opponent in the last two elections – Edhy’s appointment was seen as a political move to appease the president’s former rival.</p>
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Baca juga:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/with-his-new-cabinet-indonesias-president-jokowi-prioritises-national-stability-over-everything-else-125736">With his new cabinet, Indonesia's president Jokowi prioritises national stability over everything else</a>
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<p>But <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02185377.2020.1774908?journalCode=rasi20">my latest research</a> explores another reason why this happened. The study analysed secondary sources from 2018 to 2019 and conducted 30 interviews with members of the fisheries ministry, fisher groups, business owners, NGOs, politicians and Susi herself.</p>
<p>Although her policies <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0499-1?WT.feed_name=subjects_sustainability">decreased illegal fishing by 90%</a>, Susi’s harsh managerial style alienated many parties. They later coalesced into a loosely associated coalition to counter her policies and oust her from office.</p>
<p>The above findings seem to confirm the ongoing power of an oligarchic system that still heavily shapes Indonesia’s political economy. Those attempting to dismantle it – such as Susi – have ended up being attacked and isolated.</p>
<h2>Rise of the anti-Susi coalition</h2>
<p>The coalition against Susi included fisheries companies both in Indonesia and abroad, lawmakers, senior politicians, academics, civil groups and fisheries associations.</p>
<p>They had different reasons for opposing Susi, and not all were linked to the fisheries “mafia”. But they found common ground when Susi moved to ban foreign-built vessels in 2016.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2016/02/24/govt-hunts-down-hundreds-outlawed-vessels.html">An 11-month evaluation by Susi’s Illegal Fishing Task Force</a> found most of the 1,132 foreign vessels monitored had only nominal Indonesian owners. Thus, they were operating illegally within Indonesia waters.</p>
<p>Susi, however, penalised companies and revoked their operating licenses in a one-size-fits-all approach. This angered not only those who operated illegally in Indonesia, but also those who were guilty of minor administrative or tax violations.</p>
<p>Based on <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02185377.2020.1774908?journalCode=rasi20">interviews I conducted in Jakarta</a>, the strategies the coalition used to counter Susi shifted over time.</p>
<p>At the beginning of Susi’s term, they tried to negotiate with her. After this failed, they focused on pressuring the president to replace Susi. When Jokowi made it clear this was politically unacceptable, the coalition focused on ensuring she would not be reappointed.</p>
<p>Different members of the coalition opted for different strategies, including “<a href="https://bisnis.tempo.co/read/655950/usut-suap-benjina-anak-buah-menteri-susi-terbang-ke-tual/full&view=ok">bribery</a>” and a “<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02185377.2020.1774908?journalCode=rasi20">smear campaign</a>”, both unsuccessful. </p>
<p>The coalition then focused on <a href="https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2018/01/09/17501971/wapres-minta-menteri-susi-hentikan-penenggelaman-kapal?page=all">lobbying senior politicians</a> and members of parliament, organising and financing <a href="https://nasional.tempo.co/read/1033187/kedatangan-menteri-susi-di-tegal-disambut-demo-nelayan/full&view=ok">popular demonstrations</a> against Susi, and countering Susi’s messages via the press or social media.</p>
<p>The combined weight of the latter three strategies achieved some immediate results and possibly contributed to Susi not being reappointed to her post. </p>
<p>The clearest result was convincing Jokowi to <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2020/06/indonesia-to-allow-back-destructive-seine-and-trawl-nets-in-its-waters/">halt indefinitely the prohibition of <em>cantrang</em></a> – a type of trawl fishing. It was originally banned through <a href="http://jdih.kkp.go.id/peraturan/3-2-1-rpermen.pdf">Ministerial Regulation No. 2/2015</a> along with other types of trawls and seine nets deemed to be destructive fishing practices. </p>
<p>Fishers nationwide were <a href="https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/07/12/cantrang-ban-final-susi.html">given until 2018</a> to switch to alternative methods of fishing that, although more environmentally friendly, resulted in reduced by-catch. Many fishers in Java resisted and, financed by members of the coalition, they took their opposition to the street. </p>
<p>Jokowi eventually met a delegation of these Javanese fishers in early 2018. He immediately instructed Susi to extend the transition period in Java indefinitely.</p>
<p>This represented a clear setback and was politically damaging for Susi. She had <a href="https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/07/12/cantrang-ban-final-susi.html">repeatedly said the ban was final</a>. </p>
<h2>Susi’s ‘no compromise’ attitude was partly responsible for her isolation</h2>
<p>Susi’s omission from Jokowi’s final cabinet was also fuelled by her inability, or unwillingness, to build a counter coalition to support her vision and actions. </p>
<p>She paired her policies with a strong-woman managerial style, wrapped in a sense of self-righteousness that eventually left her completely isolated. That had much to do with the public persona she nurtured even before she became a minister, of a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/08/world/asia/indonesia-fishing-boats-china-poaching.html">no-nonsense outsider</a> uninterested in power.</p>
<p>Susi attempted to establish a direct line with “the people” by taking advantage of <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41438279">what others saw as weaknesses</a>: a woman in a man’s world; a high school drop-out in a position of power; a successful self-made businessperson; a tattooed chainsmoker and straight-talking grandmother.</p>
<p>This “persona” was <a href="https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/10/23/no-susi-no-party-netizens-lament-departure-of-popular-minister.html">much loved by the general public</a> but contributed to her isolation within and beyond her ministry.</p>
<p>Within the fisheries ministry, Susi centred decision-making on herself and a restricted number of individuals. Dissent was not tolerated and punished with dismissal or reshuffles. In the long run, this worsened an already fragmented ministry, with <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02185377.2020.1774908?journalCode=rasi20">officials regularly doubting Susi’s priorities and approach</a>, and eventually gave many parties the motivation to move against Susi.</p>
<p>Her approach burned bridges with many actors historically involved in the fisheries industry. They included a number of fisheries associations and also marine scientists from IPB University in Bogor, West Java.</p>
<p>Susi purged the ministry of IPB alumni – a regular contributor of ministerial staff – which she considered to be too close to the former minister, Rohmin Dahuri. Rohmin himself is an IPB alumnus and remains an influential critic of her policies.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1158821184135237634"}"></div></p>
<p>Susi grouped these traditionally important actors as members of the fisheries “mafia” — which my research could not confirm — and ended up alienating them.</p>
<p>Groups such as the Indonesian Traditional Fishermen Union (KNTI) were at first very supportive of her approach as they were given channels to influence policies through various commissions such as the Tuna Commission and the Shrimp Commission.</p>
<p>By the mid-point of her term, however, they expressed frustration with Susi’s “excessive” focus on illegal fishing <a href="https://nasional.tempo.co/read/1033187/kedatangan-menteri-susi-di-tegal-disambut-demo-nelayan">at the expense</a> of fishers’ welfare.</p>
<p>Susi’s political isolation became apparent after a public spat in early 2018 with then Coordinating Minister for Maritime Affairs Luhut Pandjaitan and Vice President Jusuf Kalla. They <a href="https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2018/01/09/17501971/wapres-minta-menteri-susi-hentikan-penenggelaman-kapal?page=all">called on her</a> to stop blowing up vessels and focus on developing the fisheries industry.</p>
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Baca juga:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indonesias-predatory-politics-neuter-former-activists-attempts-at-reform-from-within-the-system-94415">Indonesia's predatory politics neuter former activists' attempts at reform from within the system</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143373/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fabio Scarpello tidak bekerja, menjadi konsultan, memiliki saham, atau menerima dana dari perusahaan atau organisasi mana pun yang akan mengambil untung dari artikel ini, dan telah mengungkapkan bahwa ia tidak memiliki afiliasi selain yang telah disebut di atas.</span></em></p>My research explores how fisheries minister Susi Pudjiastuti was left out of Jokowi’s new cabinet. Her harsh managerial style alienated many parties and a coalition rose to oust her from office.Fabio Scarpello, Lecturer in Politics and International Relations, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1395522020-06-04T19:34:14Z2020-06-04T19:34:14ZHow a global ocean treaty could protect biodiversity in the high seas<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339629/original/file-20200603-130951-91he30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=330%2C99%2C3687%2C3662&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Oceans are teeming with life and are connected to society through history and culture, shipping and economic activity, geopolitics and recreation.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Oceans cover 70 per cent of the Earth’s surface. But, because many of us spend most of our lives on land, the 362 million square kilometres of blue out there aren’t always top of mind. </p>
<p>While vast, oceans are not empty. They are <a href="http://www.coml.org/">teeming with life</a> and connected to society through <a href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/culture-and-development/the-future-we-want-the-role-of-culture/oceans/">history and culture</a>, shipping and economic activity, <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/national-security/475837-india-hoists-a-metal-chain-in-the-indian-ocean">geopolitics</a> and recreation. </p>
<p>But oceans — along with coastal people and marine species — are vulnerable, and <a href="https://iog.ca/what-is-governance/">good ocean governance is critical</a> to protect these expanses from pollution, <a href="https://www.tni.org/en/article/video-fishing-for-food-sovereignty">overfishing</a> and climate change, to name just <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-atomic-history-of-kiritimati-a-tiny-island-where-humanity-realised-its-most-lethal-potential-114870">some of the threats</a>.</p>
<p>The laws, institutions and regulations in place for the oceans are a multi-layered patchwork and always a work in progress.</p>
<h2>Common heritage of humankind</h2>
<p>Some characterize oceans as the “<a href="http://wealthofthecommons.org/essay/common-heritage-mankind-bold-doctrine-kept-within-strict-boundaries">common heritage of humankind</a>.” As such, the United Nations plays a critical role in ocean governance, and the <a href="https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf">UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)</a> is a key international agreement. The agreement grants coastal and island states authority over swaths of ocean extending 200 nautical miles (360 kilometres) from the shore. These are called exclusive economic zones (EEZ). </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339852/original/file-20200604-67351-1oxn75b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339852/original/file-20200604-67351-1oxn75b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339852/original/file-20200604-67351-1oxn75b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339852/original/file-20200604-67351-1oxn75b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339852/original/file-20200604-67351-1oxn75b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339852/original/file-20200604-67351-1oxn75b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339852/original/file-20200604-67351-1oxn75b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Giant kelp grows in a thick, submerged forest near the Channel Islands in California.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>EEZs are domestic spaces. Countries enshrine law and delegate authority to state agencies that lead monitoring, management and enforcement in these zones. </p>
<p>Indigenous peoples also assert <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00172">jurisdictional authority</a> and coastal peoples hold critical insight about coastal and marine ecosystems. Governance is improved when state agencies share power and collaborate. </p>
<p>For example, during the Newfoundland cod collapse, inshore fishermen had <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/cod-stocks-still-fragile-off-newfoundland-after-10-year-ban/article25297627/">local ecological knowledge</a> about changing cod stock dynamics that might have helped avoid the disaster.</p>
<h2>Areas beyond national jurisdiction</h2>
<p>A vast portion of the ocean lies beyond EEZs: 64 per cent by area and 95 per cent by volume. These regions are often referred to as the high seas. The high seas are important for <a href="http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/history-of-containerization">international trade</a>, <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat2504">fishing fleets</a>, <a href="https://www.submarinecablemap.com/">undersea telecommunications cables</a> and are of <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/01/20000-feet-under-the-sea/603040/">commercial interest to mining companies</a>. The high seas also host a wide array of ecosystems and species. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127">Many of these are understudied or altogether unrecorded</a>. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/getting-to-the-bottom-of-things-can-mining-the-deep-sea-be-sustainable-121784">Getting to the bottom of things: Can mining the deep sea be sustainable?</a>
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<p>UN agreements identify high seas using a technical term “<a href="https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/governing-areas-beyond-national-jurisdiction">areas beyond national jurisdiction</a>” that refers to the water column. The sea floor is identified separately and called “<a href="https://www.isa.org.jm/frequently-asked-questions-faqs">the area</a>.” UNCLOS and other pieces of international law regulate activity in these spaces and are responsible for ensuring that no single country or company dominates or benefits unfairly. </p>
<p>Other multilateral, sector-based arrangements manage particularly complex resources. For example, <a href="http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/166304/en">regional fisheries management organizations</a> bring nation states together to collaborate on monitoring and managing fish stocks, like tuna, that have large ranges and cross multiple borders and boundaries.</p>
<h2>The biodiversity governance gap</h2>
<p>Currently, international law does not meaningfully address biodiversity monitoring and conservation in the high seas. This “biodiversity governance gap” has <a href="https://www.ted.com/talks/kristina_gjerde_making_law_on_the_high_seas">been of concern for the past two decades</a>. </p>
<p>Without a binding mechanism under international law, countries are not obligated to co-operate on developing and implementing conservation measures in the high seas. In addition, monitoring the impacts of various economic activities, such as fishing and mining, on biodiversity is piecemeal and inadequate. Marine species or even entire ecosystems could be lost before we have had a chance to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00480">identify and understand</a> them.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/artificial-intelligence-makes-fishing-more-sustainable-by-tracking-illegal-activity-115883">Artificial intelligence makes fishing more sustainable by tracking illegal activity</a>
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<p>On Dec. 24, 2017, the UN General Assembly voted to convene a multi-year process to develop a treaty on “<a href="https://www.un.org/bbnj/">the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction</a>.” </p>
<p>Three of the scheduled negotiation sessions have taken place, while the fourth and final one, scheduled for March 2020, was postponed due to the coronavirus pandemic. Some progress has been made. Notably, the <a href="https://undocs.org/en/a/conf.232/2020/3">draft treaty</a> addresses four key areas: marine genetic resources; area-based management tools, including marine protected areas; environmental impact assessments and capacity building and the transfer of marine technology. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103957">Yet, many disagreements remain</a>. </p>
<p>For example, countries diverge on the extent to which governance should prioritize the principle of oceans as the “common heritage of humankind.” Very pragmatic questions underlie this tension: should marine genetic sequences be commercialized? If so, how would this work and will it be possible to agree on a way to share benefits fairly? <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0522-9">These are critical</a> and how they are addressed will determine if persistent inequities between the Global North and Global South are lessened or exacerbated. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339854/original/file-20200604-67383-gh86vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339854/original/file-20200604-67383-gh86vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339854/original/file-20200604-67383-gh86vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339854/original/file-20200604-67383-gh86vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339854/original/file-20200604-67383-gh86vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339854/original/file-20200604-67383-gh86vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339854/original/file-20200604-67383-gh86vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The high seas host a wide array of ecosystems and species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>Another challenge relates to marine protected areas (MPAs), especially how they are defined and implemented. What levels of protection are needed for an area to count as an MPA? How much should the treaty predetermine processes used to establish new MPAs and how will MPA rules be enforced? </p>
<h2>COVID-19: Negotiations cut adrift?</h2>
<p>Has postponing the final round of negotiations cut high seas biodiversity negotiations adrift? A <a href="https://twitter.com/maripoldata/status/1263116033650499584">European research team is surveying</a> participants and experts to learn what impact the disruption may have. However, it is unlikely that the treaty will fall completely by the wayside. Delegates and negotiators may well continue to informally discuss options with one another and refine positions with an eye towards reaching consensus when rescheduling is possible. </p>
<p>A ratified treaty covering biodiversity in the high seas would be an exciting layer to add to the ocean governance patchwork.</p>
<p>But, delegates and negotiators always have to make concessions during talks, and disagreements often persist after the treaty has been signed. Implementation can be as challenging and contentious as negotiation itself. Various human dimensions and economic challenges will also continue to need attention, including <a href="https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/policy-areas/fisheries/lang--en/index.htm">human trafficking</a>, perverse <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2019.104706">fishing subsidies</a> and our collective responsibility to <a href="https://time.com/longform/sinking-islands-climate-change/">small island states that may be submerged</a> as sea levels rise. </p>
<p>These challenges point to other international forums — the World Trade Organization, International Labour Organization and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change — and serve to remind us of the myriad ways that we are all connected to, and by, oceans.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139552/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Silver receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Marine Environmental Observation Prediction and Response (MEOPAR) Network made possible through the Government of Canada Networks of Centres of Excellence program.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leslie Acton has received funding from the National Science Foundation (Postdoctoral Research Fellowship) and the University of Southern Mississippi (Faculty Research Startup Grant). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa Campbell receives funding from the National Science Foundation and North Carolina Sea Grant.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Noella Gray receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC).</span></em></p>International law does not meaningfully address biodiversity conservation in the high seas. We risk losing marine species before we have a chance to identify and understand them.Jennifer Silver, Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Environment and Geomatics, University of GuelphLeslie Acton, Assistant Professor, The University of Southern MississippiLisa Campbell, Professor of Marine Affairs and Policy, Duke UniversityNoella Gray, Associate Professor of Geography, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1320112020-04-23T04:31:06Z2020-04-23T04:31:06ZIndonesia’s patron-client system: both a bane and hope for sustainable fisheries<p>Indonesia is known worldwide for its remarkable marine life. It lies at the heart of the <a href="https://www.livescience.com/64738-coral-triangle.html">Coral Triangle</a> – an area that hosts <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/09/what-is-the-coral-triangle/">76%</a> of the world’s coral species – and its marine sector accounts for over <a href="https://jakartaglobe.id/context/govt-highlights-role-of-blue-economy-in-achieving-sustainable-development-goals">6.5% of the country’s GDP</a>.</p>
<p>At the south-western end of Sulawesi Island lies <a href="https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-5/living-with-the-coasts/coastal-pressures/reef-fishing-at-the-limit-spermonde-archipelago/">the Spermonde Archipelago</a>. It is a rich and biodiverse region for coral reefs and fishery resources.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/indonesia/cerita/4244/para-pemangku-kepentingan-harus-bergerak-menyelamatkan-spermonde/">a recent academic report</a> found a strong decrease in the amount of coral in Spermonde in the last few years, partly due to dynamite and cyanide fishing. </p>
<p>Such destructive fishing practices are <a href="https://pdf.wri.org/reefs_at_risk_revisited.pdf">widespread around South-East Asia</a> and are a direct cause of death for corals and fish.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329171/original/file-20200420-152607-aet0bi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329171/original/file-20200420-152607-aet0bi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329171/original/file-20200420-152607-aet0bi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329171/original/file-20200420-152607-aet0bi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329171/original/file-20200420-152607-aet0bi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329171/original/file-20200420-152607-aet0bi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329171/original/file-20200420-152607-aet0bi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329171/original/file-20200420-152607-aet0bi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A damaged coral reef near one of the densely inhabited islands of Spermonde.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X16300574">Our study</a> conducted in 2014 in Spermonde indicates that “patron-client” systems, or what locals call “<em>punggawa-sawi</em>”, in the region’s commercial fisheries could foster these unsustainable practices.</p>
<p>This patronage system – <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab0b57/meta">common across South-East Asia</a> – is essentially an informal credit system that bonds wealthy and well-connected individuals with many fishers through a reciprocal arrangement.</p>
<p>In exchange for favours such as loans for fishing equipment and protection, patrons receive benefits in the form of labour and exclusive catches.</p>
<p>However, this arrangement often ends up pushing their fishers to use techniques such as cyanide fishing to catch live fish – which are <a href="https://wwf.panda.org/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/coraltriangle/?325030/Live-reef-food-fish-going-going-gone-This-could-be-the-scenario-if-we-dont-act-now">more valuable</a> but harder to catch. This essentially endangers the coral reef ecosystems around them.</p>
<h2>How the patron-client relationship works</h2>
<p>In Spermonde, we found 53% of local fishermen were in a patron-client relationship, while only 37% were independent.</p>
<p>Fishers indebted to their patrons have to repay their loans slowly by selling their fishing catch exclusively to their patron, who sets the price and keeps track of the debt balance.</p>
<p>These fishermen are also expected to specialise in catching fish that their patron specialises in selling.</p>
<p>This situation places patrons in a unique position to affect the way fishing takes place – what species to target and which fishing methods to use.</p>
<p>From 2014 to 2015, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X16300574">we interviewed</a> both independent fishermen and fishers in a patron-client relation in Spermonde. We also measured what they had caught and compared the catches of both types of fishermen.</p>
<p>Our study revealed that fishermen with patrons caught more valuable seafood – especially live fish. Independent fishermen landed more non-commercial items that they target to feed their families. </p>
<p>Specifically, 32% of the catch was live fish for fishermen with patrons, while only 19% for independent fishermen.</p>
<p>Valuable seafood is often caught by using potassium cyanide to stun the fish and catch it alive. These fish include species that are higher up in the food chain and typically take longer to replenish, such as groupers, Napoleon wrasse or Spanish mackerel. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329175/original/file-20200420-152614-bt65i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329175/original/file-20200420-152614-bt65i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329175/original/file-20200420-152614-bt65i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329175/original/file-20200420-152614-bt65i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329175/original/file-20200420-152614-bt65i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329175/original/file-20200420-152614-bt65i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329175/original/file-20200420-152614-bt65i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329175/original/file-20200420-152614-bt65i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fisher squirting cyanide on a coral reef.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Corvine/NOAA</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unfortunately, cyanide fishing can also indiscriminately <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/cyanide-fishing">kill a number of other species in the surrounding area</a> and, more importantly, it kills the corals which are the foundation of the reef ecosystem.</p>
<p>While cyanide fishing is illegal in Indonesia, some studies indicate the existence of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235993661_Social_Networks_and_the_Live_Reef_Food_Fish_Trade_Examining_Sustainability">a network</a> through which patrons usually bribe authorities and protect their fishermen from being prosecuted.</p>
<p>This confirms the extraordinary role of the patron-client system as an informal but dominant <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212682114000237">alternative governance system</a> in the area.</p>
<h2>Tapping into the patronage system for sustainability</h2>
<p>Fisheries patronage has its critics and defenders. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212682114000237">Some</a> <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.624.8874&rep=rep1&type=pdf">studies</a> point out patrons’ significant role in normalising illegal, destructive fishing practices and in trapping fishermen in perpetual debts.</p>
<p>On the other hand, a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08920753.2012.694801">2012 study</a> explains how the patronage arrangement acts as an important social security system for local fishermen. </p>
<p>Besides ensuring fishers always have buyers for their catch, patrons provide fishermen and their families with financial resources to cope with bad fishing seasons or personal emergencies.</p>
<p>This means that patron-client systems – however destructive they currently are – do reduce fishermen’s socioeconomic vulnerability and remain a fundamental part of the social fabric of Spermonde’s small-scale fisheries.</p>
<p>In cases like Indonesia where enforcement capacity is limited and alternatives to fishing scarce, the government could recognise the patron-client system as a potential ally in the fight against unsustainable fishing practices.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329258/original/file-20200420-152581-18ciz7s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329258/original/file-20200420-152581-18ciz7s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329258/original/file-20200420-152581-18ciz7s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329258/original/file-20200420-152581-18ciz7s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329258/original/file-20200420-152581-18ciz7s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329258/original/file-20200420-152581-18ciz7s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329258/original/file-20200420-152581-18ciz7s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329258/original/file-20200420-152581-18ciz7s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fishing boats in Spermonde.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Effective cessation of destructive fishing can produce <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2019/11/destructive-fishing-muroami-indonesia-ban-reefs-recovery-karimunjawa/">remarkable recovery of fish populations</a>.</p>
<p>For instance, some small-scale fisheries have <a href="https://www.msc.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/what-we-are-doing/msc-small-scale-fisheries-report-2019.pdf">shifted towards fishery certification programs</a> as a result of the increasing market demand for sustainable products, which is likely the future path for fisheries.</p>
<p>We suggest patrons could ride this wave and become key actors, through their ability to reach a large number of small-scale fishers, to harness positive environmental attitudes and endorse sustainable fishing practices.</p>
<p>Of course, such a shift will not happen if the situation continues to favour illegal fishing.</p>
<p>To increase the cost for patrons to engage in illegal fishing, effective enforcement is crucial. This could be achieved by increasing the resources available to the competent authorities, such as the country’s <a href="https://jakartaglobe.id/news/indonesia-extends-antiillegal-fishing-task-force">Task Force 115</a>, which is responsible for tackling illegal fishing.</p>
<p>Then, to make a shift towards sustainable fishing practices more attractive, the government could streamline the process for patrons to enter fishery certification programs and reward them with financial benefits, such as lower export taxes. </p>
<p>Offering environmental education and programs to build meaningful connections between local people and their coral reefs has also been proven to <a href="https://makassar.consulate.gov.au/mksr/Blog_15_a.html">encourage people to abandon destructive fishing practices</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/132011/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sara Miñarro received funding from the European Research Council. </span></em></p>The patronage system – common in South-East Asia’s small-scale fisheries – indirectly perpetuates destructive fishing practices. However, opportunities exist to tap them as agents of change.Sara Miñarro, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technologies (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de BarcelonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1227482019-11-07T21:15:49Z2019-11-07T21:15:49ZClimate change and overfishing are boosting toxic mercury levels in fish<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300736/original/file-20191107-10910-a8ipmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=234%2C128%2C4325%2C2664&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mercury levels in Pacific sardines could rise by as much as 14 per cent if greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We live in an era — the Anthropocene — where humans and societies are reshaping and changing ecosystems. Pollution, human-made climate change and overfishing have all altered marine life and ocean food webs. </p>
<p>Increasing ocean temperatures are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31824-5">amplifying the accumulation of neurotoxic contaminants such as organic mercury (methylmercury) in some marine life</a>. This especially affects top predators including marine mammals such as fish-eating killer whales that strongly rely on large fish as seafood for energy. </p>
<p>Now the combination of mercury pollution, climate change and overfishing are conspiring together to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1468-9">further contaminate marine life and food webs</a>. This has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7603">obvious implications for ecosystems and the ocean, but also for public health</a>. The risk of consuming mercury-contaminated fish and seafood is growing with climate change. </p>
<h2>Mercury rising</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1516312113">Regulations have lowered global mercury emissions from human-made sources, such as coal-fired power plants, between 1990 and 2010</a> but mercury is still present in the marine environment. </p>
<p>Methylmercury builds up in the muscle tissue of fish across the food web, “bioaccumulating” in larger and high trophic level predators. This is why larger pelagic fish (for example, tuna, marlins, billfishes and sharks) — those that eat a lot of fish — are in general considered riskier to eat than smaller ones. </p>
<p>In humans, <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/44445/9789241500456_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y&ua=1">mercury can lead to neurological disorders</a>. Children who are exposed to mercury during fetal development and childhood have a <a href="https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/92/4/12-116152.pdf?ua=1">greater risk of poor performance on tests that measure attention, IQ, fine motor function and language</a>.</p>
<p>Climate change can amplify the accumulation of methylmercury in fish and marine mammals at the top of their food webs due to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13667">changes in the entry and fate of mercury in the ocean and the composition and structure of these marine food webs</a>. A warmer and more acidic ocean may increase the amount of methylmercury that enters the food web. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mercury-decline-in-seabirds-due-to-diet-not-emissions-controls-86724">Mercury decline in seabirds due to diet, not emissions controls</a>
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<p>Overfishing can also exacerbate the mercury levels in some fish species. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31824-5">Pacific salmon, squid and forage fish</a>, as well as Atlantic bluefin tuna and Atlantic cod and other fish species are susceptible to increases in methylmercury due to rising ocean temperatures. </p>
<p>Our modelling research work shows that Chinook salmon, the largest Pacific salmon species and main prey of endangered southern resident killer whales, is projected to be exposed to high methylmercury accumulation due to changes in its prey that are driven by climate change. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300737/original/file-20191107-10973-oqu08i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300737/original/file-20191107-10973-oqu08i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300737/original/file-20191107-10973-oqu08i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300737/original/file-20191107-10973-oqu08i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300737/original/file-20191107-10973-oqu08i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300737/original/file-20191107-10973-oqu08i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300737/original/file-20191107-10973-oqu08i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rising ocean temperatures leave some fish, including tuna, susceptible to increases in methylmercury.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Under a worst-case climate-change scenario, where greenhouse gas emissions continue to increase and global temperatures <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/">reach between 2.6C and 4.8C by 2100</a>, Chinook salmon will see a 10 per cent increase in methylmercury. But under a best-case scenario, where emissions are low and global temperature rise is in the order of 0.3C to 1.7C at the end of the century, mercury levels would increase by only one per cent. </p>
<p>For forage fish, such as Pacific sardine, anchovy and Pacific herring, which are key ecological and commercial species in the Pacific Rim ecosystem, the methylmercury increase is projected to be 14 per cent under the influence of high emissions and three per cent under low emissions. Here again, this increase is driven by dietary shifts and changes in the food web composition due to warmer oceans.</p>
<h2>Fishing down the food web</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2019.105314">Atlantic cod stocks were over-exploited along the northeastern coast of Canada during the last century</a>. Chinook salmon stocks from the northeastern Pacific Ocean are also dwindling because of natural factors and environmental stressors, including predation, habitat loss, warming oceans and fishing. The combination of these pressures can make Pacific salmon more susceptible to methylmercury bioaccumulation.</p>
<p>When one species is overfished, fishing fleets expand and adjust their targets, often <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1126/science.279.5352.860">fishing down the marine food webs</a>. The cascading effects lead to changes in prey and foodweb composition for the remaining species, likely altering the transfer of organic contaminants such as persistent organic pollutants and methylmercury in top predators. </p>
<p>When fish are removed from the food web, larger fish and top predators may be forced to consume more or different prey, or smaller fish than they usually do. These fish can be highly contaminated with mercury.</p>
<p>The combination of climate change and overfishing are further shifting the composition of fish in the ocean and where they are found. They are also altering the way these species are exposed to pollutants, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1468-9">increasing levels of methylmercury in Atlantic cod and Atlantic blue fin tuna</a> — fish that are often eaten by humans. </p>
<h2>Protecting health and the planet</h2>
<p>Based on this evidence, the public health community should revisit and revise fish consumption guidelines for those who are most likely to be exposed to mercury (coastal communities) or experience negative effects (pregnant women, infants and children). </p>
<p>Our simulations show that the projected methylmercury concentrations in forage fish and Chinook salmon will surpass <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/chemical-contaminants/maximum-levels-chemical-contaminants-foods.html#a2">Canada’s mercury consumption limits</a> this century, as well as the consumption advisory level issued by the World Health Organization. </p>
<p>In our human-dominated world, it is imperative that we consume fish and shellfish that come from sustainable fisheries and make efforts to reduce ocean pollution. International and national environmental policies, such as the UN <a href="https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg14#targets">Sustainable Development Goal to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, marine resources and fisheries (SDG 14)</a> and the <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement">Paris Climate Agreement</a>, can conserve marine species and protect our blue planet for generations to come. </p>
<p>[ <em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/ca/newsletters?utm_source=TCCA&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122748/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Juan Jose Alava receives funding from the Nippon Foundation for the Ocean Litter project at the Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries (IOF), University of British Columbia (UBC). He is affiliated as Adjunct Professor with the School of Resources and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University; and serves as the Science Director (volunteer position) of the Fundacion Ecuatoriana para el Estudio de Mamiferos Marinos (FEMM), Ecuador. Juan Jose is the founder and Principal Investigator of the Ocean Pollution Research Unit (OPRU) at IOF, UBC.</span></em></p>Regulations have lowered mercury emissions globally, but the risks to ocean ecosystems and human health may be getting worse.Juan Jose Alava, Research Associate (Ocean Litter Project)/ Principal Investigator (Ocean Pollution Research Unit), University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1233512019-11-03T18:54:08Z2019-11-03T18:54:08ZAustralia’s only active volcanoes and a very expensive fish: the secrets of the Kerguelen Plateau<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298056/original/file-20191022-28088-1k9iw54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=36%2C0%2C4883%2C2788&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Evening light on a Heard Island icescape. The island is part of the Kerguelen Plateau, which is being jointly studied by France and Australia.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matt Curnock </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Stretching towards Antarctica lies a hidden natural oasis - a massive underwater plateau created when continents split more than 100 million years ago. </p>
<p>Straddling the Indian and Southern Oceans, the Kerguelen Plateau is three times the size of Japan. It’s farthest depths are four kilometres below the surface; its islands form one of the most isolated archipelagos on Earth. These include Heard Island and McDonald islands, Australia’s only active surface volcanoes.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-air-above-antarctica-is-suddenly-getting-warmer-heres-what-it-means-for-australia-123080">The air above Antarctica is suddenly getting warmer – here's what it means for Australia</a>
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<p>Australia and France share a territorial border across the Kerguelen Plateau and work together to study it. The most recent findings, <a href="http://heardisland.antarctica.gov.au/research/kerguelen-plateau-symposium/the-kerguelen-plateau-marine-ecosystems-and-fisheries">The Kerguelen Plateau: Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries</a>, have been published by the Australian Antarctic Division.</p>
<p>The collaboration has fostered new knowledge of the Kerguelen Plateau as a unique living laboratory - and as the home to one of the world’s most expensive fish.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298059/original/file-20191022-28092-12ocbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298059/original/file-20191022-28092-12ocbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298059/original/file-20191022-28092-12ocbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298059/original/file-20191022-28092-12ocbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298059/original/file-20191022-28092-12ocbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298059/original/file-20191022-28092-12ocbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298059/original/file-20191022-28092-12ocbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bird activity behind a research vessel near the Kerguelen Plateau.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Paul Tixier</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Tracking the Patagonian toothfish</h2>
<p>Volcanic activity pumps vast amounts of minerals such as iron into the water, making the Kerguelen Plateau a biological hotspot.</p>
<p>The plateau hosts populations of Patagonian toothfish, or <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em>, a predatory fish that lives and feeds near the bottom of the Southern Ocean. The brownish-grey fish grow up to 2 metres long, live for 60 years and can weigh 200kg. The species is often marketed as Chilean seabass. </p>
<p>Australia and France have <a href="http://heardisland.antarctica.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/228982/01-Weragoda-FullMS.pdf">worked together since the early 2000s</a> to eliminate illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing, to understand the <a href="http://heardisland.antarctica.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/229150/26-Ziegler-FullMS.pdf">toothfish’s population dynamics</a> and surrounding ecology. As a long-lived top predator with a broad diet, they have a key role in the structure of communities inhabiting the seafloor.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298058/original/file-20191022-28092-mxi4hd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298058/original/file-20191022-28092-mxi4hd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298058/original/file-20191022-28092-mxi4hd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298058/original/file-20191022-28092-mxi4hd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298058/original/file-20191022-28092-mxi4hd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298058/original/file-20191022-28092-mxi4hd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298058/original/file-20191022-28092-mxi4hd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298058/original/file-20191022-28092-mxi4hd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A location map of the Heard and Macquarie islands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAD</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The toothfish is also economically important. <a href="https://www.afma.gov.au/fisheries-management/species/toothfish">Its snow-white flesh is prized</a> as rich, good at carrying flavour and rich in omega-3 fatty acids. Catches command high market prices: <a href="https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/supply-trade/supply-prices-stable-for-chilean-sea-bass">prepared fillets have sold for more than A$100 per kg</a> in recent years.</p>
<p>Approved commercial fishing vessels catch Patagonian toothfish around the plateau. Over the past few decades, scientific observers on fishing boats have tagged and released more than 50,000 toothfish at the Australian islands. This, along with annual surveys, biological sampling and data collection, has shed light on the species’ biology and population ecology.</p>
<p>This informs management measures such as total allowable catches and “move on” rules, where vessels must cease fishing in an area once a predetermined weight of non-target fish has been caught.</p>
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<p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-warming-exceeds-2-c-antarcticas-melting-ice-sheets-could-raise-seas-20-metres-in-coming-centuries-124484">If warming exceeds 2°C, Antarctica's melting ice sheets could raise seas 20 metres in coming centuries</a>
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<p>The nations continue to manage toothfish populations, as well as fish, seabirds and marine mammals that interact with fishing activity. </p>
<p>The shallow banks of the plateau support a spectacular diversity of long-lived sponges, brittle stars, anemones, soft and hard corals and crustaceans. These fragile and slow-growing communities are vulnerable to disturbance. Fishing gear fitted with <a href="http://www.antarctica.gov.au/news/2018/underwater-cameras-light-the-way-for-southern-ocean-conservation">automated video cameras</a> helps locate and protect sensitive areas, and Australia and France have established marine reserves and managed areas across the plateau. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298062/original/file-20191022-28129-1ob1b0n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298062/original/file-20191022-28129-1ob1b0n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298062/original/file-20191022-28129-1ob1b0n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298062/original/file-20191022-28129-1ob1b0n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298062/original/file-20191022-28129-1ob1b0n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298062/original/file-20191022-28129-1ob1b0n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298062/original/file-20191022-28129-1ob1b0n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Patagonian toothfish are prized in the restaurant industry for their rich flesh.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dale Maschette</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A unique underwater oasis</h2>
<p>The plateau’s islands are incredibly isolated and provide the only breeding and land-based refuge for birds and seals in this part of the Southern Ocean. </p>
<p>Submarine volcanoes, some of them active, surround the islands and are particularly abundant around the younger McDonald Islands.</p>
<p>The plateau cuts across the strong current systems that sweep around the South Pole. This thrusts deep, cold water, enriched with volcanic minerals, to the surface then back to the seafloor. In turn, this powers a food chain stretching from small zooplankton to fish and predators such as Patagonian toothfish, penguins and albatross, and diving marine mammals such as elephant seals and sperm whales. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-landmark-report-confirms-australia-is-girt-by-hotter-higher-seas-but-theres-still-time-to-act-124096">A landmark report confirms Australia is girt by hotter, higher seas. But there's still time to act</a>
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<p>Carbon and nutrients returned to the seafloor support diverse communities of invertebrate and fish species that could not inhabit this location if not for the plateau.</p>
<p>The orientation and location of the Kerguelen Plateau make it a canary in the coalmine for understanding the southward shift in marine ecology due to climate change. As sea temperatures rise and ocean currents shift, plant and animal species will move south in search of cooler waters. </p>
<p>Recent modelling suggests those species most at risk from climate change in this region are those sedentary or slow-moving invertebrates, such as sea urchins.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298063/original/file-20191022-120690-pr8tti.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298063/original/file-20191022-120690-pr8tti.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298063/original/file-20191022-120690-pr8tti.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298063/original/file-20191022-120690-pr8tti.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298063/original/file-20191022-120690-pr8tti.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298063/original/file-20191022-120690-pr8tti.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298063/original/file-20191022-120690-pr8tti.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">King penguins at Corinthian Bay, Heard Island.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matt Curnock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Policy backed by science</h2>
<p>Work continues to build comprehensive maps of the seafloor, deploy a network of ocean robots to collect physical and biological information, and use French and Australian fishing fleets for research.</p>
<p>The plateau’s waters are in the region overseen by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, an international treaty body. French-Australian research is presented to the commission at meetings in Hobart each year to guide management decisions.</p>
<p>The cross-country partnership is a model for international scientific cooperation and fisheries management. In the context of a changing climate, these efforts will provide insight into future impacts on natural systems throughout the Southern Ocean.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123351/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Dell is a research fellow with the University of Tasmania's Institute of Marine and Antarctic Studies and the Australian Antarctic Division. His position is funded by the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation. </span></em></p>Scientists are uncovering the secrets of a giant undersea rock shelf, parts of which lie four kilometres below the ocean’s surface.James Dell, Post Doctoral Fellow, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1232002019-10-01T07:39:18Z2019-10-01T07:39:18ZStories from Indonesia’s coasts – how fishers abandon destructive fishing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294499/original/file-20190927-185390-1vkxex1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2740%2C1374&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Destructive fishing, bombing and poisoning were banned in Indonesia in 2004 but enforcement is weak.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/dynamite-fishing-effects-on-fish-editable-1445121755?src=uhEyWy6X5hUnp7xhvjt1vw-1-3">www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The island nation of Indonesia, where waters teem with coral fish, banned the use of bombs and cyanide for fishing <a href="http://www.flevin.com/id/lgso/translations/JICA%20Mirror/english/17.31.2004.eng.qc.html">in 2004</a>. </p>
<p>But weak enforcement means some fishers in Indonesia still bomb reefs and poison sea creatures. But protecting Indonesia’s marine ecosystems and ceasing to use these destructive methods is, in fact, in the best interests of the country’s fisher communities.</p>
<p>I study human ecology. Between 2016 and 2018 I took part in research in Selayar, in South Sulawesi. The area is in the <a href="https://www.livescience.com/64738-coral-triangle.html">centre of the Coral Triangle</a>, a vast network of coral reefs dotting the waters surrounding six countries in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific.</p>
<p>The research team lived among fisher communities in three villages to learn why and how <a href="https://ccres.net/what-we-do">fishing communities in Indonesia stopped using bombs and cyanide to fish</a>. </p>
<p>The study found that some individuals who previously participated in destructive fishing can transform into inspiring leaders and influence others to protect coral reefs. </p>
<p>We’ve collected stories of 15 champions for sustainable fishing, from former fish bombers to heads of villages (one of them female) and local government officials who work far beyond the requirements of their jobs. These individuals undergo their transformation in different ways. But, almost all of them began to change their ways after being exposed to a government program called <a href="http://coremap.or.id/">COREMAP (Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program)</a> which implementation at the local level, ended in 2017.</p>
<p>Here are four of their stories.</p>
<h2>Yudi Ansar – the death of four friends from fish bombing changed his perspective</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294088/original/file-20190925-51421-fawrli.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294088/original/file-20190925-51421-fawrli.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294088/original/file-20190925-51421-fawrli.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294088/original/file-20190925-51421-fawrli.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294088/original/file-20190925-51421-fawrli.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294088/original/file-20190925-51421-fawrli.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294088/original/file-20190925-51421-fawrli.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Photo by Helen Ross.</span>
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</figure>
<p>Yudi Ansar started fishing by detonating bombs underwater after graduating from high school. One day, however, a terrible bomb accident killed four of his friends. </p>
<p>Now 38 years old, Ansar said he couldn’t remember the exact year of his friends’ death. He said that, at the time, he was not aware that it was illegal to use bombing and cyanide to fish. Law enforcement in the Batangmata Sapo village in the east coast of Selayar district, where he was living, was weak. Several officials even protected those involved in destructive fishing. </p>
<p>Ansar gave up on being a fisherman and looked for other jobs. He moved to Patikarya, one of the villages in the COREMAP program. </p>
<p>Ansar joined the program, taking part in the Community Committee for Coastal Resource Management (LPSP). The community’s main task is to protect the coral reefs by providing villagers alternative livelihoods, such as salted fish and shrimp paste production. </p>
<p>Ansar now serves as a government facilitator for village development, a role that allows him to influence other fishers to abandon illegal and destructive fishing practices in Patikarya village. </p>
<h2>Muhammad Arsyad – a former user of fish bombing and cyanide</h2>
<p>Muhammad Arsyad began fishing using explosives in 1987, a common practice in his home village.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294089/original/file-20190925-51410-r5v7gr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294089/original/file-20190925-51410-r5v7gr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294089/original/file-20190925-51410-r5v7gr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294089/original/file-20190925-51410-r5v7gr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294089/original/file-20190925-51410-r5v7gr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294089/original/file-20190925-51410-r5v7gr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294089/original/file-20190925-51410-r5v7gr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Photo by A.Y. Abdurrahim.</span>
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<p>In addition to fish bombing, he learned to use cyanide for fishing from a Hong Kong-based business who hired him as the company’s buyer for groupers and clams. The company required him to teach fishers how to use chemicals for fishing.</p>
<p>Ansar had a side business producing salted fish. As his side business grew, he stopped fishing at the end of 2004. That year, he was appointed as a village official and became involved with the COREMAP program. He started to become aware of the adverse effects of destructive fishing. </p>
<p>In 2008, he became the village head. Using his influence as the village head and former fisher “boss”, Ansar influenced other “bosses” to stop fish bombing. He also involved wives and children, to increase awareness of the importance of coral reefs and alternative livelihoods. His village library provides books on coral reefs, fish processing, and crafts, to chicken farming.</p>
<h2>Mappalewa – from a convicted fish bomber to sustainable fishing campaigner</h2>
<p>Mappalewa, who goes just by one name, has been arrested three times for fish bombing and using cyanide for fishing. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294090/original/file-20190925-51405-1lj5x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294090/original/file-20190925-51405-1lj5x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294090/original/file-20190925-51405-1lj5x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294090/original/file-20190925-51405-1lj5x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294090/original/file-20190925-51405-1lj5x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294090/original/file-20190925-51405-1lj5x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294090/original/file-20190925-51405-1lj5x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Photo by Helen Ross.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But now he is the head of his villages’ Community Committee for Coastal Resource Management (LPSP). </p>
<p>He started using bombs to fish in the 1980s after learning that he can catch more fish by using explosives. In the 2000s, he started using cyanide because he saw other fishers catching big live fish in large quantities. </p>
<p>After the government banned fish bombing and poisoning, Mappalewa began bribing local officers to continue destructive fishing. </p>
<p>But he ended up spending more on fines and bribes. Eventually, he realised that the methods were not worthwhile financially.</p>
<p>As the head of the LPSP he tells other fishers that fish bombing is not worth it, sharing his own experience.</p>
<h2>Andi Hidayati – a female leader who stopped her village from destructive fishing</h2>
<p>Born into a noble family, Andi Hidayati’s fight against illegal fishing initially started as she watched outsiders bomb and poison in her village waters. Then, she found out that 30% out of 246 fishers in Bungaiya were involved in the bombings and poisonings.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294091/original/file-20190925-51401-1s18ue5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294091/original/file-20190925-51401-1s18ue5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294091/original/file-20190925-51401-1s18ue5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294091/original/file-20190925-51401-1s18ue5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294091/original/file-20190925-51401-1s18ue5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294091/original/file-20190925-51401-1s18ue5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294091/original/file-20190925-51401-1s18ue5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Photo by A.Y. Abdurrahim.</span>
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<p>During her administration as a Village leader, Bungaiya village was part of the COREMAP program. Hidayati learned from COREMAP that local villagers did not know that fish bombing was illegal. </p>
<p>They told her that if they did not use bombs to fish, their incomes will suffer. They were also competing with fishers from outside Bungaiya village for local fish resources. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, she managed to convince the villagers to adopt alternative livelihood introduced under COREMAP programs, such as fish ball production, snacks, and other fish-based production. </p>
<p>Hidayati also used her authority as the village head to issue a village law on community protected areas which regulates catch zones, fishing gear and sanctions. </p>
<p>Later, she became involved in patrolling and catching illegal fishers with the police and village marine volunteers. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>The champions profiles have been published in “Social influence for protecting coral reefs: champions and their strategies from Selayar, Indonesia” published by the <a href="https://ccres.net/resources/ccres-tool/fishcollab">Capturing Coral Reef and Related Ecosystem Services Project</a>, a project that developed technical models, tools and knowledge products to assist managers, policy-makers and planners to manage coastal ecosystems and, in doing so, sustain the services these ecosystems provide to coastal communities.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123200/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This study is part of the Capturing Coral Reef and Related Ecosystem Services Project (CCRES), funded by the Global Environment Facility and administered by the World Bank and The University of Queensland.</span></em></p>Our study found that some individuals who previously participated in destructive fishing practices can transform into inspiring leaders and influence others to protect coral reefs.Ali Yansyah Abdurrahim, Human Ecology Researcher, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1158832019-07-11T22:50:11Z2019-07-11T22:50:11ZArtificial intelligence makes fishing more sustainable by tracking illegal activity<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283436/original/file-20190710-44505-1w5nrbf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C10%2C783%2C520&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A fisherman carries a yellowfin tuna to be weighed and sold in Mindanao, Philippines in 2013.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Javellana / Greenpeace</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The world’s fish stocks are in decline and our increasing demand for seafood may be one of the main drivers. But the true extent of the problem is hard to estimate, especially when fishing occurs in the high seas, which lie beyond national jurisdiction and are hard to monitor. </p>
<p>Conservation planners face growing pressures to combat illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing, the value of which has been estimated at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004570">US$10-23.5 billion</a> annually. This is an important cost for society as a whole, but also for <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat2504">the major high seas fishing countries such as China and Taiwan that subsidize their fleets and may have low labour costs</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283438/original/file-20190710-44466-1k1l00b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283438/original/file-20190710-44466-1k1l00b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283438/original/file-20190710-44466-1k1l00b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=624&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283438/original/file-20190710-44466-1k1l00b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=624&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283438/original/file-20190710-44466-1k1l00b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=624&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283438/original/file-20190710-44466-1k1l00b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283438/original/file-20190710-44466-1k1l00b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283438/original/file-20190710-44466-1k1l00b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">High-seas vessels by flag state and gear type, as detected by Global Fishing Watch in 2016.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/4/6/eaat2504">From 'The economics of fishing the high seas,' Science Advances</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
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<p>Artificial intelligence (AI) could address this global environmental concern — and satisfy the need of seafood retailers and consumers to know if what they’re selling and eating is sustainable. Social scientists are beginning to think of ways that can bring AI, ecology and economics together — to design policies that target socially desirable outcomes such as preserving biodiversity values and returning the benefits of fishing to society.</p>
<p>At a February meeting of HUMAINT, a European Commission-led initiative on human behaviour and machine intelligence, I discussed the ways AI can be used to help marine resource management. </p>
<h2>Poached fish</h2>
<p>Fisheries and conservation managers have put a lot of effort in recent years in establishing spatial management tools such as marine protected areas to help fish stocks recover from past over-exploitation. Fish biomass in no-take marine reserves can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsx059">on average 670 per cent greater than in unprotected areas</a>. </p>
<p>Even though they are protected, these areas are not always immune to IUU fishing. Poaching occurs and cannot be tracked easily. This can make it difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of the protected area in a rigorous scientific manner. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283439/original/file-20190710-44453-n7zyvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283439/original/file-20190710-44453-n7zyvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283439/original/file-20190710-44453-n7zyvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283439/original/file-20190710-44453-n7zyvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283439/original/file-20190710-44453-n7zyvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283439/original/file-20190710-44453-n7zyvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283439/original/file-20190710-44453-n7zyvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A tuna fishing port in Japan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>IUU fishing results in <a href="http://www.fao.org/state-of-fisheries-aquaculture">environmental, economic and social costs</a> — namely declining fish stocks — and can lead to a loss of profit for those fishers who play by the rules. It can turn the industry against the regulatory authorities that impose these spatial restrictions, undermine public trust in fisheries management and conservation science. </p>
<h2>Tracking fishing with AI</h2>
<p>Traditionally, observers have been employed, at high cost, to monitor fishing activity on board vessels. But in remote locations, such as the Arctic, it can be difficult to find observers. </p>
<p>AI tools have the potential to lower monitoring and operational fishing costs and improve efficiency in fisheries management. Examples include automatic review of video footage, monitoring vessel sailing patterns for IUU fishing and illegal at-sea transshipments (moving goods from one ship to another), compliance with catch limits and bycatch or discard regulations, and improving assessment of fish stocks. </p>
<p>AI tools can also help build trust among fishers, scientists and society through <a href="https://civileats.com/2018/05/10/the-future-of-fish-is-big-data-and-artificial-intelligence/">improved seafood traceability</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283526/original/file-20190710-44466-1bmti4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283526/original/file-20190710-44466-1bmti4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283526/original/file-20190710-44466-1bmti4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283526/original/file-20190710-44466-1bmti4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283526/original/file-20190710-44466-1bmti4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283526/original/file-20190710-44466-1bmti4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283526/original/file-20190710-44466-1bmti4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Snow Crab is an invasive species that has been fished commercially in international waters of the Barents Sea and the Svalbard Fisheries Protection Zone of the Arctic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>Image recognition using AI can help identify the size of a vessel and its activity. It can help conservation managers understand who fishes for what in international waters where <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.01.007">it is unclear who the fish belong to</a>. It may also contribute to a better understanding of how commercially fished invasive species are spreading. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/snow-crab-saga-a-story-that-demonstrates-the-complexities-of-climate-change-93092">Snow crab saga: a story that demonstrates the complexities of climate change</a>
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<p>However, there are also potential risks. Some fear the data may be used for unintended purposes or that AI tools might replace manually performed tasks and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2016.08.019">make human labour obsolete</a>, a big concern for small, coastal fishery-dependent communities. </p>
<h2>The way forward</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org/">Global Fishing Watch platform</a>, an independent organization that emerged through a collaboration between Google, SkyTruth (a digital mapping non-profit organization) and Oceana, is an excellent example of how combining AI and satellite data can change our understanding of global fishing activity. </p>
<p>Global Fishing Watch shows vessel movement in near real-time. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao5646">Its work</a> goes beyond tracking vessel activity: the neural network (computer program) it uses can identify vessel size and engine power, the type of fishing being done and the gear used. The ambitious project goes as far as tracking <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07118-9">human slavery and rights abuse</a>, a well-known phenomenon in the fishing industry. </p>
<p><img src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/646/2.example_tracks.gif?1562729685"></p>
<p>The developments in AI applications have been impressive in recent years, allowing for a better understanding of fishing activity across the globe. Further progress in making them more widely applicable has been limited partly by the costs involved for the industry. Concerns about the impact of digital surveillance on privacy interests are also an issue.</p>
<p>Despite all the progress in AI science and the development of advanced algorithms that improve the quality and speed of information transmitted for ongoing fishing activities at sea, there is still very little formalized integration of science, regulatory authorities and the fishing industry. </p>
<p>Making the best use of what AI tools have to offer requires experts to transcend their disciplinary boundaries and actively collaborate — so they can provide value to ongoing management efforts to conserve biodiversity and build trust among seafood consumers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/115883/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melina Kourantidou does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Earth-orbiting satellites and AI tools can track fishing vessels around the world.Melina Kourantidou, Postdoctoral Fellow, Marine Affairs Program, Ocean Frontier Institute, Dalhousie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1051682018-12-07T12:40:48Z2018-12-07T12:40:48ZNigeria’s depleting fish stocks may pose a threat to regional security<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249300/original/file-20181206-128193-7obj0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2995%2C1998&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">MOdAMO / shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sometime in the next year or two, Nigeria will become the seventh country to reach a population of 200m or more. It is still growing considerably faster than all other nations towards the top of the list and, by 2050, the UN expects Nigeria to have the world’s <a href="https://qz.com/africa/1171606/nigeria-population-growth-rising-unemployment-and-migration-suggest-things-could-get-worse/">third-largest population</a>.</p>
<p>Keeping all those mouths fed will be a huge challenge, not least because millions of Nigerians depend on fish from the Atlantic coastline, mostly caught by small-scale <a href="http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/NGA/en">artisanal fishermen</a>. And those livelihoods are now threatened by climate change, pollution and illegal fishing.</p>
<p>Firstly, climate change: as oceans warm, habitats will be degraded and biodiversity will be lost. Many fish will migrate towards the poles to follow the cooler seas, making fishing at high latitudes more productive while <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep32607">tropical fisheries suffer</a>. Nigeria, just above the equator, will be hit particularly hard. According to the World Bank, under a high CO₂ emissions scenario there will be <a href="http://blogs.worldbank.org/nasikiliza/climate-impacts-on-african-fisheries-the-imperative-to-understand-and-act">a 53% reduction</a> in the country’s fish resources by 2050. </p>
<p>Nigeria did adopt a <a href="https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Nigeria/1/Approved%20Nigeria's%20INDC_271115.pdf">climate change strategy</a> as part of the UN policy process which culminated in the Paris Agreement, but it does not seem to have been widely implemented. Neither is there any evidence of an adaptation policy that would enable vulnerable coastal communities to become more resilient in the face of climate change. </p>
<p>Second, pollution by oil companies also threatens the livelihood of more than <a href="https://guardian.ng/news/oil-exploration-threatening-6-5-million-fishing-population-in-niger-delta-2/">6.5m people</a> in the Niger Delta area. The 2011 <a href="https://www.premiumtimesng.com/regional/south-south-regional/180674-bonga-oil-spill-affected-168000-people-in-350-communities-monarch.html">Bonga oilfield spillage</a>, a facility owned by Shell Nigeria, is just one recent example of the inadequacies of existing environmental regulations. The spill discharged an estimated 40,000 barrels of crude oil that then spread along the Atlantic coast for 185 km. Nearly 30,000 fishermen were forced to abandon their trade. </p>
<p>According to the Niger Delta Artisanal Fisher Association, not only have <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3117284">communities not been compensated</a>, they have also been hit by reduced populations of bonga fish, a common species in the area. </p>
<p>As a relatively poor country with relatively rich seas, Nigeria is also vulnerable to illegal fishing by foreign vessels, predominantly from China. No wonder: the government’s fisheries department does not have any <a href="https://www.google.com/amp/shipsandports.com.ng/nigeria-loses-20m-annually-illegal-fishing/amp/">patrol boats</a> to monitor licensed vessels and, when I interviewed a representative from the department, they claimed there has been no budgetary allocation for “<a href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y3427e/y3427e0a.htm">monitoring, control and surveillance</a>” in more than 15 years. In March 2018, the Nigerian navy noted that the country loses an estimated <a href="https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2018/03/07/how-nigeria-loses-70m-to-illegal-fishing-by-chinese-vessels/">US$70 million each year</a> due to illegal fishing. </p>
<p>These three threats add up to looming disaster: according to an ODI report, <a href="https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/resource-documents/10665.pdf">half of the fish species</a> in waters off West Africa are already overexploited. </p>
<h2>Potential for unrest</h2>
<p>With fewer fish to catch, people who depend on the oceans for their livelihoods are seeking more creative ways to make ends meet. This has included fishing across borders, which has the potential to provoke conflict between Nigeria and its neighbours – in one 2017 incident, Cameroonian forces are alleged to have <a href="https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/07/un-regrets-killing-97-nigerians-bakassi-commends-osinbajo/">killed 97 Nigerians</a> who they claimed had <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-40607306">not paid a fishing levy</a>. </p>
<p>With no clear climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy, weak fisheries and environmental management policies, there is growing potential for unrest. Coastal communities are attempting to build their resilience without institutional support, yet may undermine the stability of Nigeria and neighbouring countries.</p>
<p>To see that depleting fisheries have the potential to undermine the limited stability currently enjoyed in the country, one only has to look as far as north-central Nigeria. There, a conflict between <a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-conflict-is-a-result-of-environmental-devastation-across-west-africa-91694">nomadic pastoralists and resident farmers</a> due to lack of land for grazing has resulted in <a href="https://theecologist.org/2018/feb/22/how-climate-change-provoking-clashes-between-herdsmen-and-farmers-nigeria">more than 1,000 deaths</a>, and the displacement of millions of people. </p>
<p>To avoid a similar resource conflict along its coasts, Nigeria needs a national plan of action for how to help people who are left vulnerable by its depleting fisheries. This would first require robust monitoring and control mechanisms to cut out illegal fishing and ensure the country’s remaining resources are exploited sustainably. Environmental agencies also need to be better equipped to enforce existing regulations, including ensuring that oil companies clean up their spillages to the level that is seen in developed countries. </p>
<p>Finally, having a nicely written climate change mitigation policy is great, but its time for Nigeria to walk the walk. It must invest in climate adaptation strategies that would empower coastal communities and better prepare them to cope with the impact of depleting fisheries.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/105168/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ifesinachi Okafor-Yarwood does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Climate change, pollution and illegal fishing by foreign boats is threatening the livelihoods of millions of people.Ifesinachi Okafor-Yarwood, PhD student in Leadership with reference to Security and Development, King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1051422018-11-06T13:29:43Z2018-11-06T13:29:43ZFish farming at industrial scale: a Turkish case study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242729/original/file-20181029-76390-ccz3rt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bird's eye view of an open sea fish farm in, Aegean, Turkey.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of the world’s fastest-growing food production industries, aquaculture, is harming the marine environment and people’s lives with intensive fish farms. Fish farming was promoted to contribute to meeting the rising demand for food. But it has brought its own problems. </p>
<p>It has increased the competition for marine space in some cases by <a href="https://ejatlas.org/conflict/aquaculture-conflict-in-golfo-de-fonseca-honduras-nicaragua">displacing local fisher people</a>, contributed to <a href="https://ejatlas.org/conflict/kolleru-wildlife-sanctuary-pollution-through-aqua-culture">aquatic pollution</a>, and added to the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/joac.12283">over-exploitation of wild fish stocks</a> which are needed to make the feed used by fish farms. This in turn has worsened social and economic inequality and threatened the quality of and access to marine areas and resources through ongoing expansion in different regions. </p>
<p>The global demand for seafood has steadily risen in the last decades. In 1960s, annual seafood consumption per capita was about 9.9 kilograms per year. <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/I9540EN/i9540en.pdf">In 2016</a> this rose to 20.3 kg per year. </p>
<p>Industrial capture fisheries have expanded and fish are being caught further from shore, from deeper levels and earlier in the food chain. In addition, fish farming has taken on industrial proportions, with a range of negative knock-on consequences.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/joac.12283">our research</a>, we explored how the growth of fish farming off Turkish waters transformed the way in which seafood production moved from capture to intensive farming. We also show how this led to intensive marine aquaculture becoming more dependent on capture fisheries because fish farms needed fish oil and meals. And lastly, the research highlighted the strategies companies used to further extend and intensify their dominance in marine areas. </p>
<p>Our data illustrated that instead of providing a solution to depleting fish stocks, the intensive marine aquaculture of carnivorous species creates another source of pressure for fisheries, where exploitation leads to further expansion and intensification. </p>
<p>We argue that this continuous expansion is leading to social and ecological crises related to declining stocks and capture fisheries.</p>
<p>We’re calling for a fundamental shift in how the aquaculture industry functions to mitigate its impact on the environment and on communities.</p>
<h2>Fish farming expands</h2>
<p>Farmed fish production has risen by <a href="http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5444">8.6% per year</a> in the last three decades and now provides around half the amount of fish that people eat. The share of global aquaculture production in total seafood production, including capture fisheries, increased from 13.4% in 1990 to 46.8% in 2016. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.eumofa.eu/documents/20178/108446/The+EU+fish+market+2017.pdf">Europe</a> and the US are the largest importers of seafood products, consuming seafood worth <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2018/06/25/us-imported-more-seafood-in-2017.html">billions</a>. The main suppliers are countries in Africa and Asia.</p>
<p>Fish farms were once promoted as a solution for over-fishing. But shrimp and salmon farms in <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20072506?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">Asia</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.04.025">Latin America</a> have already given rise to ecological, social and political problems. </p>
<p>In the eastern Mediterranean, in Turkey, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/joac.12283">farmed fish production</a> volume quadrupled between 2000 and 2016. Three quarters of this is exported to the EU to meet urban, middle-class demand. </p>
<p>The farmed fish <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S004484860800567X">need to eat</a> too – and what sea bass, sea bream and salmon eat mostly consists of smaller, wild fish.</p>
<p>For these supplies, fishing companies are moving to West African waters, especially <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/joac.12283">Mauritania</a> where they capture small fish to be turned into fish meal and fish oil and eventually fish feed in factories. </p>
<p>The social and ecological costs of this are massive.</p>
<p>Instead of providing a solution to the depletion of fish stocks, the intensive farming of carnivorous fish species thus creates more pressure. The main aim of seafood companies is usually not overcoming social or ecological crises, but <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/joac.12283">protecting their profits</a>. Fish farms are turning marine resources into commodities to be bought and sold.</p>
<h2>Where to move from here</h2>
<p>Under the current system the biggest seafood companies gain while marine species and small-scale fishers continue to be threatened. There is an urgent need to understand these dynamics and construct an alternative model that will protect the ocean, the rights of small-scale fisher people and ensure the survival of fish species.</p>
<p>The solution lies in the transition to a just and sustainable model of food production, distribution and consumption, which is not controlled by agrobusiness companies but by small-scale producers themselves. </p>
<p>This is also the goal of the social practitioners striving for <a href="http://worldfishers.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/WFFP.Food_.Sov_.web_.pdf">food sovereignty</a>. In contrast to food security, food sovereignty puts the emphasis on the rights of small-scale food producers and a healthy and ecologically sustainable production. It considers food as a human right rather than a tradable commodity and encourages localised food systems where food producers themselves have control on their production and consumers have the right to know by whom and how the food is produced. </p>
<p>Central to this is building alliances for <a href="https://www.uab.cat/web/news-detail/is-there-a-global-environmental-justice-movement-1345680342044.html?noticiaid=1345705920614">environmental justice</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01436597.2017.1416288">fisheries justice</a> as realised by the members of the <a href="http://worldfishers.org/">World Forum of Fisher Peoples</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/105142/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Irmak Ertör is a postdoctoral researcher working in the ERC (European Research Council) funded ENVJUSTICE project in the Institute of Environmental Science and Technology, Autonomous University of Barcelona and the Foundation ENT, Barcelona. Previously she has been a Marie Curie early stage researcher in the ENTITLE (European Network of Political Ecology) project funded by the EU 7th Framework program.</span></em></p>Aquaculture is endangering the marine environment, threatening the livelihood of small-scale fishers and food security.Irmak Ertör, Postdoctoral researcher, Universitat Autònoma de BarcelonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/978122018-09-11T14:40:38Z2018-09-11T14:40:38ZHow corruption encourages illegal fishing on Lake Victoria<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235740/original/file-20180911-144476-5swxqg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lake Victoria sees high levels of illegal fishing carried out by local fisherman and traders.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Illegal fishing is a global challenge. By ignoring legislation, using illegal gear or selling undersized fish, 26 million tons of seafood, estimated at USD$23 billion, is <a href="http://www.fao.org/fao-stories/article/en/c/1136937/">extracted from</a> the oceans each year. While huge international attention is given to illegal fishing in the <a href="https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-2/fisheries/illegal-fishing/">marine sector</a>, illegal fishing inland, by small-scale fisheries, is often forgotten. </p>
<p>Lake Victoria is <a href="https://thisisafrica.me/world-water-day-focus-lake-victoria-second-largest-fresh-water-lake-world/">the second</a> largest freshwater body in the world, bordered by Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. Around <a href="http://www.globalgreatlakes.org/agl/victoria/">one million tons of fish</a> are caught from the lake each year, by around <a href="http://www.lvfo.org/sites/default/files/Final%20FMP%20III%202016%20to%202020_0.pdf">200,000 fishers</a> working from locally-made boats. </p>
<p>It’s widely believed that there are high levels of illegal fishing activity on and around the lake. <a href="https://www.eac.int/press-releases/488-768-190-fisheries-management-plan-iii-fmp-iii-for-lake-victoria-fisheries-launched-in-arusha">This includes</a> the use of nets with small mesh and illegal fishing gear to catch immature fish. Such fishing gear include monofilament nets, which are highly destructive if lost as they continue “fishing”, and beach seines, which are small mesh size nets and therefore are indiscriminate in what they catch. In addition, illegal methods, like tycoon fishing to beat fish into the net, may be carried out near breeding areas. </p>
<p>These methods threaten the sustainability of Lake Victoria’s fisheries. Of particular concern is the Nile perch industry, the most valuable of the three commercial fisheries in the lake. The majority of the catch is exported, contributing greatly to government revenue and local economies. Stocks and catches of perch have <a href="http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/scienceandhealth/Scientists-alarm-over-decline-Nile-perch-stock-in-Lake-Victoria/3073694-3488878-a92u0a/index.html">reduced</a>, from 340,000 tons in 1990 to about 251,000 in 2014. </p>
<p>To address illegal fishing, a <a href="http://toobigtoignore.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/final-Nunan-and-Onyango.pdf">comanagement approach was introduced</a> in the late 1990s. Many inland fisheries <a href="http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/16625/en">use this</a> arrangement whereby local resource users, including fishers, traders and processors, work with government, and other actors, like NGOs, to manage fisheries. It’s implemented in the hope that by involving the users of the resource, it will encourage more sustainable practices. It is also used when the state doesn’t have the capacity to manage fisheries, including enforcing regulations, on its own. </p>
<p>However, there’s little evidence that the introduction of comanagement has led to a reduction in illegalities – and one of the reasons for this is corruption. </p>
<p>We did <a href="https://www.thecommonsjournal.org/articles/10.18352/ijc.827/">research</a> to find out how corruption affects the comanagement system of Lake Victoria fisheries. We were concerned that comanagement was said to be failing, as illegalities were still widespread, yet there was no link made between corruption and illegal fishing in lake management plans. We believed corruption to be systemic and strongly linked to illegal fishing practices. </p>
<p>Our fears were confirmed. We found that it is a major enabler of illegalities; <a href="https://www.u4.no/publications/illegal-unreported-and-unregulated-fishing-and-corruption/">from</a> paying a bribe to prevent gear from being seized, to receiving advance information on patrols from government officers to avoid arrest. By encouraging illegal fishing to continue, corruption is undermining the comanagement system. </p>
<h2>Corruption and Lake Victoria fisheries</h2>
<p>The lake’s comanagement system is centred around 1,000 community-based beach management units, made up of all those that work in fisheries at a landing site – where fish is brought to shore. There are almost 1,500 landing sites, some are villages, others more temporary settlements. Beach management unit committees of between nine and 15 people are elected to work with government officers in registering fishers, gear, keeping landing sites clean and participating in patrols.</p>
<p>For our research, we conducted 133 interviews with leaders from the beach management units, boat owners, boat crew, fish processors and traders and fisheries officers. These were done at six landing sites in each country bordering the lake – Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. Respondents were not asked directly about corruption. Instead they were asked about their knowledge, and experience, of illegal fishing and many volunteered information about corruption. </p>
<p>Our research confirmed that corruption exists and perpetuates illegal activity. It’s part of the system and involves all stakeholder groups: fishers, fisheries officers, police and the judiciary. About half the boat owners and boat crew, though fewer fish processors and traders, referred to bribery and corruption when talking about their knowledge and experience of illegal fishing. They explained how enforcement officers demand bribes, rather than take offenders to court, or may arrange for regular payments in exchange for allowing the continued use of illegal gear.</p>
<p>Given the <a href="https://tikenya.org/east-african-bribery-index/">prevalence</a> of corruption within Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, it would be ambitious to expect the fisheries sector to be immune from corruption. But recognising that corruption exists, that it encourages illegal behaviour and affects the management of the lake is imperative to putting an end to illegal fishing. </p>
<h2>How corruption affects co-management</h2>
<p>Corruption affects co-management in at least three ways. </p>
<ul>
<li><p>Committee members become discouraged from enforcing regulations when enforcement officers, such as government fisheries staff and police officers, actively seek bribes and return seized gear. </p></li>
<li><p>Cases were reported of government fisheries staff interfering in the election of committee members. </p></li>
<li><p>Corruption among committee members made enforcement impossible and discouraged compliance amongst other fishers.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>There are also other incidents. For instance, politicians will intervene to stop enforcement during election periods. An <a href="https://www.newvision.co.ug/new_vision/news/1411741/museveni-probe-illegal-fishing">example</a> of this is when the Ugandan President, Yoweri Museveni, suspended the work of fisheries officers and beach management units during the last presidential election campaign. He claimed that corruption was rife. But no action was taken against anyone or measures adopted to prevent corruption linked to illegal activity and enforcement.</p>
<h2>Way forward</h2>
<p>Multiple measures would be needed to stop corruption within fisheries. </p>
<p>These could be relatively simple, for instance ensuring fisheries departments do their job in a timely way –- licensing boats can take years whereas it should be done quickly and regularly. The issue of how fisheries staff are monitored and supervised could also be discussed. For example, staff shouldn’t necessarily be in post at one location for a long time. </p>
<p>Ultimately, the use of land and water patrols, fines and arrests to enforce regulations are futile unless corruption is recognised, openly discussed and measures taken to address it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97812/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fiona Nunan receives funding from the Leverhulme Trust and the Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation programme, funded by the UK Natural Environment Research Council, Economic and Social Research Council and the Department for International Development.. </span></em></p>Urgent measures need to be adopted to prevent corruption linked to illegal fishing activity in and around Lake Victoria.Fiona Nunan, Professor of Environment and Development, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/915782018-02-28T13:48:24Z2018-02-28T13:48:24ZAfter Somali piracy, is sailing the Western Indian Ocean safe again?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208103/original/file-20180227-36693-17xkzb2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sailors from the French Navy ship "La Somme" board a small craft after a pirate attack on a French command and supply ship in 2010.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">REUTERS/HO/Stephane Dziaoba/Marine Nationale</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>This year marks the 10th anniversary of the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jan/09/piracy-somalia-us-navy">international campaign</a> against Somali piracy. Launched in 2008 following a severe escalation of piracy incidents in the Western Indian Ocean, international navies have operated in the region with a counter-piracy mandate for 10 years. </p>
<p>Significant investments have also been made in <a href="http://www.lessonsfrompiracy.net">building the capacity of regional states</a> to deal with maritime insecurity. International organisations under the umbrella of the United Nations, as well as donors such as the European Union, have helped build the capacity of coastguards and other law enforcement agencies. This has included giving them the capability to do their work, improving the legal justice sector and boosting operations at sea.</p>
<p>Has the international campaign against Somali piracy been successful? Is the threat gone? Is sailing the Western Indian Ocean safe again?</p>
<p>The number of attacks has certainly declined. But the risk of being attacked at sea remains. </p>
<p>Hopes were raised that the piracy threat had been successfully managed after no new incidents were reported after 2012. But <a href="https://theconversation.com/somali-sea-hijack-is-a-warning-signal-the-pirates-are-down-but-not-out-74814">these hopes came to an abrupt end in 2017</a> when there was a spike in the number of attacks. <a href="https://www.ukmto.org/-/media/ukmto/mievom-notes-pdf/indian-ocean/2017/dec/20171128-mievom-cmf-update.pdf">Seven events close to Somalia’s shores</a> were reported during the year.</p>
<p>On top of this, other factors are contributing to making waters that are home to one of the major shipping lanes of the world’s economy insecure. For example, the Western Indian Ocean is now the <a href="https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2015/June/afghan-heroin-now-also-being-trafficked-through-africa_-new-unodc-report.html">major smuggling route for Afghan heroin</a>. </p>
<p>And fish stocks on the East African coast are threatened with extinction because of <a href="https://stopillegalfishing.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Illegal-Fishing-Evidence-and-Analysis-WEB.pdf">illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing</a>. </p>
<p>In addition, the <a href="https://www.ukmto.org/-/media/ukmto/mievom-notes-pdf/indian-ocean/2017/dec/20171128-mievom-cmf-update.pdf">conflict in Yemen</a> is contributing to making the maritime domain a higher risk area for international shipping. </p>
<h2>The wider scope</h2>
<p>The international community is aware of these broader maritime insecurity issues. So it has invested heavily in building the capacity of regional countries. The European Union, states like the US, Norway, Denmark and Turkey, and the United Nations agencies have launched ambitious initiatives to help countries manage the challenges at sea. </p>
<p>These include helping draft new policies and laws, training in boat handling or intelligence gathering, as well as looking at how agencies can work more closely together, and beyond borders. </p>
<p>Initially these investments focused exclusively on piracy. But the scope has widened to include a broader range of maritime security threats, such as smuggling and fishery crimes.</p>
<p>But have these programmes helped countries make progress? A new report by the <a href="http://www.safeseas.net/">Safe Seas project</a> launched at a <a href="http://www.safeseas.net/symposium/">symposium</a> in Nairobi argues that there has been significant progress. But, the report adds, the delivery of capacity building needs to become more effective. </p>
<p>The report <a href="http://www.safeseas.net/best-practice-toolkit/">argues</a> that countries in the region need to become more willing to take the lead in capacity building. Many don’t have national maritime security strategies, investment plans or dedicated coordination bodies for working with donors. Such steps are vital to ensure that receiving countries are in the driving seat and informed decisions are being made about what will work and what won’t. </p>
<p>The report also proposes that maritime security governance needs to become more efficiently structured through national and regional coordination committees. Maritime security is a complex task. It involves many different agencies, ranging from coast guards, fisheries to customs and border guards or environmental agencies. These agencies must work closely together. They must also coordinate well with all users of the sea, such as the shipping industry, or the leisure and tourism industry. Only together can maritime insecurity be fought and the prospects of the blue economy be utilised. </p>
<p>Finally, the report argues that information sharing mechanisms and joint task forces and coordination between international donors and receivers of capacity building need to be strengthened.</p>
<h2>Transferable lessons</h2>
<p>There is no end to piracy in sight, and in some ways maritime threats have increased. Nevertheless the report suggests that effective capacity building that incorporates tools such as maritime security strategies, or coordination bodies presents the key to making the Western Indian Ocean safe. </p>
<p>This is not only important for this region. The lessons of capacity building are directly transferable elsewhere: to the Mediterranean where the <a href="https://theconversation.com/libya-is-not-turkey-why-the-eu-plan-to-stop-mediterranean-migration-is-a-human-rights-concern-72823">human trafficking tragedy continues</a> and the Gulf of Guinea where <a href="http://www.fak.dk/publikationer/Documents/Maritime%20Security%20in%20the%20Gulf%20of%20Guinea.pdf">piracy remains rampant</a>. </p>
<p>In both regions international agencies and donors have started to develop assistance and training programmes similar to those in the Western Indian Ocean. The lessons could also apply to Southeast Asia where not only piracy but a range of other maritime security challenges, such as extremist violence and people smuggling, are on the rise.</p>
<p>While not a quick fix, if capacity building is done right the oceans will be safer again.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91578/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christian Bueger receives funding from the British Academy GF16007, he has also benefitted from support by SIGLA at the University of Stellenbosch.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Timothy Edmunds receives funding from the British Academy GF 16007. He has also benefited from support from the European Union Horizon 2020 programme ‘Preventing and Responding to Conflict: Developing EU Civilian Capabilities for a Sustainable Peace (EU-CIVCAP)’, award no. 653227.</span></em></p>The number of piracy attacks has certainly declined. But the risk of being attacked at sea remains.Christian Bueger, Professor of International Relations, Cardiff UniversityTimothy Edmunds, Professor of International Security at University of Bristol and Director of the Centre for Global Insecurity, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/869472018-01-25T10:10:39Z2018-01-25T10:10:39ZThe rise of Indonesian nationalism in response to illegal fishing<p>Amid the South China Sea dispute and the sinking of foreign fishing vessels, the narratives of nationalism in the national media have strengthened over the past three years. </p>
<p>Illegal fishing occurs in many places in Indonesia’s vast ocean territory, not only in South China Sea. But it has been closely linked to the South China Sea dispute. Some news coverage reporting on illegal fishing during the President Joko “Jokowi” Widodo administration emphasises “our” sovereignty and the future of “our” nation. Several national media outlets — Kompas, The Jakarta Post, Jakarta Globe, CNN Indonesia, and BBC Indonesia — have shown a shift in their coverage of South China Sea disputes. </p>
<h2>From law to defence</h2>
<p>My recent <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aspp.12309/full">study</a> found that the South China Sea disputes were initially portrayed in mainstream media as political or law related topics (45.8%). However, in 2016 several incidents occurred on the disputed maritime borders and the dominant media coverage changed to portray the issue as defence related (48.4%). </p>
<p>Another significant change in the media coverage was the increasing reliance on military personnel as sources of information. In the first year, beginning in October 2014, they represented 10.9% of sources which rose to 15.06% in the second year. Former Indonesian Military (TNI) commander Gen. Gatot Nurmantyo was the most dominant source.</p>
<p>On October 29 2017, Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Ministry sank 17 foreign vessels in Indonesian waters. Ten of them were sunk in Natuna waters, a section of Indonesia’s exclusive economic zone which overlaps with the South China Sea. In a <a href="http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/10/30/indonesia-sinks-17-more-fishing-ships.html">news article</a> published by The Jakarta Post, she was quoted saying “the sinking is evidence that we are dedicated to safeguarding our waters for the future of our nation”. On the same day, the minister also highlighted the need for <a href="http://www.thejakartapost.com/adv/2017/10/29/susi-indonesia-must-boost-its-naval-defense-system.html">Indonesia to boost its naval defence system</a> in order to protect its waters and sovereignty. </p>
<p>Only days before, The Jakarta Post published an <a href="http://www.thejakartapost.com/adv/2017/10/29/sriwijayas-trick-of-the-trade-in-maintaining-maritime-sovereignty.html">article</a> reflecting on the successes of the ancient kingdom of Sriwijaya. The advertorial was part of the <em>Jalur Rempah</em> (Spice Trade) campaign on Indonesia’s old maritime trade routes. It reminisces about the glorious era for the kingdom and how it maximised the potential of the sea. </p>
<p>Beginning by quoting a common folk song, “Nenek Moyangku Orang Pelaut” (My Ancestors were the Sea People), the author continues to argue that since the demise of Sriwijaya kingdom Indonesia seems to have lost its maritime strength.</p>
<p>Furthermore, The Jakarta Post, <a href="http://jalurrempah.com">a media partner of the Jalur Rempah campaign</a>, connects the Sriwijaya story to the importance of protecting maritime sovereignty. It implies the minister’s tough sinking policy will strengthen Indonesia’s identity as a maritime country.</p>
<h2>Nationalism appears more under Jokowi</h2>
<p>Nationalism narratives in the mainstream media began to appear more in the first year of Jokowi’s administration. Articles in Kompas widely used words relating to hegemony and maritime colonialism. One such example is opinion piece by senior Kompas journalist Rene Pattiradjawane, “<a href="https://printsatumedia.wordpress.com/2015/05/06/rene-l-pattiradjawane-diplomasi-maritim-konsesi-asia/">Diplomasi Maritim Konsesi Asia</a>” (Maritime Diplomacy of Asian Concession) published in 2015. The article wrote about gunboat diplomacy and linked the story to maritime colonialism. </p>
<p>Nationalism is, in essence, a consciousness and an expression of belonging to a nation. Narratives of nationalism often operate to challenge colonialism and demand greater international recognition of Indonesia’s power and status.</p>
<p>According to a book entitled <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Global-Media-Spectacle-News-Over/dp/079145472X"><em>Global Media Spectacle: News War over Hong Kong</em></a>,through the organisation of its coverage, the media can frame the nation as an extension of family . What’s more, family-nation narratives can be woven into media narratives. <a href="https://books.google.co.id/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Nbel5MOAnDsC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=The+making+of+a+European+public+sphere:+Media+discourse+and+political+contention&ots=yncdnYP_rU&sig=S8Z09pNTdVyr1MjsrrUO4pncE6A&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=The%20making%20of%20a%20European%20public%20sphere%3A%20Media%20discourse%20and%20political%20contention&f=false">Ruud Koopmans from Humboldt University of Berlin and Paul Statham from University of Sussex</a> said the framing of “us and them” is also significant as a defence of political sovereignty and as an expression of civic nationalism. </p>
<p>Although foreign vessels from various countries conducted illegal fishing activities, the issue was dominantly presented in the media as a defence issue in relation to China. At this point, China can be considered Indonesia’s biggest security challenger as well as its largest trading partner.</p>
<p>In another case, to mark Indonesia Independence Day in 2016, 60 foreign ships were seized and symbolically sunk. They were sunk at eight different locations. However, <a href="http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2016/08/17/indonesia-marks-independence-day-by-sinking-illegal-ships-.html">the coverage</a> of this celebration was linked to territorial disputes with China. The article stated the Jokowi government’s hard-line stance on combating illegal fishing was part of showing neighbouring countries that Indonesia was in control of its vast territory. In this statement China was singled out as an example.</p>
<p>The nationalistic symbolism behind the Natuna Sea is also evident in the renaming of part of <a href="http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/07/18/indonesia-shrugs-off-chinas-protest-over-north-natuna-seas-name.html">South China Sea into the North Natuna Sea</a> by the Indonesian government in July 2017. Similarly, in 1963 former President Sukarno renamed West New Guinea as Irian and Borneo as Kalimantan, endorsing Indonesian nationalism.</p>
<p>Over the past three years nationalism in the media has risen when covering issues of illegal fishing and the Natuna islands. The issues were often framed in relation to tensions in South China Sea. This nationalistic stance, had manifested itself through government actions against illegal fishing, such as the <a href="http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2016/08/15/govt-to-relocate-fishermen-to-natuna-to-strengthen-sovereignty.html">relocation of fisherman</a> to Natuna.</p>
<p>It is worth considering whether nationalism will have negative implications for regional stability. Obviously so when nationalism reaches a frenetic level, however Indonesia would not want it to affect the country’s reputation as a respected and honest broker in the region.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86947/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lupita Wijaya tidak bekerja, menjadi konsultan, memiliki saham, atau menerima dana dari perusahaan atau organisasi mana pun yang akan mengambil untung dari artikel ini, dan telah mengungkapkan bahwa ia tidak memiliki afiliasi selain yang telah disebut di atas.</span></em></p>Narratives of nationalism has risen following news about illegal fishing by countries including China in South China Sea. Will nationalistic pride affect regional stability?Lupita Wijaya, Lecturer, Universitas Multimedia NusantaraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.