tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/international-standards-20637/articlesInternational standards – The Conversation2020-12-23T14:54:14Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1518192020-12-23T14:54:14Z2020-12-23T14:54:14ZKeeping it local: The story behind a made-in-Saskatchewan COVID-19 emergency-use ventilator<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374468/original/file-20201211-21-1b33szf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=36%2C48%2C3778%2C2951&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The EUV-SK1, developed by One Health Medical Technologies with subject matter experts from the University of Saskatchewan.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(RMD Engineering, Inc.)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The University of Saskatchewan’s aspirations to be “<a href="https://plan.usask.ca">the university the world needs</a>” took on tangible meaning in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. For our colleagues who are health-care professionals or researchers in the areas of infectious diseases and vaccine development, their contributions to the pandemic response were readily apparent. What about a veterinarian and a lawyer? </p>
<p>In March 2020, we — a vet and a lawyer — each faced disruptions to our sabbatical plans. Instead, we found an opportunity to apply our expertise in comparative science, law and <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/one-health">One Health research</a> to a local COVID-19 project. We worked collaboratively with One Health Medical Technologies, a Saskatoon-based company that <a href="https://news.usask.ca/media-release-pages/2020/usask-partners-on-a-made-in-saskatchewan-ventilator-project.php">designed and built an emergency-use ventilator</a> (EUV-SK1), now certified by Health Canada. </p>
<h2>The project and its main challenges</h2>
<p>The pandemic has highlighted an <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/7406308/coronavirus-inside-supply-chain-crisis/">over-reliance on the global supply chain</a>. In addition to the increased demand in <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-global-effort-to-tackle-the-coronavirus-face-mask-shortage-133656">masks and other personal protective equipment</a>, medical devices and supplies for diagnostic testing, the main reason for the shortages were outsourced production and the need to ship supplies and equipment all over the world during a global lockdown. A marked <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/200115/dq200115a-eng.htm">decline in Canada’s manufacturing sector</a> had put Canadians at risk, yet the barriers of entry into medical device manufacturing are steep.</p>
<p>The medical device industry is extensively regulated. Each country has its own regulations that need to be met before a medical device can enter the market. In Canada, <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-health-products/drug-products/announcements/interim-order-importation-sale-medical-devices-covid-19.html">Health Canada makes those determinations</a>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376324/original/file-20201222-17-1js7joe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A medical dummy lying on a table with two ventilators behind it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376324/original/file-20201222-17-1js7joe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376324/original/file-20201222-17-1js7joe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376324/original/file-20201222-17-1js7joe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376324/original/file-20201222-17-1js7joe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376324/original/file-20201222-17-1js7joe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376324/original/file-20201222-17-1js7joe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376324/original/file-20201222-17-1js7joe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Saskatoon-based company designed and built an emergency-use ventilator.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(RMD Engineering, Inc.)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Each step involved in bringing a medical device from concept to completion — including design, material selection, building and testing a prototype and third-party testing — is heavily regulated. Patient safety and risk mitigation are governing principles. </p>
<p>In response to the increased global demand for ventilators and other medical supplies, Health Canada released an <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-health-products/drug-products/announcements/interim-order-importation-sale-medical-devices-covid-19.html">interim order</a> to temporarily accelerate this process that created space for new manufacturers to enter the market. </p>
<h2>An interdisciplinary local team effort</h2>
<p>Finding solutions to the challenges of human movement restrictions, business closures and supply shortages were some of the main principles applied in this project initiated and led by One Health Medical Technologies (part of the RMD Group of companies), which resulted in the EUV-SK1. Reducing the number of moving parts inside the ventilator, relying on in-house production capacity and capability, as well as partnering with local experts from the Saskatchewan Health Authority and USask, helped to make the EUV-SK1 a reality. </p>
<p>The user-friendliness of a medical device is directly linked to patient safety, so a respiratory therapist and an intensive care nurse were integral parts of the project from the beginning. Further subject matter expertise was contributed from the <a href="https://medicine.usask.ca">University of Saskatchewan’s college of medicine</a>, its <a href="https://medicine.usask.ca/respiratoryresearch/">respiratory research centre</a> and the <a href="https://engineering.usask.ca/index.php">college of engineering</a>. </p>
<p>Every stage of medical device design and manufacturing is <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-health-products/medical-devices/standards/list-recognized-standards-medical-devices-guidance.html#s2">governed by standards</a>. Standards further dictate how and under which conditions the device must function. The latter is verified through third-party testing. </p>
<h2>Academics adding value in the ‘real world’</h2>
<p>Following the standards and government regulations is essential on the path to medical device authorization. That’s why the project needed a law professor: I (Patricia) assisted the engineers, designers, programmers and tradespeople involved in the project with understanding what those requirements were, and helped them communicate how they had ensured that the EUV-SK1 met those requirements in the Health Canada submission. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376323/original/file-20201222-19-1g6srje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="10 ventilators on shelves against a wall" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376323/original/file-20201222-19-1g6srje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376323/original/file-20201222-19-1g6srje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376323/original/file-20201222-19-1g6srje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376323/original/file-20201222-19-1g6srje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376323/original/file-20201222-19-1g6srje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376323/original/file-20201222-19-1g6srje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376323/original/file-20201222-19-1g6srje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Each step involved in bringing a medical device from concept to completion is heavily regulated.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(RMD Engineering, Inc.)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Every medical device needs to be accompanied by instructions for use and training resources. This is where the project required a veterinarian’s skill set. </p>
<p>As a faculty member from the Western College of Veterinary Medicine, I (Julia) led the team that put together the ventilator’s operation manual and training resources for health-care professionals. My research and clinical interests include lung disease in horses. I applied my background as a teacher and clinician scientist to the instructions and training manual, as well as to designing and organizing the pre-market performance and usability testing of the ventilator, using a commercially available breathing simulator.</p>
<p>Usability testing is important because it prevents errors in use and ensures patient safety. Test lung parameters and ventilator settings are provided by an international standard for safety and performance testing of ventilators (<a href="https://www.iso.org/standard/68844.html">ISO 80601-2-80</a>). Results of performance testing show the accuracy of the ventilator, which is then included in the instructions. </p>
<p>This project illustrates how academics can readily pivot and apply their skill set within a broader context when needed. This gave us the unique opportunity to work with an innovative, talented and diverse group of people on a made-in-Saskatchewan project.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151819/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julia Bettina Montgomery worked with One Health Medical Technologies during her sabbatical as described in this article. She received funding from Mitacs for previous research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patricia L Farnese does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>How a veterinarian and a law professor joined a multidisciplinary team to help produce a made-in-Saskatchewan emergency-use ventilator during the COVID-19 pandemic.Julia Bettina Montgomery, Associate Professor in Large Animal Internal Medicine, University of SaskatchewanPatricia L Farnese, Associate professor, College of Law, University of SaskatchewanLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1127072019-03-03T07:28:46Z2019-03-03T07:28:46ZSouth Africa is failing the rights of children to education and health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261625/original/file-20190301-110150-p6fmpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children who aren't South African citizens struggle to access affordable health and education.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Is South Africa regularly denying children their right to access education as well as health care on the grounds either of petty bureaucracy or by a misinterpretation of the country’s laws and international obligations?</p>
<p>The answer is yes. </p>
<p>The country places limitations on children’s access to education and affordable health care. This is particularly true of migrant children. These limitations are, in my view, unconstitutional and in violation of South Africa’s international obligations. For example, South Africa is bound by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. In the interpretation of this convention, the United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights <a href="https://www.refworld.org/docid/4a60961f2.html">has emphasised that</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>all children within a state, including those with an undocumented status, have a right to receive education and access to adequate food and affordable health care.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>However, South Africa isn’t living up to this promise. </p>
<p>What’s clear is that South Africa’s current school admission policy has a <a href="https://city-press.news24.com/Voices/thousands-of-undocumented-children-being-deprived-of-basic-right-to-education-20190206">serious effect</a> on the access to basic education of both children who are South African citizens and those who are foreign nationals or stateless.</p>
<p>The challenges for those who are not South African citizens and don’t have the required permits are compounded by section 39 of the <a href="https://www.halfloop.com/immigration-visa-rsa">Immigration Act 13 of 2002</a>. This states that a “learning institution” may not provide “training or instruction” to an “illegal foreigner”. Principals of schools that enrol a child who is an “illegal foreigner” can be charged and may face penalties.</p>
<p>Children who are not South African citizens often also struggle to access affordable health care through what’s been called <a href="https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2018-03-29-medical-xenophobia-public-hospitals-deny-migrants-health-care-services-sahrc/">“medical xenophobia”</a>. </p>
<p>A recent Constitutional Court ruling gives some hope that the requirements of birth certificates and study permits for children to enrol in school will eventually be relaxed. However, litigation is still ongoing and as with access to affordable health care, there’s often a discrepancy between what the law provides and the actual situation on the ground.</p>
<h2>Denial of rights</h2>
<p>On 10 December 2018, the Grahamstown High Court gave an order dismissing an urgent application by the Centre for Child Law that 37 children should be admitted to a public school pending final determination of a <a href="https://eduinfoafrica.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/application-vol-1.pdf">case instituted by the Centre in 2017</a>, in which the applicants, among others, requested an order that: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>no learner may be excluded from a public school on the basis that he or she does not have an identity number, permit or passport. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The 37 children were among the many children whose guardians have not managed to secure the <a href="https://www.msn.com/en-za/news/featured/the-undocumented-children-denied-the-right-to-go-to-school/ar-BBSyU50?li=BBqfWMJ">paperwork needed</a> to be allowed to register in a school under the 1998 Admission Policy for Ordinary Public Schools. </p>
<p>On 15 February 2019 the Constitutional Court granted leave of appeal against the High Court order and overturned it, ordering that the children should be admitted and enrolled in school by 1 March. However, this order does not finally decide the issue of requirements for enrolling in school as the case instituted in 2017 is still pending before the High Court. </p>
<p>The right to health care is provided for in article 27 of the Constitution. The <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/a61-03.pdf">National Health Act 61 of 2003</a> provides for free health care at public facilities for children under six years old, unless a child is covered by private medical insurance. </p>
<p>According to the <a href="http://www.health.gov.za/index.php/uniform-patient-fee-schedule/category/108-u2012">Uniform Patient Fee Schedule</a> all non-South African citizens – except those with permanent or temporary residence and citizens of the member states of the Southern African Development Community who “enter the (the republic) illegally” – are classified as full-paying patients. Children without the required permits who are over six years old, who lack medical insurance and are not from a Southern African Development Community member state therefore lack access to subsidised health care.</p>
<h2>International obligations</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/73/195">Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration</a> was adopted in December 2018 with South Africa’s support. Among other things, the global compact calls on states to adopt child sensitive migration policies. It also promotes international legal obligations in relation to the rights of the child, and upholds the principle of the best interests of the child at all times.</p>
<p>The principle of the best interest of the child was first set out in an international treaty 30 years ago in the <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx">United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child</a>. It was reiterated in the <a href="http://www.achpr.org/files/instruments/child/achpr_instr_charterchild_eng.pdf">African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child</a>. South Africa is party to both these treaties. In addition, the <a href="http://www.justice.gov.za/legislation/constitution/SAConstitution-web-eng.pdf">South African Constitution</a> provides that: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>a child’s best interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>A child is defined as anyone below the age of 18.</p>
<p>The right-holder in the bill of rights in the Constitution, is with few exceptions “everyone”. Clearly this includes not only South African citizens but everyone who is in the country. Most rights are not absolute and may be limited under section 36 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>in terms of law of general application to the extent that the limitation is reasonable and justifiable in an open and democratic society based on human dignity, equality and freedom. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The Immigration Act is a “law of general application”. However, the child’s best interest is “of paramount importance”. </p>
<p>In my view, the rights of children to basic education and affordable health care in South Africa can’t be limited and “everyone” must be read to include every child, irrespective of their immigration status. When it comes to access to health care the situation is even clearer as there are no limitations set out in the country’s laws. The Uniform Patient Fee Schedule should therefore be revised to provide for subsidised health care for all children whose guardians cannot afford medical insurance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/112707/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Magnus Killander receives funding from the National Research Foundation. </span></em></p>South Africa is violating its own Constitution, and international obligations when it comes to undocumented children.Magnus Killander, Professor, Centre for Human Rights in the Faculty of Law, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/790772017-06-12T13:20:56Z2017-06-12T13:20:56ZThis standard will have more signatories than the Paris Agreement – but you’ve probably never heard of it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173340/original/file-20170612-10232-c4830v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/part-engineering-project-414291772?src=3srBqr5u-9hixrMnCOZ74w-1-0">RomanR/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Try to talk to the average person on the street about international safety standards and they will probably give you a blank look. Product and manufacturing rules and regulations have never been the most exciting conversation starter. But standards are actually incredibly important. Whether you realise it or not they shape the world that we live in, and how we interact with it. And Standard <a href="http://www.iso9001.com/">ISO9001</a> is one that affects every single item you use, whether at home, in work, or elsewhere. </p>
<p>Standards don’t exactly have a small remit: as mentioned, these rules apply to all products that we use, and dictate how they are designed. They apply to everything from the latest technology like smartphones and laptops to the more mundane things in life. The house you live in, for example – the biggest single purchase that many of us will make in our lifetime – has to conform to dozens of rules on things you might not even consider, like the quality of glass used in windows. </p>
<p>Basically put, standards are guidelines and documents that tell companies what they must do to achieve accreditation. In effect it’s like an organisation passing an examination and gaining a qualification. These standards cover a whole range of things, from the way a company makes sure its products meet a certain quality (ISO9001 standard), to environmental management (ISO14001 standard), and health and safety (ISO45001 standard). </p>
<p>Admittedly, it’s still not the most juiciest of topics. But these global rules make sure companies across the world are manufacturing and building everything from contact lenses to oil rigs in a way that is not only safe, but of the highest quality. In effect standards act as a benchmark and indicate that a company is serious about what it does and how it does it. </p>
<p>And though many people aren’t aware that these specific standards exist – who can blame them because there are 22,000 of them that apply all across the world after all – most will agree that making sure businesses design and deliver products and services in the best way for the world, and their customers is of paramount importance.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173338/original/file-20170612-10193-1352kp9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173338/original/file-20170612-10193-1352kp9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173338/original/file-20170612-10193-1352kp9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173338/original/file-20170612-10193-1352kp9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173338/original/file-20170612-10193-1352kp9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173338/original/file-20170612-10193-1352kp9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173338/original/file-20170612-10193-1352kp9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Without ISOs, you could never be certain what you buy is up to scratch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pressmaster/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Today, manufacturers all over the world are expected to stick to the International Standards Organisation’s quality management standard ISO9001. This governs the management of all quality processes from buying in materials, processing them and handing the finished item over to customers. Each stage and step is controlled so that consumers can be assured the company that is selling to them has the credibility and processes in place to offer the best quality. </p>
<p>However, there is one big drawback to these kinds of regulations: they can be quite complex for a layman to understand. A laptop computer for example is supported by 251 technical standards alongside ISO9001 which govern the quality processes employed when it is being assembled. </p>
<p>Also, no standards are set in stone forever: understandably they change and evolve to meet the demands of new technology, and changes in the way that businesses work. Despite this complexity, millions of businesses worldwide have become certified to ISO9001 – the most popular standard in the world. Without this standard it is unlikely that any business would have survived.</p>
<p>Just think of a smartphone: it wasn’t that long ago that some of its features, like touchscreen or fingerprint recognition, were regarded as new and novel technologies. Without a new standard to ensure that companies were using the best tech to begin with, improving its features would have been a hard task. Features would not have evolved and the quality of the product would not be as high. By having a rule like ISO9001 in place, companies like Apple, Samsung or the like can build on the best specifications and create new ways of harnessing innovation that keep up with what demanding customers want and need. Without ISO9001, it would be near impossible to ensure that all the products on offer from a company tomorrow are better than today’s. </p>
<p>But times are changing, and the ISO is now seeking to support ISO9001 by giving more help to managers with the guideline ISO9004. This standard will help businesses design the best processes to create new products, and thrive in an international marketplace.</p>
<p>When implemented, over 200 countries will sign up to ISO9004. By comparison, only 175 countries signed up to the Paris Agreement on climate change <a href="http://newsroom.unfccc.int/paris-agreement/175-states-sign-paris-agreement/">in 2016</a>. And, unlike some international treaties, no extra domestic laws are needed to ratify ISO9004, so as soon as the standard is signed, every company within those 200 countries will be expected to stick to it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79077/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas Rich does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>ISOs rule how people interact with the world.Nicholas Rich, Professor in Operations Management, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/668962017-03-07T03:15:09Z2017-03-07T03:15:09ZWhat fax machines can teach us about electric cars<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/158130/original/image-20170223-32714-jo6vy9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">No common standard: CHAdeMO, CCS and Tesla Supercharger plugs.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CHAdeMO_Plug_VacavilleDavisStDC2.jpg">CHAdeMO: C-CarTom; CCS: Hadhuey; Tesla: Paul Sladen</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine if you could gas up your GM car only at GM gas stations. Or if you had to find a gas station servicing cars made from 2005 to 2012 to fill up your 2011 vehicle. It would be inconvenient and frustrating, right? This is the problem electric vehicle owners face every day when trying to recharge their cars. The industry’s failure, so far, to create a universal charging system demonstrates why setting standards is so important – and so difficult.</p>
<p>When done right, standards can both be invisible and make our lives immeasurably easier and simpler. Any brand of toaster can plug into any electric outlet. Pulling up to a gas station, you can be confident that the pump’s filler gun will fit into your car’s fuel tank opening. When there are competing standards, users become afraid of choosing an obsolete or “losing” technology.</p>
<p>Most standards, like electrical plugs, are so simple we don’t even really notice them. And yet the stakes are high: Poor standards won’t be widely adopted, defeating the purpose of standardization in the first place. Good standards, by contrast, will ensure compatibility among competing firms and evolve as technology advances.</p>
<p><a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/content/faxed">My own research into the history of fax machines</a> illustrates this well, and provides a useful analogy for today’s development of electric cars. In the 1960s and 1970s, two poor standards for faxing resulted in a small market filled with machines that could not communicate with each other. In 1980, however, a new standard sparked two decades of rapid growth grounded in compatible machines built by competing manufacturers who battled for a share of an increasing market. Consumers benefited from better fax machines that seamlessly worked with each other, vastly expanding their utility.</p>
<p>At present, there is not a single standard for plugs to recharge electric vehicles. That means that people who drive electric cars can’t rely on refueling at any of a wide range of nearly ubiquitous stations on street corners the way gas-vehicle drivers can. This creates an additional barrier, slowing the adoption of electric cars unnecessarily. Several potential standards are competing in the marketplace now; as we saw with fax systems, the sooner one standard becomes dominant, the sooner the electric vehicle market will take off.</p>
<h2>Making a new standard</h2>
<p>The two basic approaches to creating standards involve letting the market decide or forging a consensus among participants. Both have benefits and risks. A free-market approach often splits a young market into several competing and incompatible systems. Believing in their technical or commercial superiority, firms gamble that they will create de facto standards by dominating the market.</p>
<p>In reality, as my research into the first two attempts at standards for fax machines in the 1960s and 1970s showed, competing incompatible equipment can slow the growth of an entire market. In the case of the fax, poorly written standards attempted to codify into common use certain fax machine manufacturers’ methods for connecting two machines and sending information between them. As a result, many firms sold machines that could not work with other companies’ devices. Some manufacturers even deliberately made their machines incompatible to lock their customers into their equipment.</p>
<p>No single firm dominated the marketplace, and nobody agreed to use a single common standard. As a result, the fax world consisted of several smaller self-contained markets, not one larger market. And many potential users didn’t use faxes at all, preferring to wait until an obvious winning standard emerged.</p>
<h2>Third time’s the charm</h2>
<p>Crowning that winner can take many years. So can creating standards by consensus. In the meantime, the spread of fax technology stagnated.</p>
<p>But then a force outside the marketplace began to call for a real fax standard. In 1977, the Japanese government <a href="http://ethw.org/Milestones:International_Standardization_of_G3_Facsimile,_1980">pushed competing Japanese firms and telephone corporations to cooperate</a> and create one standard. The government then convinced the International Telecommunications Union to adopt this as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/fax">worldwide standard</a> in 1980. What ensued was the fax boom of the 1980s and 1990s.</p>
<p>This standard found two keys to its success. First, it was royalty-free, meaning any company could adhere to the standard without paying a fee to its creators. (A similar approach decades earlier proved essential for the adoption of <a href="https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#!iso:std:59673:en">standard dimensions for shipping containers</a>.) The Japanese officials and companies calculated that the profits from a larger market would more than compensate for any lost income from the lack of licensing fees.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157957/original/image-20170222-6406-1llb7v3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157957/original/image-20170222-6406-1llb7v3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157957/original/image-20170222-6406-1llb7v3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157957/original/image-20170222-6406-1llb7v3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157957/original/image-20170222-6406-1llb7v3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157957/original/image-20170222-6406-1llb7v3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157957/original/image-20170222-6406-1llb7v3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157957/original/image-20170222-6406-1llb7v3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A modern fax machine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ASamfax.jpg">Johnnyt</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Second, the standard was not so restrictive as to prevent fax machine manufacturers from introducing other features – such as faster transmission. That allowed companies to compete on more than just price. The result was a continued flow of new, more capable and cheaper machines that attracted new users.</p>
<h2>The need for a standard for electric cars</h2>
<p>Successfully commercializing electric vehicles will similarly depend on the development, acceptance and implementation of standards. So far, just as happened with fax machines, incompatible chargers have slowed the spread of electric cars. </p>
<p>Depending on the type of car and its age, it may have <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fast-charge-plugs-do-not-fit-all-electric-cars/">one of four incompatible chargers</a>. If the charging station you pull up to lacks the appropriate charger for your car, you are out of luck.</p>
<p>People considering buying electric cars already worry about <a href="https://theconversation.com/range-anxiety-todays-electric-cars-can-cover-vast-majority-of-daily-u-s-driving-needs-63909">how far they could travel between recharge stops</a>. Then they realize that they can’t use just any charging station – the way a gasoline-powered vehicle can use any gas station. That doesn’t relieve their concerns and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720814546372">dampens sales of electric vehicles</a>.</p>
<h2>Developing a standard</h2>
<p>Like fax machines, <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/will-incompatible-standards-slow-down-electric-cars/">electric vehicles’ incompatibility</a> reflected both evolving technology and groups of manufacturers promoting their own systems in hopes of dominating the marketplace. Already, the <a href="http://www.evelectricity.com/charging/">first generation</a> of chargers is essentially obsolete because they take so long to recharge a car battery.</p>
<p>The real battle is among the three <a href="https://longtailpipe.com/ebooks/green-transportation-guide-buying-owning-charging-plug-in-vehicles-of-all-kinds/electric-car-charging-advice-systems/ev-dc-fast-charging-standards-chademo-ccs-sae-combo-tesla-supercharger-etc/">incompatible</a> <a href="http://www.electriccarpledge.com/electric-vehicle-resources/electric-car-plug-types/">fast charging systems</a> available in the United States: the Japanese <a href="http://www.chademo.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/brochure_04.2016.compressed.pdf">CHAdeMO</a>, the <a href="http://www.charinev.org/about-us/mission/">European-American CCS</a> and <a href="https://www.tesla.com/supercharger">Tesla Supercharger</a>. (China is developing its <a href="https://longtailpipe.com/2014/02/13/chinas-electric-car-fast-charging-gb/">own standard</a>.) </p>
<p>CHAdeMO works only with Japanese and Korean vehicles like the Nissan LEAF and Kia Soul. CCS works only with European and American cars like the BMW i3 and Chevy Spark. The third system, Tesla’s Supercharger, works only with Tesla’s own cars. Tesla sells its customers a US$450 <a href="https://greentransportation.info/ev-charging/range-confidence/chap8-tech/fast-charge-adapters.html">adapter to use a CHAdeMO</a> charger but does not offer adapters that would let CHAdeMO or CCS vehicles use Tesla charging stations.</p>
<h2>The end of the battle?</h2>
<p>This three-way split is changing. In the last few years, Tesla has veered from its initial exclusivity to cooperation. In 2014, Tesla announced it would <a href="https://www.tesla.com/blog/all-our-patent-are-belong-you">share its patents royalty-free</a> – including its charger and plug designs – to encourage the spread of electric vehicle technology. In 2015, the company agreed to make its cars and charging stations compatible with <a href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/tesla-to-modify-cars-to-meet-china-charging-standards-1431412891">China’s new standard</a>, possibly by using adapters at charging stations. </p>
<p>And in 2016, Tesla <a href="https://chargedevs.com/newswire/tesla-joins-charging-interface-initiative-what-does-it-mean/">joined CharIN</a>, an industry group promoting the CCS standard. That raised the tempting possibility that the company might allow CCS charging at Tesla stations, probably by providing adapters. It also threw Tesla’s significant support behind an effort to create a new standard for even faster charging. This could lead CCS to market dominance, effectively establishing a standard by out-competing CHAdeMO.</p>
<p>Fax machines needed three generations of standards before real compatibility emerged, thanks to Japanese government pressure to cooperate. For electric vehicles, Telsa’s embrace of CharIN may provide that needed pressure. The real winner would be the cause of electric vehicles.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/66896/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Coopersmith received funding from National Science Foundation in 1994 for fax research.</span></em></p>Standards, like electrical plugs, are usually so simple we don’t even really notice them. But they’re extremely important: Good ones can drive innovation; bad ones can stifle growth.Jonathan Coopersmith, Professor of History, Texas A&M UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/471542015-10-14T09:02:12Z2015-10-14T09:02:12ZCan’t take the heat? We need a universal measure on temperature<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95314/original/image-20150918-12351-3bfjdk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A measure of temperature here may be different to elsewhere.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/johnsyweb/2151563670/">Flickr/Pete Johns</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Which weighs more: a kilo of cheese or a kilo of Vegemite? Surprisingly, the answer depends on where they come from.</p>
<p>The science of measurement has a communications problem: how do people agree on how much they are talking about? </p>
<p>Historically, things were measured by convenient but variable references, such as the width of a thumb (an inch) or a foot (a foot) – no doubt responsible for many an <a href="https://vimeo.com/94459739">ancient argument</a>.</p>
<p>Resolving the ambiguity inherent in these rough rules of thumb became important enough to medieval commerce that the <a href="http://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/magna-carta-english-translation">Magna Carta</a> – apparently catering to inebriated textile workers, and now celebrating its 800th year – required that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>(35) There shall be standard measures of wine, ale, and corn (the London quarter), throughout the kingdom. There shall also be a standard width of dyed cloth, russet, and haberject, namely two ells within the selvedges. Weights are to be standardised similarly.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>During the scientific and industrial revolutions, increasing demands for precision and standardisation in science, mass-production and global commerce lead to the development of the metric system, based on units like the metre, kilogram and second.</p>
<p>This system became the bedrock for the modern scientific edifice, enabling people to quantitatively study phenomena such as gravity, electricity or temperature, for which there are no convenient, everyday references.</p>
<h2>A reference to measure</h2>
<p>Standard units were originally defined by a reference artefact. For instance, a platinum mass in Paris defines the <a href="http://www.bipm.org/en/bipm/mass/prototype.html">primary kilogram</a>, with derivative secondary copies stored in various <a href="http://www.measurement.gov.au/Services/calibrationtesting/Pages/Massandrelatedquantities.aspx#">National Measurement Institutes</a>. </p>
<p>But there remains the problem of reliably distributing the standard. For example, when primary and secondary kilogram masses are periodically compared, they differ slightly. Since National Measurement labs legally define measures within their <a href="http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/chapter1.html">jurisdiction</a>, a kilo of French cheese is currently a <a href="http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/final_reports/M/M-K1/CCM.M-K1.pdf">microgram lighter</a> than a kilo of Australian Vegemite!</p>
<p>To fix this problem, scientists have been working to redefine the system of units in terms of universal constants, such as the speed of light, the frequency of certain atoms, or the electrical resistance of quantum devices. This program is more or less complete for <a href="http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/second.html">time</a>, <a href="http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/metre.html">length</a> and <a href="http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/ampere.html">electrical charge</a>.</p>
<p>Others, such as mass and temperature, still rely on artefacts. The <a href="http://www.bipm.org/metrology/thermometry/units.html">Kelvin</a> unit for temperature is defined in terms of “<a href="https://nucleus.iaea.org/rpst/referenceproducts/referencematerials/Stable_Isotopes/2H18O-water-samples/VSMOW2.htm">Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water</a>”, specially prepared by the International Atomic Energy Agency. In the current <a href="http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/its-90/ITS-90_metrologia.pdf">ITS-90</a> temperature scale, the triple-point (where liquid, solid and gas phases coexist) of this peculiarly named water defines exactly 273.16 Kelvin (0.01°C).</p>
<h2>A universal measure of temperature</h2>
<p>Internationally, there are various approaches being pursued to <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/0026-1394/page/Focus_on_the_Boltzmann_Constant">redefine the Kelvin</a> in terms of universal quantities.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95359/original/image-20150918-17709-328yku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95359/original/image-20150918-17709-328yku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95359/original/image-20150918-17709-328yku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95359/original/image-20150918-17709-328yku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95359/original/image-20150918-17709-328yku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95359/original/image-20150918-17709-328yku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95359/original/image-20150918-17709-328yku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95359/original/image-20150918-17709-328yku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Infrared image of a laser probing a Caesium vapour cell.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">GW Truong.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our approach, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms9345">Nature Communications</a>, is based on Doppler spectroscopy of Caesium atoms in a low pressure vapour at room temperature. An example of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-the-doppler-effect-7475">Doppler effect</a> is the audible change in frequency of a police siren as it passes by.</p>
<p>Atoms in a gas are zipping around, and the higher the temperature, the larger their typical velocity. </p>
<p>Using very precise lasers we were able to measure the Doppler frequency shift of the atomic spectrum, from which we determine the atomic velocities – just like a traffic cop at a speed trap measures vehicle speeds with a Doppler radar gun.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98049/original/image-20151012-17807-11imhn2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98049/original/image-20151012-17807-11imhn2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98049/original/image-20151012-17807-11imhn2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98049/original/image-20151012-17807-11imhn2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98049/original/image-20151012-17807-11imhn2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98049/original/image-20151012-17807-11imhn2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98049/original/image-20151012-17807-11imhn2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98049/original/image-20151012-17807-11imhn2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Formula for calculating the temperature.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>From the atomic velocity (<em>v</em>), we calculate the temperature (<em>T</em>) of the gas using the formula (right; <em>m</em> is the atomic mass and <em>k</em> is <a href="http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?k%7Csearch_for=physchem_in!">Boltzmann’s constant</a>).</p>
<p>Importantly, there are no unknown calibration factors in our technique; we rely only on universal constants such as the atomic mass and the speed of light. So with sufficient technical skill, any lab – whether on Earth or in the Andromeda galaxy – could replicate our experiment; no reference artefacts required. Even better, our approach scales over a large range of temperatures, from well below freezing to the interior of furnaces.</p>
<p>One of the challenges of this technique is that the laser light used to probe the atoms also changes their internal state, even for extremely low power lasers. Just as motorists become agitated after spotting a speed radar, so the atoms in our experiment become excited by the light used to measure them.</p>
<p>The change in the atomic state is small – just one part in 10,000 – but this is large compared to our target accuracy of one part in a million. Fortunately atoms of the same Caesium isotope are all exactly alike, so we can account for these small changes using quantum theory to dramatically improve our measurement performance. </p>
<p>Getting our system of units right is critical: it is the foundation on which science and technology are built. Upgrading the Kelvin definition will require backward compatibility with the current system, and pursuing several different experimental avenues will ensure we get it right.</p>
<p>As with any upgrade, this one will be deemed successful if the public hardly notice the transition. But to those at the cutting edge – whether developing high-temperature materials processing, studying the cosmic microwave background or making ultra-cold quantum gases – basing the Kelvin on universal and fundamental principles will enable the most rigorous tests of the universe.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/47154/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Stace receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the US Department of Commerce National Institute of Standards and Technology. </span></em></p>How do we know that a measure of something in one location can be replicated precisely in another. We already have a universal measure of mass and time, but what about temperture?Thomas Stace, Associate Professor in Physics, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.