tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/kim-kardashian-14005/articlesKim Kardashian – The Conversation2024-03-14T13:28:28Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2249842024-03-14T13:28:28Z2024-03-14T13:28:28ZGhostbots: AI versions of deceased loved ones could be a serious threat to mental health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580740/original/file-20240308-29-sis8wp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C26%2C3565%2C2350&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/female-face-matrix-digital-numbers-artifical-2268966863">Alena Ivochkina/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We all experience loss and grief. Imagine, though, that you don’t need to say goodbye to your loved ones. That you can recreate them virtually so you can have conversations and find out how they’re feeling. </p>
<p>For Kim Kardashian’s fortieth birthday, her then husband, Kanye West, gave her a hologram of her <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-54731382">dead father</a>, Robert Kardashian. Reportedly, Kim Kardashian reacted with disbelief and joy to the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2020/oct/30/robert-kardashian-resurrected-as-a-hologram-for-kim-kardashian-wests-birthday">virtual appearance</a> of her father at her birthday party. Being able to see a long-dead, much missed loved one, moving and talking again might offer comfort to those left behind. </p>
<p>After all, resurrecting a deceased loved one might seem miraculous – and possibly more than a little creepy – but what’s the impact on our health? Are AI ghosts a help or hindrance to the grieving process? </p>
<p>As a psychotherapist researching how AI technology can be used to enhance therapeutic interventions, I’m intrigued by the advent of ghostbots. But I’m also more than a little concerned about the potential effects of this technology on the mental health of those using it, especially those who are grieving. Resurrecting dead people as avatars has the potential to cause more harm than good, perpetuating even more confusion, stress, depression, paranoia and, in some cases, psychosis.</p>
<p>Recent developments in artificial intelligence (AI) have led to the creation of ChatGPT and other chatbots that can allow users to have sophisticated human like conversations.</p>
<p>Using deep fake technology, AI software can create an <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0267364924000104">interactive virtual representation</a> of a deceased person by using their <a href="https://wired.me/technology/artificial-intelligence/why-scientists-are-building-ai-powered-digital-imprints-of-the-dead/">digital content</a> such as photographs, emails, and videos. </p>
<p>Some of these creations were just themes in science fiction fantasy only a few years ago but now they are a scientific reality. </p>
<h2>Help or hindrance?</h2>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12124-022-09679-3">Digital ghosts</a> could <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/10/18/1061320/digital-clones-of-dead-people/">be a comfort</a> to the bereaved by helping them to reconnect with lost loved ones. They could provide an opportunity for the user to say some things or ask questions they never got a chance to when the now deceased person was alive. </p>
<p>But the ghostbots’ uncanny resemblance to a lost loved one <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2416079-resurrecting-loved-ones-as-ai-ghosts-could-harm-your-mental-health/">may not be</a> as positive as it sounds. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10676-024-09744-y">Research suggests</a> that deathbots should be used only as a temporary <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12124-022-09679-3">aid to mourning</a> to avoid potentially harmful emotional dependence on the technology.</p>
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<p>AI ghosts could be harmful for people’s mental health by interfering with the <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg26034650-700-how-ai-avatars-of-the-deceased-could-transform-the-way-we-grieve/">grief process</a>. </p>
<p>Grief takes time and there are many <a href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/grieving-process#:%7E:text=They%20include%20shock%2C%20denial%2C%20anger,them%20cope%20in%20various%20ways.">different stages</a> that can take place over many years. When newly bereaved, those experiencing grief might think of their deceased loved one frequently. They might freshly recall old memories and it is quite common for a grieving person <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23449603/">to dream</a> more intensely about their lost loved one. </p>
<p>The psychoanalyst <a href="https://tidsskriftet.no/en/2020/03/essay/dynamics-grief-and-melancholia">Sigmund Freud</a> was concerned with how human beings respond to the experience of loss. He pointed out potential added difficulties for those grieving if there’s negativity surrounding a death. </p>
<p>For example, if a person had ambivalent feelings towards someone and they died, the person could be left with a sense of guilt. Or if a person died in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00749/full">horrific circumstances</a> such as a murder, a grieving person might find it more difficult to accept it this. </p>
<p>Freud referred to this as “melancholia”, but it can also be referred to as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15524256.2020.1745726">“complicated grief”</a>. In some extreme cases, a person may experience apparitions <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1363461520962887">and hallucinate</a> that they see the dead person and begin to believe they are alive. AI ghostbots could further traumatise someone experiencing complicated grief and may exacerbate associated problems such as hallucinations.</p>
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<h2>Chatbot horror</h2>
<p>There are also risks that these ghost-bots could say harmful things or give bad advice to someone in mourning. Similar generative software such as ChatGPT chatbots are already widely criticised for <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/08/technology/ai-chatbots-disinformation.html">giving misinformation</a> to users. </p>
<p>Imagine if the AI technology went rogue and started to make <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/16/technology/bing-chatbot-microsoft-chatgpt.html">inappropriate remarks</a> to the user – a situation experienced by journalist <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/16/technology/bing-chatbot-transcript.html">Kevin Roose</a> in 2023 when a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/17/insider/ai-chatbots-humans-hallucinate.html#:%7E:text=On%20Valentine's%20Day%20this%20year,him%20to%20leave%20his%20wife.">Bing chatbot</a> tried to get him to leave his wife. It would be very hurtful if a deceased father was conjured up as an AI ghost by a son or daughter to hear comments that they weren’t loved or liked or weren’t their father’s favourite. </p>
<p>Or, in a more extreme scenario, if the ghostbot suggested the user join them in death or they should kill or harm someone. This may sound like a plot from a horror film but it’s not so far fetched. In 2023, the UK’s <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-66224052">Labour party</a> outlined a law to prevent the training of AI to incite violence. </p>
<p>This was a response to the attempted assassination of the Queen earlier in the year by a man who was encouraged by his chatbot girlfriend, with whom he had an “<a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-berkshire-66123122">emotional and sexual</a>” relationship.</p>
<p>The creators of ChatGPT currently acknowledge that the software makes errors and is still <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ai-platforms-like-chatgpt-are-easy-to-use-but-also-potentially-dangerous/">not fully reliable</a> because it fabricates information. Who knows how a person’s texts, emails or videos will be interpreted and what content will be generated by this AI technology? </p>
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<p>In any event, it appears that no matter how far this technology advances, there will be a need for considerable oversight and human supervision.</p>
<h2>Forgetting is healthy</h2>
<p>This latest tech says a lot about our digital culture of infinite possibilities with no limits.</p>
<p>Data can be stored on the cloud indefinitely and everything is retrievable and nothing truly deleted or destroyed. Forgetting is an important element of healthy grief but in order to forget, people will need to find new and meaningful ways of remembering the deceased person.</p>
<p>Anniversaries play a key role in helping those who are mourning to not only remember lost loved ones, but they are also opportunities to <a href="https://scholarlypublishingcollective.org/psup/speculative-philosophy/article-abstract/34/3/284/196788/Grief-Phantoms-and-Re-membering-Loss">represent the loss</a> in new ways. Rituals and symbols can mark the end of something that can allow humans to properly remember in order to properly forget.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224984/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nigel Mulligan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>AI ghosts, the recreation of digital versions of the dead, may sound like a wonderful idea to those dealing with the pain of loss but this technology could seriously disrupt the grieving processNigel Mulligan, Assistant Professor in Psychotherapy, School of Nursing, Psychotherapy and Community Health, Dublin City UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2116762023-08-23T00:49:41Z2023-08-23T00:49:41ZKeeping up with advanced MRI: Kim Kardashian promotes whole-body scans. Could they be worth the hype?<p>The worlds of pop culture and advanced imaging technology intersected recently when Kim Kardashian promoted a commercial whole-body magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) service on social media as a tool to detect cancer and aneurysms. </p>
<p>The post attracted criticism from members of the <a href="https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/collections/choosing-wisely/250.html">medical community</a>, who <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-12389553/Kim-Kardashian-slammed-doctors-promoting-rip-2-500-MRI-scan-Instagram-claims-spot-cancers-years-advance-save-lives.html">expressed concern</a> about the lack of evidence for widespread use of this technology in people who are disease free. </p>
<p>Despite these concerns, the information provided by whole-body MRI scanning for mapping anatomy and function has great potential for helping us understand how changes in the brain and body are associated with health outcomes over the human lifespan.</p>
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<h2>Not new, but improved</h2>
<p>Whole-body <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-medical-imaging-magnetic-resonance-imaging-mri-15030">MRI scanning</a> has been available for a decade or more. MRI <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/mri-scan">uses</a> strong magnetic fields to coax a signal from water molecules. Given our body is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541059/">approximately 60%</a> water by volume, MRI scans can be used to generate images over the length of our body. In a clinical setting, scans are then studied by radiologists who look for potential abnormalities.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8519652/">Recent technical improvements</a> mean detailed images of the body from head to toe can now be obtained in less than half an hour. This technique has been primarily used for cancer detection. </p>
<p>In Australia, whole-body MRI was recently added to the Medicare Benefits Schedule for people with a <a href="http://www.mbsonline.gov.au/internet/mbsonline/publishing.nsf/Content/Factsheet-Whole%20Body%20MRI">high genetic risk of cancer</a>.</p>
<p>Despite the usefulness of whole-body MRI for cancer detection for high-risk people, there are <a href="https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/collections/choosing-wisely/250.html">concerns</a> around widespread use of this technology in the general population without appropriate oversight by trained medical practitioners. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-medical-imaging-magnetic-resonance-imaging-mri-15030">The science of medical imaging: magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)</a>
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<h2>The risk of overdiagnosis</h2>
<p>If an abnormality is detected in an otherwise healthy person, the significance of the abnormality is often unclear and treatment options may be limited. Anatomy can vary significantly between people and there is no guarantee an unusual imaging finding has negative implications for an individual, particularly if the person does not have any symptoms of poor health.</p>
<p>The anxiety and potentially invasive investigations triggered by an MRI finding may have a negative effect on the person’s overall wellbeing. In many cases, the stress may outweigh the health value of the discovery. </p>
<p>The scans are not cheap either. The whole-body MRI offered by Prenuvo in the United States and promoted by Kardashian costs <a href="https://www.prenuvo.com/pricing/">almost A$4,000</a>. </p>
<p>Despite these concerns, it is highly likely whole-body imaging will add to our understanding of how changes in the body contribute to healthy ageing and the development of disease. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/low-and-middle-income-countries-struggle-to-provide-health-care-to-some-while-others-get-too-much-medicine-190446">Low- and middle-income countries struggle to provide health care to some, while others get too much medicine</a>
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<h2>How parts of the body talk to each other</h2>
<p>One potential application of whole-body MRI is to inform our understanding of the interactions between the brain and the rest of the body. </p>
<p>A multitude of studies demonstrate how the health of our brain and other organs are intimately linked. Body systems that interact with the brain include the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn3346">gut</a> and <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.678995">heart</a>. The brain also partners with our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1526590016300712">musculoskeletal system</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/hbm.20870">fat distribution in the body</a>. </p>
<p>A number of Australian studies have used MRI to investigate brain-body connections, including work from the Personality and Total Health (PATH) Through Life study that shows optimal blood pressure is <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2021.694982/full">linked with healthy brain ageing</a>. </p>
<p>University of Melbourne research published earlier this year shows a number of chronic diseases are associated with <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-023-02296-6">accelerated ageing of the brain and other organs</a>. The study used artificial intelligence to predict the age of participants based on assessments of brain and body structure and function, and found an increased gap between a subject’s brain or body age and their chronological age was associated with a range of poor health outcomes. They further identified networks of advanced ageing patterns that spread from affected organs into other body systems.</p>
<p>The latter study is notable because it used data from the <a href="https://www.ukbiobank.ac.uk/">UK Biobank</a>, a large-scale population study collecting health information from half a million participants aged 40 and over, including MRI scans of the brain, heart and abdomen in 100,000 subjects. </p>
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<h2>Studying healthy people to track changes</h2>
<p>Other large prospective imaging studies include the <a href="https://abcdstudy.org/">Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study</a> which uses brain imaging and other assessments to track the development of more than 10,000 children in the United States beginning at age nine, and the German <a href="https://neurodegenerationresearch.eu/cohort/the-rhineland-study/">Rhineland study</a> with a planned enrolment of 30,000 participants aged 30 or older. </p>
<p>A substantial number of people who will participate in these studies are healthy. Over time, some of the study participants will develop health issues. So these studies offer a unique opportunity to use imaging to identify markers for poor health outcomes. Investigation could lead to ways to prevent these issues. </p>
<p>One of the key challenges in these large-scale imaging studies is how to identify relevant changes on MRI scans. The standard approach of using a radiologist to visually review scans does not scale when studies recruit thousands of participants. Artificial intelligence methods are very well suited to the task of tagging brain and body structures on MRI scans, and one important use of these large studies is to develop AI-based image labelling. </p>
<p>An Australian-based study of similar scale would have the potential to deliver similar benefits for our population. And such large-scale research could help develop an evidence base to support or debunk the use of advanced technologies such as whole-body MRI scans for helping people maintain good health and identifying health issues as early as possible. </p>
<p>For the time being, more research is needed to fully explore the potential of whole-body MRI scanning. Meanwhile, there is a growing demand for a <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-these-cancer-vaccines-im-hearing-about-and-what-similarities-do-they-share-with-covid-vaccines-197988">personalised approach</a> to health care. And once something shows up in our social media feed it can be surprising how soon it’s widely available. </p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heath Pardoe receives funding from the National Institutes of Health, USA. He works for the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health.</span></em></p>Doctors weren’t happy when celebrity Kim Kardashian promoted whole-body MRI scans recently. But that doesn’t mean they don’t hold promise for understanding ageing on a grander scale.Heath Pardoe, Associate professor, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental HealthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1990282023-02-02T11:37:28Z2023-02-02T11:37:28ZKim Kardashian buys Princess Diana’s necklace – how the cult of celebrity creates value for fashion history<p>During Sotheby’s annual January <a href="https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2023/royal-noble">Royal and Noble</a> collection sale, US reality TV star Kim Kardashian bought the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-64330628">diamond and amethyst Attallah Cross necklace</a>, previously worn by Diana, Princess of Wales. </p>
<p>The pendant, which weighs 5.25 carats, was sold for US$197,453 (£160,000) – almost <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2023/01/kim-kardashian-buys-princess-diana-amethyst-cross-necklace-auction">double the pre-auction estimate</a>.</p>
<p>The diamond and sapphire encrusted pendant was originally designed in the 1920s by the court jeweller, Garrard, and later became part of the <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/kim-kardashian-buys-princess-diana-amethyst-cross-pendant-at-auction-naim-attallah-sothebys/">collection of Naim Attallah</a>, a Palestinian-British businessman and writer. Attallah was the former chief executive of brands at Asprey and Garrard and a friend of Diana.</p>
<p>The necklace’s legacy and association with Diana, have secured its place in fashion’s rich history. That it has become a part of Kardashian’s collection is a reminder of the power of celebrity in driving economic value.</p>
<p>How an association with the more transient celebrity of the social media age will impact the longevity of fashion memorabilia is less certain.</p>
<h2>Celebrity sells</h2>
<p>The Attallah cross is an addition to Kim Kardashian’s growing collection of celebrity memorabilia – items representative of fashion and popular culture’s diverse history.</p>
<p>Kardashian has previously bought a jacket worn by <a href="https://www.popbuzz.com/news/kim-kardashian-north-west-michael-jackson-jacket/">Michael Jackson for her daughter North</a> and one of only two <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/88645">Alexander McQueen oyster dresses</a> in existence, which she altered in order to wear it to the 2020 Vanity Fair Oscars party. The garment was described by Andrew Bolton, curator of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, as <a href="https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/fashion/a30849393/kim-kardashian-vintage-alexander-mcqueen-oyster-dress-oscars/">“arguably the most important dress of the 21st century”</a>.</p>
<p>Kardashian also famously wore <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2022/jun/14/kim-kardashian-accused-of-doing-permanent-damage-to-marilyn-monroe-dress">Marilyn Monroe’s JFK birthday dress</a> to the Met Gala in 2022. The move caused controversy over both the <a href="https://www.etonline.com/the-kardashians-recap-kim-kardashian-details-extreme-weight-loss-program-for-marilyn-monroe-met">dramatic weight loss</a> she underwent to fit into the dress and the alleged <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2022/jun/14/kim-kardashian-accused-of-doing-permanent-damage-to-marilyn-monroe-dress">subsequent damage</a> to the garment.</p>
<p>Mass media representation has <a href="https://reaktionbooks.co.uk/work/celebrity%22%22">fuelled society’s fascination with celebrity</a>. When a <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315726175-17/ritual-mythology-consumption-celebrity-death-scott-radford-peter-bloch">famous person dies, this can intensify</a>, which may explain Kardashian’s drive to own these iconic items.</p>
<p>The trade in celebrity-owned fashion items isn’t limited to extraordinary pieces like the Attallah cross. In 2013, a false nail worn by <a href="https://www.standard.co.uk/showbiz/celebrity-news/lady-gaga-s-fake-nail-sells-for-12-000-8646104.html">Lady Gaga</a> was sold for US$12,000. </p>
<p>More recently, in 2022, a battered pair of Birkenstock sandals which had been worn by <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2022/11/15/23459954/steve-jobs-sandals-auction-apple-price">Steve Jobs</a> when he first started Apple were sold to an anonymous bidder for US$218,750. </p>
<p>Association with specific celebrities has invested these objects with a value that is both economic and cultural. Kardashian has not just purchased Diana’s physical necklace – she has bought its emotive story.</p>
<h2>Why fashion objects matter</h2>
<p>Academics working in the discipline of <a href="https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/handbook-of-material-culture/book226487">material culture</a> (which comes from the field of anthropology) focus their research on understanding society through people’s relationships with objects.</p>
<p>This includes examining what makes people buy the things they do and how those objects bring meaning to their lives. </p>
<p>Recognising that fashion objects have deeper meanings both individually and culturally explains why celebrity-owned objects take on a combined personal, cultural and economic value.</p>
<h2>Why is Kim Kardashian buying celebrity memorabilia?</h2>
<p>Kardashian is a celebrity of the social media age. Her <a href="https://www.standard.co.uk/showbiz/kim-kardashian-shocks-fans-as-she-gives-herself-a-british-chav-makeover-b1054020.html">adoption of trends</a> and <a href="https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2019/2/26/18241625/kim-kardashian-fast-fashion-fashion-nova-missguided">endorsement of fast fashion brands</a> makes her <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2019/jan/28/they-can-sell-anything-how-the-kardashians-changed-fashion">relatable to the masses</a>. And she has also shared her values, represented through the causes that are important to her including <a href="https://www.forbes.com/profile/kim-kardashian/?sh=4a5dda615230">criminal justice reform, gun safety and cancer causes</a> on both her social media pages and television show, Keeping Up With the Kardashians.</p>
<p>Social media has shifted the cult of celebrity from the more detached celebrity of the pre-digital age towards <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2019/jan/28/they-can-sell-anything-how-the-kardashians-changed-fashion">the consumable persona</a> where the boundaries between the private and the public are in constant tension. Kardashian’s over-exposure suggests her celebrity may have become too <a href="https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20200724-how-the-world-turned-on-celebrities">accessible</a>, compromising her longer-term cultural value.</p>
<p>Jewellery worn by Diana rarely comes up for sale. For Kardashian to own something so unique and exclusive – with its significant history – may represent an effort to move her positioning away from the superficiality of the Instagram age.</p>
<p>Kardashian has invested in an object that has a cultural history, worn by an iconic woman, and in so doing she has become part of that story. Purchasing rare celebrity memorabilia integrates Kardashian into a different realm of culture, which is exclusive rather than accessible.</p>
<p>Diana’s pendant has become an integral part of fashion history, not just because of its design, but because of the celebrities who have owned it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199028/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Naomi Braithwaite does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In purchasing iconic items previously owned by other celebrities, Kim Kardashian is negotiating her own place in the celebrity sphere.Naomi Braithwaite, Associate Professor in Fashion Marketing and Branding, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1957782022-12-05T12:19:34Z2022-12-05T12:19:34ZBalenciaga’s controversial new campaign and the long history of ‘shockvertising’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498540/original/file-20221201-6286-uda854.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=161%2C106%2C2708%2C1488&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Balenciaga billboard in Seoul, South Korea.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/seoul-south-korea-june-1-2021-1984659152">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Kim Kardashian is <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/mar.21597?casa_token=j6ko06VVpToAAAAA:HUENM7ia1WtPNX3oFEki-gspflar95CqJ1uGo-j_sAS3K7K0XmYE30R_8aH62nD5vqpRrH_g4zFg-6g">refining</a> her <a href="https://www.instagram.com/kimkardashian/?hl=en">personal brand</a>. Right-wing news outlet Fox TV is <a href="https://www.adweek.com/tvnewser/october-22-ratings-top-ranked-fox-news-gains-viewers-from-september-down-year-over-year-in-primetime/517502/">gaining viewers</a> through <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/politics/balenciaga-outrage-depraved-ad-campaign-toddlers-teddy-bears-bondage">attention-grabbing headlines</a>. Photographer Gabriele Galimberti is <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-11463573/Balenciaga-photographer-says-hes-lynched-bondage-themed-campaign-featuring-children.html">gaining notoriety</a>. All this is due to a recent advertising campaign from leading global fashion brand Balenciaga that has caused <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/28/style/balenciaga-campaign-controversy.html">widespread controversy</a>. </p>
<p>One photograph shows a child in a string vest holding a <a href="https://nypost.com/2022/11/25/balenciaga-files-25m-suit-against-bdsm-teddy-bear-ad-producers/">bondage gear</a>-clad teddy bear. Another <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-11-29/balenciaga-explanation-second-photoshoot-handbag-court-ruling/101709448">shows a handbag</a> resting on paperwork about child abuse. <a href="https://www.instagram.com/balenciaga/">Balenciaga responded</a> to the backlash to its campaign by issuing an apology that blamed the set designers and photographers for the uncomfortable messages. It has also filed a <a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiPiq-D59r7AhXPYcAKHeLSBwYQFnoECA8QAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2Fstyle%2Farticle%2Fbalenciaga-lawsuit-controversial-campaign%2Findex.html&usg=AOvVaw3ufg3yEHkKxqexKAWl7jD4">US$25 million lawsuit</a> against the campaign’s producers.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/Clg9BijLUHe/?hl=en","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>As an expert in branding who has worked in advertising for over 25 years, I am wary of Balenciaga’s responses. All major brands have people in place to approve these types of advertising campaigns. The approval process would be especially comprehensive for a brand like Balenciaga, which spends around <a href="https://advertisers.mediaradar.com/balenciaga-advertising-profile">US$100 million a year</a> on publicity.</p>
<p>Advertising is, of course, designed to get attention. According to the <a href="https://appliedpsychologydegree.usc.edu/blog/thinking-vs-feeling-the-psychology-of-advertising/">University of Southern California</a>, urban consumers see more than 5,000 advertising messages a day but remember only three or four. Brands invest a lot of money with the goal of becoming one of those memorable ads.</p>
<p>One technique used to achieve that goal is “<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/cb.1430">shockvertising</a>” – an advert that “deliberately, rather than inadvertently, <a href="https://ideas.repec.org/a/cup/jadres/v43y2003i03p268-280_03.html">startles and offends</a> its audience by violating norms for social values and personal ideals”. Fashion brands such as Benetton, Calvin Klein and FCUK have all created shocking ads resulting in free media coverage that benefited the brand and those associated with it.</p>
<h2>A history of successful fashion shockvertising</h2>
<p>From the 1970s through to the early 2000s, Italian clothing brand <a href="https://www.vogue.co.uk/gallery/benettons-best-advertising-campaigns">Benetton</a> created simple photographic adverts that featured controversial topics. A priest and a nun kissing. A black woman nursing a white baby. A man dying of Aids surrounded by his family.</p>
<p>These adverts, placed in popular magazines and on billboards, were designed to <a href="https://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_1_No_18_Special_Issue/6.pdf">attract attention</a>. The dying man imagery, for example, was published as news broke that Aids had become the leading cause of death for young men in the US. The campaign’s creator <a href="https://www.benettongroup.com/en/media-press/image-gallery/institutional-communication/historical-campaigns/">Oliviero Toscani</a> became <a href="https://www.vogue.co.uk/gallery/benettons-best-advertising-campaigns">world famous</a> and Benetton an even more popular global brand, although it later <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/06/world/europe/benetton-oliviero-toscani.html">severed ties</a> with the photographer.</p>
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<img alt="A priest in black kisses a nun in white." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498537/original/file-20221201-6346-96jqam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498537/original/file-20221201-6346-96jqam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498537/original/file-20221201-6346-96jqam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498537/original/file-20221201-6346-96jqam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498537/original/file-20221201-6346-96jqam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498537/original/file-20221201-6346-96jqam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498537/original/file-20221201-6346-96jqam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">An archive Benetton advert photographed by Oliviero Toscani.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.benettongroup.com/en/media-press/image-gallery/institutional-communication/historical-campaigns/">Fall/Winter collection 1991, </a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the early 2000s, French Connection launched a campaign around the acronym FCUK (French Connection United Kingdom). Its slogan <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Business/story?id=88278&page=1">“FCUKinkyBugger”</a> caused Britain’s advertising watchdog, the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA), to <a href="https://www.warc.com/newsandopinion/news/fcuk-ads-%E2%80%9Cirresponsible%E2%80%9D,-says-asa/8528">respond to 132 complaints</a> from the public. French Connection reacted by putting the sign “Sorry FCUK” in its store windows, attracting even more young consumers to their high street stops and increasing sales from <a href="https://www.warc.com/newsandopinion/news/fcuk-ads-%E2%80%9Cirresponsible%E2%80%9D,-says-asa/8528">£6.4 million to £19m</a>. </p>
<p>In 1980, Calvin Klein released adverts featuring the very young supermodel Brooke Shields modelling the brand’s jeans <a href="https://www.aaaa.org/timeline-event/brooke-shields-sparks-controversy-calvin-klein-jeans/?cn-reloaded=1">while saying</a>: “Do you know what comes between me and my Calvins? Nothing.”</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Brooke Shields reflects on her controversial Calvin Klein campaign.</span></figcaption>
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<p>The print and TV ads placed the 15-year-old in sexually provocative positions and <a href="https://www.today.com/style/celeb-style/brooke-shields-responds-controversial-1980-calvin-klein-ad-rcna4104">caused an uproar</a> with the public. In the US, ABC network stations banned the TV commercial. However, due to the controversy, Calvin Klein <a href="https://www.highsnobiety.com/p/calvin-klein-history/">boosted sales</a> and Brooke Shields’ career took off. She has since appeared on over <a href="https://populareverything.com/blue-jean-baby-how-calvin-klein-helped-shape-brooke-shields-career">300 magazine covers internationally</a> and starred in Hollywood films.</p>
<h2>Who benefits from shockvertising?</h2>
<p>As these examples demonstrate, people associated with a shockvertising campaign can take advantage of the news it generates to further their own interests.</p>
<p>Kardashian, who has been something of a <a href="https://graziamagazine.com/me/articles/kim-kardashian-balenciaga-muse/">muse for Balenciaga</a> in recent years, published a reaction <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/ClgrTWLOTKZ/">on her Instagram</a> to the controversial campaign. This allowed her fanbase to voice their opinions on the matter, an example of Kardashian using controversy to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/mar.21597?casa_token=j6ko06VVpToAAAAA:HUENM7ia1WtPNX3oFEki-gspflar95CqJ1uGo-j_sAS3K7K0XmYE30R_8aH62nD5vqpRrH_g4zFg-6">build up her personal brand</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CaxTNgsLHEH/?hl=en","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Galimberti, who photographed some of the most controversial images in the Balenciaga campaign, <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/ClTmJLKsVzx/?hl=en">stated</a>: “I was not entitled in whatsoever manner to … choose the products, nor the models, nor the combination of the same.” He has since given <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/balenciaga-photographer-gabriele-galimberti-breaks-silence-following-controversial-child-ad-1761828">several interviews</a> to mainstream media, bringing his name to an even bigger audience and, potentially, the opportunity to gain new clients.</p>
<p>Balenciaga did not respond to our request for comment on whether the campaign may have intentionally courted press coverage. The brand’s creative director Demna Gvasalia, however, <a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjn7PiCquL7AhUsQEEAHXluAV4QFnoECBsQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ffashion%2F2022%2Fdec%2F03%2Fbalenciaga-designer-demna-apologises-for-inappropriate-campaign&usg=AOvVaw2cmVCb3QfcQuDQTwdhunSm">issued a public statement</a> on December 2 taking personal responsibility for the campaign. </p>
<p>“As much as I would sometimes like to provoke a thought through my work, I would NEVER have an intention to do that with such an awful subject as child abuse that I condemn,” he told his <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/Clq0hwtN4bS/">Instagram followers</a>. “It was inappropriate to have kids promote objects that had nothing to do with them.”</p>
<p>Shockvertising strategies allow adverts to be seen by millions of potential consumers despite being aired for only a limited amount of time before being taken down. As the current Balenciaga controversy demonstrates, the way to make paid advertising work harder is to get <a href="https://www.thedrum.com/opinion/2018/11/21/getting-ads-banned-planned-pr-and-advertising-strategy">it talked about for free</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195778/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carl W Jones does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Balenciaga blamed the photographer for a now-pulled advert which featured sexually charged imagery of children – as an advertising expert, it’s hard to believe the furore wasn’t planned.Carl W Jones, Course Leader & Senior Lecturer, School of Media and Communication, University of WestminsterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1838592022-06-08T13:57:22Z2022-06-08T13:57:22ZCorsets and waist trainers: how celebrities and influencers have driven our modern obsession with shapewear<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467697/original/file-20220608-17-184ack.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6016%2C3998&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Social media has helped to make these products more relatable. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/girl-phone-corset-sports-leggings-1379564906">Alvago/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Throughout history, women have faced pressure to have certain body shapes – often leading them to use extreme methods to achieve them. So you’d think with a greater emphasis on body positivity in recent years that the days of wearing corsets and other restrictive undergarments would be behind us. In reality, the global shapewear industry is actually booming – with sales of these products projected to reach <a href="https://www.grandviewresearch.com/press-release/global-shapewear-market">US$3.7 billion</a> (£2.9 billion) by 2028. </p>
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<iframe id="noa-web-audio-player" style="border: none" src="https://embed-player.newsoveraudio.com/v4?key=x84olp&id=https://theconversation.com/corsets-and-waist-trainers-how-celebrities-and-influencers-have-driven-our-modern-obsession-with-shapewear-183859&bgColor=F5F5F5&color=D8352A&playColor=D8352A" width="100%" height="110px"></iframe>
<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
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<p><a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/corset-a-cultural-history/oclc/46822434">While corsets</a> can be traced back as far as the <a href="https://www.vogue.co.uk/article/history-of-the-corset#:%7E:text=A%20corset%20pictured%20in%20Vogue%2C%201939.&text=Corsets%20were%20worn%20by%20women,far%20back%20as%201600%20BC.">16th century</a>, it was in the 18th century that the hourglass shape became fashionable. Corsets had also <a href="https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20180122-what-is-the-ideal-female-body-shape">come to represent</a> elite status and physical fragility, which was symbolic of femininity. </p>
<p>Different body ideals have come in and out of fashion since, largely shaped by popular celebrities or even famous images and artworks. For example <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2018/03/07/health/body-image-history-of-beauty-explainer-intl/index.html">Aphrodite</a>, the Greek goddess of beauty, was frequently depicted in paintings and sculptures with a curvaceous body. </p>
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<img alt="Quarter life, a series by The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/quarter-life-117947?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">This article is part of Quarter Life</a></strong>, a series about issues affecting those of us in our twenties and thirties. From the challenges of beginning a career and taking care of our mental health, to the excitement of starting a family, adopting a pet or just making friends as an adult. The articles in this series explore the questions and bring answers as we navigate this turbulent period of life.</em></p>
<p><em>You may be interested in:</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/love-island-ditches-fast-fashion-how-reality-celebrities-influence-young-shoppers-habits-183771?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Love Island ditches fast fashion: how reality celebrities influence young shoppers’ habits</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/rihanna-and-radical-pregnancy-fashion-how-the-victorians-made-maternity-wear-boring-182000?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Rihanna and radical pregnancy fashion – how the Victorians made maternity wear boring</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/sally-rooneys-conversations-with-friends-how-british-attitudes-have-become-tougher-on-adultery-183843utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Sally Rooney’s Conversations with Friends – how British attitudes have become tougher on adultery</a></em></p>
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<p>While hourglass figures were popular throughout the 1950s due to celebrities such as Marilyn Monroe, the 1960s saw a shift towards a slimmer physique – thanks in part to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Twiggy-British-fashion-model">celebrity model Twiggy</a>. This <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1993/04/11/weekinreview/fashion-s-waif-look-makes-strong-women-weep.html">skinny, waif-like look</a>, remained fashionable well into the 1990s – again thanks to the continued popularity of models, such as Kate Moss. </p>
<p>The 2010s saw a shift towards a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-020-01161-x">“curvy” silhouette</a>, where a small waist and fuller hips became the ideal again. Just as in previous decades, this shift has been driven by celebrities, including Rihanna, Beyonce and – in particular – <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=XrCoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Kardashians+changed+beauty+ideals&ots=ZMaSa36Vax&sig=rRC5t4MwKEtFwFizwtrw0WQcYA4&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Kardashians%20changed%20beauty%20ideals&f=false">Kim Kardashian</a>. </p>
<h2>Social media trends</h2>
<p>While social media has helped give space to celebrate a more <a href="https://medium.com/@MazuFamily/body-positivity-using-social-media-for-good-9ab02692422c">diverse range</a> of body shapes, there’s still continued pressure to conform to an ideal which may not entirely be natural. This is why shapewear remains popular – though the way these garments are perceived and worn has changed significantly since the 18th century.</p>
<p>Before the US-based <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/elizahaverstock/2021/12/09/i-feel-the-divine-feminine-risingspanx-founder-sara-blakely-on-how-intuition-led-to-her-12-billion-blackstone-exit/?sh=185764c709a6">underwear brand Spanx</a> launched shaping leggings and underpants in 2000, shapewear was usually only something that was reserved for special occasions. But thanks to endorsements by celebrities and <a href="https://www.instyle.com/reviews-coverage/body-positive-influencers-instagram-follow">Instagram influencers</a>, shapewear (including Spanx) is now an everyday clothing item, used to help <a href="https://fashionunited.uk/news/business/global-shapewear-market-expected-to-reach-3-7-billion-by-2028/2022010460392">improve appearance</a> and achieve the ideal figure. <a href="https://skims.com/?glCountry=GB&glCurrency=GBP&gclid=Cj0KCQjw1tGUBhDXARIsAIJx01lxvhP3NgFoN8pZr6STBGJ2eZ7CzLZAk7JAfDBHyz5k5dsHPHP9B7EaAi-mEALw_wcB">Kim Kardashian</a> and <a href="https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/fashion/fashion-news/a39834544/victoria-beckham-body-collection">Victoria Beckham</a> have both launched their own affordable shapewear lines.</p>
<p>We have now reached the point where young women are wearing shapewear as <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-shapewearlike-spanx-and-skimswent-from-underwear-to-high-fashion-11632424304">outer clothing</a> instead of hiding it as underwear. Searches for the <a href="https://headtopics.com/uk/can-body-positivity-and-shapewear-ever-comfortably-co-exist-26178889">best shapewear garments</a> now even outstrip searches for the best way to <a href="https://www.stylist.co.uk/fashion/shapewear-body-image-skims/655773">lose weight</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A picture of the Skims shapewear website, alongside a phone showing the company's logo." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467698/original/file-20220608-18-46z6ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467698/original/file-20220608-18-46z6ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467698/original/file-20220608-18-46z6ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467698/original/file-20220608-18-46z6ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467698/original/file-20220608-18-46z6ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467698/original/file-20220608-18-46z6ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467698/original/file-20220608-18-46z6ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Kim Kardashian has played a huge role in the continued popularity of shapewear.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/stuttgart-germany-01282022-person-holding-smartphone-2134703163">T. Schneider/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p><a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/lelalondon/2021/01/08/how-the-what-waist-trainer-outlived-the-instagram-trend/?sh=8bba6287f6d2">Waist trainers in particular</a> are a great example of the power of social media and celebrity endorsement in driving sales and shifting perceptions. For example, a <a href="https://adage.com/article/digital/instagram-celebrities-modern-corset-boom/302923">2015 selfie</a> posted by Kim Kardashian in a waist trainer created a surge in sales. Other celebrities such as Nicki Minaj and Kylie Jenner have also posted about <a href="https://bodyartguru.com/celebrities-waist-train/">wearing waist trainers</a>. </p>
<p>In the past, women would have only learned about the latest fashion trends through dressmakers or magazines, which would feature illustrations of the <a href="https://www.harpersbazaar.com/culture/features/a20537/making-of-harpers-bazaar/">silhouettes that were fashionable</a>. But with social media, users are constantly exposed to images – whether of everyday people or extremely photoshopped models and celebrities. This makes it hard to escape idealised body shapes – and what you can buy to achieve them. </p>
<p>Social media has a huge influence on the <a href="https://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/ajis/article/view/8365">consumption of fashion products</a>. With an estimated <a href="https://khoros.com/resources/social-media-demographics-guide">3.2 billion</a> users across the world, that creates a huge potential for brands to expose consumers to fashion products on a daily basis. Trends which used to be driven by fashion magazines are now firmly in the <a href="https://www.digitalmarketingmagazine.co.uk/social-media-marketing/how-social-media-and-its-influencers-are-driving-fashion/4871">hands of influencers</a>. And with even ordinary people flaunting idealised figures and sharing their experiences with using shapewear products, products can <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesbusinesscouncil/2020/12/07/the-importance-of-word-of-mouth-marketing-through-social-media/?sh=3491c71d30a3">appear more relatable</a> than for previous generations. </p>
<p>Despite some influencers <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/women/what-spanx-has-spawned-a9164986.html">talking up shapewear</a> as a way of celebrating the female form, its relationship to age old notions of perfection and its endorsement by tiny-waisted celebrities raises questions over whether body acceptance is what these products are really trying to sell. But it’s unlikely these garments are going anywhere anytime soon – with celebrities such as <a href="https://www.etonline.com/billie-eilish-wears-corset-looks-in-british-vogue-says-its-about-what-makes-you-feel-good-164953">Billie Eilish</a> and <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/lizzo-shapewear-yitty-good-for-women-b2057555.html">Lizzo</a> continuing to popularise them. </p>
<h2>Harms</h2>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.refinery29.com/en-gb/2020/02/9420329/spanx-shapewear-body-positivity">increasing questions</a> over the benefits and potential risks from using shapewear. While waist trainers might temporarily reduce <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21604851.2017.1244423?casa_token=Ffyxv9JyL4IAAAAA%3A8HZIKBFt9XiwPyh7f5YP-8mH8-zFVT6TG6hLwpdpJjaKzdpQuKQq-wG80LxGIo85M0JFLTzF2HVFyA">waist circumference</a>, the waist quickly returns to its normal size after stopping use. </p>
<p>Plenty of research also shows that <a href="https://www.rcseng.ac.uk/library-and-publications/library/blog/effects-of-the-corset/">using corsets</a> and <a href="https://www.mymed.com/health-wellness/body-modifications/the-practice-of-waist-training-and-corsetry/the-dangers-and-benefits-of-aesthetic-waist-training">waist trainers</a> long term can cause problems – from digestive issues to even <a href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/do-waist-trainers-work#are-they-safe">organ damage</a> at the extremes. Some women who wear shapewear between 8-10 hours a day for <a href="https://www.medicinenet.com/how_long_do_you_have_to_wear_a_waist_trainer/article.htm">many months</a> have also reported <a href="https://www.latimes.com/health/mind-body/la-he-spanx-danger-20150418-story.html">tingling</a>, <a href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/do-waist-trainers-work#risks">acid reflux, organ compression and breathing problems</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.standard.co.uk/insider/fashion/shapewear-heist-spanx-a4142061.html">Technical manufacturing innovations</a>, such as making these products more breathable and flexible, may eventually offer a more <a href="https://fashionunited.uk/news/fashion/heist-unveils-new-innovative-shapewear/2018111940025">natural fit</a> that is less harmful. But to <a href="https://health.clevelandclinic.org/a-doctors-advice-on-wearing-shapewear">ensure safety</a>, only wear the right size shapewear for your body, and avoid wearing it <a href="https://www.thehealthsite.com/diseases-conditions/8-reasons-you-should-avoid-wearing-shape-wear-everyday-po0115-263086/">every day</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/183859/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Naomi Braithwaite does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>This is something that has been going on for hundreds of years.Naomi Braithwaite, Senior Lecturer in Fashion Marketing and Branding, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1823322022-05-04T03:59:05Z2022-05-04T03:59:05ZKim Kardashian’s Met Gala Marilyn moment shows how good she is at her job: being famous<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461134/original/file-20220504-26-v9wxoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4281%2C2871&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images/Jeff Kravitz</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the course of her Met Gala attendances, Kim Kardashian has worn floral Givenchy (attending for the first time in 2013, pregnant with her first child), silver Balmain, gold Versace and latex “wet look” Thierry Mugler. </p>
<p>Last year, following the separation from her husband Ye (Kanye West) she wore <a href="https://www.vogue.com/article/kim-kardashian-clean-slate-balenciaga">head-to-toe</a> black Balenciaga, an ensemble that rendered her a shadow, a silhouette, recognisable only by the familiar shape of her body. </p>
<p>This year, on the arm of new beau Pete Davidson, Kardashian has once again altered her body and reimagined her look. She lost 7kg in a matter of weeks and spent 14 hours bleaching her hair blonde: all to fit into a delicate, beaded Jean Louis dress, originally drawn by a young Bob Mackie and once worn by Marilyn Monroe. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461133/original/file-20220504-25-kn49f4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Marilyn Monroe Singing Happy Birthday to JFK" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461133/original/file-20220504-25-kn49f4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461133/original/file-20220504-25-kn49f4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=820&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461133/original/file-20220504-25-kn49f4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=820&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461133/original/file-20220504-25-kn49f4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=820&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461133/original/file-20220504-25-kn49f4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1031&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461133/original/file-20220504-25-kn49f4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1031&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461133/original/file-20220504-25-kn49f4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1031&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The dress was famously worn by Marilyn Monroe.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
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<p>This is not just any vintage gown. This is a piece of American history. Monroe wore the dress in 1962 for the 45th birthday celebrations for President John F. Kennedy, where she famously serenaded him with a sultry rendition of Happy Birthday, Mr President.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/kim-kardashian-should-not-have-worn-marilyn-monroe-dress-at-met-gala-fashion-experts-say">ethics</a> of wearing such a fragile piece of material history are one thing. The logistics required – beyond the crash diet and hair dye – are quite another. </p>
<p>The elaborate nature of this performance attests to Kardashian’s commitment to the event, her dedication to fashion and her desire to attract maximum attention.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-we-all-need-to-keep-up-with-the-kardashians-50948">Why we all need to keep up with the Kardashians</a>
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<h2>Constructing an image</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.vogue.com/article/kim-kardashian-met-gala-2022">Vogue</a> reports Kardashian wore the dress for only a matter of minutes, just as she walked the red carpet. </p>
<p>She was ushered out of her hotel through barricades against the paparazzi, fitted into the gown by a conservationist from the Ripley’s Believe It or Not Museum (who purchased the dress at auction in 2016 for a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2016/nov/18/marilyn-monroe-happy-birthday-mr-president-dress">record US$4.8 million</a>) in a small fitting room outside the museum, escorted up the steps by Davidson and hovering security guards, and then changed into a replica of the dress (also owned by Ripley’s) for the remainder of the party. </p>
<p>The interview in Vogue illustrates her reverence for Monroe, especially in <em>that</em> gown and at <em>that</em> historic event. </p>
<p>Monroe and Kardashian share much in common. They have recognisable bodies; famous for their sex appeal. They are petite women, 168cm and 157cm respectively. Both have been married three times. Kardashian, at 41, is just five years older than Monroe when she died, only three months after serenading the President at Madison Square Garden. </p>
<p>They are also vastly different. Monroe, a silver screen icon; an actor of remarkable talent. Kardashian, a reality TV star and icon of the modern celebrity age; famous for being famous. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/would-marilyn-monroes-career-and-life-have-been-different-if-she-had-acted-on-stage-70117">Would Marilyn Monroe's career (and life) have been different if she had acted on stage?</a>
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<p>By wearing this dress, radically (<a href="https://www.pedestrian.tv/entertainment/kim-kardashian-crash-diet-met-gala/">unhealthily</a>) transforming her body into an approximation of Monroe, Kardashian attempted to reiterate their likeness. </p>
<p>Just as she has morphed herself into a facsimile of <a href="https://www.harpersbazaar.com/celebrity/latest/a12150772/kim-kardashian-cher-photoshoot-harpers-bazaar-arabia/">Cher</a> or <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CZw83H-uAXp/?utm_source=ig_embed&ig_rid=2781218f-acb4-4760-be97-bb3786ec54cf">Naomi Campbell</a>, or transformed her style under the tutelage of her ex-husband, Ye: Kardashian is nothing if not a fashion chameleon. </p>
<h2>Reshaping the nature of celebrity</h2>
<p>Kardashian is also irrefutably herself. She has constructed her own form of celebrity and has fought fiercely for its legitimacy. Her inclusion on the Met Gala guest list in the first place – initially only as Kanye’s plus-one – was hard won. </p>
<p>So, what does it mean for this peerless contemporary celebrity to appropriate the dress, the aura, the mythology of an historical Hollywood icon? </p>
<p><a href="https://www.newsweek.com/kim-kardashian-marilyn-monroe-met-gala-moment-criticized-twitter-1702848">Some commentary</a> has suggested Kardashian would be lucky to have half the charisma, the magic of Monroe. This may be correct, yet it also somewhat misses the point. </p>
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<p>Regardless of your thoughts about Kardashian, it is undeniable she is an astute (albeit frequently <a href="https://www.thecut.com/2022/03/kim-kardashian-clarifies-her-comments-on-women-and-work.html">tone deaf</a>) business woman, who has made a living from her body and her ability to modify it. </p>
<p>For better or worse, she has altered the nature of celebrity and, along with her sisters, has reshaped American <a href="https://www.allure.com/story/the-kardashian-effect">beauty ideals</a>. </p>
<p>Of course, she is also a billionaire: one of the only women in the world with the financial means and cultural capital to acquire the rights to wear such a gown – extracted from its usual home in a temperature-controlled vault.</p>
<p>Other commentary decried the extravagance of the Met Gala itself. These familiar <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2022/may/02/met-gala-theme-gilded-glamor-criticism-inflation">dissenting voices</a> were perhaps louder than ever this year, as the event celebrated the so-called Gilded Age in American history (1870-1900) at a moment when political, economic, environmental and health crises the world over continue to proliferate. </p>
<p>However, that is the joy of fashion. It reminds us that, regardless of our differences, we are all bodies wrapped in garments. So, as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/may/03/first-thing-supreme-court-reportedly-votes-to-overturn-roe-v-wade">women’s rights are brutally peeled back</a> across the United States, I couldn’t help but revel in the extreme extravagance for a moment and savour this elaborate celebration of an iconic American woman. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/us-supreme-court-poised-to-overturn-abortion-law-what-the-leaked-opinion-says-and-what-happens-next-182351">US supreme court poised to overturn abortion law: what the leaked opinion says and what happens next</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182332/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Harriette Richards does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Kim Kardashian wore Marilyn Monroe’s dress for five minutes at the Met Gala. That’s showbiz.Harriette Richards, Research Associate, Cultural Studies, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1686322021-10-05T15:42:23Z2021-10-05T15:42:23ZPraise for Kim Kardashian’s Skims ignores her family’s relationship with body augmentation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424549/original/file-20211004-13-1r2300t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C0%2C4612%2C3014&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Valued well above US$1 billion, Kim Kardashian’s Skims is now among the most successful and quickly growing shapewear brands.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Kim Kardashian’s much talked about <a href="https://skims.com/">shapewear brand, Skims</a>, made headlines in September for its most recent campaign featuring her sister <a href="https://people.com/style/kourtney-kardashian-megan-fox-pose-topless-skims-campaign/">Kourtney Kardashian and close friend, Megan Fox</a>. </p>
<p>The two appear in a intimate embrace, wearing nothing but underwear. <a href="https://www.cosmopolitan.com/style-beauty/fashion/a37693560/kourtney-kardashian-megan-fox-skims-campaign-photos/"><em>Cosmopolitan</em> </a> wrote that the pair “look so good […] wow,” with industry heavyweights like <a href="https://www.nylon.com/fashion/megan-fox-kourtney-kardashian-skims-campaign"><em>Nylon</em></a> and <a href="https://www.instyle.com/fashion/megan-fox-kourtney-kardashian-skims-cotton-campaign"><em>InStyle</em></a> adding to this praise. Important questions surrounding these images and their implications for viewers however are missing from mainstream conversations. </p>
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<p>Also missing from conversation is the <a href="https://www.allure.com/story/the-kardashian-effect">Kardashians’ now infamous relationship to body augmentation</a>, beauty ideals and the pressures these ideals often cause. This should raise some concern, especially from a brand devoted to dressing, shaping and changing the body. </p>
<h2>Promises made to women</h2>
<p>Valued well above <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/09/business/dealbook/kardashian-skims.html?searchResultPosition=3">US$1 billion</a>, Skims is now among the most successful and quickly growing shapewear brands. Even amid COVID-19, Skims experienced <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/09/business/dealbook/kardashian-skims.html">an uptick in sales</a>. So, what explains this tremendous growth? </p>
<p>Kim’s brand(s), much like <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/how-does-kylie-jenner-make-money-2018-7#in-march-2019-forbes-dubbed-kylie-jenner-then-21-the-worlds-youngest-self-made-billionaire-1">that of her sister, Kylie’s</a>, thrive off promises made to women. Namely, promises that the purchase of their products can produce a figure and face closer in shape and size to the Kardashians. Skims’ images and online advertisements communicate as much, drawing viewers’ attention to an (increasingly) narrow waist and full hips like those Kim Kardashian first made famous.</p>
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<p>Of course, these promises aren’t real, from lip kits that failed to produce Kylie’s perfect pout, <a href="https://www.glamour.com/story/kim-kardashian-says-this-suppl">to vitamin supplements</a>, <a href="https://www.revelist.com/celebrity/kim-khloe-diet-tea-defense/15085/kim-and-khlo-kardashian-have-been-promoting-flat-tummy-tea-and-other-dangerous-diet-products-for-a-while-now/1">teas</a> <a href="https://www.insider.com/kim-kardashian-sells-waist-trainers-doctors-say-dangerous-2019-9">and waist trainers</a> that couldn’t quite “snatch” a Kardashian-like silhouette. Yet, media continue to levy praise and admiration, as if these promises shouldn’t warrant some suspicion. </p>
<h2>Understanding the beauty ideal</h2>
<p>In my work as a researcher studying appearance and attractiveness, as well as their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/14695405211022074">representation and reception across media platforms</a>, I take questions related to beauty, its various pressures (and privileges) seriously. </p>
<p>I look to images and advertisements, as well as videos and online trends, to better understand how beauty has come to shape our mediascape, and what this means for everyday viewers including and especially young people who consume and engage with digital content. </p>
<p>Throughout, I observe <a href="https://people.com/style/kuwtk-reunion-kim-kardashian-doesnt-think-family-promote-unrealistic-beauty-standards/">a quintessentially Kardashian ideal</a>, with an increasingly large number of social media users postured in ways that <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/fabulous/7133655/charlotte-crosby-curvy-figure/">reproduce the sisters’ figures and faces</a>. Consider, for example, online makeup tutorials and outfit shots dedicated to the sisters’ likenesses. Kim’s own <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_QvgzfNzHbY">beauty tutorial</a> has generated more than 15 million (and counting) views online, with everyday consumers tuning in to see just how to achieve the Kardashian look. Contour sticks and face powders — they are told — are all that is needed to sculpt, highlight and lift the face. </p>
<p>The popularity of these images and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CuwtdKj4Z2g">videos</a> reflects Kim and her sisters’ respective influence within the world of beauty, even as they continue to <a href="https://people.com/style/kuwtk-reunion-kim-kardashian-doesnt-think-family-promote-unrealistic-beauty-standards/">deny their role in its pressures</a>. </p>
<p>In my ongoing work on appearance, with sociologists Shyon Baumann and Josée Johnston, young people often explain that the Kardashians define what it means to be beautiful today. Drawing our attention to the sisters’ full lips, round hips and tapered waistlines, they remind us just how important (and impossible) the Kardashian ideal has become (thin, but curvaceous, full, but flat in <em>all the right places</em>). </p>
<h2>One step forward and two steps back</h2>
<p>To her credit, Kim’s work with Skims represents a step forward in she and her sisters’ enviable empire of brands, and their relationship to beauty. The brand has a focus on more diverse bodies in many (if not most) of its images and advertisements online, and shapewear in a range of sizes and skin tones, <a href="https://www.vogue.co.uk/news/article/kim-kardashian-west-future-of-skims">Skims is far more inclusive than some of its industry competitors</a>. In fact, consumers can shop up to sizes 4X and 5X across most product categories to find, in the brand’s own words, “a <em>solution</em> for every body” (emphasis added). </p>
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<p>But with this step forward, Kim has taken two steps back. As the brand’s messaging (however subtle) so often suggests, women ought to rein in their figures and discipline their bodies if they are to be <em>made</em> beautiful, sculpted and “solved” — she is suggesting that womens’ bodies are necessarily flawed, and in need of correction. </p>
<p>Though messages like this are not new in the world of beauty and fashion brands, their demands and attendant pressures from contouring the face to binding the belly, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190311-how-social-media-affects-body-image">have never been more persistent or damaging than they are today</a>. </p>
<p>As philosopher Heather Widdows, points out in her work on beauty, <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691160078/perfect-me"><em>Perfect Me: Beauty as an Ethical Ideal</em></a>, we have, as never before, a “duty” to perfect our appearance or at the very least, try. And this duty, as Kim and her sisters well know, can be packaged for purchase.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168632/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jordan Foster receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. </span></em></p>Important questions surrounding the praise over Kim Kardashian’s Skims are missing from mainstream conversations.Jordan Foster, PhD Student, Sociology, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1184072019-06-12T08:15:27Z2019-06-12T08:15:27ZLove Island: Molly-Mae Hague and the working life of a ‘social influencer’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278888/original/file-20190611-32331-ydmrlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=278%2C112%2C1485%2C960&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Molly-Mae Hague and Tommy Fury on their jacuzzi 'date'.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">ITV2</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Love Island returned to screens in the UK for a fifth season on June 1, alongside the usual discussion of who was going to couple up with whom – which is, let’s face it, what makes the show tick – the employment status of islander Molly-May Hague prompted a bit of a stir on social media. </p>
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<p>Within her introduction video and during her date with boxer Tommy Fury, Hague described her job as a “social influencer” who “does social media … Instagram”. Immediately, viewers took to Twitter to discuss her job role, with many claiming that a “social influencer” was simply a more acceptable way of saying she was unemployed. Others defended her “influencer” profession as a legitimate form of work.</p>
<p>Given that the show has an estimated audience of 13.3m on ITV2, it’s not a bad platform for someone with that job description. But this debate around Molly-Mae’s job shows how we need to think about the growing trend of social influencers and whether what they do constitutes a new and emerging form of 21st century work. </p>
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<h2>2019: year of the influencer?</h2>
<p>Millennials (people born in the early 1980s to the early 2000s) <a href="https://www.emarketer.com/Article/Millennials-Adept-Filtering-Ads/1012335">do not respond to traditional media advertisements</a>. Instead, they tend to use social media to communicate how they feel about products and businesses. So in order for businesses to capitalise on these online conversations, an entirely new approach to advertising is needed. “Influencer marketing” is emerging as one of the main solutions to this need. </p>
<p>The main premise of influencer marketing is that brands identify and pay social media celebrities – individuals with a large enough fan base to interest advertisers – to advertise products to their personal social media following. The idea is that consumers trust these “influencers” almost as friends and are more likely to have a positive reaction to a brand or product recommended by someone they trust in this way.</p>
<p>So, for example, the dress Kylie Jenner wore for her 21st birthday resulted in a spike triggered by her 137m Instagram followers – internet searches for “pink dress” reportedly <a href="https://www.vogue.co.uk/article/global-influencers-kim-kardashian-kylie-jenner-meghan-markle-ariana-grande-cardi-b">increased by 107%</a> in the 48 hours after she posted her picture. </p>
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<p>Then there is her half-sister, Kim Kardashian. Awarded the first ever <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysAec0JWKuc">CFDA Influencer Award</a> in 2018, Kim reportedly charges between <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/how-much-kim-kardashian-charges-for-instagram-endorsement-deals-2019-5?r=US&IR=T">US$300,000-$500,000 per single Instagram post</a>. For longer-term collaborations with a brand, deals can reach into the many millions of dollars. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.adweek.com/digital/giordano-contestabile-activate-by-bloglovin-guest-post-influencer-marketing-in-2018/">2018 article</a>, AdWeek magazine suggested that the influencer market would be worth over US$10 billion by the end of 2019. Within the UK alone, the allocation of marketers’ budgets put aside for influencer marketing campaigns has nearly <a href="https://rakutenmarketing.com/en-uk/press-articles/marketers-spending-in-excess-of-800000-per-year-on-influencer-campaigns-nearly-double-from-2017-as-they-aim-to-tackle-measurement-challenges">doubled to 40%</a> in 2019.</p>
<h2>But is it a job?</h2>
<p>It’s no surprise, then, that many are desperate to start a career in the influencer industry. Alongside traditional celebrities, social media has also enabled ordinary users to build their own fan base of followers and earn a living by collaborating with brands and creating content on social media. </p>
<p>But this new and emerging form of work brings new challenges and problems. Former Love Island Australia star Cassidy McGill recently used an Instagram story to <a href="https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/reality-tv/its-a-hard-job-love-islands-cassidy-on-the-reality-of-being-an-influencer/news-story/c510deb7782d3d6e1ff95458f696bd6f">outline some of the pressures</a> of her social media career. The recent backlash directed at Molly-Mae shows the continued stigma faced by influencers and the dismissal of the job, as McGill notes, as simply getting “paid a shitload to do fuck all”. </p>
<p>Through my own <a href="https://pure.royalholloway.ac.uk/portal/en/persons/nina-willment(a5f8fa28-ce22-4549-b6c7-558d6a005519).html">research</a> working with bloggers and influencers in the travel sphere, it appears bloggers and influencers actually invest a large variety of online and offline work in order to successfully become an influencer. </p>
<p>Individuals typically work long hours building relationships and continually engaging with their fan base, alongside working to create and curate content for brands. This typically results in the transformation of spaces of leisure such as holidays or meal times into spaces of work, as influencers feel they have to relentlessly share their life with their audience. </p>
<p>As a result, influencers have to deal with the pressure of constantly being available and accountable to their followers and wider audience. Offline, this work spills over into creating and curating a desirable image of themselves, which can involve both unrelenting physical and emotional management. </p>
<p>The true realities of this form of work and its resulting pressures on health and well-being are central issues which prompted ITV to <a href="https://inews.co.uk/culture/television/love-island-2019-itv-aftercare-plan-contestants-deaths-mike-thalassitis-sophie-gradon/">revise the aftercare</a> for Love Island contestants to be more comprehensive and include bespoke social media training. This revision followed public outcry after the tragic passing of former Love Island contestants Sophie Gradon and Mike Thalassitis who both <a href="https://metro.co.uk/2019/03/19/love-island-bosses-confirm-changes-show-deaths-mike-thalassitis-sophie-gradon-8951991/https://metro.co.uk/2019/03/19/love-island-bosses-confirm-changes-show-deaths-mike-thalassitis-sophie-gradon-8951991/">died by suicide</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/jeremy-kyle-show-a-psychologist-explains-the-risks-in-reality-tv-and-how-aftercare-should-be-done-117287">Jeremy Kyle Show: a psychologist explains the risks in reality TV and how aftercare should be done</a>
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<p>In a recent <a href="https://www.hrreview.co.uk/hr-news/1-of-5-british-children-want-a-career-as-social-media-influencers/114597">survey</a>, one in five British 11- to 16-year-olds said they wanted to be a social media influencer when they grew up. This result, alongside the sheer value and scale of the industry, suggests that the influencer is here to stay. It’s high time we recognised the amount of work that successful influencers invest in the role and acknowledged those working in this intense and precarious world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118407/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nina Willment receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council. </span></em></p>Is ‘social influencer’ a real job? It’s all about work-life balance.Nina Willment, PhD Candidate, Royal Holloway University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/923772018-05-23T13:42:39Z2018-05-23T13:42:39ZHow did the Kardashian Jenner family become so successful? A psychologist explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/220134/original/file-20180523-51127-1owo2j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=53%2C0%2C3540%2C2382&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Khloé, Kylie, Kris, Kourtney, Kim and Kendall – back in the day. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/khloe-kardashian-kylie-jenner-kris-kourtney-313319390?src=N58sqKoP1_unJ_EIKlh3Uw-1-10">Tinseltown/Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since Keeping up with the Kardashians first aired ten years ago, the Kardashian-Jenner sisters have risen from bit players in a reality TV show, to international celebrities and household names. In a society where beauty and wealth seem to be <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303825009_Consumer_Culture_Identity_and_Well-Being_The_Search_for_the_'Good_Life'_and_the_'Body_Perfect'">valued above all else</a>, it’s easy to see why Kourtney, Kim, Khloé, Kendall and Kylie are idolised as paragons by women and girls around the world. </p>
<p>The Kardashian-Jenner sisters are <a href="http://time.com/money/4950313/kardashian-net-worth/">multi-million dollar</a> personal brands, with potent cultural influence; not long ago, Kylie Jenner reportedly <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-43163544">wiped £1 billion</a> off the stock market value of Snapchat with a single disparaging tweet. They navigate the changing media landscape with expert precision, and their constant presence across both mainstream and social media only reinforces their power and popularity. </p>
<p>As a psychologist interested in how media, social media and technology shape the lives of young people, I have watched the evolution of “Kardashian Kulture” with great interest. With a combination of social, cyber and media psychology, it’s possible to understand the influence of the Kardashian-Jenner brand – and its limitations. </p>
<h2>Real talk</h2>
<p>As people become more aware of the editing and airbrushing which helps to create the images of beautiful, glamorous models seen in magazines or on Instagram, they find them <a href="https://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/jscp.2012.31.2.105">easier to dismiss</a> as fake. This, in turn, helps counter the dissatisfaction which comes from comparing your body to others’. But the media-savvy approach of the Kardashian-Jenner sisters has made it difficult for us disregard them in this way. </p>
<p>Keeping up with the Kardashians provides carefully choreographed glimpses into the glamorous and entertaining lives of the Kardashian-Jenner sisters. Social media adds even greater depth and detail to this “reality”. Snapchat, for example, gives the sisters a tool to provide candid glimpses into their daily lives, which – like all Snapchat content – are only momentarily available. </p>
<p>When we take these seemingly intimate peeks inside the lives of the Kardashian-Jenners, we not only start to believe that what we’re seeing is real – we also begin to think that they are just like us. When we are privy to their everyday activities – from sibling squabbles and family dinners, to marriages and motherhood – we begin to identify and relate to them. This identification increases our interest in them – and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-011-9964-x">their influence over us</a>. </p>
<h2>The show must go on</h2>
<p>But it’s important to remember the lifestyles they present are still carefully curated – with the help of “momager” Kris – to appear as desirable as possible. Though we see the sisters go through trials and tribulations, the life they present is ultimately a desirable one - filled with happiness, love and success. </p>
<p>When we aspire to Keep up with the Kardashians, we don’t just aspire to have their wealth and beauty; we want all of the other benefits, too – the close, happy family, the superstar love interests and the carefree luxury life in Calabasas. Not only that, but as expert marketers they make living like a Kardashian-Jenner feel like an achievable goal - and <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.578.7014&rep=rep1&type=pdf">we’re more motivated</a> to copy celebrities if we think their success is attainable. </p>
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<p>Kylie lip kits, Kim contouring palettes and Khloe “revenge body” workouts are all readily available, which means that for the right price, you too can be a Kardashian-Jenner. And for those of us who watched the sisters grow richer, more beautiful and more successful over the last ten years, the Kardashian-Jenner brand seems particularly credible. If it worked for them (we tell ourselves) it will work for us. On the flip side, these thoughts can create insecurities you never knew you had – a desire for fuller lips, smaller waist or more defined jaw, perhaps? And of course, the Kardashian-Jenner sisters directly profit from the remedy. </p>
<h2>A faithful following</h2>
<p>But like all celebrities, the Kardashian-Jenners rely on an interested audience to sustain their appeal. When Kylie Jenner tweeted she was “sooo over” Snapchat, she was tapping into the dissatisfaction felt by millions of other teenagers with the platform’s interface upgrade. But immediately after the debacle, Kylie sent another tweet reaffirming her love for Snapchat – after all, it’s a crucial tool for maintaining her popularity with her largely teenage fan base. It would seem that Kylie Jenner’s fortunes are as dependent on Snapchat, as Snapchat’s are on Kylie Jenner.</p>
<p>And although the Kardashian-Jenners have gained mass appeal by embodying the dominant cultural values of wealth and beauty, they are not for everyone. Not every teenage girl will buy into their beauty standards, or aspire to their wealth. And from a psychological perspective, there is <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-11459-001">much to be learned</a> from the resilience of these young women – indeed, their example has helped to shape some of <a href="https://www.yorksj.ac.uk/the-advantage/professional-training--development/">my own media literacy programmes</a>. The fact that the sisters have overstepped at times has also tarnished their appeal, as the backlash to Kendall Jenner’s <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2017/apr/04/kendall-jenner-pepsi-ad-protest-black-lives-matter">tone deaf Pepsi advert</a> and Kim’s irresponsible endorsement of “<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-a-kim-kardashian-lollipop-help-you-lose-weight-96806">appetite suppressant</a>” lollipops has shown. </p>
<p>Love them or hate them, the Kardashian-Jenner sisters have used their intuitive understanding of media and cyber psychology to harness the power of a fast-changing media landscape. And it’s not always to the benefit of their loyal followers: the Kardashians are likely well aware there’s money to be made selling teenage girls “solutions” to the insecurities they arguably help to create. But young people are waking up to the ways Snapchat and Instagram can be used to curate a perfect “reality”. Hopefully, with time, Kardashian Kulture will become less a source of social pressure, and more a guilty pleasure.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92377/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Beth Bell receives funding from EPSRC. </span></em></p>There’s a psychological reason why it’s so hard to switch off from the Kardashians – they are master media manipulators.Beth Bell, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, York St John UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/968062018-05-18T10:32:25Z2018-05-18T10:32:25ZCan a Kim Kardashian lollipop help you lose weight?<p>Kim Kardashian West has been <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/newsbeat-44137700">heavily</a> <a href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/why-is-kim-kardashian-pushing-sketchy-diet-lollipops">criticised</a> for promoting “appetite suppresant” lollipops on <a href="https://www.instagram.com/kimkardashian/">her Instagram account</a>. Despite the criticism, more than a million people have liked her post, showing the extent of her influence, especially over her mainly young female audience.</p>
<p>Appetite is a complex biological and psychological process that isn’t easily controlled with a lollipop – regardless of what it contains. It
involves <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2710609/">areas of the brain</a> that create the sensations of hunger or fullness. <a href="https://www.webmd.com/diet/features/your-hunger-hormones#1">Hormones released from the gut or the body’s fat stores</a> also play a role in controlling appetite.</p>
<p>These hunger or fullness signals can be blocked or “suppressed” to influence our eating behaviour. A number of chemicals that can act as appetite suppressants exist, including <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3863945/">illicit drugs</a>, such as cocaine and methamphetamine, and herbal supplements, such as matcha tea and hoodia – although there is no suggestion that such chemicals are in this lolly. </p>
<p>These chemicals do not form the basis for medically managed weight-loss programmes but, as decreased appetite usually leads to decreased food intake, they are sometimes used by people who want to lose weight. Importantly, many of these chemicals are illegal, unregulated or ineffective and can potentially have serious side effects. </p>
<h2>Show me the evidence</h2>
<p>The lollies in question are produced by Flat Tummy Co, an American company. Flat Tummy Co has previously been accused of false advertising and ordered to <a href="https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/business/2017/09/flat-tummy-tea-why-asa-cracking-down-influencers-shilling-detox-drinks">take down a social media post</a> advertising one of its products. </p>
<p>This latest product claims to include an “active ingredient” that the company calls <a href="https://www.satiereal.com/">satiereal</a>, a product derived from saffron. According to the website, satiereal is <a href="http://www.satiereal.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Gout-et-al-Satiereal-NutResJ-2010.pdf">clinically proven to reduce appetite</a>; however, no evidence of this effect in the format or dose of these lollies is available, and the study these claims are based on was very small. </p>
<p>Importantly, the lollies are apparently marketed at young women, looking at the <a href="https://flattummyco.com/products/flattummylollipops">pink packaging and use of young female models</a> on the company website. This approach has rightly been criticised because of the effect it can have on the well-being of young women. </p>
<p>Although eating disorders can affect people of all ages, they are predominantly found in younger people, especially females. About <a href="https://www.beateatingdisorders.org.uk/media-centre/eating-disorder-statistics">1.25m people in the UK</a> are thought to have an eating disorder, most of whom are female. </p>
<p>Adverts like this, from influential people, can be damaging, as they help to sustain the persistent belief that being thin is attractive. This can cause <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471015303000187">body dissatisfaction</a>. Women and young girls are bombarded with unrealistic and often manipulated images of the physical form <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/features/advertisings-toxic-effect-on-eating-and-body-image/">which they compare themselves to</a>, and social media has itself been suggested to be <a href="http://digitalcommons.lasalle.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1044&context=explorercafe">a cause of eating disorders</a>. The message that this advert appears to send is that it is good to have a reduced appetite, and this could be dangerous for vulnerable young women.</p>
<h2>Don’t speak to Kim, speak to your GP</h2>
<p>Increasingly, celebrities are paid to advertise health products via social media. This means that often followers of these “influencers” take health advice from unqualified celebrities instead of more appropriate sources. </p>
<p>Celebrities are often paid to advertise products, whether they are beauty creams or health supplements. And they may not even use the products that they promote. </p>
<p>While many people look to celebrities for inspiration when it comes to their look, it is not wise to follow their advice on health. If you feel you need help managing your weight or if you have concerns about your body image, speak to your GP. Help with eating disorders is also available <a href="https://www.beateatingdisorders.org.uk/">online</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/96806/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Brown does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Kim Kardashian West comes under fire for promoting an appetite-suppressing lollipop on social media.James Brown, Senior Lecturer in Biology and Biomedical Science, Aston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/962902018-05-08T15:12:26Z2018-05-08T15:12:26ZThe Pope Wears Prada: how religion and fashion connected at Met Gala 2018<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218110/original/file-20180508-34024-1rn57qk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C3%2C752%2C531&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rihanna at the Metropolitan Museum of Art Costume Institute's benefit celebrating 'Heavenly Bodies' in New York, May 7, 2018.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.epa.eu/arts-culture-and-entertainment-photos/fashion-photos/2018-metropolitan-museum-of-art-costume-institute-benefit-red-carpet-photos-54315133">EPA images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Clothing has <a href="https://bucar.hcommons.org/pious-fashion/">always played a key role</a> in <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pvwoDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT209&lpg=PT209&dq=review+nir+joseph+and+aseneth&source=bl&ots=ae1uZpbdQW&sig=XaD9XottRUmDii2v7ZYhnfk1Ddg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjzvfGqmf_WAhWKnBoKHe6kAFQQ6AEIPzAF#v=onepage&q&f=false">religious expression</a>, and the theme of the recent Met Gala in New York – “<a href="https://www.vogue.com/article/met-gala-2018-theme-heavenly-bodies-fashion-and-the-catholic-imagination">Heavenly Bodies: Fashion and the Catholic Imagination</a>” – and the sensational outfits it spawned showed that Christianity and its imagery can still cause jaws to drop. </p>
<p>The gala is a fundraising and showcase event for the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Costume Institute, which will <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2018/heavenly-bodies">host an exhibition on fashion and the Catholic imagination</a> from May 10. But the event is also a big deal among the world’s fashionistas, which means that it has made religion truly <em>de rigeur</em>. As curator Andrew Bolton <a href="http://observer.com/2018/05/met-museum-heavenly-bodies-curator-andrew-bolton-mixes-religion-fashion/">said</a>: “Dress is central to any discussion about religion. It affirms religious allegiances, and, by extension, it asserts religious differences.”</p>
<p>The red carpet certainly glittered, but a closer look reveals the religious significance behind some of the best looks of the night.</p>
<h2>You look divine</h2>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/judeinlondon2/status/993626844812447744?s=12">Stars referenced specific religious figures</a>, from saints to the Pope – and no one’s going to forget Rihanna’s outfit anytime soon. Lily Collins and Lana Del Rey both paid homage to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Sorrows">Our Lady of Sorrows</a>, though focusing on different aspects of the manifestation of the Virgin Mary. Collins chose an understated reference using jewelled tears …</p>
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<p>… while Lana Del Rey opted to represent the full iconographic horror of the heart pierced with the seven swords. </p>
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<p>Some felt let down by Kim Kardashian West’s gold metallic gown, which featured only small crucifix details. However, as one Twitter user observed, extravagant use of gold is also part of Christian ritual iconography.</p>
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<p>Kardashian West’s costume choice, then, might hark back to her <a href="https://www.shape.com/blogs/fit-famous/kim-kardashian-breaks-internet-her-paper-magazine-cover">internet-breaking magazine cover</a>, which also associated her body with a cup overflowing with wine.</p>
<h2>Clothed in glory</h2>
<p>Halos predominated at the May 7 event. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"993659336143638528"}"></div></p>
<p>From glittering metal crowns to Janelle Monae’s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_(religious_iconography)">nimbus</a>-shaped hat, halos were used by celebs to indicate their divine status, <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pvwoDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT209&lpg=PT209&dq=review+nir+joseph+and+aseneth&source=bl&ots=ae1uZpbdQW&sig=XaD9XottRUmDii2v7ZYhnfk1Ddg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjzvfGqmf_WAhWKnBoKHe6kAFQQ6AEIPzAF#v=onepage&q=shining&f=false">reflecting centuries of iconography</a> and legend. Known in the New Testament from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfiguration_of_Jesus_in_Christian_art">Jesus’s shining transfiguration</a> and elaborated on by centuries of the glittering round halo that surrounds images of the Virgin Mary, the glowing halo is the symbol of divinity. But while spectacular halos abounded, one headpiece stood out from the crowd. </p>
<p>Solange Knowles paired her braided golden halo with a black <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do-rag">du-rag</a>, pushing back against the notion that heaven is white and reminding onlookers that contemporary African American sartorial culture is <a href="https://twitter.com/solangeknowles/status/993637938239025153">also heavenly</a>. In an interview on the red carpet, Solange stated that she was directly influenced by the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Black-Madonna-Courtney-Hall-Lee/dp/1498293816">Black Madonna</a> and African saints. </p>
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<p>Her du-rag, flowing long like a train, is bejewelled with the words “My God Wears a Du Rag”. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"993721709533581312"}"></div></p>
<h2>Disrupting white dominance</h2>
<p>Bolton explained his focus on Catholicism, <a href="https://twitter.com/BlairImani/status/993620304550354944">a choice that hasn’t gone without criticism</a>, to <a href="http://observer.com/2018/05/met-museum-heavenly-bodies-curator-andrew-bolton-mixes-religion-fashion/">The Observer</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The genesis of the exhibition came about five years ago when I was hoping to focus on five religions — Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism and Catholicism. The idea was to do site-specific interventions that represented those belief systems in galleries in the Met. But it became really clear that about 80% of the material that I was looking at was inspired by Catholicism. It makes sense, because of the Western tradition’s imagistic history and the storytelling tradition.</p>
<p>It was beginning to look imbalanced. I was worried that it might be misinterpreted, that the other four religions might seem like tokens. And when the Vatican came on board, it made the imbalance even greater. So I decided to focus on Catholicism, because the body of material was stronger.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The focus on Catholic art history could have meant that the event – and associated exhibition – was overwhelmingly white, despite the fact that Catholicism is diverse and plenty of <a href="https://psmag.com/education/yes-there-were-poc-in-medieval-europe">people of colour are represented in Christian art</a>. But Solange disrupted this white dominance with her choice of outfit, as did many other women of colour at the gala. Several were also <a href="https://twitter.com/TabloidArtHist/status/993639883519426562">inspired by Black Madonna imagery to celebrate</a> and foreground black women in a context where white women and white religious imagery is dominant. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"993669555816837120"}"></div></p>
<h2>Non Christian heavenly bodies?</h2>
<p>Perhaps unsurprisingly given the theme, Christian iconography was everywhere at the gala. But there were a few exceptions. Selena Gomez stated in an interview that she wanted to embody Queen Esther, a pre-Christian biblical figure who saves the Jewish population and whose bravery is commemorated in the Jewish festival of Purim. </p>
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<p><a href="https://www.teenvogue.com/story/selena-gomez-secret-message-coach-bag-met-gala-2018?mbid=social_twitter">Gomez’s handbag</a> was also embroidered with the words from Proverbs 31:30: “A woman who fears the Lord is a woman who shall be praised.”</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"993697008392331264"}"></div></p>
<p>Queen Esther isn’t prominent in Christian theology but <a href="https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2017/march-web-only/jesus-didnt-eat-seder-meal.html">Christian use of Jewish figures is nothing new</a>, and Gomez, a Christian, speaks about celebrating strong women in an interview with Vogue.</p>
<p>The original Wonder Woman, Lynda Carter, meanwhile, wowed spectators with her dazzling crown, which included the Hebrew phrase <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/wonder-woman-lynda-carter-rules-the-met-gala-in-hebrew-crown/">“l’olam al tishkachi” (never forget)</a>, and her Star of David hair pin.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"993618871545294848"}"></div></p>
<p>Carter’s use of Jewish imagery comes from a different point of reference to Gomez’s since Carter, a former “born-again” Christian, is <a href="https://www.metroweekly.com/2009/06/world-wonder/">now married to a Jewish man and has Jewish children</a>; Carter is self-conscious of her use of Jewish symbols and their meaning.</p>
<h2>‘Evangelism through beauty’?</h2>
<p><a href="https://fashionista.com/2018/05/met-costume-institute-heavenly-bodies-fashion-catholic-imagination-exhibit-review">At the exhibition’s recent press preview</a>, the Archbishop of New York, Cardinal Timothy Dolan, commented: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>In the Catholic imagination, the truth, goodness and beauty of God is reflected all over the place, even in fashion … the world is shot through with His glory and His presence.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Rather than trying to convert people through fashion, <a href="https://www.teenvogue.com/story/the-catholic-church-should-learn-from-rihannas-2018-met-gala-look">the church should take a leaf out of Rihanna’s book</a> and shift some of its approaches. While a Pope Rihanna might seem laughable or heretical, the church has been resisting increasing pressure to ordain women as priests. The Met Gala shows that religion is being killed by outdated ideology rather than a lack of interest in it. Rather than just over-the-top fashion statements, the outfits worn by Solange, Rihanna and others represent a challenge to the white patriarchal status quo.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/96290/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katie Edwards works for the University of Sheffield. She receives funding from the AHRC and the White Rose Collaboration Fund. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>M J C Warren works for the University of Sheffield.</span></em></p>Go Rihanna!Katie Edwards, Director SIIBS, University of SheffieldM J C Warren, Lecturer in Biblical and Religious Studies, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/697832016-12-16T00:56:58Z2016-12-16T00:56:58ZSocial media shots affect body image because we only show our best side<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150405/original/image-20161215-26059-63fne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Just because it's on social media, doesn't make it real. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/instantvantage/9577247719/">Guian Bolisay/Flickr</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many modern celebrities are known for being <a href="https://theconversation.com/no-kim-kardashians-pregnant-selfie-is-not-a-work-of-art-46053">excessive sharers</a> on social media. For instance, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-we-all-need-to-keep-up-with-the-kardashians-50948">Kardashians</a> are notorious for posting daily glamorous and often lingerie clad images on <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/BNe2sYEjKm6/?taken-by=kendalljenner&hl=en">Instagram</a> that attract several million likes.</p>
<p>But it’s not just images of attractive celebrities that flood social media. Friends, acquaintances and strangers post images of themselves too, often editing them to disguise face blemishes, make cheeks rosier or to make their nose look smaller.</p>
<p>When people look at these attractive images on social media, <a href="http://www2.psy.unsw.edu.au/Users/lvartanian/Publications/Fardouly%20&%20Vartanian%20(2015).pdf">research</a> shows they often compare their own appearance to those images and think they’re less attractive than the images they see.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Taryn_Myers/publication/38076724_Social_Comparison_as_a_Predictor_of_Body_Dissatisfaction_A_Meta-Analytic_Review/links/0f31753469a8c0d196000000.pdf">We know</a> these comparisons can make women unhappy with their appearance and put them in a bad mood. Given body dissatisfaction is an important predictor for <a href="http://www.ori.org/files/Static%20Page%20Files/SticeWhitenton02.pdf">eating disorders</a>, we need to know if some types of comparisons are worse for people’s body image than others.</p>
<p>Most research on appearance comparisons has focused on people comparing their own bodies to models in magazines, on billboards or on television.</p>
<p>But <a href="http://www2.psy.unsw.edu.au/Users/lvartanian/Publications/Fardouly,%20Pinkus,%20&%20Vartanian%20(2017).pdf">our recent research</a> found women rarely compare their appearance to others’ in magazines or on billboards, and only sometimes compare their appearance to others’ on TV. We found social media comparisons better reflect the types of comparisons young women make every day.</p>
<p>In our study, 150 female undergraduate students answered online surveys five times a day for five days. For each survey, they reported if they had compared their appearance with someone else’s, and whether they made that comparison after looking at social media, traditional media or in person. They also reported whether they thought the person looked better, the same or worse than them. They then rated their body image, mood and thoughts of dieting and exercising.</p>
<h2>Social media is the key</h2>
<p>Women mostly thought others looked better than them on social media. This is likely due to women selectively posting the most attractive images of themselves on social media and enhancing those images to look like images in magazines, which are routinely edited.</p>
<p>Comparisons made between their own appearance and attractive others on social media were particularly harmful for women in our study.</p>
<p>Women reported being in the worst mood after social media comparisons relative to other comparisons. When women made social media comparisons, they also reported being unhappier with their appearance and more motivated to start unhealthy weight-loss activities, like going on a diet, than when they made comparisons in person. </p>
<p>These findings are consistent with other research linking social media appearance comparisons or envy with <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269093538_Facebook_use_envy_and_depression_among_college_students_Is_Facebooking_depressing">depression</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272753776_Body_image_20_Associations_between_social_grooming_on_Facebook_and_body_image_concerns">body dissatisfaction</a>. Our findings also add to <a href="http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/cyber.2013.0305?journalCode=cyber">research</a> that suggests certain activities such as comparisons on social media may be harmful to women’s body image and mood, rather than just overall use.</p>
<h2>What don’t we know?</h2>
<p>Because we only measured the immediate impact of appearance comparisons, we do not know how long these effects last. One comparison is unlikely to have long lasting effects but chronically comparing your appearance may well have negative outcomes. <a href="http://www2.psy.unsw.edu.au/Users/lvartanian/Publications/Fardouly,%20Diedrichs,%20Vartanian,%20&%20Halliwell%20(2015).pdf">One study</a> found women who make more appearance comparisons to others in general are more vulnerable to the effects of social media on body image.</p>
<p>Although we only tested young women in our study, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298794212_A_systematic_review_of_the_impact_of_the_use_of_social_networking_sites_on_body_image_and_disordered_eating_outcomes">research</a> suggests there may be similar patterns for men and people of different ages.</p>
<p>And the effects might be different depending on the social media platform, as some are more image-based than others. Those that rely on images, like Instagram and Snapchat, provide people with more opportunities to make appearance comparisons and may be more harmful to women’s body image and mood.</p>
<h2>How to reduce the impact?</h2>
<p>We need to find ways to reduce the impact of social media comparisons. People could detox from social media if they notice it is making them feel badly about themselves or their body. However, to do this, people need to be aware of the impact social media has on them.</p>
<p>People could unfollow or avoid people who post highly edited, idealised images of themselves, like the Kardashians. This may reduce how often people think others look more attractive than them on social media.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150406/original/image-20161215-26062-1fxbtxe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150406/original/image-20161215-26062-1fxbtxe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150406/original/image-20161215-26062-1fxbtxe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150406/original/image-20161215-26062-1fxbtxe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150406/original/image-20161215-26062-1fxbtxe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150406/original/image-20161215-26062-1fxbtxe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150406/original/image-20161215-26062-1fxbtxe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150406/original/image-20161215-26062-1fxbtxe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Unfollow people who doctor their images.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/kimkardashian/?hl=en">Screenshot Instagram</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It may also be helpful to follow accounts that deconstruct these images, like comedian <a href="https://www.instagram.com/celestebarber/?hl=en">Celeste Barber</a>, or post realistic everyday images.</p>
<p>When browsing social media it may be helpful for people to stop and think about the motivation behind each post and question how realistic each image is. It is important to <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-016-0440-3">think critically</a> about how edited or staged images or videos are on social media.</p>
<p>Although we are starting to understand the impact of how we use social media, there is still a lot we don’t know.</p>
<p>For example, we don’t know if comparisons to friends or celebrities have different impacts on women’s mood and body image. And we don’t know if some people are more negatively impacted by these comparisons than are others.</p>
<p>But we do know we need to find ways to reduce the number and impact of appearance comparisons we make on social media.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/69783/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lenny R. Vartanian receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca T. Pinkus receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jasmine Fardouly does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Images of attractive celebrities, friends and acquaintances on social media affect women’s body image and mood, new research shows. But what can we do about it?Jasmine Fardouly, Postdoctoral research fellow, Macquarie UniversityLenny R. Vartanian, Associate professor, UNSW SydneyRebecca T. Pinkus, Lecturer, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/677482016-11-01T13:54:42Z2016-11-01T13:54:42ZThe fortress complex: how the West became obsessed with home security<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144054/original/image-20161101-15779-1ea82rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>That famous phrase, “an Englishman’s home is his castle”, neatly captures longstanding ideas about what the private home really is: a place which we can control and defend, a private territory where we decide who enters and who doesn’t. We all share a deep and primitive fear of intrusion and invasion, which lead us to see the home as a place of refuge. </p>
<p>So it seems strange that while crime has <a href="http://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/crimeinenglandandwales/2015-10-15#main-points">broadly declined</a> over the past two decades across the Western world, we have also seen the appearance of many more gated communities and homes with extensive security systems. </p>
<p>In our new book, <a href="http://www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk/9781784995317/">Domestic Fortress: Fear and the New Home Front</a> we explore some of the explanations for this surprising trend. For one thing, withdrawal from public life has become something of an escapist fantasy, promoted by high-profile celebrities who use their wealth to pursue privacy. Think of Richard Branson’s <a href="https://www.virgin.com/richard-branson/how-i-bought-necker-island">island escape on Necker</a>, the Barclay twins’ <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2012/jun/27/brecqhou-barclay-brothers-getaway-island">castle on Brecqhou</a> in the Channel Islands, or Mark Zuckerberg’s <a href="http://www.mercurynews.com/2013/10/10/mark-zuckerberg-buys-four-houses-near-his-palo-alto-home/">purchase of neighbouring properties</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144019/original/image-20161101-15814-17ucu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144019/original/image-20161101-15814-17ucu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144019/original/image-20161101-15814-17ucu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144019/original/image-20161101-15814-17ucu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144019/original/image-20161101-15814-17ucu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144019/original/image-20161101-15814-17ucu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144019/original/image-20161101-15814-17ucu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Castle Barclay on Brecqhou.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/afc16/2664541899/sizes/l">Chris_Northey/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yet in societies with high levels of inequality, these escapes may also create certain risks: in particular, sites of extreme wealth present targets for theft, which require additional protection. The result is defensive domestic architecture, which typically takes two forms: “spiky” or “stealthy”. </p>
<p>“Spiky” architecture displays security measures in plain sight, including towering walls, formidable gates, CCTV cameras and sharp projections. By contrast, some homes are so stealthy that they are almost invisible; disguised as bunkers or <a href="http://www.eonline.com/news/710377/barbra-streisand-s-basement-mall-is-not-alone-7-other-outrageous-things-celebs-have-had-in-their-homes">partly hidden underground</a>. </p>
<h2>Caught off guard</h2>
<p>Consider Kim Kardashian’s recent ordeal, when she was <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-37546307">robbed at gunpoint</a> at the Hôtel de Pourtalès – a private residence which Madonna and Leonardo DiCaprio also use when in Paris. In the early hours, five men dressed as police officers entered the building and forced the concierge at gunpoint to give them access to Kardashian’s apartment. Kardashian was tied up and gagged, while the thieves made off with £8.7m worth of jewellery. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144020/original/image-20161101-15783-3fz5lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144020/original/image-20161101-15783-3fz5lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=356&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144020/original/image-20161101-15783-3fz5lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=356&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144020/original/image-20161101-15783-3fz5lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=356&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144020/original/image-20161101-15783-3fz5lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144020/original/image-20161101-15783-3fz5lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144020/original/image-20161101-15783-3fz5lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kim Kardashian (right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/evarinaldiphotography/8002634675/sizes/l">Eva Rinaldi/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although 20 staff service the nine apartments, the site has little visible security. The exterior of the mansion is completely discreet, with a private entrance from an underground car park; it is characterised by stealth rather than spikiness.</p>
<p>It’s unlikely that a similar intrusion would have been successful at either of the luxury mansions owned by Kardashian and her husband, Kanye West in Bel Air or Hidden Hills – a gated community so private that it is blanked-out on Google Streetview. There, full security – including structural and technological defences, as well as a personal armed guard – is provided 24 hours a day. </p>
<h2>Feeling insecure</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144051/original/image-20161101-14202-1cn8z94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144051/original/image-20161101-14202-1cn8z94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144051/original/image-20161101-14202-1cn8z94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144051/original/image-20161101-14202-1cn8z94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144051/original/image-20161101-14202-1cn8z94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1080&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144051/original/image-20161101-14202-1cn8z94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1080&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144051/original/image-20161101-14202-1cn8z94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1080&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Build your own fortress home.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rowland Atkinson</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The insatiable demand for news about celebrities means that <a href="http://www.elle.com/culture/art-design/g27319/kim-kardashian-kanye-west-home/?slide=1">images of these properties</a> are available whenever we want to see them. This feeds our aspirations and status anxiety about our own homes, encouraging more people to seek out further security, protection and fortification. </p>
<p>As a result, gated communities and various domestic security systems are now attracting the interest of people with more moderate incomes. Technologies such as infrared security lighting and burglar alarms have become cheaper over time, and their increased use has no doubt contributed to the declining burglary rate. </p>
<p>While around 700,000 households <a href="http://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/crimeinenglandandwales/yearendingseptember2015#theft-offences-burglary">are burgled</a> each year in England and Wales (one of the highest levels in the Western world), the reality of this risk is much greater for particular groups. It is not the ultra-wealthy, as one might assume – rather, people living in deprived areas (and minority ethnic groups, in particular) who are at the <a href="https://crimesciencejournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40163-016-0051-z">highest risk of burglary</a>.</p>
<p>Housing tenure is also <a href="http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/26237/1/3654_Tseloni.pdf">a significant factor</a>: private renters are nearly 40% more likely to be burgled than owner-occupiers, while social renters are nearly three times as likely. Tenants typically have fewer security devices to protect their homes, and more importantly do not have the right to install additional defensive measures or modify their home, as they do not own it. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144053/original/image-20161101-14771-i9ykhc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144053/original/image-20161101-14771-i9ykhc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144053/original/image-20161101-14771-i9ykhc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144053/original/image-20161101-14771-i9ykhc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144053/original/image-20161101-14771-i9ykhc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144053/original/image-20161101-14771-i9ykhc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144053/original/image-20161101-14771-i9ykhc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At risk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/arthurjohnpicton/4764639823/sizes/l">SomeDriftwood/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Instead of addressing these inequalities with public welfare and security provision, Western governments continue to encourage private home ownership as a form of financial security during old age, as well as a type of shelter that can be reinforced and secured using technologies, in ways that rented accommodation cannot.</p>
<h2>Forting-up</h2>
<p>But making fortresses of our homes can have destructive consequences. What has come to be known as the <a href="https://www.cga.ct.gov/2012/rpt/2012-R-0172.htm">Castle Doctrine</a> means that in most US states today, homeowners who feel that they or their property are under threat can kill an intruder with impunity. </p>
<p>In the US, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/feb/27/trayvon-martin-new-civil-rights-movement-grows-strength">a furore erupted</a> when George Zimmerman shot and killed Trayvon Martin, an unarmed teenager walking through the gated community where he was staying and where Zimmerman was a member of the neighbourhood watch. Zimmerman was arrested, then almost immediately released, because Florida’s <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2014/06/27/what-stand-your-ground-laws-actually-mean/?utm_term=.d35431cdc0ff">“stand your ground” laws</a> meant he had committed no crime. He was charged with murder six weeks later, and ultimately acquitted by a jury.</p>
<p>So, the “forting-up” of homes and private neighbourhoods across the West can be linked to the fear of burglary and intrusion, but also to other modern insecurities. Obsession with ownership, concerns over national and urban insecurity and anxieties about social status combine to produce what we can identify as the “complex” of the fortress home. This is a general sense of anxiety, which is woven into wider fears about our future emotional, physical and financial security and family well-being that are strongly connected to the private home. </p>
<p>As young peoples’ aspirations to own their own homes are thwarted by <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/inflationandpriceindices/bulletins/housepriceindex/aug2016">escalating house prices</a>, and anxieties about crime, terror and ecological risks spread, it seems likely that this complex – and the rise of “stealthy” and “spiky” domestic architecture – will continue.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/67748/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Blandy received funding from the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister for research into gated communities, as well as funding from the British Academy. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rowland Atkinson received funding from the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister for research into gated communities, as well as funding from the Economic and Social Research Council.</span></em></p>Crime is declining, but people are getting more and more defensive about their homes.Sarah Blandy, Professor of Law, University of SheffieldRowland Atkinson, Chair in Inclusive Societies, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/663972016-10-16T19:08:03Z2016-10-16T19:08:03ZSocial media and crime: the good, the bad and the ugly<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140813/original/image-20161006-32708-1s1429x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C29%2C720%2C495&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The release of CCTV footage of Melbourne woman Jill Meagher’s last moments via social media channels assisted in apprehending her killer.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Social media has revolutionised how we communicate. In <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/the-social-media-revolution-31890">this series</a>, we look at how it has changed the media, politics, health, education and the law.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>The popularity of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and Snapchat have transformed the way we understand and experience crime and victimisation. </p>
<p>Previously, it’s been thought that people form their opinions about crime from what they see or read in the media. But with social media taking over as our <a href="http://www.journalism.org/2016/05/26/news-use-across-social-media-platforms-2016/">preferred news source</a>, how do these new platforms impact our understanding of crime? </p>
<p>Social media has also created new concerns in relation to crime itself. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/media/2012/dec/27/social-media-crime-facebook-twitter">Victimisation on social media platforms</a> is not uncommon.</p>
<p>However, it is not all bad news. Social media has created new opportunities for criminal justice agencies to solve crimes, among other things.</p>
<p>Thus, like many other advancements in communication technology, social media has a good, a bad and an ugly side when it comes to its relationship with criminal justice and the law. </p>
<h2>The good</h2>
<p>There is no doubt social media has been beneficial for some criminal justice institutions. </p>
<p>For the police, social media has given them unprecedented access to the public, and vice versa. Via Facebook and Twitter, police and the public can communicate in real time about incidents and events. This has proven invaluable not only <a href="https://www.police.qld.gov.au/corporatedocs/reportsPublications/other/Documents/QPSSocialMediaCaseStudy.pdf">during times of crisis</a>, but also on a day-to-day basis and at the <a href="http://www.police.nsw.gov.au/about_us/structure/operations_command/major_events_and_incidents_group/project_eyewatch">local level</a>.</p>
<p>Social media has also become an important tool in police investigations. For example, the release of CCTV footage of Melbourne woman Jill Meagher’s last moments via Facebook pages and YouTube assisted in <a href="http://www.mamamia.com.au/a-detective-has-revealed-exactly-how-police-caught-jill-meaghers-killer/">apprehending her killer</a>.</p>
<p>Furthermore, the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/law/2011/dec/14/judge-court-reporters-twitter">social media “broadcasting”</a> of criminal trials has added an extra level of transparency to criminal proceedings. </p>
<p>But while live tweeting represents a step forward in achieving open justice, there remain concerns with <a href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/CICrimJust/2015/23.html">the practice</a>.</p>
<h2>The bad</h2>
<p>At the other end of the spectrum, social media has been accused of posing risks for many users, particularly young people. </p>
<p>Social media has been used to facilitate “new” crimes such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-than-revenge-when-intimate-images-are-posted-online-32948">revenge porn</a>, prompting calls for <a href="http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/real-life/news-life/people-who-post-revenge-porn-could-face-jail-under-tough-new-laws/news-story/4a05d19450ff863b82b63a6c2feee862">harsher punishment</a>. </p>
<p>Also, the ability for criminals to use social media platforms to track potential victims (and their possessions) was highlighted in the recent <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2016/10/04/entertainment/kim-kardashian-police-social-media/index.html">Kim Kardashian robbery</a>. </p>
<p>In addition, “old” crimes such as <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/11653092/Police-facing-rising-tide-of-social-media-crimes.html">harassment and threats</a>, as well as <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/money/consumer-affairs/sharp-rise-in-identity-fraud-as-scammers-use-facebook-and-other/">fraud and identity theft</a>, have been conducted in new ways through social media. </p>
<p>Social media is also changing the nature of post-crime behaviour. So-called <a href="http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/2016/01/28/how-social-media-is-changing-the-way-people-commit-crimes-and-police-fight-them/">performance crimes</a> – where offenders boast about their criminal behaviour to their friends and followers online – are increasingly common.</p>
<p>Finally, <a href="http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/6/7/citizen-crime-sleuths.html">“couch detectives”</a>, eager to identify suspects, often weigh in on social media, which can at best be distracting for law enforcement and at worst result in innocent people being <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-22214511">wrongly accused</a>. </p>
<p>In a recent <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-27/conviction-inside-the-hunt-for-jill-meagher's-killer/7864120">ABC documentary</a>, the detectives who worked on the Meagher case said they:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… refused to engage [in the Facebook debate], making a conscious decision that they did not need any extra pressure. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>The ugly</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/trial-by-social-media-why-we-need-to-properly-educate-juries-13547">Trial by social media</a> has become increasingly concerning for those working in the criminal justice system. </p>
<p>Activity on Facebook and Twitter can pose a threat to prosecutions and the right to a fair trial through practices such as sharing photos of the accused before an indictment, creation of hate groups, or <a href="https://www.cnet.com/news/juror-fined-for-describing-case-on-facebook/">jurors sharing their thoughts about a case online</a>. </p>
<p>In the Meagher case, Victoria Police used its <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/technology/technology-news/trial-by-social-media-worry-in-meagher-case-20120928-26pe4.html">Facebook page</a> to educate the public about the consequences of such breaches. In addition, a <a href="http://www.news.com.au/national/victoria/web-gag-on-hateful-adrian-bayley-material-in-jill-meagher-murder-case/story-fndo4cq1-1226493805409">web gag</a> on social media was imposed by a magistrate who suppressed the information that might compromise the trial.</p>
<p>Social media can also be used as a tool for <a href="http://m.smh.com.au/news-and-views/dl-opinion/can-we-please-stop-the-victim-blaming-20120925-26izn.html">victim-blaming</a>, as occurred after the <a href="https://www.buzzfeed.com/elliewoodward/right-lets-go-over-this-sexism-once-again-shall-we">Kardashian robbery</a>. Immediately following the incident, some Facebook and Twitter users argued she got “what she deserves” and that “maybe she will cover herself up now”. </p>
<p>Social media can be further be used as a weapon through which the friends and families of victims of crime are exposed to secondary victimisation. </p>
<h2>The future</h2>
<p>As platforms evolve and new issues emerge, social media will continue to provide challenges and opportunities for criminal justice officials, as well as change the way the public perceives and engages with issues of crime and victimisation. </p>
<p>However, calls for bans and restrictions to social media are unlikely to yield results.</p>
<p>Social media is here to stay, and we need to think outside the box if we wish to understand this phenomenon, capitalise on its benefits, and prevent or minimise its negative effects in relation to crime and the criminal justice system.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/66397/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alyce McGovern receives funding from national funding bodies, such as the Australian Institute of Criminology Research Grants.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sanja Milivojevic receives funding from national and international academic funding bodies such as the Australian Institute of Criminology research grants. </span></em></p>Like many other advancements in communication technology, social media has a good, a bad and an ugly side when it comes to its relationship with crime, criminal justice and the law.Alyce McGovern, Senior Lecturer in Criminology, UNSW SydneySanja Milivojevic, Senior Lecturer in Criminology, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/568392016-03-29T10:12:36Z2016-03-29T10:12:36ZWhy we need cameras in court<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116417/original/image-20160324-17835-1osbk05.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Smile: you're on camera.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maxim Tarasyugin/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>New BBC Two drama <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b071cm1b">The People v OJ Simpson</a>, starring John Travolta and Cuba Gooding Jr, is a stark reminder of how cameras in courts can turn a murder trial into a real-life TV soap opera.</p>
<p>A little over 20 years ago, the world was gripped – and watched intently – as every microscopic detail of American superstar <a href="http://www.latimes.com/local/la-oj-simpson-stories-storygallery.html">OJ Simpson’s prosecution</a> for double murder was played out over 10 months in a Los Angeles court room.</p>
<p>Simpson’s lawyer <a href="http://www.biography.com/people/robert-shapiro-121715">Robert Shapiro</a>, played by Travolta in the current Monday night series depicting the case, shot to prominence alongside a PR-hungry cast, including fellow defence solicitor <a href="http://www.biography.com/people/robert-kardashian-010716">Robert Kardashian</a> – the father of the oh-so-famous Kardashian clan we endure today.</p>
<p>The circus that surrounded the media’s proclaimed “<a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt3715212/">trial of the century</a>” set back campaigners’ hopes of filming in English and Welsh crown courts by at least a decade, according to high profile camera supporters such as former lawyer and BBC legal correspondent <a href="http://www.rozenberg.net/">Joshua Rozenberg</a>.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/2dmKTumD1Mg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Will allowing TV cameras in court be an important step for open justice?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Meanwhile, staunch opponents of cameras in courts, such as Labour peer Helena Kennedy QC, have used the OJ Simpson trial to show how the TV business would simply chase revenue and ratings by seeking the “<a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/nov/03/cameras-in-court-threat-justice">salacious and sensational</a>”, rather than improving the public’s understanding of the system.</p>
<p>Either way, it seems the time has come. Last week, justice minister Shailesh Vara <a href="http://gu.com/p/4hytd?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other">announced</a> that cameras will be allowed for the first time in eight crown courts in England and Wales. </p>
<h2>Trial by TV?</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/tv-cameras-to-be-allowed-into-crown-courts-for-first-time-in-pilot-scheme_uk_56eeaa2ce4b0fbd4fe080dda">pilot scheme</a> will mean that only senior judges’ sentencing remarks can be filmed. Filming of all other court participants, including staff, victims, witnesses, defendants, barristers and solicitors will remain expressly forbidden.</p>
<p>In reality, it’s likely that all this will mean is that TV reporters will be able to cut to a short clip of the judge, rather than reading their key quotes from a notepad in a piece to camera. </p>
<p>But Vara’s hope is also for greater “transparency” as the public will “see and hear the judge’s decision in their own words”. And surely he has a point. As my first local newspaper editor told me as I headed to court for the first time to cover a case as a trainee reporter, “not only must justice be done, it must also be seen to be done”. So why not allow the viewer to see for themselves?</p>
<p>As <a href="http://www.mansfieldchambers.co.uk/">Michael Mansfield QC</a> also points out, “justice is supposed to be public”. Although anyone can walk into a public gallery at court, he believes “that doesn’t reach a wide enough audience and we’re also subject to the editorial delights of various newspapers as to what they want to report”.</p>
<p>But hang on. Helena Kennedy does make an <a href="http://www.bargatemurray.com/behind-the-closed-door-the-administration-of-justice-brought-to-you-by-sky-news-and-the-bbc/">impassioned and compelling counter-argument</a>. She argues that TV exposure will put off witnesses, discourage victims even if their faces are not on screen, and distort the behaviour of lawyers and judges.</p>
<p>“The public and press galleries enable members of the public, families and friends of those involved, and the media to witness what takes place and ensure fair play,” she says. </p>
<p>“Transparency does not mean the whole country has to see highlights like the goals in a football match. Justice is a very important part of our democracy and we have to handle it with care.”</p>
<p>There is an eloquent case on sides but surely the central question surrounds the level of access? The latest proposal is very limited. Only if the rules are relaxed much further would Kennedy’s fears of voyeurism and TV miscreants running amok become anywhere near a reality.</p>
<p>Of course, cameras in UK courts is actually nothing new. Scottish broadcasters have been allowed to <a href="http://www.scotland-judiciary.org.uk/24/944/Review-into-cameras-in-court">televise courts</a> under restrictions since 1992, but it rarely happens.</p>
<p>And how many of Britain’s 65m citizens will recall that in 2011 then Justice Secretary Ken Clarke allowed <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/law/2011/sep/06/ban-filming-courts-to-be-lifted">judges’ sentencing remarks to be filmed</a> in the appeal courts in England and Wales? Very few, I’d imagine – and that’s precisely because it has not led to the saturated and salacious coverage Kennedy predicts.</p>
<p>It’s fair to say that while we don’t want a repeat of the OJ trial, we should have transparency – and so from here on, it’s going to be about getting the balance just right.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56839/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>TV cameras will be coming to a court near you.Paul Broster, Director of Journalism, University of SalfordCaroline Cheetham, Lecturer and Visiting Fellow in Journalism, University of SalfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/515342016-03-14T10:06:32Z2016-03-14T10:06:32ZInspired by Kim Kardashian, a feverish legion of followers struggle to achieve online fame<p>When Kim Kardashian <a href="http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2016/03/07/kim-kardashian-s-nude-pic-breaks-the-internet-again.html">“broke the Internet”</a> with her nude selfie last week, it was the latest stunt by a socialite who has become an object of fascination in our celebrity-obsessed culture.</p>
<p><a href="https://i-d.vice.com/en_gb/article/everyone-gets-their-15-minutes-of-fame-but-what-about-those-who-make-theirs-last-a-lifetime">While some deride her</a> as being “famous for being famous,” I see someone who works intensely hard at what I’ve termed <a href="http://nyupress.org/books/9781479864775/">glamour labor</a>. </p>
<p>Glamour labor is a phenomenon of the Internet age. It means investing time and effort into editing the body and self to appear as fascinating and polished in person as in one’s highly scripted, filtered and manipulated online life. It means shaping the body (by going to the gym or the salon), while simultaneously crafting one’s online image – all to appear to have achieved an elusive ideal of attractiveness. </p>
<p>Those who epitomize the ideal are rewarded by large followings (Kim Kardashian has more than 60 million <a href="https://www.instagram.com/kimkardashian/?hl=en">on Instagram</a>), endorsement deals (the Blonde Salad blogger Chiara Ferragni <a href="http://www.refinery29.com/2015/02/82791/the-blonde-salad-harvard-case-study">earns US$8 million a year</a>) and sometimes even an <a href="http://abcnews.go.com/Lifestyle/construction-high-fashion-instagram-helped-male-model-discovered/story?id=29253900">actual paying job</a>. </p>
<p>Nonetheless, the pleasures of glamour – fame, swag and VIP access – often obscure its costs. </p>
<p>I came across the practice of glamour labor while interviewing fashion models for my book <a href="http://nyupress.org/books/9780814794180/"><em>This Year’s Model: Fashion, Media, and the Making of Glamour</em></a>. They told me that modeling work involved far more than merely smiling for the camera. It entails constant self-promotion and the adoption of a “CEO of Me” mentality that has become alarmingly common across many industries. </p>
<h2>The currency of ‘cool’</h2>
<p>There was a time in our economic history when workers could expect long-term employment capped off by a pension. But in recent decades, many of these good, stable jobs have disappeared. </p>
<p>Today, people are finding they have to <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/business/2014/12/14/the-devalued-american-worker/">work more for less</a>. If the job is in a “hot” industry – publishing, fashion, and theater – many are now <a href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/unpaid-intern-economy-rides-backs-young-women-1-180951540/?no-ist">willing to work for nothing at all</a>.</p>
<p>Communication scholar Mark Deuze notes how people now live <em>in</em> media, experiencing a <a href="http://mcs.sagepub.com/content/33/1/137.extract">“liquid life”</a> characterized by a volatile mix of work, consumption and play that renders them in a perpetual state of “flux and uncertainty” about their future. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, labor researchers David Hesmondhalgh and Sarah Baker point out how autonomous work fosters <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=0UmE2Hse9AUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=work+in+media+industries&ots=nK_YYNl6z5&sig=lPHZYLDKFfzeG9U13O5y7leswqg#v=onepage&q=work%20in%20media%20industries&f=false">self-exploitation</a>. And sociologists like Gina Neff have shown how <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gina_Neff/publication/251735374_Entrepreneurial_Labor_among_Cultural_Producers_Cool_Jobs_in_Hot_Industries/links/55475d190cf23ff716872198.pdf">“cool jobs in hot industries”</a> lure people into working too hard and too much for diminishing returns.</p>
<p>The result? A <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/13/business/rising-economic-insecurity-tied-to-decades-long-trend-in-employment-practices.html?ref=business">gig economy</a> that has workers struggling to patch together a viable living. Rather than adhering to a standard 9-to-5 work schedule, the norm for many has become all work, all the time, with only some of it paid. </p>
<h2>If Kim can do it, can you?</h2>
<p>Nothing ventured, nothing gained: that is glamour labor’s promise and its curse. Glittery celebrities and models lure regular people into thinking glamour labor can be a way to achieve social and financial success. </p>
<p>Social media feeds from Kim and her cohort – model <a href="https://www.instagram.com/caradelevingne/">Cara Delevigne</a>, singer <a href="https://www.instagram.com/beyonce/">Beyonce</a> and actor <a href="https://www.instagram.com/selenagomez/">Selena Gomez</a> – seem like innocent fun. </p>
<p>Yet they all adhere to a similar script, and underneath their breezy confidence and glossy, girlfriend-y rapport is feverish calculation: sharing intimate moments, constantly shopping for and documenting one’s purchases and travels, and tracking “likes” – all with phone constantly in hand. </p>
<p>Kim K.’s curvy, diminutive persona encapsulates a modified, popular version of the American Dream – that anyone can make it big in America, achieving fame and glory if they just work hard enough – regardless of how ridiculously impossible it is to achieve. The daughter of a self-made lawyer and businessman, Kardashian is certainly a hard worker: her ubiquitous image is the result of countless red carpet appearances and strategic selfies. </p>
<p>Lest we think she “just woke up that way,” Kardashian readily shares her secrets, democratically suggesting that anyone can look like her: just follow the directions of her makeup tutorial, or shop for the look (for less!) <a href="https://www.kimkardashianwest.com/style/369-kim-kardashian-goddess-moment-instyle-awards/">on her website</a>. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">How to look just like Kim!</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Empty promises</h2>
<p>Pressures for intense self-promotion and management – common in modeling and other glamour industries – take on an urgency in the digital age. </p>
<p>While an untested modeling newbie might once have landed a big campaign on the basis of a few test shots, models now <a href="http://stylecaster.com/social-media-for-models/">must</a> populate their social media feed with attractive images of themselves and gain a large network of followers <a href="http://www.complex.com/style/2015/04/models-better-have-at-least-10000-followers-on-instagram-to-book-their-next-gig">just to be eligible</a> for such a booking. </p>
<p>Across many creative fields (art, music, film, media), institutions once shared the risks with aspirants. Movie studios and modeling agencies would offer contracts to raw talent, and then use their marketing capabilities to train them for success. </p>
<p>Now the burden of risk is shifting to individuals. </p>
<p>Communication scholar Gina Neff described this process as the rise of <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/venture-labor">“venture labor,”</a> where the imperative to “give it your all” to “have it all” spreads via social media. </p>
<p>As Kim Kardashian <a href="http://www.ranthollywood.com/2015/05/11/10-times-kim-kardashian-said-something-that-made-us-hate-her-a-little-less/">preached</a> to her fans:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>If I don’t feel confident about my body, I’m not going to sit at home and feel sorry for myself and not do something about it. It’s all about taking action and not being lazy. So you do the work, whether it’s fitness or whatever. It’s about getting up, motivating yourself and just doing it.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>With Kim Kardashian and model Gigi Hadid leading the way, the promise of fame or money lures many to put themselves out there – working for free (via internships and spec work), broadcasting yourself (as in the case of <a href="http://fusion.net/story/244545/famous-and-broke-on-youtube-instagram-social-media/?utm_source=pocket&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=pockethits">famous but broke</a> YouTube stars like <a href="http://www.brittanyashleycomedy.com">Brittany Ashley</a> or <a href="https://www.youtube.com/user/AConMann">Connor Manning</a>), or spending all your time crafting a curated online life that looks great on camera but is <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/nov/03/instagram-star-essena-oneill-quits-2d-life-to-reveal-true-story-behind-images">otherwise unbearable</a>. </p>
<p>Forget job stability, health insurance, or even pay: if you can be accepted into the media machine’s fold, you’re one step closer to the glittery riches it promises all. </p>
<p>While few are rewarded, many feel increasingly pressured to play this losing game. Even though the game is rigged, in our society <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-pervasive-anti-millennial-sentiment-has-hurt-the-cause-of-student-protesters-51234">the individual is almost always blamed</a> for his or her failure. If you complain about racism, classism or sexism, it means you’re making excuses and not working hard enough. It’s up to you to fix your life and build your brand. </p>
<p>What’s so crazy about wanting to be famous, anyway? As communication scholar Alison Hearn <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X4YKc5PQdP0C&pg=PA24&lpg=PA24&dq=Hearn+sentimental+greenbacks&source=bl&ots=NbOvojqkHp&sig=g3lXCaU7nEuTpNWWvi92bEFJmGI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjC1pHI1r_JAhVCYyYKHcbJCmcQ6AEINjAF">notes</a>, when nothing is certain, especially a paycheck, “achieving celebrity status has come to seem as reasonable a life goal as any other.” </p>
<h2>Exposed – for what?</h2>
<p>How did we get here? Of course, there’s more to the story than young girls duck-facing in the bathroom. </p>
<p>Kim K. and her ilk show us that the path to social legitimacy, acceptance and employment is achieved through working hard to be gorgeous and achieve notoriety. The Kardashians make the work of exposure – getting it, doing it, managing its impact – look like fun, like something we should all strive for. </p>
<p>Oversharing (a Kardashian specialty) takes on a glamorous sheen when coupled with the trappings of the family’s celebrity lifestyle. The Kardashians’ joyful abdication of the right to any privacy paves the way toward normalizing its loss, drawing us into the world where the “‘likes,’ clicks and tweets that can be earned by sharing” seduce us into what social scientist Bernard Harcourt <a href="http://chronicle.com/article/A-Mad-Frenzy-of-Disclosure/234338">called</a> a “mad frenzy of disclosure.” </p>
<p>Self-tracking these “likes” and retweets taps a voracious desire for self-improvement, which fuels glamour labor. It provides new fodder for online self-documentation as we post our Fitbit step counts, tweet our opinions, Facebook our vacation and Instragram our lunch. </p>
<p>Insidiously, our loss of privacy is what the Kardashians hide in plain sight. Glamour laboring to chase an ever-receding ideal of looking right, feeling right or being in the right circle leaves us as routinely exposed as Kim Kardashian’s backside.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/51534/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Wissinger is affiliated with Data & Society research institute. </span></em></p>Glamour labor is a phenomenon of the digital age, which is radically changing the way we think about work, success and privacy.Elizabeth Wissinger, Professor of Fashion Studies, CUNY Graduate CenterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/509482015-11-26T11:38:46Z2015-11-26T11:38:46ZWhy we all need to keep up with the Kardashians<p><a href="http://www.brunel.ac.uk/cbass/social-sciences-media-communications/sociology/kimposium">Kimposium!</a>, an academic symposium I organised about all things Kardashian, sold out. And why would it not, given the levels of interest that this family generates? </p>
<p>But there is some dismay at the idea of academic attention being paid to these celebrities. It seems that some people love to hate the Kardashians as much as they love to hate academics. Responses have been predictably vicious, as a cursory glance at comments on a Daily Mail <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3318091/Rear-ly-British-university-invites-world-s-finest-minds-discuss-theories-Kardashians-called-Kimposium.html#comments">article</a> will attest: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Total waste of funding for a fat, pompous, self narcissistic trailer trash woman. (Cuffs357, Charlotte, United States)<br>
Rescind the obviously worthless credentials of any “academics” who attend. (MarkD, Syracuse)<br>
Dumbing down of edikashun has hit a new low. (penshner007, United Kingdom)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>When energy is spent declaring that something is not worth serious consideration, I know it is important. Because when people devote time and space to condemnation, it immediately makes me wonder what social fears or cultural desires might lie beneath the aggression. This is why these sorts of comments make me more, not less, focused on studying the Kardashians. I am interested in what this family can teach us about ourselves, about our cultural concerns, about how our societies are changing, about our fears and horrors. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"665922713093992449"}"></div></p>
<p>The Kardashians can teach us about racism. Kim has had two black husbands and has a black child. Khloe has never dated a white man and Kylie’s current boyfriend is black. Kris, their mother, is dating a black man. There’s no nice way to say that for white America this is still taboo, as a quick glance at the Twittersphere will attest. Their youngest sister, Kylie, has been <a href="http://hollywoodlife.com/2015/04/05/kylie-jenner-blackface-photo-shoot-defense-twitter-reaction/">accused</a> of co-opting a black “look”, much as Michael Jackson was accused of trying to be white. The Kardashians represent an evolving United States, one in which black/white relations are volatile and central. Inside this family, racial boundaries are being blurred. </p>
<p>The Kardashians can teach us about femininity and gender. Decades before Judith Butler <a href="http://seas3.elte.hu/coursematerial/TimarAndrea/17a.Butler,performative%5B1%5D.pdf">showed</a> that gender is a learned performance, French psychoanalyst Joan Riviere <a href="http://www.melanie-klein-trust.org.uk/riviere">wrote</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Women who wish for masculinity may put on a mask of womanliness to avert anxiety and the retribution feared from men. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>In other words, women who want power may choose to present as uber-feminine as a form of self-protection. Is it a coincidence that one of the greatest song writers of our time, Dolly Parton, performs her femininity with a vengeance? The same can be asked of the Kardashians. Powerful self-made business women, could they have gained their power without their glamorous embodiments of womanhood combined with their unthreatening little-girl voices? And how does all this relate to Caitlyn Jenner (who has been appearing on Keeping Up with the Kardashians since 2007), for whom the performance of femininity will determine her future success in mainstream media?</p>
<p>The Kardashians can teach us about bodies and images. Elizabeth Wissinger, the keynote speaker at the Kimposium!, writes about “glamour labour”. Glamour labour is what models do; it involves physical work on the body (dieting, grooming, gym, cosmetic surgery) as well as careful management of a “look”. But it’s no longer just for models. We are all, especially women, now obliged to do glamour labour, to consciously present a visual self. This is most evident on social media, particularly Instagram, where selfies are lovingly curated. </p>
<p>The Kardashians glory in their glamour labour, performing their cosmetic surgeries, their workouts, their facials, their makeup, their “waist training” for all to see. They are all surface, all bodies. Their skins, buttocks, breasts, eyes, vulvas, hair, legs and waists circulate via many thousands of tweets and Instagram posts.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/103201/original/image-20151125-23825-em5tbe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/103201/original/image-20151125-23825-em5tbe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/103201/original/image-20151125-23825-em5tbe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/103201/original/image-20151125-23825-em5tbe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/103201/original/image-20151125-23825-em5tbe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/103201/original/image-20151125-23825-em5tbe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/103201/original/image-20151125-23825-em5tbe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>These women are the queens of a world of images where bodies are brutally judged – but where there is also a certain democracy that means beauty is available to anyone with the time, money and inclination to do glamour labour. </p>
<p>Scholarly analysis of popular culture is crucial because popular culture is about far more than entertainment and fashion – it influences cultures, politics and knowledge. The Kardashians are the biggest popular icons of our moment and their power is evident at the highest levels. Kim alone has 37m <a href="https://twitter.com/KimKardashian">followers</a> on Twitter and recently took a selfie with Hilary Clinton:</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"629502260607725569"}"></div></p>
<p>Clinton of course benefited, knowing that Kim is a conduit through which to communicate to voters who might not otherwise engage. Kim’s husband, musician Kanye West, has <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/aug/31/vmas-2015-kanye-west-announces-2020-run-for-us-president-seriously">declared</a> he will run for president in 2020. Don’t laugh. Remember <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001654/">Ronald Reagan</a>. Then imagine Kim as First Lady.</p>
<p>Superficial, apparently talentless and famous for being famous, the Kardashians are accessible and in some ways ordinary. Their sibling rivalries, their sad divorces, their pregnancies, are all played out on our screens in lurid detail. One of the most fascinating things they do is blur public and private. We never know what’s being performed and what is “real”. </p>
<p>In a world where we increasingly perform our own everyday lives on social media as well as quietly living them, this most unprivate of families shows us what we have become. They show how to live between real and virtual worlds, between representation and sensation. The Kardashians show us ourselves.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/50948/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Meredith Jones does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There is some dismay at the idea of academic attention being paid to these celebrities.Here’s why it’s important.Meredith Jones, Reader in Gender and Media Studies, Brunel University LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/453172015-11-18T02:36:18Z2015-11-18T02:36:18ZDrug ads only help Big Pharma’s bottom line, so why are they allowed?<p>A few months ago, celebrity Kim Kardashian <a href="http://www.medicaldaily.com/fda-warns-kim-kardashian-about-promoting-drug-instagram-problem-direct-consumer-347568">promoted</a> a prescription morning sickness drug, Diclegis. The pharmaceutical company responsible promptly got in trouble for violating the United States’ federal drug promotion regulations.</p>
<p>As far as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was concerned, the problem was not the promotion itself, but that Kardashian neglected to mention the drug’s possible side effects, such as drowsiness. Nor had she said that Diclegis was not approved for certain women with excessive and prolonged vomiting. </p>
<p>The FDA would have found the promotion acceptable if the warnings were included. The ad would have been allowed in New Zealand also. Australia, however, bans all direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription-only medication.</p>
<p>Pharmaceutical companies can use prescription medication ads to mislead an unwitting public for the sake of profits. The ads can undermine the integrity of doctors who may feel pressured to prescribe medication that isn’t the best treatment for their patient.</p>
<p>The US and New Zealand are the only two countries in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) to <a href="http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/27/1/4/6/">allow such advertising</a>. But in Australia, pharmaceutical companies still find legal loopholes to promote their products.</p>
<h2>Laws in New Zealand</h2>
<p>New Zealand <a href="http://www.medicinesnz.co.nz/code-of-practice/">law requires</a> advertisements of prescription medication directly to the public (as opposed to targeting medical professionals) to contain minimum product information. This includes recommended use, adverse effects, details of the advertiser and the statement “ask your doctor if (the drug) is right for you”.</p>
<p>Advocates <a href="http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/v31/acr_vol31_149.pdf">argue these advertisements</a> inform patients about products they may be prescribed. They say this leads to better <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1122846/">communication between doctors and patients</a>, as well as better health outcomes. </p>
<p>Opponents say emphasising a product’s positives (as advertising does) leads to unrealistic expectations. Patients might be encouraged to ask for a medication that isn’t the most appropriate treatment for them. And the increased demand for branded medication could be costly to the health system.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101503/original/image-20151110-21214-nkadl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101503/original/image-20151110-21214-nkadl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=797&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101503/original/image-20151110-21214-nkadl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=797&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101503/original/image-20151110-21214-nkadl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=797&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101503/original/image-20151110-21214-nkadl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1002&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101503/original/image-20151110-21214-nkadl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1002&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101503/original/image-20151110-21214-nkadl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1002&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Risperdal tablets.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Risperdal_tablets.jpg">By Housed (Own work)/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Medication for people with a psychotic disorder, such as schizophrenia, has been marketed directly to patients in mainstream media and at bus stops in New Zealand. </p>
<p>Prime-time television commercials typically show families before and after their loved one is medicated with drugs such as antipsychotic <a href="http://www.risperdalconsta.com">Risperdal Consta</a> (risperidone), and the difference it makes. These commercials don’t present any additional therapy that could be used. They show health care professionals endorsing the product. </p>
<p>While Risperdal Consta is not the only prescription medication advertised directly to the New Zealand public, the additional challenge here is the potential <a href="http://www.radionz.co.nz/news/national/136258/ad-campaign-for-drug-'will-push-up-costs'">vulnerability</a> of the patients who may need this type of medication. </p>
<p>Arguably, the risks <a href="http://changingminds.org.nz/uncategorized/direct-to-consumer-advertising-consultation">are amplified</a> when these ads are directed at vulnerable people, such as those with mental health issues.</p>
<h2>Advertising in Australia</h2>
<p>In Australia, <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/regulation-therapeutic-goods-advertising-australia">advertisements for therapeutic products</a> are subject to the Therapeutic Goods Act and the Competition and Consumer Act. Advertisements of medication or other therapeutic products directed at consumers must comply with the Therapeutic Goods Advertising Code. </p>
<p>Advertising prescription medicines to health professionals is allowed. This is self-regulated by Medicines Australia. But advertising this medication directly to consumers is prohibited. </p>
<p>In 2000, the Australian government commissioned a review of its Drugs, Poisons and Controlled Substances Legislation to explore deregulating direct-to-consumer advertising. <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/sites/default/files/review-galbally-050628-partb.pdf">The review found</a> it was unlikely to be in the public’s interests. </p>
<p>But pharmaceutical companies have, on occasion, found ways to evade legislation by exploiting loopholes. </p>
<p>For instance, they use “awareness campaigns” to indirectly promote their products. Advertisements don’t name a drug directly but provide general information about diseases and treatments and encourage consumers to talk to their doctor. </p>
<p>Disease-awareness advertising <a href="http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4536&context=hbspapers">isn’t restricted</a>. It is monitored by <a href="https://medicinesaustralia.com.au/about-us/our-role/">Medicines Australia</a>, the body representing Australia’s pharmaceutical industry.</p>
<p>Its <a href="https://medicinesaustralia.com.au/code-of-conduct/about-the-code/">Code of Conduct</a> has a number of weaknesses. It relies mostly on spontaneous complaints and voluntary compliance by pharmaceutical companies. This means pharmaceutical companies may advertise directly to consumers until a complaint is made.</p>
<p>In 2002, the company Sanofi-Synthelabo <a href="http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/27/1/4/6/">advertised its hypnotic drug Zolpidem</a> in the Qantas airline magazine. After a complaint was lodged, Sanofi-Synthelabo was found to have breached the code and fined $A50,000. But it is unknown how many travellers had bought or asked to be prescribed the drug after reading the magazine.</p>
<h2>More harm than good</h2>
<p>Direct-to-consumer advertising <a href="http://www.aaos.org/news/bulletin/dec07/reimbursement1.asp">contributes significantly</a> to profits of pharmaceutical companies. Despite what advocates of such ads might say, the priority is likely to be profits, rather than provision of information. To attract sales, companies can misrepresent the benefits of their products and downplay risks. </p>
<p>In New Zealand, support is growing for direct-to-consumer advertising in the name of “consumer choice”. This is concerning as these new and expensive branded medications may, at best, have only <a href="http://qualitysafety.bmj.com/content/14/4/246.short">marginally better results</a> than their generic counterparts. </p>
<p>While a need for information about medication clearly exists, there is a more immediate need to protect the integrity of medical professionals who are being pressured to prescribe certain medication. </p>
<p>A study of 3,200 general practitioners in New Zealand revealed nearly 70% (or 35% of all GPs in New Zealand) <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1117069/">reported having felt pressured</a> by patients to prescribe advertised medicines. Such pressure may prevent doctors from considering treatment alternatives.</p>
<p>Another study showed doctors felt direct-to-consumer ads <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13527260210137181#.Vdun8ItjoiE">could be detrimental</a> to their relationships with patients. Patients may also engage in “doctor shopping” to get the prescription they want.</p>
<p>Health professionals and politicians in Australia and New Zealand must hold the pharmaceutical and advertising industries to account on how they market prescription medicines.</p>
<p>Even in the US, thanks in part to Kim Kardashian, questions are being asked about the “<a href="http://www.medicaldaily.com/fda-warns-kim-kardashian-about-promoting-drug-instagram-problem-direct-consumer-347568">serious problem</a>” of direct-to-consumer advertising.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/45317/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Claire Meehan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Pharmaceutical companies can use prescription medication ads to mislead an unwitting public for the sake of profits. While Australia prohibits such ads, the laws don’t go far enough.Claire Meehan, Lecturer in Criminology, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/460532015-08-17T09:28:19Z2015-08-17T09:28:19ZNo, Kim Kardashian’s pregnant selfie is not a work of art<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91903/original/image-20150814-2563-1yaym5c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C112%2C702%2C463&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The selfie that (according to Jonathan Jones) would 'turn Titian on'. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Instagram</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Kim Kardashian has made headlines again for a selfie. And this time it’s not in the Daily Mail – no, instead it’s Jonathan Jones, the Guardian’s art critic, whose recent <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2015/aug/12/kim-kardashian-pregnancy-selfie-titian-art">piece</a> celebrates Kardashian and “the power of the nude”. </p>
<p>This “selfie would turn Titian on”, gawks the headline. Meanwhile an unpeeled Kim stands pregnant and pouting in the halflight, trapped forever in a smudgy kaleidoscope of sloping lines and smartphone angles, peering into a tiny digital reflection. “Ours is the most misogynistic age in history,” decries Jones:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Only in our time does every image of beauty tell women to get thin, thin, thin … Rich, ample, curvy, rampant flesh is, for Rubens, simply and obviously sexy. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>After rhapsodising about how Titian loved a curvy gal and that Kardashian too “really does love her own body” – making her almost the same as Titian, then – he concludes that Kardashian “is raising questions about the nude today”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91918/original/image-20150814-2598-z68uj4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91918/original/image-20150814-2598-z68uj4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91918/original/image-20150814-2598-z68uj4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91918/original/image-20150814-2598-z68uj4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91918/original/image-20150814-2598-z68uj4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91918/original/image-20150814-2598-z68uj4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91918/original/image-20150814-2598-z68uj4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Titian’s Venus of Urbino, 1538, ‘the most beautiful woman in art’ according to Jonathan Jones.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is not obvious why Jones sees the idealisation of thin female bodies as inherently more misogynistic than the idealisation of “fat” female bodies; nor indeed whether the idealisation of any kind of female form can be described as misogyny at all. But then, this is the Guardian, and Jones is an art critic – so we must be in safe hands.</p>
<p>That’s right. Kim Kardashian is an artist now. She has elevated the selfie to an art form. Her new book, <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/photography/11577806/kim-kardashian-selfish-selfie-book-review.html">Selfish</a>, is a collection of her selfies. Everything, for Kim, is about the look of things. In <a href="http://time.com/3943053/kim-kardashian-gun-control-feminism/">interviews</a> she recalls a younger Kim Kardashian being drawn to images of “interracial couples” and thinking they were “<a href="http://www.rollingstone.com/culture/news/kim-kardashian-gets-real-11-revelations-from-the-new-cover-story-20150701">cute</a>”: “I’ve always been attracted to a certain kind of look.” Selfies, for Kim, are a vehicle of empowerment: “I have the control to put out what I want, even if I’m objectifying myself.” She demurs from calling herself a feminist. What she says is: “I think you would call me a feminist.” </p>
<p>So ensorcelled is Jones with the ample, rippling flesh of Titian’s golden girls – trying vainly to link the Venus of Urbino to Kardashian by co-factors other than their “plump” sexiness – that he forgets some other depictions of Venus to which Kardashian’s “oeuvre” might usefully be compared. For instance, <a href="http://icarusfilms.com/new99/hottento.html">Sarah “Saartjie” Baartman</a>, the so-called Hottentot Venus, who was brought to Europe from South Africa as a naked zoo exhibit on account of her large buttocks and breasts and whose naked corpse, after her death in 1815, was cast in plaster and remained a museum exhibit until 1974. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91915/original/image-20150814-2595-11bkjwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91915/original/image-20150814-2595-11bkjwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91915/original/image-20150814-2595-11bkjwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91915/original/image-20150814-2595-11bkjwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91915/original/image-20150814-2595-11bkjwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91915/original/image-20150814-2595-11bkjwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91915/original/image-20150814-2595-11bkjwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91915/original/image-20150814-2595-11bkjwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">19th century French print of Baartman,</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Or how about Velazquez’s <a href="http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/diego-velazquez-the-toilet-of-venus-the-rokeby-venus">“Rokeby” Venus</a>, where the model poses, buttocks to the viewer, gazing into a mirror held by Cupid; looking not at her own reflection in the glass, but at the viewer – or rather an endless succession of viewers – who in turn are assumed to be gazing at her body. Which is precisely what Kardashian sees in her viewfinder: not love of her own body, as Jones believes, but of her image; triangulated validation through the imagined unknown eyes of all those who will, now, behold her. Kardashian, like Velazquez’s Venus, exists not in a mirror reflection, nor even in her own conscious gaze; but in the imagined gaze of her viewers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91914/original/image-20150814-2598-1dcvcjt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91914/original/image-20150814-2598-1dcvcjt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91914/original/image-20150814-2598-1dcvcjt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91914/original/image-20150814-2598-1dcvcjt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91914/original/image-20150814-2598-1dcvcjt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91914/original/image-20150814-2598-1dcvcjt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91914/original/image-20150814-2598-1dcvcjt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Diego Velázquez, The Toilet of Venus (</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More. If Kardashian is an artist, how about a comparison to <a href="http://www.fonthillpress.com/TheJournalsofMarieBashkirtseff/Book_Summary_MarieBashkirtseff.html">Marie Bashkirtseff</a>? Bashkirtseff was a 19th century Russian artist who, like Baartman before her, died at just 25. But unlike Baartman she was committed to the creation and preservation of her own imagined self, presenting her journals to the world with the words: “If I do not die young, I hope to survive as a great artist; but if I do not, I will have my journal published, which cannot fail to be interesting.” She added: “I think myself too admirable for censure.”</p>
<p>Bashkirtseff sought vainly to create herself as her own heroine, but Bashkirtseff wrote and painted. She spoke several languages. She took her craft seriously. She studied. Kim Kardashian, both artist and muse, exists only as an image – an object in the eyes of others, mediated by herself-as-lens. And as for whether she is a feminist, she can only compute this via the imagined perception of others. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91916/original/image-20150814-2582-jqj5zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91916/original/image-20150814-2582-jqj5zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=773&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91916/original/image-20150814-2582-jqj5zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=773&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91916/original/image-20150814-2582-jqj5zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=773&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91916/original/image-20150814-2582-jqj5zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=971&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91916/original/image-20150814-2582-jqj5zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=971&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91916/original/image-20150814-2582-jqj5zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=971&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Marie Bashkirtseff, Self-portrait with Palette, 1880.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nearly 70 years ago, Simone de Beauvoir <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/30/books/excerpt-introduction-second-sex.html">wrote</a> that women become accustomed far more often than their male counterparts to defining themselves through their mirror image – a fantasy of the self mediated by the visual. “Man’s body does not seem to him an object of desire,” she writes, “while woman, knowing and making herself object, believes she really sees herself in the glass.” For Beauvoir, this is an existential crisis, since: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>The narcissist who identifies with her imaginary double destroys herself … Her misfortune is that, despite all her insincerity, she is aware of this nothingness. There can be no real relation between an individual and her double because this double does not exist.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>So I can do no more than offer words of caution. Because if Kim Kardashian is being peddled to us as both art and feminism, we are in really dire straits. Self-objectification is a miserable substitute for selfhood: a hall of mirrors with nothingness at its core.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46053/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Victoria Anderson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If Kim Kardashian is being peddled to us as both art and feminism, we – and she – are in really dire straits.Victoria Anderson, Visiting Researcher in Cultural Studies, Cardiff UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/351532014-12-12T03:36:47Z2014-12-12T03:36:47ZCelebrity nudes, online porn – we need to watch ourselves<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66925/original/image-20141211-6042-12xmo24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some 63% of men and 20% women had looked at pornography in the past year in Australia.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/gallery-434191p1.html">shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When 56-year-old Madonna <a href="http://www.interviewmagazine.com/music/madonna-1/">posed topless</a> for Interview magazine this month the public reaction was a stifled yawn.</p>
<p>Her erotic exposé was the latest in a recent swathe of celebrities stripping off. In November, Kim Kardashian <a href="http://www.papermag.com/2014/11/kim_kardashian.php">bore all</a> for Paper magazine, in a shock exercise subtitled <a href="http://www.papermag.com/tag/Break%20The%20Internet">Break The Internet</a>. In September, Keira Knightley also <a href="http://www.interviewmagazine.com/fashion/keira-knightley-by-patrick-demarchelier">posed topless</a> for Interview – to expose the objectification of women and on the condition her breasts were not to be retouched. </p>
<p>A few weeks earlier, news that celebrities including actress Jennifer Lawrence and model Kate Upton had been hacked and their naked photos posted online set the internet <a href="http://hollywoodlife.com/2014/09/05/jennifer-lawrence-kate-upton-nude-photos-art-gallery-exhibit/">abuzz</a>. </p>
<p>Are sanctioned celebrity nude images porn? Soft porn? Or something else entirely? Are they the chicken or the egg in a society that is becoming ever more visual and highly sexualised? And where will our seeming desire to access such images end?</p>
<p>Recent research has found more Australians are clicking onto online porn. The second <a href="http://www.ashr.edu.au/">Australian Study of Health and Relationships</a> (ASHR), released last month, found 63% of men and 20% women had looked at pornography in the past year. Ten years ago, only 16% of men had visited an internet sex site and just 2.5% of women. </p>
<p>The ASHR researchers say the findings are not directly comparable. The <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-842X.2003.tb00816.x/abstract">first</a> ASHR study, released in 2003, asked participants: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Have you gone to a sex site on the internet on purpose? </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The current survey asked: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Have you ever looked at pornographic material? </p>
</blockquote>
<p>This included magazines, books, pictures, films and internet porn sites. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66501/original/image-20141208-20675-nqakxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66501/original/image-20141208-20675-nqakxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66501/original/image-20141208-20675-nqakxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=768&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66501/original/image-20141208-20675-nqakxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=768&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66501/original/image-20141208-20675-nqakxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=768&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66501/original/image-20141208-20675-nqakxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66501/original/image-20141208-20675-nqakxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66501/original/image-20141208-20675-nqakxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Paper’s ‘Break The Internet’ issue.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://papermagshop.com/">Screengrab, papermagshop.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But there’s no doubt access to internet porn is on the rise. A <a href="http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/7/139/">longitudinal study</a> carried out by the ASHR team showed an increase in the use of internet sex sites between 2005 and 2010. And the research links <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/lifestyle/life/australians-are-leading-more-varied-sex-lives-than-a-decade-ago-new-research-shows-20141107-11i13d.html">a rise</a> in experimental sex – in particular oral and anal sex – to what couples see on the internet.</p>
<p>Lead researcher <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/juliet-richters-97680">Professor Juliet Richters</a>, from the School of Public Health and Community Medicine at the University of New South Wales, told me:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Much readier access to porn means people can see things done and say: “that looks exciting, I’ll have a go at it …” It doesn’t mean they like it. But the number of people who are trying new things has increased.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Rising porn addiction</h2>
<p>So why are more Australians looking at online porn? Is it deliberate, accidental or opportunistic? Because it’s freely and readily available? Because pornography is so highly addictive? </p>
<p>Psychologists say porn addiction is the stuff of modern clinical practice. Psychological researchers are still reluctant to impose the label, with studies to date <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11930-014-0016-8">showing</a> poor experimental designs and a lack of methodological rigour.</p>
<p>But in July, Cambridge University neuropsychiatrist <a href="http://www.neuroscience.cam.ac.uk/directory/profile.php?vv247">Dr Valerie Voon</a> published a <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0102419">much-awaited paper</a> showing that the brain-scans of men who describe themselves as porn-addicted revealed changes in the brain’s reward centre. Basically, their brain scans looked like those of alcoholics or drug addicts. </p>
<p>Nudity is everywhere. On billboards, in magazines, on our desktops and mobiles. Like the complacency and compassion fatigue that plagues news media images of war, we increasingly view nakedness with our eyes glazed over.</p>
<p>We click on nudity in our lunch hours and coffee breaks. Quality news sites usher us on our way. No hyperlink, no worries: Google is there to help. And what is the line between soft porn and hard? What is the difference between clicking on sanctioned eye-candy in the office and clicking on X-rated adult porn at home?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66511/original/image-20141208-20647-10myfdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66511/original/image-20141208-20647-10myfdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66511/original/image-20141208-20647-10myfdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=799&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66511/original/image-20141208-20647-10myfdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=799&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66511/original/image-20141208-20647-10myfdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=799&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66511/original/image-20141208-20647-10myfdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66511/original/image-20141208-20647-10myfdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66511/original/image-20141208-20647-10myfdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A screengrab of Savita Bhabhi, the star of her eponymous online porn strip. The site titillated up to 60 million visitors monthly until the Indian government asked ISPs to block the site in June.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP/savitabhabhi.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Porn is not all bad. At the same time, porn does raise issues for many people. The ASHR study found 60% of Australians believe porn can improve sexual intimacy; but almost half of Australians believe porn degrades the women who appear in it. One in three believe it degrades the men. </p>
<p>Psychologists, meanwhile, have seen a rise in couples seeking help for porn addiction. Melbourne clinician <a href="http://www.drjanethall.com.au/">Dr Janet Hall</a> says porn addiction is a case of “the more they see, the more they want”. Hall told me she estimates that in 40% of her couples counselling, porn addiction is a problem. Ten years ago, it was a handful of cases.</p>
<p>Porn is also changing how we make love. For young people in particular, anal and oral sex has become normalised. A decade ago, 79% of men and 67% of women had ever had oral sex. Now it’s 88% and 86% respectively.</p>
<p>For experimenting teens, porn and sex go hand-in-hand. But what does porn teach young men and women about body image, intimacy and gender relations?</p>
<p>“There are young men who have never had sex with an actual woman who are addicted to porn before they’re 20,” says Dr Hall. “Those in relationships have really lovely girlfriends but the kind of sex they feel confident with is watch and wank. It’s abundant, anonymous and free.”</p>
<p>So what’s the answer? The most recent revisions to the mental health bible, the <a href="http://www.dsm5.org/Pages/Default.aspx">DSM 5</a>, did not include sexual addiction as a disorder. </p>
<p>But some social scientists <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11930-014-0016-8">say</a> it may only be a matter of time. If porn is addictive and nudity is normal, where does that leave us? </p>
<p>Be careful where you click.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/35153/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erin O'Dwyer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When 56-year-old Madonna posed topless for Interview magazine this month the public reaction was a stifled yawn. Her erotic exposé was the latest in a recent swathe of celebrities stripping off. In November…Erin O'Dwyer, Lecturer in media and communications, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.