tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/language-proficiency-38049/articleslanguage proficiency – The Conversation2019-01-24T20:58:43Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1103502019-01-24T20:58:43Z2019-01-24T20:58:43ZHigher English entry standards for international students won’t necessarily translate to success<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/255285/original/file-20190124-135145-1wasf4e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A number on a standardised test is not enough to make sure international students succeed – they need ongoing support even if they have a basic grasp of English.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For some time, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-slide-of-academic-standards-in-australia-a-cautionary-tale-40464">lowering standards</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07294360.2015.1137878?casa_token=c1fx3lTYevUAAAAA:6JyRwIe01oRaGPVL-jlWfL838IMC7b66D6tCRCLlrWbdOe5B1npBWg9lJZGtKNpvtlVgxNYxErim9vc">inadequate English language proficiency</a> have dominated discussions about international students in Australia. <a href="https://link.springer.com/epdf/10.1007/s10734-018-0302-x?author_access_token=WobCe1-pau1K6NXV7mO02ve4RwlQNchNByi7wbcMAY4bEraQek81Rek6NNtQkQMHj7Cat1WBwjn3YMQ4qbVSBCWWarimhLhTGnSZlXk72picmVP9DOWjHjQd9acboZo9GpqXS4wfzU2dhJMIq94PLA%3D%3D">Studies</a> show many international students struggle in their relationships, with their finances, feelings of isolation and belonging, all of which affect their educational experience. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/premier-intervenes-as-international-students-english-fails-to-make-the-grade-20190122-p50syq.html">suggestion</a> that raising entry standards would ensure success and a higher quality of international graduates is not necessarily true. Achieving a higher level of English proficiency through a standardised test <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1028315315587109?casa_token=sOYUgdfXjfkAAAAA:F7VUDOYA5FtSBJmCkz72Iec6XPIG-FlcRWAaU4uG4tKQ-Cbrg-bvR3iFMMlZ9TUd_YP4UTcAuyIDwZc">will not guarantee</a> international students’ <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1475240913513520?icid=int.sj-abstract.similar-articles.3">motivation</a> to fully participate in their degree programs. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/english-test-for-international-students-isnt-new-just-more-standardised-85603">English test for international students isn't new, just more standardised</a>
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<p>Universities need to look beyond language proficiency at the point of entry, and do more to support all facets of academic, linguistic and social development. These include discipline-specific language, mental health, and culturally appropriate pastoral support throughout their degrees. While language proficiency is the most important factor, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03075079.2017.1293876?casa_token=dwPIZrwDt6EAAAAA:HhNkOWg1KaPFtbqgrgghl4gRXmyzlxRYDLLH_ZpBFoH8sY7plBnSHulBzj_Eowo_vZsX5t1-qn6eQuI">these</a> other factors have been shown to impact students’ academic performance. </p>
<p>Focusing only on increasing entry scores on standardised tests like the International English Language Testing System (<a href="https://www.ielts.org">IELTS</a>) is unlikely to help. We also need to provide them with support after they’ve arrived at an Australian university. If we don’t, the number of international students who choose to study in Australia could decrease, hurting the <a href="https://www.universitiesaustralia.edu.au/Media-and-Events/media-releases/International-students-inject--32-billion-a-year-into-Australia-s-economy---boosting-Aussie-jobs-and-wages">A$32 billion</a> a year industry.</p>
<h2>What is IELTS and how does it work?</h2>
<p>One of the most popular proficiency tests is the <a href="https://ielts.com.au/test-centre/idp-ielts-test-centre-melbourne/">International English Language Testing System</a>, which costs A$340 and consists of four tests. Despite its dominance in global language testing, the IELTS has been criticised by university academic and administrative staff for being a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0309877X.2012.684043">poor predictor</a> of academic performance.</p>
<p>The federal government <a href="https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/visas/getting-a-visa/visa-listing/student-500#Eligibility">requires</a> student visa applicants to achieve at least a 5.5 on the test. Alternatively, they can get a 5.0 and do at least 10 weeks of intensive English language learning, or a 4.5 and do at least 20 weeks of intensive English language learning. The highest a person can achieve is a 9.0.</p>
<p>The test is comprised of a 15-minute <a href="https://www.ielts.org/-/media/pdfs/speaking-band-descriptors.ashx?la=en">speaking test</a>, 40 multiple choice questions each in listening and reading, and a two-part writing test. Here is what a 5.0 sounds like: </p>
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<p>This test-taker has enough vocabulary to talk about familiar and unfamiliar topics, but meaning is occasionally lost through limited vocabulary. Her basic grammar is reasonably accurate but she struggles with complex sentences.</p>
<p>A student who achieved a band 8.0 speaks much more fluidly, drawing on a wide range of less common words and phrases, but she still has to occasionally pause to search for the right words.</p>
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<p>Like all standardised tests, IELTS suffers from the weight of expectation about what it can actually assess. IELTS can only offer a snapshot of students’ use of <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1757743817691995">language</a>. As you can hear in the video, the activities test-takers do in the IELTS test are generic and poorly reflect the kinds of language use and literacy students will need to complete their degrees. </p>
<p>It also can’t assess understandings of cultural norms, conversational ability, or capacity to engage in the host country’s social life. These are also <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09620214.2015.1069720?casa_token=lowqcHcsNPwAAAAA:ldNnfQTJSn2i64ShA3B3i0yvUVKdYYYyjSayguQJXsaBvafHdqdDnrJrNjmFVqTN8X4EnhIbcOb0Owk">important</a> for success. The score can only indicate someone’s proficiency in a familiar testing context, and their tolerance for high-stakes exams. </p>
<h2>For success, international students need ongoing support</h2>
<p>Universities profit massively from international student enrolments. If they don’t do anything to support these students through their studies (instead of just raising the entry requirement), they’re likely to lose significant income. There is also a moral obligation for universities to better respond to the needs of these students. </p>
<p>Universities should recognise that for international students, disciplinary specific, <a href="https://srhe.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13562517.2017.1332028?needAccess=true">people-rich supports</a> <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13562510600874268">work better</a> than general study skills models for most students. Accessing medical or mental health support through digital booking systems could prevent international students from seeking help. They’re already <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/mental-health-stigma-biggest-barrier-for-international-students-seeking-help">less likely</a> than domestic peers to seek support.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-international-students-should-mean-more-support-for-communication-and-interaction-39914">More international students should mean more support for communication and interaction</a>
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<p>Despite the economic incentive to make sure international enrolments remain steady, collaborating to set up and share more responsive forms of support on the ground is difficult. The siloed nature of university departments hinders collaboration.</p>
<p>For example, there are many language specialists in English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students (ELICOS) centres at universities. Universities could draw on their expertise to work with university teachers in their specific disciplines to support international students. They could help the students learn the language and literacy practices relevant to their disciplines, as well as help improve their oral and written expression. </p>
<h2>So what would work?</h2>
<p>Universities need to work towards students feeling confident about asking for help, and knowing who to talk to and where to find the right information. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/using-university-language-tests-for-migration-and-professional-registration-is-problematic-87666">Using university language tests for migration and professional registration is problematic</a>
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<p>Universities need to ensure support services are targeted to the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students. They also need to ensure there are many types of support available to avoid a backlog that would see students giving up or not having access to the right support at the right time. This should be a core part of university business.</p>
<p>Specific strategies to promote cultural and linguistic diversity include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>taking <a href="http://oxfordre.com/education/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-181">an approach</a> to teaching and learning that encourages multilingual students to use multiple languages to make sense of course content</p></li>
<li><p>establishing <a href="http://www.sussex.ac.uk/languages/people/ambassadors">language ambassadors</a> who can help newly-arrived international students navigate their new university and find services such as counselling or language supports</p></li>
<li><p>explicitly teaching cultural diversity to students and staff, offering safe spaces to unpack assumptions and biases and creating <a href="https://fyhejournal.com/article/download/196/234/196-1-1397-1-10-20140304.pdf">culturally safe institutions</a> which promote inclusive and supportive environments in both policy and practice.</p></li>
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<p>Finally, universities need to encourage and offer training to support staff to engage in these practices. Many academics and support staff come up with excellent strategies, but these are often ad hoc or isolated. Universities should also offer incentives to collaborate and showcase best practice strategies for others to use and adapt.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/110350/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While international students do need baseline proficiency in English, they need support the whole way through their degrees to actually be successful.Sally Baker, Lecturer, School of Social Sciences, UNSW SydneyCaroline Lenette, Senior Lecturer, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1014612018-09-26T20:17:27Z2018-09-26T20:17:27ZFactCheck: do ‘over a million’ people in Australia not speak English ‘well or at all’?<blockquote>
<p>A growing number of people in Australia cannot speak English well or at all, over a million people.</p>
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<p><strong>– Senator Pauline Hanson, <a href="https://www.senatorhanson.com.au/2018/09/19/protect-our-australian-way-of-life-senate-speech/">Senate speech</a>, September 19, 2018</strong></p>
<p>One Nation Party leader and Senator for Queensland Pauline Hanson is urging a rethink on Australia’s immigration policy, including changes to the “number and mix” of migrants coming to the country. </p>
<p>In a Senate speech, Hanson outlined a number of concerns she has with what she described as Australia’s “failed immigration policy”, including issues with social integration and the establishment of “culturally separate communities”.</p>
<p>The senator said a “growing number of people in Australia cannot speak English well or at all, over a million people”.</p>
<p>Is that right?</p>
<h2>Checking the source</h2>
<p>In response to The Conversation’s request for sources and comment, an advisor to Senator Hanson accurately cited Census data showing the number of people who self-reported they spoke English “not well” or “not at all” was 820,000 in 2016, up from 655,000 in 2011 and 560,000 in 2006. </p>
<p>To reach a calculation of “over a million people” in 2018, Hanson’s office:</p>
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<li><p>added 66,000 people to the 2016 Census results, based on the assumption that the growth in the number of people in this category would be the same between the 2016 and 2021 Census as it was between 2011 and 2016, and</p></li>
<li><p>added a further 149,294 people to the 2016 results, based on the assumption that 10% of the 1,492,947 people who didn’t respond to the question in the Census about language proficiency did not speak English “well or at all”. </p></li>
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<p>You can read the full response from Hanson’s office <a href="https://theconversation.com/full-response-from-pauline-hanson-for-a-factcheck-on-english-language-proficiency-in-australia-103757">here</a>. </p>
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<h2>Verdict</h2>
<p>Senator Pauline Hanson said “a growing number of people in Australia cannot speak English well or at all, over a million people”. </p>
<p>The most up to date information available on this question comes from the 2016 Census. The data show that the number of people who self-reported speaking English “not well” or “not at all” in that year was 820,000. </p>
<p>Hanson was correct to say that number has been growing, from 560,000 people in 2006 to 820,000 people in 2016. This amounts to a rise from 2.8% of Australian residents in 2006 to 3.5% in 2016.</p>
<p>Over the same time, among people who speak a language other than English at home, the percentage of people who self-reported speaking English “not well” or “not at all” fell, from 17.5% in 2006 to 16.6% in 2016.</p>
<p>It’s important to keep in mind that self-reporting is not the most accurate measure. Some people will over-estimate their language capabilities, while others will under-estimate theirs. </p>
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<h2>What do the data show?</h2>
<p>In its five-yearly Australian Census, the Australian Bureau of Statistics <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/2900.0%7E2016%7EMain%20Features%7EENGP%20Proficiency%20in%20Spoken%20English%7E10054">asks people</a> who speak a language other than English at home to state how well they speak English. </p>
<p>Respondents can choose from <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/2901.0Chapter3202016">four options</a>: “very well”, “well”, “not well”, or “not at all”. The categories “not well” and “not at all” are reported together. </p>
<p>In the 2016 Census, <a href="http://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/communityprofile/036?opendocument">4.9 million people</a> reported speaking a language other than English at home. </p>
<p>Of those people, the number of people who reported they spoke English “not well” or “not at all” was 820,000. </p>
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<p>Hanson was correct to say the number of respondents who ticked the “not well” or “not at all” categories has been rising – from 560,000 people in 2006, to 655,000 people in 2011 and 820,000 in 2016.</p>
<p>But of course, the overall Australian population has also grown over that time.
So let’s look at the numbers as a proportion of the broader Australian population. On this measure, it amounts to a rise from 2.8% of all Australian residents in 2006 to 3.5% in 2016.</p>
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<p>Over the same time, the percentage of bilingual residents who reported speaking English “not well” or “not at all” fell slightly, from 17.5% in 2006 to 16.6% in 2016. </p>
<p>That means within the bilingual population, there was an improvement in perceived English language skills between 2006 and 2016. </p>
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<p>Hanson said there were now “over a million” people in Australia who “cannot speak English well or at all”. There are two potential problems with the <a href="https://theconversation.com/full-response-from-pauline-hanson-for-a-factcheck-on-english-language-proficiency-in-australia-103757">calculations made</a> to come to this conclusion.</p>
<p>Firstly: the calculation assumes the same rate of growth in the number of people who speak English “not well” or “not at all” between 2016 and 2021 as it was between 2011 and 2016. </p>
<p>The number of people with little or no English language capability is largely a function of the overall migrant intake. As our overall migrant intake has increased, the absolute number of new arrivals with little or no English language capability has also increased.</p>
<p>However, since the 1990s, our migration program has become <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/australia-s-migrant-intake-hits-10-year-low-under-turnbull">increasingly selective</a> and the <a href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/lega/lega/form/immi-faqs/aelt">English language requirements</a> for permanent residency have <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2005.tb00284.x">risen</a>.</p>
<p>Second, the projected growth rate suggests that not speaking English well is an unalterable characteristic, and that new entrants with little English capability simply add to the existing number.</p>
<p>This assumption doesn’t account for the likelihood that many recent immigrants who responded that they did not speak English well or at all in the 2016 Census will have improved their English (or their confidence, or both) by 2021 and will respond that they speak English “well” or “very well” then.</p>
<h2>How accurate are the data?</h2>
<p>The Census data provide us with a rough guide to English language proficiency, but it’s not a particularly valid or reliable measure. </p>
<p>That’s because the judgements made in the survey are subjective. There’s no definition around what speaking English “well” or “not well” means. One person may overestimate their English proficiency, while another person may underestimate theirs.</p>
<p>As <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/2901.0Chapter48102016">noted by</a> the Australian Bureau of Statistics:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… one respondent may consider that a response of ‘Well’ is appropriate if they can communicate well enough to do the shopping, while another respondent may consider such a response appropriate only for people who can hold a social conversation.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>As such, these data should be interpreted with care. </p>
<p>Self-assessment <em>can</em> be a valid tool in determining language proficiency. But for that to be the case, the questions need to be much more detailed and sophisticated.</p>
<p>So while we can state that 820,000 Australians reported speaking English “not well” or “not at all” in the 2016 census, it’s not possible to determine what that means in terms of their actual ability to communicate in their everyday lives.</p>
<h2>Most bilingual residents speak English ‘well’ or ‘very well’</h2>
<p>The vast majority of bilingual Australian residents report speaking English “well” or “very well” – more than 4 million out of 4.9 million. </p>
<p>Evidence of a certain level of English language proficiency is a <a href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/trav/work/work/age-skill-and-english-language-exemptions-permanent-employer-sponsored-programme">visa requirement</a> for most permanent migrants, and many temporary migrants. The key exceptions are humanitarian and family reunion migrants, whose reasons for admission supersede the immediate language requirements. </p>
<p>New citizens are also subject to an <a href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/trav/citi/pathways-processes/citizenship-test/about-the-citizenship-test">Australian citizenship test</a>, which is an implicit English language test, requiring a certain level of English language proficiency to pass.</p>
<p>The number of people in Australia with little or no English language capability depends not only on the number and mix of new migrants admitted, but the English language training provisions made available to those people when they arrive. <strong>– Ingrid Piller</strong></p>
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<h2>Blind review</h2>
<p>I agree with the verdict of this FactCheck. The sources used and conclusions drawn are correct. <strong>– Amanda Muller</strong></p>
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<span class="caption">The Conversation FactCheck is accredited by the International Fact-Checking Network.</span>
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<p><em>The Conversation’s FactCheck unit was the first fact-checking team in Australia and one of the first worldwide to be accredited by the International Fact-Checking Network, an alliance of fact-checkers hosted at the Poynter Institute in the US. <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-conversations-factcheck-granted-accreditation-by-international-fact-checking-network-at-poynter-74363">Read more here</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>Have you seen a “fact” worth checking? The Conversation’s FactCheck asks academic experts to test claims and see how true they are. We then ask a second academic to review an anonymous copy of the article. You can request a check at <a href="mailto:checkit@theconversation.edu.au">checkit@theconversation.edu.au</a>. Please include the statement you would like us to check, the date it was made, and a link if possible.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/101461/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ingrid Piller receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Humboldt Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amanda Muller does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Senator Pauline Hanson raised concerns about immigration and social cohesion, saying ‘more than a million people’ in Australia ‘cannot speak English well or at all’. Let’s look at the numbers.Ingrid Piller, Professor of Applied Linguistics, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/848912017-10-25T22:48:14Z2017-10-25T22:48:14ZClosing the immigrant wage gap: Is speaking English important?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191700/original/file-20171024-30556-yo1lpq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=425%2C112%2C3985%2C3081&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">New census data gives insight into Canada's immigrant population, including how English language proficiency can impact wages. Here, a group of new Canadians take part in a citizenship ceremony in Ottawa in September.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(THE CANADIAN PRESS/Sean Kilpatrick)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Statistics Canada has released <a href="http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as-sa/98-200-x/2016017/98-200-x2016017-eng.cfm">new data</a> from the 2016 census that shows more than any other G8 country, Canada is a nation of immigrants. One in five Canadians (21.9 per cent to be exact) were born in another country.</p>
<p>Immigration is a significant component of Canada’s population growth and evolving demographic composition. The census data shows more than 1.2 million new immigrants came to Canada between 2011-16. Immigrants are also typically younger and more educated than the average Canadian.</p>
<p>Not surprisingly then, immigration is often touted as a necessary condition for <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/immigration/2016/10/06/increased-immigration-urged-to-support-economic-growth-amid-aging-population.html">sustained economic prosperity</a>. And yet in spite of their ostensible importance to the Canadian economy, immigrants themselves have yet to catch up to other Canadians in terms of economic outcomes.</p>
<p>Economists refer to this catching up as “economic assimilation” and often measure it using the “native-immigrant wage gap” — the difference between the average wages of immigrants and those whose families have been here at least three generations. The persistence of this wage gap is a feature common to economies in the Western world that rely heavily on immigration.</p>
<p>As an economist and a child of immigrants myself, I was curious to delve into the census data to understand how this gap has evolved over time and across major cities in Canada — and to get a hint of what may be at the root of it. </p>
<p>The first thing that surprised me is the gap has not changed much over the past 10 years. Census data from 2006 showed, at a national level, first-generation immigrants earned wages 12.6 per cent less than the average wage of native Canadians. In 2011, the gap dropped slightly to 10 per cent, but the new census data shows it’s climbed significantly to 16 per cent.</p>
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<p>Importantly, the gap is a countrywide phenomenon. Looking at the three of the most popular destinations for immigrants in the past decade — Toronto, Vancouver and Calgary — the gap in 2016 sits at 25, 17 and 23 per cent respectively.</p>
<p>Interestingly, the gap doesn’t only exist for first-generation immigrants, but also for the children of immigrants (second generation, i.e. Canadians born to immigrant parents). The new data shows at the national level, second-generation immigrants earn 5.4 per cent less than natives. </p>
<h2>Understanding the wage gap</h2>
<p>The obvious question that follows then is: What is the source of these gaps? </p>
<p>Canada is an especially interesting case given the <a href="http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/express-entry/grid-crs.asp">“points” system</a> used to screen potential immigrants, where language, education and job skills are key determinants. And for the first time, the census has reported that about six out 10 new immigrants came here under the so-called economic admission category, meaning they have the skills “to enhance and promote economic development.”</p>
<p>Given the way immigrants are screened before entry, one would expect relatively quick integration into the Canadian economy and a convergence in wages. But this is clearly not the case.</p>
<p>The reasons put forward to explain the wage gap range from employer difficulty in assessing immigrant education credentials to outright discrimination. Economists refer to two types of “discrimination” in the labour market context, “<a href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2009_S000544">statistical discrimination</a>” and “<a href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2009_T000251">taste-based discrimination</a>.”</p>
<p>In the former, employers use observable traits (such as race) to make inferences about something like productivity. For example, an employer sees a job applicant with brown skin. The employer isn’t prejudiced towards brown people, but is worried (stereotypically) the employee is going to want to take trips “home” to Sri Lanka and would need a lot of vacation time. So the employer hires someone else equally qualified. Taste-based discrimination is more what we think of as prejudice — not wanting to hire someone purely because of skin colour.</p>
<p>Identifying causal factors that explain the wage gap is a difficult task - individuals who immigrate to Canada do so by choice. These choices are a function of a host of factors that could potentially jointly explain the decision to immigrate and labour market outcomes, including personal characteristics, job experience and education, to name just a few. Identifying discrimination in the labour market, and separating between taste-based and statistical discrimination, is even harder.</p>
<p>However, a 2011 <a href="http://oreopoulos.faculty.economics.utoronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Why-Do-Skilled-Immigrants-Struggle-in-the-Labor-Market.pdf">study by University of Toronto economist Phil Oreopolous</a> takes an important step in this direction.</p>
<p>In the study, thousands of computer-generated resumes were mailed out to companies that had posted ads searching for employees. The resumes were randomly assigned either a foreign or a “white” sounding last name, and were otherwise identical. The result: The resumes where the applicant had a foreign-sounding last name were less likely to receive a call back than identical looking resumes with a “white” last name.</p>
<p>When the author followed up with some of the recruiters, the overwhelming reason given for overlooking resumes with a foreign-sounding name was that they anticipated difficulty with language. Specifically, recruiters expected a lack of fluency in English, problems with communicating at work and difficulty for customers and co-workers in understanding a foreign accent. In other words, recruiters were statistically discriminating between job candidates based on their names.</p>
<h2>Can language proficiency close the gap?</h2>
<p>The census presents an opportunity to study the importance of English proficiency for the gap in labour market earnings between immigrants and native Canadians in 2016. The census provides information on wages, immigrant (and generation) status, as well as the language most commonly spoken at home. </p>
<p>Specifically, guided by the findings in Oreopolous’s study, I looked at how the gap in average wages changes when English is spoken at home. (For the purpose of this study, I looked at communities outside of Quebec, where French is the dominant language.) In 2016, 63 per cent of new immigrants living outside of Quebec most often spoke a language other than English or French while at home.</p>
<p>The latest census data says the native-first generation immigrant wage gap is 16 per cent at the national level. Once we examine whether immigrants speak English at home, things change — the wage difference is just 5.8 per cent. But for first-generation immigrants who don’t speak English at home, the gap jumps to 27.3 per cent.</p>
<p>For second-generation immigrants, there is barely any gap for those who speak English at home (0.7 per cent) but it’s still a significant gap for those who don’t speak English at home (a whopping 45.7 per cent).</p>
<p>This pattern also holds in the major metropolitan centres in the English-speaking parts of the country, which attract the most immigrants. </p>
<p>Interestingly, at almost 25 per cent, Toronto has one of the largest city level wage gaps in the country, explained at least in part by the fact that new immigrants tend to land in Toronto first and are more likely to be unemployed for a period of time. The three largest cities in English-speaking Canada, which also attract the most immigrants, also have gaps larger than the national average.</p>
<p>In Ottawa, immigrants of either generation who speak English at home actually earn more than natives on average. While it may be tempting to attribute the major differences across the cities to differences in culture, they are more likely due to regional differences in industrial composition and attendant labour demand. </p>
<p>The wage gap for immigrants who don’t speak English at home is very large. In Toronto and Calgary, first-generation immigrants who don’t speak English at home can expect to earn 37 per cent less than natives. Perhaps even more interesting is the fact that the gap across all cities for is larger for second generation immigrants who don’t speak English at home. </p>
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<p>Though these patterns are striking, they should not be interpreted as causal – immigrants can’t necessarily start speaking English at home and expect to see their future earnings increase. There are unobserved qualities of individuals that may correlate both with the tendency to speak English at home as well as with labour market earnings potential. Without holding these fixed in some way, we can’t say whether there is a causal relationship between English skills and the gap in labour market outcomes. </p>
<p>But supposing that the findings here are suggestive of a causal relationship, why does speaking English at home matter so much?</p>
<p>One obvious answer is that individuals who speak English at home speak better English in general — and this would mean better communication at work. This would be consistent with the worries that the recruiters in Oreopolous’s study had when deciding who to call back. Or perhaps individuals of foreign descent that speak English at home tend to have other important skills on average.</p>
<p>But another possibility is the labour market discriminates against individuals with weaker English skills even when English is not important for productivity. Sorting between these different explanations (and others) will require more data and a deeper look.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84891/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Arvind Magesan receives funding from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC).</span></em></p>New census data provides a chance to understand why immigrants earn lower wages than Canadians who have been here for many generations. Whether immigrants speak English at home may be a clue.Arvind Magesan, Associate Professor of Economics, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/849312017-09-30T07:09:31Z2017-09-30T07:09:31ZWhy translators and interpreters deserve a special day of recognition<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188206/original/file-20170929-13542-1gp4j36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Leaders use translators during the inauguration of President Mr João Manuel Gonçalves Lourenço of Angola.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">GCIS</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The United Nations marks <a href="http://www.un.org/en/events/translationday/index.shtml">International Translation Day</a> every year to honour the work of language professionals. Politics and society editor Thabo Leshilo spoke to Dr Kim Wallmach about the day’s significance.</em></p>
<p><strong>What’s the idea behind celebrating the day and its history?</strong></p>
<p>September 30 has been marked as International Translation Day since 1991. It was chosen because it’s the feast day of the great <a href="http://www.fit-ift.org/international-translation-day/">Bible translator St Jerome</a>, the patron saint of translators.</p>
<p>There is even greater cause for celebration this year. In May, the United Nations unanimously <a href="http://undocs.org/en/A/RES/71/288">adopted a resolution</a> recognising the role of professional translation in connecting nations and fostering peace, understanding and development. The theme this year is <a href="http://www.fit-ift.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/ITD-Poster_2017Press_Release_EN_FINAL.pdf">“translation and diversity”</a>. </p>
<p><strong>How does translation differ from interpretation?</strong></p>
<p>Translation involves the transfer of meaning from one language to another in the written mode, whereas interpreting is either spoken or signed. Interpreting can be performed in any one of three modes: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>in the short consecutive mode, the speaker delivers a short statement, which the interpreter then interprets afterwards. </p></li>
<li><p>In the long consecutive mode, the speaker delivers a message for up to 15 minutes while the interpreter takes notes. Thereafter, the interpreter delivers the message in another language. </p></li>
<li><p>The third, and most complex mode is simultaneous interpreting, which is used in conference, parliamentary or legislature interpreting contexts.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>It is important to note here that neither translation nor interpreting involve the transfer of words, as languages are structured differently. Rather, they transfer meaning, which must be done as accurately as possible. This, while taking into account cultural and linguistic dissimilarities.</p>
<p>This explains why knowledge of two or more languages isn’t enough. A translator or interpreter must also know the subject matter and be trained in the necessary techniques.</p>
<p><strong>What are the daily, practical applications of translation?</strong></p>
<p>Work opportunities in translation in the South African languages, range from legal, technical and educational contexts, public health information and annual reports to the localisation of websites and mobile phone technology. Translation in the major European languages, Swahili, Arabic and Mandarin is also flourishing.</p>
<p>Increasingly, the fact that we live in a globalised, digital world affects the way in which interpreters and translators work. Translators use translation tools to produce more consistent translations faster and more efficiently. Interpreters can now also work remotely.</p>
<p>But, there is also a danger that the immediacy of technology, like <a href="https://translate.google.com/">Google Translate</a>, might cause us to be overconfident about the ability of technology to bridge all of our language barriers. </p>
<p>Google Translate can give us an immediate sense that we understand something about a text in another language. But research has shown research that its automated output is still <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2989/16073614.2012.750824?journalCode=rall20">considerably less professional</a> than that of a translation student. And, if one wishes to communicate a message effectively using plain language, there is still no replacement for a professional language service which integrates rigorous quality assurance and qualified staff.</p>
<p>The story of interpreting into local South African languages is even more amazing if one considers all that’s been achieved since democracy. As the <a href="https://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007722">Nuremberg Trials</a> after World War II marked the first use of simultaneous interpreting equipment, South Africa’s <a href="http://www.justice.gov.za/trc/">Truth and Reconciliation Commission</a> could not have operated without the work of the first simultaneous interpreters ever to interpret into – and from – local languages. </p>
<p>These interpreters produced more than 28 000 hours or 3 551 days of simultaneous interpretation from April 1996 to October 1998. Of course, the courts, national government departments, parliament, provincial legislatures and local municipalities all cater for South African languages as well as for South African Sign Language.</p>
<p><strong>How well developed is translation in South Africa and what does future look like?</strong></p>
<p>Historically, translation has always played a pivotal role in South Africa – from the first Bible translations which codified the African languages and Afrikaans to the massive state-inspired increase in translation activity that permitted Afrikaans to take its place alongside English as an official language from <a href="http://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/afrikaans-becomes-official-language-union-south-africa">1925 onwards</a>. </p>
<p>Thereafter, all South Africa’s languages underwent a so-called “Shakespearean” phase – with the translation of canonical works going a long way towards establishing the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02564719608530150?journalCode=rjls20">literary status</a> of these languages. </p>
<p>Raising the status of the African languages to that of official languages in South Africa post-1994 led to an explosion of translation and interpreting work in the local and foreign languages. Opportunities for training and professional development also increased. Also, translation and interpreting play a key role in nation-building - acknowledging diversity while <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0907676X.2014.948893">promoting understanding</a>.</p>
<p>I have a rosier view of multilingualism in South Africa than language planners, who rightly point to the failure of legislation such as the <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/35742_gon801_0.pdf">Use of Official Languages Act</a> to properly promote all the country’s languages.</p>
<p>The next major challenge is to bridge the digital divide. Companies competing globally have realised that English is not the catch-all language in the digital world. They need a multilingual digital communication strategy to reach multiple and diverse audiences. South Africa still has to realise this.</p>
<p>While banks have led the way in localising ATMs and ensuring that they employ multilingual frontline staff, other professions still need to make language an important part of the way in which they engage with their customers and with society.</p>
<p>But a lot of progress has been made in the digital sphere. Google, Microsoft Office and search engines like Firefox and Internet explorer are available in languages besides English. Cellphones can be accessed in these languages too. Keyboards, touch screen interfaces, spell-checkers and voice language inputs that work with local languages have also been designed and implemented in the past decade or so.</p>
<p>Of course, enormous linguistic challenges remain. But, in the words of Nelson Mandela himself:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>No matter what challenges lie ahead, none are as great as those we have already overcome.</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84931/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kim Wallmach has previously received funding from the National Research Foundation. </span></em></p>Raising the status of the African languages to that of official languages in South Africa post-1994 led to an explosion of translation and interpreting work in local and foreign languages.Kim Wallmach, Director:Language Centre, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/765202017-04-24T21:55:04Z2017-04-24T21:55:04ZEnglish language bar for citizenship likely to further disadvantage refugees<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166396/original/file-20170424-24654-1oq9mss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull has proposed tougher language requirements for new citizenship applicants.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lukas Coch/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Citizenship applicants will need to demonstrate a higher level of English proficiency if the <a href="http://www.border.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/discussion-papers/citizenship-paper.pdf">government’s proposed changes</a> to the Australian citizenship test go ahead. </p>
<p>Applicants will be required to reach the equivalent of Band 6 proficiency of the International English Language Testing System (IELTS).</p>
<p>To achieve <a href="https://www.ielts.org/ielts-for-organisations/ielts-scoring-in-detail">Band 6</a>, applicants must correctly answer 30 out of 40 questions in the reading paper, 23 out of 40 in the listening paper, and <a href="https://www.ielts.org/about-the-test/test-format-in-detail">the writing paper</a> rewards language used “accurately and appropriately”. If a candidate’s writing has “frequent” inaccuracies in grammar and spelling, they <a href="https://www.ielts.org/-/media/pdfs/writing-band-descriptors-task-1.ashx?la=en">cannot achieve Band 6</a></p>
<p>Success in IELTS requires proficiency in both the English language, and also understanding how to take - and pass - a test. The proposed changes will then make it harder for people with fragmented educational backgrounds to become citizens, such as many refugees.</p>
<h2>How do the tests currently work?</h2>
<p>The current citizenship test consists of 20 multiple-choice questions in English concerning Australia’s political system, history, and citizen responsibilities. </p>
<p>While the test does not require demonstration of English proficiency per se, it acts as an indirect assessment of language. </p>
<p>For example, the question: “Which official symbol of Australia identifies Commonwealth property?” demonstrates the level of linguistic complexity required. </p>
<p>The IELTS test is commonly taken for immigration purposes as a requirement for certain visa categories; however, <a href="http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/190379/sub016-migrant-intake.pdf">the designer of IELTS</a> argues that IELTS was never designed for this purpose. <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01596306.2016.1199527?journalCode=cdis20">Researchers have argued</a> that the growing strength of English as the language of politics and economics has resulted in its widespread use for immigration purposes.</p>
<h2>Impact of proposed changes</h2>
<p>English is undoubtedly important for <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1473-4192.2008.00191.x/abstract">participation in society</a>, but deciding citizenship based on a high-stakes language test could further marginalise community members, such as people with refugee backgrounds <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/apr/21/refugees-will-be-hardest-hit-by-changes-to-australias-citizenship-test-experts-say">who have the greatest need for citizenship</a>, yet lack the formal educational background to navigate such tests. </p>
<p>The Refugee Council of Australia <a href="https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/latest/older-refugees-have-most-to-lose-from-citizenship-changes/">argues</a> that adults with refugee backgrounds will be hardest hit by the proposed language test. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.border.gov.au/Citizenship/Documents/2014-15-snapshot-report.pdf">Data</a> shows that refugees are both more likely to apply for citizenship, and twice as likely as other migrant groups to have to <a href="http://apo.org.au/node/6194">retake the test</a>.</p>
<h2>Mismatched proficiency expectations</h2>
<p>The Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP), where many adult refugees access English learning upon arrival, expects <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/adult-migrant-english-program">only a “functional” level of language proficiency</a>. </p>
<p>For many adult refugees – who have minimal first language literacy, fragmented educational experiences, and limited opportunities to gain feedback on their written English – “competency” may be prohibitive to gaining citizenship. This is also more likely to impact <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1440783314536792">refugee women</a>, who are less likely to have had formal schooling and more likely to assume caring duties. </p>
<h2>Bar too high?</h2>
<p>The challenges faced in re/settlement contexts, such as pressures of work and financial responsibilities to extended family, often combine to make <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/000494411205600203">learning a language difficult</a>, and by extension,
<a href="https://eprints.usq.edu.au/27724/">prevent refugees from completing the citizenship test</a>. </p>
<p>Similar patterns are evident with IELTS. Nearly half of <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/10/global-refugee-crisis-by-the-numbers/">Arabic speakers</a> who took the IELTS in 2015 <a href="https://www.ielts.org/teaching-and-research/demographic-data">scored lower than Band 6</a>. </p>
<p>There are a number of questions to clarify regarding the proposed language proficiency test:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Will those dealing with trauma-related experiences gain exemption from a high-stakes, time-pressured examination? </p></li>
<li><p>What support mechanisms will be provided to assist applicants to study for the test? </p></li>
<li><p>Will financially-disadvantaged members of the community be expected to pay for classes/ materials in order to prepare for the citizenship test? </p></li>
<li><p>The IELTS test costs A$330, with no subsidies available. Will the IELTS-based citizenship/ language test attract similar fees? </p></li>
</ul>
<p>There are also <a href="http://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9780230576339">questions</a> about the fairness of requiring applicants to demonstrate a specific type and level of English under examination conditions that is not required of all citizens. Those born in Australia are not required to pass an academic test of language in order to retain their citizenship. </p>
<h2>Recognising diversity of experiences</h2>
<p>There are a few things the government should consider before introducing a language test:</p>
<p>1) Community consultation is essential. Input from community/ migrant groups, educators, and language assessment specialists will ensure the test functions as a valid evaluation of progression towards English language proficiency. The government is currently <a href="http://www.border.gov.au/about/reports-publications/discussion-papers-submissions">calling for submissions</a> related to the new citizenship test.</p>
<p>2) Design the test to value different forms and varieties of English that demonstrate progression in learning rather than adherence to prescriptive standards. </p>
<p>3) Provide educational opportunities that build on existing linguistic strengths that help people to prepare for the test.</p>
<p>Equating a particular type of language proficiency with a commitment to Australian citizenship is a complex and ideologically-loaded notion. The government must engage in careful consideration before potentially further disadvantaging those most in need of citizenship.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76520/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sally Baker has received funding from The Office for Learning and Teaching for a project entitled '(Re)claiming social capital: improving language and cultural pathways for refugee students into Australian Higher Education' (ID15-4758) with Macquarie University and Curtin University
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel Burke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Refugees are both more likely to apply for citizenship, and twice as likely as other migrant groups to have to retake the test.Sally Baker, Research Associate, Centre of Excellence for Equity in Higher Education, University of NewcastleRachel Burke, Lecturer, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.