tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/maize-loss-30690/articlesMaize loss – The Conversation2017-02-14T11:57:57Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/728902017-02-14T11:57:57Z2017-02-14T11:57:57ZWhy it’s hard to control the Fall armyworm in southern Africa<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156736/original/image-20170214-25992-2nozor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The native range of the Fall armyworm – <em>Spodoptera frugiperda</em> – is in South and North America. But it’s rapidly spreading across southern Africa. This follows the first reports of its arrival on the African continent in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0165632">Nigeria in January 2016</a>. Within a year it spread, reaching <a href="http://ewn.co.za/2017/02/03/sa-confirms-presence-of-fall-armyworm">South Africa by January 2017</a>.</p>
<p>The Fall armyworm is adding to the devastation already caused by the native African armyworm, <em><a href="http://theconversation.com/armyworms-are-wreaking-havoc-in-southern-africa-why-its-a-big-deal-72822">Spodoptera exempta</a></em>.</p>
<p>The Fall armyworm problem has massive implications for people in the region. The moth is a severe pest of maize and other grass family crops such as sorghum. It poses a serious threat to African agriculture and food security as well as international trade through quarantine restrictions. Its arrival is a particularly heavy blow for southern Africa which is just recovering from a <a href="http://www.unocha.org/el-nino-southern-africa">severe drought</a>. </p>
<p>There are 208 million people dependent on <a href="https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Events/DakAgri2015/Cereal_Crops-_Rice__Maize__Millet__Sorghum__Wheat.pdf">maize for food security</a> in sub-Saharan Africa. Maize also provides crucial income for small-holder farmers in the region. </p>
<p>Understanding how armyworms breed, travel and feed is critical to managing the devastation they can cause. They have a number of characteristics that make them particularly hard to control. This includes the fact that the moths are strong flyers, the fact that they breed at an astonishingly high rate and that their larvae can feed on a particularly wide range of host plants. In addition, they tend to develop resistance to pesticides.</p>
<h2>Biological invasions</h2>
<p>Biological invasions like these threaten biodiversity, the functioning of natural and agricultural ecosystems, and ultimately food security. Sub-Saharan Africa is considered to be particularly vulnerable to invasive species due to its <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/113/27/7575">high dependence on agriculture</a>.</p>
<p>Usually the expansion of the geographical range of a species is hampered by barriers like oceans and mountain ranges. But an increase in international trade and travel has greatly facilitated biological invasions in recent decades. The larger grain borer, <em>Prostephanus truncatus</em>, another native of the Americas, was accidentally introduced into <a href="http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/44524">Tanzania in the 1970s</a>. The beetle spread rapidly through infested consignments of maize and dried cassava. The species has invaded numerous countries since its first <a href="http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/44524">introduction into Africa</a>. </p>
<p>There’s disagreement about how the Fall armyworm arrived in Africa. One suggested avenue is that it arrived on foodstuffs imported <a href="http://theconversation.com/armyworms-are-wreaking-havoc-in-southern-africa-why-its-a-big-deal-72822">from the Americas</a>. This is feasible as insects can readily cross borders with infested plant material. The species has been intercepted on shipments destined for Europe <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/plant_health_biosecurity/europhyt/interceptions_en">on several occasions</a>. </p>
<p>It’s also possible that the Fall armyworm arrived over the Atlantic <a href="http://theconversation.com/armyworms-are-wreaking-havoc-in-southern-africa-why-its-a-big-deal-72822">through wind currents</a>. This is because wind-borne adult insects can move over vast distances. The Fall armyworm wouldn’t be the first insect species crossing the Atlantic in this way. The most famous example is the monarch butterfly, <em>Danaus plexippus</em>, crossing the Atlantic from America to the <a href="http://www.ukbutterflies.co.uk/species.php?species=plexippus">British Isles</a>.</p>
<p>Whichever way the Fall armyworm arrived, its rapid spread across the African continent attests to its high dispersal ability. As strong flyers adult moths cross borders with ease. In the US the species has long been known to use jet streams <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-tropical-insect-science/article/div-classtitlemigration-and-the-life-history-strategy-of-the-fall-armyworm-span-classitalicspodoptera-frugiperdaspan-in-the-western-hemispherea-hreffn01-ref-typefnadiv/EB7A3F758E7F1436A2FECDE39278CB61">for adult dispersal</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156738/original/image-20170214-26007-gkij2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156738/original/image-20170214-26007-gkij2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156738/original/image-20170214-26007-gkij2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156738/original/image-20170214-26007-gkij2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156738/original/image-20170214-26007-gkij2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156738/original/image-20170214-26007-gkij2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156738/original/image-20170214-26007-gkij2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156738/original/image-20170214-26007-gkij2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Armyworm moths are strong fliers enabling them to cross borders with ease.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/wildreturn/14935803778/in/photolist-d3SNDY-6QqoXh-oDMjaL-gpfrtU-d3Uao7-d79a3h-oKPU7f-gpfpE3-6RGevB-gpfSJq-go4894-d8cJF5-6Vgc4Q-4SbUPG-fBJVZ2-bjeW4X-gpfGi4-go3K4K-fBJWmZ-go3LYr-go3AtY-jVVicb-kTMHYr-AvMn4p-jVSM8P-B9KERi-AvMsjz-yH2GUF-kTPkJ1-jVT77P-jVUMTG-jVSRpz-y3EsBr-go3Vmj-gpfHcD-aidc9j-bjeY2a-bjeXbR-vXH3Hz-w8WXXh-xeeuGH-d4uCF3-8SX6Kb-fmApcZ-ofsohw-wHoGwS-wHoG23-umzPC6-65nRGS-65ixHi">Andy Reago & Chrissy McClarren/Flickr</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Biology of the armyworm</h2>
<p>The scientific name, <em>Spodoptera frugiperda</em>, refers to the grey-patterned wings of the moths and the fruit destroying habits of the caterpillars. The common name, Fall armyworm, is based on the habit of mass movements of the caterpillars in autumn.</p>
<p>The Fall armyworm has several characteristics that make it difficult to control. Apart from being a strong flyer, adult females are highly fertile, laying in excess of 1000 eggs during their lifetime. </p>
<p>The Fall armyworm has a large host plant range that spans nearly 100 plant species <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0165632">in 27 families</a>. Although polyphagous – the ability to feed on many plant species – the preferred hosts are grass based plants such as maize, sorghum, millet, rice, and sugarcane. The most damaging reports from its native range are for maize.</p>
<p>Another reason the Fall armyworm is difficult to manage is because of its tendency to build up <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0165632">resistance to pesticides</a>. There have been efforts to curb its devastating effect by planting BT-maize. But this remains highly contested territory in many <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0165632">African countries</a>. </p>
<p>The Fall armyworm has been reported to cause annual losses of US$600 million <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0165632">in Brazil alone</a>.
Caterpillars also feed on other important crops, such as cowpea, potato, and soybean. </p>
<p>At this stage we know little about the potential impact on crops in Africa. But the fear is that it could be devastating.</p>
<h2>Quick action is needed</h2>
<p>Given the severe economic threat that the Fall armyworm poses, governments and international bodies are <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-38859851">putting in place</a> emergency plans.</p>
<p>These include monitoring with pheromone traps to determine the spread of the Fall armyworm, road shows to increase public awareness and emergency <a href="http://reliefweb.int/report/south-africa/pest-alert-detection-spodoptera-frugiperda-fall-army-worm-first-time-south-0">registration of pesticides</a>.</p>
<p>Eradication of the Fall armyworm at this stage is unlikely. Control of the pest will be best achieved if managed on an international scale with southern African countries coordinating their efforts.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72890/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kerstin Kruger does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fall armyworms have a number of characteristics that make them particularly hard to control. They are strong fliers, can breed at a high rate and also develop quick resistance to pesticides.Kerstin Kruger, Associate Professor in Zoology & Entomology, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/728222017-02-12T10:02:10Z2017-02-12T10:02:10ZArmyworms are wreaking havoc in southern Africa. Why it’s a big deal<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156373/original/image-20170210-23342-hnp6tx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Fall Armyworm has a devastating impact because it eats the reproductive parts of the plant as well as its leaves.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>A combination of native African armyworms and Fall armyworms from the Americas are ravaging staple crops <a href="http://www.timeslive.co.za/sundaytimes/businesstimes/2017/01/29/Biblical-plague-stalks-SA-maize">across southern Africa</a>. If uncontrolled, they have the potential to cause major food shortages. The Conversation Africa’s energy and environment editor Ozayr Patel asked Kenneth Wilson to explain the threat and what can be done about it.</em></p>
<p><strong>What are armyworms, where do they come from and how do they travel?</strong></p>
<p>Armyworms are the caterpillar stage of moths belonging mainly to the genus <em>Spodoptera</em>. They are called armyworms because when they have ravaged a crop they march along the ground like a vast army of worms in search of more food. There are at least eight countries in southern Africa that have been hit by outbreaks of armyworms.</p>
<p>This sequence of outbreaks began in mid-December <a href="https://www.lusakatimes.com/2016/12/29/army-worms-invade-chipata-area/">2016 in Zambia</a> and has spread rapidly ever since. It is now as far south as South Africa. Because armyworms feed on many of the staple food crops they have the potential to create food shortages in the region.</p>
<p>The recent outbreaks in southern Africa appear to be a combination of the native African armyworm (<em>Spodoptera exempta</em>) and a new invasive species called the Fall armyworm (<em>Spodoptera frugiperda</em>). This new species is endemic to tropical and subtropical regions of Central and South America, where it causes considerable damage to maize and other crops.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156367/original/image-20170210-23342-ggcz0c.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156367/original/image-20170210-23342-ggcz0c.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156367/original/image-20170210-23342-ggcz0c.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156367/original/image-20170210-23342-ggcz0c.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156367/original/image-20170210-23342-ggcz0c.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156367/original/image-20170210-23342-ggcz0c.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156367/original/image-20170210-23342-ggcz0c.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156367/original/image-20170210-23342-ggcz0c.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The top photo shows a mature maize field before pests arrive. The bottom photo shows a similar field following an armyworm attack.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Top: Ken Wilson; Bottom: FAO Lesotho</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Fall armyworm was first formally identified as being on the continent as recently <a href="https://www.plantprotection.org/Portals/0/documents/Newsletters/2016/IAPPS2016-10.pdf">as January 2016</a> in <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0165632">West Africa</a>, including Nigeria and its neighbours. </p>
<p>It is unclear how it reached Africa from the Americas but it’s likely it arrived on imported plants. It’s also possible that it migrated across the Atlantic on favourable winds over multiple generations. </p>
<p>It is not yet known whether the recent outbreaks in southern Africa are derived from the earlier West African ones. But Fall armyworms are known to be strong migrants in the Americas. Every year Fall armyworms fly <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3434929/">from Mexico and the southern states of the US to Canada</a>. </p>
<p><strong>What makes them so devastating?</strong></p>
<p>Both African and Fall armyworms do most damage to the staple cereal crops such as maize, wheat, sorghum, millet and rice. They also eat pasture grasses which has an impact on livestock production. </p>
<p>The African armyworm – they can be 3cm long – can reach densities as intense as 1000 caterpillars per square metre, quickly razing crops to the ground. On maize, the number of caterpillars per plant is, of course, much lower but it can cause just as much of an impact. The insects strip the leaves of even mature maize plants bare.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156365/original/image-20170210-23361-173xa0q.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156365/original/image-20170210-23361-173xa0q.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156365/original/image-20170210-23361-173xa0q.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156365/original/image-20170210-23361-173xa0q.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156365/original/image-20170210-23361-173xa0q.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156365/original/image-20170210-23361-173xa0q.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156365/original/image-20170210-23361-173xa0q.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156365/original/image-20170210-23361-173xa0q.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Right: African armyworm Left: Fall armyworm.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ken Wilson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unlike their African cousins, the Fall armyworm also feeds on a range of non-cereal crops. Nearly 100 different host plant species have been recorded. These include cotton, soybeans, groundnut, peanut, potato, sweet potato, spinach, tomato, sweet peppers, cabbage and tobacco. </p>
<p>Damage to maize is likely to have the biggest impact on farmers in southern Africa because it’s the main staple food crop <a href="http://www.iita.org/maize">in the region</a>. </p>
<p>The impact of the Fall armyworm is likely to be devastating because it eats the leaves of the plant as well as its reproductive parts. This damages or destroys the maize cob itself.</p>
<p><strong>Where have the most devastating attacks occurred? What was the result?</strong></p>
<p>In 2012-2013 the African armyworm cut Zambia’s <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-01-03/zambia-battles-ravaging-armyworms-that-threaten-food-security">maize production by 11%</a>. The latest outbreaks could lead to losses of up to <a href="http://paulshalala.blogspot.co.za/2017/01/zambia-may-lose-40-maize-this-year-due.html">40%</a> as an estimated 124,000 hectares of maize has been <a href="http://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/650/156440.html">attacked</a>.</p>
<p>In neighbouring Zimbabwe, seven out of eight maize-producing provinces have had armyworm outbreaks, and in Malawi at least 9,000 hectares <a href="http://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/650/156440.html">have been attacked</a>. Figures are not yet available for the other five southern African countries currently affected.</p>
<p><strong>What are the potential economic consequences if the problem is not arrested?</strong></p>
<p>It is too early to say what the impact will be on food production in the region. Chemical pesticides have been mobilised in most countries, though their efficacy has been questioned. In Brazil, where armyworms can breed all year round, controlling them <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-01-16/alien-armyworms-invade-corn-in-drought-hit-southern-africa">costs an estimated US$600 million a year</a>. The cost of control in southern Africa hasn’t been determined yet. </p>
<p>But it’s likely to be substantial given that many litres of imported chemicals have already been bought by countries desperate to protect their crops. This means that even if control proves to be effective it will have been costly. </p>
<p>The economic consequences could be severe if the Fall armyworm persists and spreads throughout the sub-Saharan Africa region.</p>
<p><strong>What is the best way to stop them damaging crops?</strong></p>
<p>Chemical pesticides can be effective against both armyworm species. But resistance to many chemicals is an issue for the Fall armyworm throughout <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0048357591902169">its native range</a>. It’s not known whether there is pesticide resistance in the Fall armyworms blighting southern Africa. </p>
<p>The variable efficacy may be due to genetic resistance, or it might be as a result of the way in which the spray is applied. The Fall armyworms are often inaccessible to insecticides because of their tendency to hide in the whorls and reproductive parts of the host plant. </p>
<p>Research is needed to work out which chemical is the best to control the strain of Fall armyworm in southern Africa. </p>
<p>But there are alternative approaches. </p>
<p>In parts of their native range in the Americas, genetically-modified Bt maize is grown to combat the Fall armyworm. This may also be an option for South Africa and some other countries where GM crops are already grown. But many parts of Africa do not allow or welcome GM varieties. And Fall armyworm has also evolved resistance to some Bt toxins, with some evidence <a href="https://extension.arizona.edu/sites/extension.arizona.edu/files/pubs/az1143_21.pdf">for cross resistance</a>.</p>
<p>There are non-chemical, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/biopesticides">biological pesticides</a> that could also be effective. These are pesticides derived from natural diseases of insects, such as viruses, fungi and bacteria. I have been involved in the development of a highly effective biopesticide against African armyworm in Tanzania. But this still needs to go through the commercialisation and registration process, which is both <a href="http://www.foodsecurity.ac.uk/blog/2017/01/natural-killers-developing-better-biopesticides/?platform=hootsuite">costly and time consuming</a>. </p>
<p>A similar biopesticide has also been developed against the Fall armyworm, but again this is not yet registered for use in Africa.</p>
<p>Biopesticides tend to be effective against a much narrower range of species than chemicals, which is good for the environment. But it means that they can only be used for a limited number of pests, often making them more expensive than chemicals.</p>
<p>There are also some other indigenous approaches that could be effective. This includes the use of local plant extracts like <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/52f220cbe4b0ee0635aa9aac/t/53d8f8d6e4b03775e0dd5a17/1406728406049/tephrosia+vogelii.pdf">Tephrosia vogelli</a> and <a href="http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-577-neem.aspx?activeingredientid=577&">neem</a>, to produce botanical pesticides, and the addition of sand to maize whorls where armyworms are feeding.</p>
<p>Only time will tell what the full impact of this armyworm invasion will have.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72822/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Professor Wilson currently receives funding from the UK’s Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council and Innovate UK.</span></em></p>A combination of armyworms native to Africa and those normally found in the Americas are ravaging crops in sub-Saharan Africa.Kenneth Wilson, Professor at the Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/643852016-08-29T14:37:23Z2016-08-29T14:37:23ZCharcoal rot: a threat to staple food crops in South Africa<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135639/original/image-20160826-17854-1d7idxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Charcoal rot is a relatively unknown disease causing yield losses in crops across South Africa, including maize.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Charcoal rot is caused by a fungus that invades <a href="https://www.plantwise.org/FullTextPDF/2011/20117800340.pdf">various agricultural crops</a> and gives them a charred appearance. The disease is becoming more widespread in South Africa – which is worrying, since it can dramatically affect crop yields which drives up prices and hits farmers’ incomes. </p>
<p>Charcoal rot attacks crops that are the source of staple foods, like maize and sorghum, as well as sunflower and soybean which are important sources of animal feed. Other crops affected include common beans, canola, cotton, tobacco, strawberries and some vegetables. </p>
<p>The disease is common in many <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ramesh_Chand/publication/233860291_Emerging_phytopathogen_Macrophomina_phaseolina_biology_economic_importance_and_current_diagnostic_trends/links/5668221608aef42b5789e64d.pdf">countries</a> in Africa, Asia, Europe, South and North America. It can cause yield losses of up to 90% in sunflower and 50% in soybean. Maize crop <a href="http://www.grainsa.co.za/maize-stalk-rots:-of-importance-in-the-current-season">losses of up to 70%</a> have been recorded across Africa. </p>
<p>The disease can be particularly devastating in countries like South Africa which has a hot and dry climate. But its importance is overlooked due to the lack of information on its effect on yields and food security. Maize is the most affordable staple for most households in South Africa. The country, usually a maize exporter, was forced to import maize during the 2015/2016 season, the <a href="http://www.news24.com/Tags/Topics/maize">driest on record since 1904</a>. </p>
<p>Charcoal rot has the potential to become an even bigger problem, particularly in maize production. Controlling it is critical yet efforts to deal with it in South Africa have been hampered by a lack of information. A number of initiatives are underway to close the knowledge gap. One is a research <a href="http://www.up.ac.za/en/plant-science/article/2133331/prof-jacquie-van-der-waals">project</a> at the University of Pretoria which is looking at some of the aspects of the disease related to soybean and sunflower. The aim is to provide a picture of how charcoal rot is affecting production in the country. </p>
<h2>A pernicious fungus</h2>
<p>The fungus, <em>Macrophomina phaseolina</em>, infects plants either at seedling stage or at flowering. When the plants are under stress they are more susceptible to charcoal rot. It reduces the crop stand when the seedlings die. It can also lead to <a href="http://www.farmersweekly.co.za/article.aspx?id=65905&h=Dealing-with-SDS-and-charcoal-rot-in-soya">significant yield losses</a>.</p>
<p>In some crops like sunflower and soybean it can affect <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232613908_CROPS_AND_SOILS_REVIEW_A_review_of_the_impact_of_charcoal_rot_Macrophomina_phaseolina_on_sunflower">the composition of the oil</a>. This decreases the oil’s quality and nutritional value. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135637/original/image-20160826-17887-1nmixv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135637/original/image-20160826-17887-1nmixv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135637/original/image-20160826-17887-1nmixv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135637/original/image-20160826-17887-1nmixv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135637/original/image-20160826-17887-1nmixv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135637/original/image-20160826-17887-1nmixv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135637/original/image-20160826-17887-1nmixv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135637/original/image-20160826-17887-1nmixv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Charcoal rot, caused by a fungus that invades plants giving them a charred appearance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Estiene Jordaan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is very little information available about yield reduction for crops affected by charcoal rot in South Africa. The little information there is comes from discussions with farmers. What is known is that it is usually a problem during the very dry seasons. And it could become more prevalent as extreme weather events like droughts become more common.</p>
<p>Reports of charcoal rot have been increasing in South Africa, especially in warmer parts of the country, like Mpumalanga, the Free State and the North West. This is attributed to soybean and sunflower production expanding into the country’s <a href="http://www.farmersweekly.co.za/article.aspx?id=65905&h=Dealing-with-SDS-and-charcoal-rot-in-soya">warmer regions</a>. Erratic rainfall, attributed to climate change, has resulted in water becoming a scarce resource, limiting irrigation.</p>
<h2>Difficult to treat</h2>
<p>There is no reliable way to control charcoal rot. The use of crop rotation is limited because of the wide host range of the pathogen. On top of that a minimum of a three year rotation is required.</p>
<p>Fungicide treatment of the seeds has proven to be <a href="http://www.apsnet.org/publications/phytopathology/backissues/Documents/1976Articles/Phyto66n03_355.pdf">ineffective</a>. Irrigation can be effective as moist soils aren’t a favourable environment for the fungus to grow in.</p>
<p>But there are steps that can be taken to help reduce the incidence of the fungus. These include: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>shifting planting dates to avoid excessively high temperatures or drought during flowering stage;</p></li>
<li><p>crop rotation which can sometimes decrease the amount of the pathogen in the soil. To prevent the pathogen increasing crops used in rotation shouldn’t be hosts of the pathogen, and;</p></li>
<li><p>increasing planting densities. This creates an unfavourable environment for the pathogen by producing more shade, keeping soil temperatures low and increasing relative humidity in the crop canopy.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>There is no known true resistance to charcoal rot. <a href="https://www.plantwise.org/FullTextPDF/2011/20117800340.pdf">Cultivars showing resistance or tolerance</a> to other fungal root diseases are only somewhat tolerant to charcoal rot. </p>
<p>South Africa needs to look at control methods used in other countries, like resistance breeding, and then develop an integrated disease management programme that is sustainable and economically feasible for conditions in the country.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64385/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Protein Research Foundation and the National Research Foundation (South Africa).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacquie van der Waals receives funding from The Protein Research Foundation and Potatoes South Africa.</span></em></p>Charcoal rot is associated with yield losses in crucial crops like maize, soybean and sorghum.Estiene Jordaan, PhD student in the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences in the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of PretoriaJacquie van der Waals, Associate Professor Plant Science, Section: Plant Pathology, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.