tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/mine-rehabilitation-1454/articlesMine rehabilitation – The Conversation2024-02-27T19:10:38Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2239782024-02-27T19:10:38Z2024-02-27T19:10:38ZResearchers found 37 mine sites in Australia that could be converted into renewable energy storage. So what are we waiting for?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578150/original/file-20240227-20-od97td.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=32%2C8%2C5431%2C3628&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The world is rapidly moving towards a renewable energy future. To support the transition, we must prepare back-up energy supplies for times when solar panels and wind turbines are not producing enough electricity. </p>
<p>One solution is to build more <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2516-1083/abeb5b">pumped hydro energy storage</a>. But where should this expansion happen? </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2024.120113">new research</a> identified more than 900 suitable locations around the world: at former and existing mining sites. Some 37 sites are in Australia.</p>
<p>Huge open-cut mining pits would be turned into reservoirs to hold water for renewable energy storage. It would give the sites a new lease on life and help shore up the world’s low-emissions future.</p>
<h2>The benefits of pumped hydro storage</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/batteries-get-hyped-but-pumped-hydro-provides-the-vast-majority-of-long-term-energy-storage-essential-for-renewable-power-heres-how-it-works-174446">Pumped hydro energy storage</a> has been demonstrated at scale for more than a century. Over the past few years, we have been <a href="https://re100.eng.anu.edu.au/">identifying</a> the best sites for “closed-loop” pumped hydro systems around the world. </p>
<p>Unlike conventional hydropower systems operating on rivers, closed-loop systems are located away from rivers. They require only two reservoirs, one higher than the other, between which water flows down a tunnel and through a turbine, producing electricity.</p>
<p>The water can be released – and power produced – to cover gaps in electricity supply when output from solar and wind is low (for example on cloudy or windless days). And when wind and solar are producing more electricity than is needed – such as on sunny or windy days – this cheap surplus power is used to pump the water back up the hill to the top reservoir, ready to be released again.</p>
<p>Off-river sites have <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2516-1083/abeb5b">very small environmental footprints</a> and require very little water to operate. Pumped hydro energy storage is also generally <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113295">cheaper</a> than battery storage at large scales.</p>
<p>Batteries are the preferred method for energy storage over seconds to hours, while pumped hydro is preferred for overnight and longer storage.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/batteries-of-gravity-and-water-we-found-1-500-new-pumped-hydro-sites-next-to-existing-reservoirs-194330">Batteries of gravity and water: we found 1,500 new pumped hydro sites next to existing reservoirs</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="large pipes on grass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578141/original/file-20240227-28-wf6yyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578141/original/file-20240227-28-wf6yyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578141/original/file-20240227-28-wf6yyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578141/original/file-20240227-28-wf6yyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578141/original/file-20240227-28-wf6yyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578141/original/file-20240227-28-wf6yyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578141/original/file-20240227-28-wf6yyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Pumped-hydro storage technology has been demonstrated at scale for over a century.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Why mining sites?</h2>
<p>There are big benefits to converting mining areas into pumped hydro plants. </p>
<p>For a start, the hole has already been dug, reducing construction costs. What’s more, mining sites are typically already serviced by roads and transmission infrastructure. The site usually has access to a water source for which the mine operators may have pumping rights. And the development takes place on land that is already cleared of vegetation, avoiding the need to disturb new areas.</p>
<p>Finally, community support may have already been obtained for the mining operations, which could easily be rolled over into a pumped hydro site.</p>
<p>In Australia, one pumped hydro energy storage project is already being built at a former gold mine site at <a href="https://genexpower.com.au/250mw-kidston-pumped-storage-hydro-project/">Kidston</a> in Far North Queensland.</p>
<p>The feasibility of two others is being assessed at <a href="http://hoppingmaddev.com/mrph/about-the-project/">Mount Rawdon</a> near Bundaberg in Queensland, and at <a href="https://www.agl.com.au/about-agl/media-centre/asx-and-media-releases/2022/august/agl-and-idemitsu-jv-secures-funding-for-muswellbrook-pumped-hydr">Muswellbrook</a> in New South Wales. Both would repurpose old mining pits.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/farmers-are-famously-self-reliant-why-not-use-farm-dams-as-mini-hydro-plants-212374">Farmers are famously self-reliant. Why not use farm dams as mini-hydro plants?</a>
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<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>Our previous research identified suitable locations in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2020.11.015">undeveloped areas</a> (excluding protected land) and using <a href="https://theconversation.com/batteries-of-gravity-and-water-we-found-1-500-new-pumped-hydro-sites-next-to-existing-reservoirs-194330">existing reservoirs</a>. Now, we have turned our attention to mine sites. </p>
<p>Our study used a computer algorithm to search the Earth’s surface for suitable sites. It looked for mining pits, pit lakes and tailings ponds in mining sites which were located near suitable land for a new upper reservoir. The idea is that the reservoir and mining site are “paired” and water pumped between them. </p>
<p>Globally, we <a href="https://re100.anu.edu.au/#share=g-3bcc2a691ac20106691c8cefca86c8e9">identified</a> 904 suitable mining sites across 77 countries.</p>
<p>Some 37 suitable sites are located in Australia. They include the Mount Rawdon and Muswellbrook mining pits already under investigation. </p>
<p>There are a number of potential options in Western Australia: in the iron-ore region of the Pilbara, south of Perth and around Kalgoorlie. </p>
<p>Options in Queensland and New South Wales are mostly located down the east coast, including the Coppabella Mine and the coal mining pits near the old Liddell Power Station. Possible sites also exist inland at Mount Isa in Queensland and at the Cadia Hill gold mine near Orange in NSW.</p>
<p>Potential sites in South Australia include the old Leigh Creek coal mine in the Flinders Ranges and the operating Prominent Hill mine northwest of Adelaide. Tasmania and Victoria also offer possible locations, although many other non-mining options exist in these states for pumped hydro storage.</p>
<p>We are not suggesting that operating mines be closed – rather, that pumped hydro storage be considered as part of site rehabilitation at the end of the mine’s life.</p>
<p>If old mining sites are to be converted into pumped hydro, several challenges must be addressed. For example, mine pits may contain contaminants that, if filled with water, could seep into groundwater. However, this could be overcome by lining <a href="https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1923455">reservoirs</a>.</p>
<h2>Looking ahead</h2>
<p>Australia has set a readily achievable goal of reaching <a href="https://www.energy.gov.au/government-priorities/australias-energy-strategies-and-frameworks/powering-australia">82% renewable electricity by 2030</a>. </p>
<p>The Australian Energy Market Operator suggests by 2050, this nation needs <a href="https://aemo.com.au/-/media/files/major-publications/isp/2022/2022-documents/2022-integrated-system-plan-isp.pdf?la=en">about 640 gigawatt-hours</a> of dispatchable or “on demand” storage to support solar and wind capacity. We <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/work-with-us/services/consultancy-strategic-advice-services/csiro-futures/energy-and-resources/renewable-energy-storage-roadmap">currently have</a> about 17 gigawatt-hours of electricity storage, with more committed by Snowy 2.0 and other projects.</p>
<p>The 37 possible pumped hydro sites we’ve identified could deliver 540 gigawatt-hours of storage potential. Combined with other non-mining sites we’ve identified previously, the options are far more numerous than our needs.</p>
<p>This means we can afford to be picky, and develop only the very best sites. So what are we waiting for?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223978/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Blakers receives funding from ARENA and DFAT.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Timothy Weber does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Huge open-cut mining pits would be turned into reservoirs to hold water for renewable energy storage. It would give the sites a new lease on life and help shore up our low-emissions future.Timothy Weber, Research Officer for School of Engineering, Australian National UniversityAndrew Blakers, Professor of Engineering, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2154472023-10-22T19:01:15Z2023-10-22T19:01:15ZCleaning up Australia’s 80,000 disused mines is a huge job – but the payoffs can outweigh the costs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554904/original/file-20231019-18-fiqpkt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=878%2C0%2C2619%2C1756&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-10-19/glencore-copper-mine-mount-isa-closes/102994426">Newly announced closures</a> of Glencore’s copper and zinc mines in Mt Isa will add to a huge number of former mines in Australia. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/min10090745">A 2020 study</a> by Monash University’s <a href="https://www.monash.edu/engineering/resources-trinity">Resources Trinity Group</a> found more than 80,000 inactive mine sites across the country. </p>
<p>Globally, a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-023-00805-6">2023 study</a> estimates the mining footprint at around 66,000 square kilometres. Abandoned mines account for much of this area. </p>
<p>It’s <a href="https://www.mining.com/web/innovative-ways-to-repurpose-old-mines/">estimated</a> the US has about 500,000 abandoned mines and Canada at least 10,000. The UK and China have at least 1,500 and 12,000 old coalmines, respectively. </p>
<p>Abandoned mines can pose extreme <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/history-culture/2022/07/australias-abandoned-mines-rehabilitated/">environmental, health and safety risks</a>. Unreclaimed coalmines, for example, <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/posts/mohan-yellishetty-9261512b_coalmines-ghgs-greenhousegases-activity-7118122785687691264-GjCy?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_desktop">continue to emit greenhouse gases</a>.</p>
<p>Land is a scarce resource. Restoration enables sustainable and dynamic use of former mining land. It opens up golden opportunities – environmental, social and economic. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553863/original/file-20231015-15-cxxzcl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing sites of current and former mines across Australia." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553863/original/file-20231015-15-cxxzcl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553863/original/file-20231015-15-cxxzcl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553863/original/file-20231015-15-cxxzcl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553863/original/file-20231015-15-cxxzcl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553863/original/file-20231015-15-cxxzcl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553863/original/file-20231015-15-cxxzcl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553863/original/file-20231015-15-cxxzcl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Current and former mining sites across Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Created by authors</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/afterlife-of-the-mine-lessons-in-how-towns-remake-challenging-sites-106073">Afterlife of the mine: lessons in how towns remake challenging sites</a>
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<h2>Environmental benefits</h2>
<p><strong>Carbon farming</strong> </p>
<p>Mine leases generally lock up vast land areas. This land presents a commercially viable, yet neglected, opportunity for carbon farming. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/posts/mohan-yellishetty-9261512b_criticalminerals-geothermalenergy-climatechange-activity-7000310180076806144-RDVE">replanting abandoned leases</a> could earn carbon credits under the Australian government’s <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/water/policy/policy/carbon-farming-initiative">Carbon Farming Initiative</a>. It can help “<a href="https://www.climateworkscentre.org/news/how-australia-can-reduce-greenhouse-gas-emissions-in-hard-to-abate-sectors/">hard to abate</a>” industries such as <a href="https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/carbon-offsets-to-stay-in-miners-decarbonization-toolkit-despite-fortescue-move-77676056">mining</a> move towards net zero emissions. </p>
<p><strong>Sustainable and renewable energy</strong></p>
<p>Abandoned mines can also be used to produce and store renewable energy. Examples range from providing sites for solar farms to <a href="https://greengravity.com/">Green Gravity’s energy storage technology</a>. </p>
<p>Green Gravity uses a system of weights in a mine shaft to store energy from renewable sources. This energy is used to raise the weights. The energy can later be released when the weights are lowered under the pull of gravity. </p>
<p>Another example is the former Kidston gold mine’s <a href="https://www.statedevelopment.qld.gov.au/coordinator-general/assessments-and-approvals/coordinated-projects/completed-projects/kidston-pumped-storage-hydro-project">pumped storage hydro project</a>. This system uses two water reservoirs in former open pits. Renewable energy is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. Releasing this water into the lower reservoir generates hydropower energy as needed.</p>
<p>For abandoned deeper mines, tapping into geothermal energy could even make it viable to resume mining.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The former Kidston gold mine in Queensland has a new life as a pumped hydro energy storage plant.</span></figcaption>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/batteries-of-gravity-and-water-we-found-1-500-new-pumped-hydro-sites-next-to-existing-reservoirs-194330">Batteries of gravity and water: we found 1,500 new pumped hydro sites next to existing reservoirs</a>
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<p><strong>Water security</strong> </p>
<p>Abandoned mines or quarry pits can <a href="https://www.quarrymagazine.com/2020/11/26/from-pit-to-pit-lakes-could-abandoned-sites-be-reborn/">store large amounts of drinking, harvested and recycled water</a>. This will help increase water security, especially when located near urban areas or industry corridors.</p>
<p><strong>Disaster prevention</strong> </p>
<p>Another option is renaturalisation. This depends heavily, though, on location and mine type. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.orangutanrepublik.org/weblog/2021/02/15/indonesia-push-mine-rehab-reforestation-after-deadly-floods/">Indonesia has plans</a> to restore forest on former mine sites to help reduce floods. These reforested areas will help retain floodwaters.</p>
<p><strong>Biodiversity restoration</strong> </p>
<p>Nature-based approaches to mine rehabilitation include reforestation and phytoremediation, which uses plants to clean up contaminated environments. These approaches tackle mines’ legacy of pollution and add ecological value. </p>
<p>Restored land allows for native species to be reintroduced. It can also provide bridges between patches of habitat to enhance biodiversity. In Victoria, this has been done with a former quarry at <a href="https://earthresources.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/700565/DJPR-Vic-Gov-Quarry-Compendium-updated-web-version-0113102021.pdf">Royal Botanic Gardens Cranbourne</a>.</p>
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<img alt="panoramic view of Royal Botanic Gardens Cranbourne" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554902/original/file-20231019-23-983wxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554902/original/file-20231019-23-983wxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=185&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554902/original/file-20231019-23-983wxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=185&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554902/original/file-20231019-23-983wxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=185&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554902/original/file-20231019-23-983wxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=233&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554902/original/file-20231019-23-983wxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=233&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554902/original/file-20231019-23-983wxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=233&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Regreening a former sand mine at Royal Botanic Gardens Cranbourne has boosted biodiversity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Greg Brave/Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Social benefits</h2>
<p><strong>Improving urban liveability</strong></p>
<p>Renaturalised mines can be valuable communal and green spaces. Particularly when done in urban areas, it can provide residents with better air quality, microclimates and quality of life as these sites support recreational and cultural activities. <a href="https://earthresources.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/700565/DJPR-Vic-Gov-Quarry-Compendium-updated-web-version-0113102021.pdf">All Nations Park</a> is another example of a quarry restoration just seven kilometres from the Melbourne CBD.</p>
<p><strong>Education and tourism opportunities</strong> </p>
<p>Restored mining land opens up <a href="https://www.theprojects-quarry.com/">educational, architectural</a> and <a href="https://www.edenproject.com/new-edens/eden-project-anglesea-australia">tourism</a> opportunities. These range from hotels such as the <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/china-quarry-hotel-shanghai/index.html">InterContinental Shanghai Wonderland</a> – most of it is underground – to eco-tourism and education centres, such as <a href="https://www.edenproject.com/">the Eden Project</a> in the UK. </p>
<h2>Economic benefits</h2>
<p><strong>Critical minerals</strong></p>
<p>Critical minerals are vital for batteries, electric vehicles and electrification needs. These minerals can be <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-has-rich-deposits-of-critical-minerals-for-green-technology-but-we-are-not-making-the-most-of-them-yet-182331">extracted from inactive mines and tailings storages</a>. </p>
<p>Mine waste processing could <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-07-16/hellyer-mine-starts-processing-tailings/9998764">contribute billions of dollars</a> a year to the economy and support regional jobs.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-has-rich-deposits-of-critical-minerals-for-green-technology-but-we-are-not-making-the-most-of-them-yet-182331">Australia has rich deposits of critical minerals for green technology. But we are not making the most of them ... yet</a>
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<p><strong>Job creation</strong> </p>
<p>Several large regions in Australia, including the Pilbara and Bowen Basins, face similar rehabilitation challenges. But each company is responsible for its own mine closure and rehabilitation. Current mining business models are not well suited for rehabilitation. </p>
<p>However, the scale of the rehabilitation work required in a major mining region would support an entire regional industry. It could provide many local jobs after mines close.</p>
<p>There are synergies between the many uses of restored mine sites. For example, Royal Botanic Gardens Cranbourne not only restores biodiversity, but has also created an attractive space for people to gather, along with jobs and education opportunities. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-to-restore-the-land-as-coal-mines-close-heres-a-community-blueprint-to-sustain-the-hunter-valley-198792">'We need to restore the land': as coal mines close, here's a community blueprint to sustain the Hunter Valley</a>
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<h2>So what are the obstacles?</h2>
<p>A mine’s rehabilitation costs may total hundreds of millions of dollars. These costs are often many times greater than what governments hold in rehabilitation bonds, which operators must provide as financial security before mining begins. Nevertheless, the financial and environmental <a href="https://treasury.gov.au/publication/p2011-sglp-overview/costs-of-inaction">consequences of inaction dwarf such costs</a>.</p>
<p>Globally, the costs of mine rehabilitation and closure liabilities run into billions of dollars. However, investments in <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/annals-of-a-warming-planet/finally-green-infrastructure-spending-in-an-amount-that-starts-with-a-t">green infrastructure have reached trillions of dollars</a>. Some of these funds could be directed into rehabilitation and clean-up efforts, with the benefits of:</p>
<ul>
<li>providing capital to “kick off” and refine the collaborative work needed to deliver multiple benefits – as well as mining companies, this work involves many other organisations and individuals</li>
<li>creating clear financial accountability for rehabilitation</li>
<li>generating business opportunities and sites for testing new sustainability practices and developing “gold standards” for restoring and repurposing mine sites.</li>
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<p>A co-operative investment approach enables all partners to understand their shared responsibilities before any long-term expenses affect them individually. </p>
<p>Strong governance, initial funding and collaborative development are needed to achieve environmental, social and economic outcomes that add value to mine rehabilitation.</p>
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<p><em>Acknowledgements: David Whittle, Alec Miller, Tim T. Werner and a number of Monash University staff and students over the years who have contributed to the research base.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215447/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mohan Yellishetty receives funding from the Australian Research Council, AGL Loy Yang, Boral Limited, CSIRO, KIGAM, Geoscience Australia, and the Defence Science Institute. He is Co-Convener of the National Industry Working Group (Critical Minerals), Australia-India Chamber of Commerce.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Marcus Bach does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Newly announced closures of Glencore’s copper and zinc mines in Mt Isa will add to a huge number of former mines in Australia. A 2020 study by Monash University’s Resources Trinity Group found more than…Mohan Yellishetty, Co-Founder, Critical Minerals Consortium, and Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash UniversityPeter Marcus Bach, Senior Research Scientist, Eastern Switzerland University of Applied Sciences, and Adjunct Research Fellow, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2068642023-06-28T20:03:53Z2023-06-28T20:03:53ZWe could need 6 times more of the minerals used for renewables and batteries. How can we avoid a huge increase in mining impacts?<p>We are seeing the biggest changes in our energy and transport systems since industrialisation. By 2026, global renewable energy generation is <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions/executive-summary">expected to match</a> total fossil fuel and nuclear output. Building the wind and solar farms, batteries and electricity networks we need to run our system on renewables will use a huge array of mined minerals, known as “transition minerals”.</p>
<p>The numbers are staggering. The International Energy Agency <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions/executive-summary">estimates</a> a sixfold increase in demand for these minerals by 2040 to meet climate targets of well below 2°C of warming. We could need 21.5 million tonnes for electric vehicles and battery storage alone. </p>
<iframe title="Total mineral demand for clean energy technologies" aria-label="Stacked Column Chart" id="datawrapper-chart-aci04" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/aci04/3/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border: none;" width="100%" height="400" data-external="1"></iframe>
<p>Transitional minerals include metals such as lithium, cobalt, copper, graphite, magnesium and nickel. They also include rare earths like neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium and terbium. </p>
<p>Currently, mining provides almost our entire supply. The scale of demand for these minerals could result in almost <a href="https://source.benchmarkminerals.com/article/more-than-300-new-mines-required-to-meet-battery-demand-by-2035">400 new mines</a> by 2035.</p>
<p>To put this in perspective, Australia has around <a href="https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts">350 operating mines</a>. <a href="https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/king/media-releases/australias-lithium-powering-global-energy-transition">More than 50%</a> of the world’s lithium and much of its copper, cobalt, nickel and rare earths come from our mines. </p>
<p>Australia is hosting the <a href="https://wmc2023.org/">World Mining Congress</a> this week. A key issue for the industry is how we can ensure the minerals needed for the energy transition are sourced responsibly.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-clean-energy-means-more-mines-we-shouldnt-sacrifice-communities-in-the-name-of-climate-action-170938">More clean energy means more mines – we shouldn't sacrifice communities in the name of climate action</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How can we manage demand?</h2>
<p>We can design energy and transport systems to minimise mineral demand. Strategies include:</p>
<ul>
<li>reducing our dependence on cars and using smaller vehicles</li>
<li>improving energy efficiency</li>
<li>moving to a circular economy that makes reuse and recycling a priority. </li>
</ul>
<p>All these changes can reduce the need for new mines. </p>
<p>Recycling, for example, could reduce demand for mined materials. For lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles, <a href="https://earthworks.org/resources/recycle-dont-mine/">estimated reductions</a> are 25% for lithium, 35% for cobalt and nickel, and 55% for copper by 2040. </p>
<p>This recycled content will mainly come from waste batteries. However, large volumes of lithium-ion batteries won’t start reaching the end of their lives for at least a decade. Recycling will only have a <a href="https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.lib.uts.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0921344923000885">significant impact from 2035</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/batteries-are-the-environmental-achilles-heel-of-electric-vehicles-unless-we-repair-reuse-and-recycle-them-205404">Batteries are the environmental Achilles heel of electric vehicles – unless we repair, reuse and recycle them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Mining is unavoidable, so we must limit its impacts</h2>
<p>If we are destined to continue mining for the minerals needed for the energy transition, how can this be done responsibly? And what exactly do we mean by responsible sourcing?</p>
<p>Responsible sourcing minimises the environmental, social and governance impacts and risks of mining. Key concerns include the use of child labour and forced labour, damage to the environment, impacts on Indigenous rights and cultural heritage, and corruption.</p>
<p>In 2011, the Australian government released <a href="https://www.industry.gov.au/publications/leading-practice-handbooks-sustainable-mining">guidance on sustainable mining</a>. Historical and recent harmful impacts highlight the need for a fresh look at mining practices. In 2020, for example, Rio Tinto <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/may/24/a-year-on-from-the-juukan-gorge-destruction-aboriginal-sacred-sites-remain-unprotected">destroyed</a> a 46,000-year-old Aboriginal heritage site in Juukan Gorge. </p>
<p>First Nations people worldwide are calling for free, prior and informed consent when mining and renewable energy developments are proposed for their land. This approach recognises the right to be consulted early in the process, informed of the impacts, and supported to take part in negotiation and making agreements. Most importantly, it includes the right to say no. </p>
<p>In many parts of Australia, Indigenous communities have been <a href="https://theconversation.com/native-title-and-australias-resource-boom-a-lost-opportunity-2725">locked out of economic opportunities</a>, despite mining generating enormous wealth on their Country. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/54-of-projects-extracting-clean-energy-minerals-overlap-with-indigenous-lands-research-reveals-195438">54% of projects extracting clean energy minerals overlap with Indigenous lands, research reveals</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What does responsible sourcing involve?</h2>
<p>How do we do things more responsibly? We need to ensure activities comply with a range of sustainability criteria. An agreed standard will mean we have information that enables us to compare the good and bad apples.</p>
<p>The problem is there isn’t a common approach to measuring, managing and reporting environmental, social and governance performance. Our <a href="https://fbicrc.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/FBICRC-Certification-Commonalities-Report-Spreads-VFINAL30November.pdf">recent research</a> analysed the plethora of voluntary standards and certifications available to battery materials producers. No common global or Australian standard has been adopted. </p>
<p>Smaller mining companies also struggle with the administrative complexities of sustainability reporting and management criteria. An agreed common language for reporting and management is needed. Only then can traceability solutions, such as the Global Battery Alliance’s blockchain-enabled “<a href="https://www.globalbattery.org/battery-passport/">battery passport</a>”, produce trustworthy and comparable results. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-has-rich-deposits-of-critical-minerals-for-green-technology-but-we-are-not-making-the-most-of-them-yet-182331">Australia has rich deposits of critical minerals for green technology. But we are not making the most of them ... yet</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Let’s set the bar high</h2>
<p><a href="https://fbicrc.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/FBICRC-Certification-Commonalities-Report-Spreads-VFINAL30November.pdf">Our research</a> identified the Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance (IRMA) as one of the more rigorous standards. Its credibility is built on how it is governed. This involves six stakeholder groups: mining companies, purchasers, NGOs, affected communities, labour organisations and the finance sector. </p>
<p>There are still questions to be answered. How do practices in Australia measure up to the standard? And how can regulatory reform help to steer mining operations in the right direction? </p>
<p>A focus on environmental, social and governance practices in the <a href="https://www.industry.gov.au/publications/critical-minerals-strategy-2023-2030/our-focus-areas/4-promoting-australia-world-leader-esg-performance">Australian Critical Minerals Strategy</a>, released last week, is a welcome first step.</p>
<p>Issues that must be front and centre include:</p>
<ul>
<li>mining impacts on water supply</li>
<li>free, prior and informed consent from First Nations communities</li>
<li>integrated planning for climate change impacts such as extreme weather that may affect management of mine tailings</li>
<li>biodiversity protection</li>
<li>mine closure planning that integrates progressive rehabilitation of ecosystems</li>
<li>circular business practices to make the most of what we have. </li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tapping-mineral-wealth-in-mining-waste-could-offset-damage-from-new-green-economy-mines-183232">Tapping mineral wealth in mining waste could offset damage from new green economy mines</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>As a leading mining nation, Australia is in a position to leverage its historical environmental leadership, show renewed responsibility and integrity, and lead by example. We can then help leave the planet in a shape that future generations will be proud to inherit.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206864/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rusty Langdon receives funding from a range of government and non-government organisations. In 2022-23 this included the BSC and the FBI CRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elsa Dominish receives funding from various government and non-government organisations. In 2022-23 this includes DFAT, Earthworks, WWF-Australia and UNESCAP. </span></em></p>Nearly 400 new mines could open by 2035 to meet demand for the minerals used in global electrification. Better recycling can help with supply, but mining’s impacts will have to be better managed.Rusty Langdon, Senior Research Consultant, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology SydneyElsa Dominish, Research Principal, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1987922023-02-07T19:03:55Z2023-02-07T19:03:55Z‘We need to restore the land’: as coal mines close, here’s a community blueprint to sustain the Hunter Valley<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508229/original/file-20230206-13-f7u9ap.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5464%2C3615&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/nsws-biggest-coal-mine-to-close-in-2030-now-what-about-the-workers-185292">decline of the coal industry</a> means <a href="https://miningdigital.com/sustainability/repurposing-mines-in-hunter-valley-presents-3-7bn">17 mines</a> in the New South Wales Hunter Valley will close over the next two decades. More than 130,000 hectares of mining land — <a href="https://www.singletonargus.com.au/story/7705554/space-view-shows-hunter-mine-scars/">nearly two-thirds of the valley floor</a> between Broke and Muswellbrook — will become available for new uses. </p>
<p>Restoring and reusing this land could contribute <a href="https://www.hunterrenewal.org.au/transforming_mining_land_in_the_hunter_valley">billions</a> of dollars to the Hunter economy, create thousands of full-time jobs and make the region a world leader in industries such as renewable energy and <a href="https://theconversation.com/intensive-farming-is-eating-up-the-australian-continent-but-theres-another-way-130877">regenerative agriculture</a> that improves soil and water quality and increases biodiversity and resilience. But to unlock these future opportunities, we must first clean up the legacy of the past.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Report cover with photo of a large open cut coal mine in the foreground and mountains in the background. The title of the report sits over the blue sky and says 'Afte the coal rush, the clean up. A community blueprint to restore the Hunter'." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508293/original/file-20230206-29-g1khbo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508293/original/file-20230206-29-g1khbo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=848&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508293/original/file-20230206-29-g1khbo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=848&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508293/original/file-20230206-29-g1khbo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=848&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508293/original/file-20230206-29-g1khbo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508293/original/file-20230206-29-g1khbo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508293/original/file-20230206-29-g1khbo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Hunter community blueprint is out today.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided/Hunter Renewal</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Last year community organisation Hunter Renewal asked people across the Hunter Valley about their priorities. They told us they want the Hunter to become a thriving natural environment, a more vibrant and attractive place to live with connected communities, and a diverse and resilient economy. </p>
<p>These community priorities, and their implications for land use planning, are outlined in a report published by Hunter Renewal today: <a href="https://www.hunterrenewal.org.au/restoration_blueprint">After the coal rush, the clean-up. A community blueprint to restore the Hunter</a>. This blueprint could be a model for other Australian communities planning their transition away from fossil fuels. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nsws-biggest-coal-mine-to-close-in-2030-now-what-about-the-workers-185292">NSW's biggest coal mine to close in 2030. Now what about the workers?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How were priorities identified?</h2>
<p>We began by analysing more than 170 documents from government, academia and industry about post-mining land use, planning and related issues. From this, a first draft of principles and recommendations for action was created.</p>
<p>The draft was put to a panel of ecological, social and technical experts from the University of Newcastle. Wanaruah/Wonnorua Elders and other First Nations peoples also advised on this draft.</p>
<p>Hunter community members then reviewed and revised a second draft through a series of workshops, interviews and an online survey. They included land holders, students, business owners, mine rehabilitation experts, Indigenous knowledge holders and renewable energy workers. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/3-local-solutions-to-replace-coal-jobs-and-ensure-a-just-transition-for-mining-communities-174883">3 local solutions to replace coal jobs and ensure a just transition for mining communities</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Rehabilitation and restoration</h2>
<p>Hunter residents want mined lands to be restored to support biodiversity and clean industries such as regenerative farming, renewable energy, and other industries that regenerate rather than extract. </p>
<p>To ensure this restoration happens, stronger legal obligations would ensure mining companies cannot walk away from their obligations, leaving <a href="http://downloads.erinsights.com/reports/the_whole_truth_LR.pdf">voids</a> in the landscape that become a perpetual hazard to human and environmental health. As one resident said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Mining companies shouldn’t be allowed to have a free pass at everything and get as much funding via subsidies as they do from the government. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Planning and governance</h2>
<p>People said that for the Hunter landscape to be restored at the scale required, planning and policy mechanisms will have to be well co-ordinated. An independent and locally based Hunter Rehabilitation and Restoration Commission could do this. It could work alongside the already proposed <a href="https://www.hunterjobsalliance.org.au/get-on-with-jobs-petition">Hunter Valley Transition Authority</a>. </p>
<p>The community suggested increasing coal-mining royalties to pay for this co-ordinated work. Mining companies would then be the ones that foot the clean-up bill. </p>
<p>In NSW, the royalty rate for open-cut coal is just <a href="https://legislation.nsw.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/sl-2016-0498#sec.74">8.2% of the resale value</a>. That’s too low for what is required. As another resident said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We shouldn’t underestimate the size of the task and true cost and effort of rehabilitation of multiple large mines over decades. This is an opportunity to repurpose the land and the physical and social infrastructure. </p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-transition-from-coal-4-lessons-for-australia-from-around-the-world-115558">How to transition from coal: 4 lessons for Australia from around the world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>Community involvement</h2>
<p>Successful mine closure and relinquishment requires that affected communities and stakeholders are <a href="https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-05/lpsdp-mine-closure-handbook-english.pdf">meaningfully involved at every stage</a> of planning and implementation. Yet <a href="https://www.iisd.org/system/files/2021-08/status-mine-closure-readiness-en.pdf">true involvement is rare</a> </p>
<p>People in the Hunter want to see greater community involvement mandated to ensure new developments benefit their communities for the long term. As one Hunter resident said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The mines have privatised all the profits and socialised all the costs […] We want to be involved from the beginning as equals.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-want-to-be-part-of-that-movement-residents-embrace-renewable-energy-but-worry-how-their-towns-will-change-184743">'We want to be part of that movement': residents embrace renewable energy but worry how their towns will change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>First Nations</h2>
<p>In Australia all mines are on Indigenous land and <a href="https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/native-title-report-2006-chapter-3-australian-government-and-minerals-council-australia">over 60% of mines are near to Indigenous communities</a>. Yet Indigenous people are <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/app5.99">less likely to benefit economically</a> from mining operations than non-Indigenous people. </p>
<p>Hunter residents said this needs to change. One way to do this is to return mining land to Traditional Owners, especially unmined buffer lands. </p>
<p>Making decisions with First Nations people from the outset for new projects will help to overcome the systemic disadvantage in Australia since colonisation. It will also build a knowledge base for change. As one Hunter resident said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>There is so much to be gained in recognising and understanding the land management practices of the local Aboriginal people, based on 60,000 years of observation and science dealing with the oldest continent on the planet. </p>
</blockquote>
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<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-next-government-must-start-talking-about-a-just-transition-from-coal-heres-where-to-begin-181707">Australia's next government must start talking about a 'just transition' from coal. Here's where to begin</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Climate and environment</h2>
<p>Plants and animals need connected ecosystems that allow them to move, adapt and survive. People in the Hunter <a href="https://www.hcec.org.au/climate-corridors">want a region-wide system of biodiversity corridors</a>. The transition from coal is an opportunity to set up a system that will give the region’s native species a fighting chance in a warming world. </p>
<p>As one resident told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Rehabilitating the land to ensure biodiversity is restored is the most important thing to ensure the native plant species can grow back and allow the native animals to return. We need to restore the land to try and reverse the human impacts on the site as much as possible. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Dawn of a cleaner future</h2>
<p>The coal industry has had it pretty good in this region for generations. We need a focus now on cleaning up the mess so a new, cleaner future can emerge. This requires a new approach to planning and development in partnership with local communities. </p>
<p>The consultative approach behind the Hunter <a href="https://www.hunterrenewal.org.au/restoration_blueprint">community blueprint</a> demonstrates the value of including a wide range of perspectives in planning for a post-coal future.</p>
<p>What this set of prioritised recommendations shows is that the people of the Hunter understand the complexity of the task and want to be part of planning it. It will require new laws and well-resourced public agencies capable of managing restoration and ensuring coal companies pay their dues and clean up after themselves.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198792/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kimberley Crofts contributed to the Community Blueprint discussed in this article. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liam Phelan contributed to the Community Blueprint discussed in this article. </span></em></p>The people of the Hunter have a clear picture of the future they want. But to unlock the region’s future opportunities, we must first clean up the costly legacy of its coal-mining past.Kimberley Crofts, Doctoral Student, School of Design, University of Technology SydneyLiam Phelan, Senior Lecturer, School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1470922020-09-30T20:04:39Z2020-09-30T20:04:39ZA brutal war and rivers poisoned with every rainfall: how one mine destroyed an island<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360703/original/file-20200930-16-ajkxy5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C24%2C5472%2C3612&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Locals living downstream of the abandoned mine pan for gold in mine waste. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Allen</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>This week, 156 people from the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, in Papua New Guinea, <a href="https://humanrightslawcentre.cmail20.com/t/ViewEmail/i/6FA13EBE61C248122540EF23F30FEDED/6000FD940AB538C262AF25ACF5E3F0AC">petitioned the Australian government</a> to investigate Rio Tinto over a copper mine that devastated their homeland. </p>
<p>In 1988, disputes around the notorious Panguna mine sparked a lengthy <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/gallery/2019/nov/24/the-brutal-history-of-bougainville-in-pictures">civil war</a> in Bougainville, leading to the deaths of up to 20,000 people. The war is long over and the mine has been closed for 30 years, but its brutal legacy continues. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bougainville-has-voted-to-become-a-new-country-but-the-journey-to-independence-is-not-yet-over-128236">Bougainville has voted to become a new country, but the journey to independence is not yet over</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>When I <a href="https://www.usp.ac.fj/news/story.php?id=2793">conducted research</a> in Bougainville in 2015, I estimated the deposit of the mine’s waste rock (tailings) downstream from the mine to be at least a kilometre wide at its greatest point. Local residents informed me it was tens of metres deep in places. </p>
<p>I spent several nights in a large two-story house built entirely from a single tree dragged out of the tailings — dragged upright, with a tractor. Every new rainfall brought more tailings downstream and changed the course of the waterways, making life especially challenging for the hundreds of people who eke out a precarious existence panning the tailings for <a href="https://apo.org.au/node/91596">remnants of gold</a>.</p>
<p>The petition has brought the plight of these communities back into the media, but calls for Rio Tinto to clean up its mess have been made for decades. Let’s examine what led to the ongoing crisis. </p>
<h2>Triggering a civil war</h2>
<p>The Panguna mine was developed in the 1960s, when PNG was still <a href="https://theconversation.com/png-marks-40-years-of-independence-still-feeling-the-effects-of-australian-colonialism-47258">an Australian colony</a>, and operated between 1972 and 1989. It was, at the time, one of the world’s largest copper and gold mines.</p>
<p>It was operated by <a href="http://www.bcl.com.pg/">Bougainville Copper Limited</a>, a subsidiary of what is now Rio Tinto, until 2016 when Rio handed its shares to the governments of Bougainville and PNG. </p>
<p>When a large-scale mining project reaches the end of its commercial life, a comprehensive mine closure and rehabilitation plan is usually put in place. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/png-marks-40-years-of-independence-still-feeling-the-effects-of-australian-colonialism-47258">PNG marks 40 years of independence, still feeling the effects of Australian colonialism</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But Bougainville Copper simply abandoned the site in the face of a landowner rebellion. This was largely triggered by the mine’s environmental and social impacts, including disputes over the sharing of its economic benefits and the impacts of those benefits on predominantly cashless societies.</p>
<p>Following PNG security forces’ heavy-handed intervention — <a href="https://www.plutobooks.com/9780745335049/state-crime-on-the-margins-of-empire/">allegedly under strong political pressure</a> from Bougainville Copper — the rebellion quickly escalated into a full-blown separatist conflict that eventually engulfed all parts of the province. </p>
<p>By the time the hostilities ended in 1997, thousands of Bougainvilleans had lost their lives, including from <a href="https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/about-us/mfat75/bougainville-a-risky-assignment/">an air and sea blockade</a> the PNG military had imposed, which prevented essential medical supplies reaching the island. </p>
<h2>The mine’s gigantic footprint</h2>
<p>The Panguna mine’s footprint was gigantic, stretching across the full breadth of the central part of the island. </p>
<p>The disposal of hundreds of millions of tonnes of tailings into the Kawerong-Jaba river system created enormous problems. </p>
<p>Rivers and streams became filled with silt and significantly widened. Water flows were blocked in many places, creating large areas of swampland and disrupting the livelihoods of hundreds of people in communities downstream of the mine. These communities used the rivers for drinking water and the adjacent lands for subsistence food gardening.</p>
<p>Several villages had to be relocated to make way for the mining operations, with around 200 households resettled between 1969 and 1989.</p>
<p>In the absence of any sort of mine closure or “mothballing” arrangements, the environmental and socio-economic impacts of the Panguna mine have only been compounded. </p>
<p>Since the end of mining activities 30 years ago, tailings have continued to move down the rivers and the waterways have never been treated for suspected chemical contamination.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/environment-minister-sussan-ley-faces-a-critical-test-will-she-let-a-mine-destroy-koala-breeding-grounds-145839">Environment Minister Sussan Ley faces a critical test: will she let a mine destroy koala breeding grounds?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Long-suffering communities</h2>
<p>The 156 complainants live in communities around and downstream of the mine. Many are from the long-suffering village of Dapera. </p>
<p>In 1975, the people of Dapera were relocated to make way for mining activities. Today, it’s in the immediate vicinity of the abandoned mine pit. As one woman from Dapera told me in 2015: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I have travelled all over Bougainville, and I can say that they [in Dapera] are the poorest of the poor. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>They, and others, sent the complaint to the <a href="https://ausncp.gov.au/">Australian OECD National Contact Point</a> after lodging it with Melbourne’s Human Rights Law Centre. </p>
<p>The complainants say by not ensuring its operations didn’t infringe on the local people’s human rights, Rio Tinto breached <a href="https://www.oecd.org/corporate/mne/">OECD guidelines</a> for multinational enterprises. </p>
<p>The Conversation contacted Rio Tinto for comment. A spokesperson said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>We believe the 2016 arrangement provided a platform for the Autonomous Bougainville Government (ABG) and PNG to work together on future options for the resource with all stakeholders.</p>
<p>While it is our belief that from 1990 to 2016 no Rio Tinto personnel had access to the mine site due to on-going security concerns, we are aware of the deterioration of mining infrastructure at the site and surrounding areas, and claims of resulting adverse environmental and social, including human rights, impacts.</p>
<p>We are ready to enter into discussions with the communities that have filed the complaint, along with other relevant parties such as BCL and the governments of ABG and PNG.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>A long time coming</h2>
<p>This week’s petition comes after a long succession of calls for Rio Tinto to be held to account for the Panguna mine’s legacies and the resulting conflict. </p>
<p>A recent example is when, after Rio Tinto divested from Bougainville Copper in 2016, former Bougainville President John Momis <a href="https://bougainvillenews.com/2016/04/11/bougainville-news-president-momis-statement-abg-engagement-with-rio-tinto-about-rios-plans-for-its-shares-in-bougainville-copper-bcl/">said</a> Rio must take full responsibility for an environmental clean-up.</p>
<p>And in an <a href="https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/latest-news/rio-tinto-lawsuit-re-papua-new-guinea/#:%7E:text=Residents%20of%20the%20island%20of,The%20plaintiffs%20allege%20that%3A&text=environmental%20impacts%20from%20Rio%20Tinto's,violation%20of%20international%20law%3B%20and">unsuccessful class action</a>, launched by Bougainvilleans in the United States in 2000, Rio was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/sep/08/davidpallister.riotinto">accused</a> of collaborating with the PNG state to commit human rights abuses during the conflict and was also sued for environmental damages. The case ultimately foundered on jurisdictional grounds. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360712/original/file-20200930-24-uwooqi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two people, one waist-deep in tailings." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360712/original/file-20200930-24-uwooqi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360712/original/file-20200930-24-uwooqi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360712/original/file-20200930-24-uwooqi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360712/original/file-20200930-24-uwooqi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360712/original/file-20200930-24-uwooqi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360712/original/file-20200930-24-uwooqi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360712/original/file-20200930-24-uwooqi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hundreds of millions of tonnes of tailings were deposited in the rivers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Allen</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Taking social responsibility</h2>
<p>This highlights the enormous challenges in seeking redress from mining companies for their operations in foreign jurisdictions, and, in this case, for “historical” impacts.</p>
<p>The colonial-era approach to mining when Panguna was developed in the 1960s stands in stark contrast to the corporate social responsibility paradigm supposedly governing the global mining industry today. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/be-worried-when-fossil-fuel-lobbyists-support-current-environmental-laws-138526">Be worried when fossil fuel lobbyists support current environmental laws</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Indeed, Panguna — along with the socially and environmentally disastrous <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/business/companies/png-s-ok-tedi-mine-disaster-money-locked-in-new-legal-fight-20191102-p536s7.html">Ok Tedi </a> mine in the western highlands of PNG — are <a href="https://www.csrm.uq.edu.au/media/docs/263/community_issues_evans_kemp.pdf">widely credited</a> with forcing the industry to reassess its “social license to operate”. </p>
<p>It’s clear the time has come for Rio to finally take responsibility for cleaning up the mess on Bougainville.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147092/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew G. Allen has received funding from an Australian Research Council fellowship DE140101206.</span></em></p>This mine has destroyed thousands of lives and livelihoods in Bougainville, an island in Papua New Guinea. It’s time Rio Tinto cleaned up its mess.Matthew G. Allen, Professor of Development Studies, The University of the South PacificLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1155662019-05-07T02:04:50Z2019-05-07T02:04:50ZThe uranium mine in the heart of Kakadu needs a better clean up plan<p>Can a uranium mine be rehabilitated to the environmental standards of a national park and World Heritage site? </p>
<p>That’s the challenge faced by the controversial Ranger uranium mine inside Kakadu National Park. </p>
<p>But <a href="http://sydney.edu.au/environment-institute/publications/ranger-uranium-mine-report/">our new research report</a> found the <a href="http://www.energyres.com.au/sustainability/closureplan/">document</a> guiding its rehabilitation is deficient, and urgent changes are needed for the heavily impacted mine site to be cleaned up well. </p>
<p>Kakadu has been a national park since the 1970s, but the Ranger mine, while surrounded by Kakadu, has never formally been part of the park. This classification is in the interests of resource extraction, and has failed to recognise or protect the area’s cultural and environmental values. </p>
<p>Kakadu National Park encompasses a precious natural heritage. It protects valuable ecosystems of outstanding value, diversity and beauty, and contains the world’s richest breeding grounds for migratory tropical <a href="https://parksaustralia.gov.au/kakadu/discover/nature/birds/">water birds</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-problem-with-aboriginal-world-heritage-82912">Australia's problem with Aboriginal World Heritage</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Recent diggings and studies have documented at least 65,000 years of continuous human habitation at a site on the land of the Mirarr people – this is currently the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2017-07-20/aboriginal-shelter-pushes-human-history-back-to-65,000-years/8719314">oldest occupation site</a> in Australia.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Nfxc5OSJ1m0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>How was the mine developed?</h2>
<p>The boundaries of Kakadu National Park were conveniently drawn around the Ranger mine site through a series of political and administrative negotiations following the <a href="http://guides.naa.gov.au/records-about-northern-territory/part2/chapter14/14.2.aspx">Fox Inquiry</a>, which gave a cautious green light for the Ranger operation. </p>
<p>Likewise, Ranger was excluded from the requirements of the <a href="https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/aboriginal-land-rights-act">Aboriginal Land Rights Act</a> that would have otherwise given the <a href="http://www.mirarr.net/uranium-mining">Mirarr people</a> the right to say no to the mine. </p>
<p>Now, as the mining stops and the repair begins, mining companies and government regulators are being tested on their environmental commitment, and capacity to make meaningful change. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/treasure-from-trash-how-mining-waste-can-be-mined-a-second-time-59667">Treasure from trash: how mining waste can be mined a second time</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But rehabilitating what is essentially a toxic waste dump is no easy task.</p>
<p>And the inadequacy of the Energy Resources of Australia’s <a href="http://www.energyres.com.au/sustainability/closureplan/">Mine Closure Plan</a> – the key document guiding the rehabilitation – shows they are failing this test so far.</p>
<h2>Problems with the Mine Closure Plan</h2>
<p>Our new research report – jointly conducted by Sydney Environment Institute and the Australian Conservation Foundation – examines the Mine Closure Plan and finds it is seriously wanting in key areas. </p>
<p>These include significant data deficiencies regarding management of mine tailings (mine residue), land stability, and modelling of toxic contaminants likely to flow off site into Kakadu National Park. </p>
<p>The Mine Closure Plan is almost completely silent on crucial governance questions, such as the Ranger mine’s opaque regulatory processes and rehabilitation, and current and future financing – especially in relation to future site monitoring and mitigation works.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/rangers-toxic-spill-highlights-the-perils-of-self-regulation-21409">Ranger's toxic spill highlights the perils of self-regulation</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>After the price collapse following the Fukushima nuclear crisis, times in the uranium trade have been tough. Coupled with a mandated end to commercial operations by early 2021, Rio Tinto has accepted the era of mining has now been replaced by the <a href="http://www.riotinto.com/media/media-releases-237_15301.aspx">need for rehabilitation</a>. </p>
<p>But the challenge for Energy Resources of Australia and Rio Tinto, who own and operate the mine, is not simply to scrape rocks into holes and plant trees. It is to ensure radioactive and contaminated <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/science/supervising-scientist/publications/environmental-requirements-ranger-uranium-mine">mine tailings are</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>physically isolated from the environment for at least 10,000 years [and that] any contaminants arising from the tailings will not result in any detrimental environmental impacts for at least 10,000 years.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These are time-scales of epic proportions, yet the Mine Closure Plan says little to assure the public this can be achieved. </p>
<p>In fact, Energy Resources of Australia concedes it won’t actually be possible to monitor and measure this over the next 10,000 years, so a model will be required instead. But this model has not been publicly released.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/269710/original/file-20190417-139097-135bv5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/269710/original/file-20190417-139097-135bv5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/269710/original/file-20190417-139097-135bv5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/269710/original/file-20190417-139097-135bv5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/269710/original/file-20190417-139097-135bv5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/269710/original/file-20190417-139097-135bv5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/269710/original/file-20190417-139097-135bv5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kakadu is home to more than 280 different types of birds, such as the white bellied sea eagle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rehabilitation success is determined by the mining company</h2>
<p>And this speaks to a broader problem with the whole process: the success of the rehabilitation will be judged by criteria created by the mining company. </p>
<p>It is naive to assume a mining company is best placed to propose their own rehabilitation criteria, given their corporate imperative to reduce rehabilitation costs and future liabilities. </p>
<p>And the stakes here are very high. The rehabilitation of Ranger will be a closely-watched and long-judged test of the credibility, competence and commitment of the regulators and the mining companies.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/traditional-owners-still-stand-in-adanis-way-115454">Traditional owners still stand in Adani's way</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The Supervising Scientist Branch – a federal agency charged with tracking and advising, but not regulating, the Ranger operation – also made <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/109f9411-a217-44f3-9807-6a8ca3790708/files/assessment-report-ranger-closure-plan-2018.pdf">an assessment</a> that should be ringing alarm bells:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>[The company’s current plan] does not yet provide sufficient evidence to demonstrate that the current plan for rehabilitation of the Ranger mine site will achieve the required ERs [Environmental Requirements]. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The Supervising Scientist Branch’s disturbing initial analysis is a red flag demanding an effective response. </p>
<p>The Conversation reached out to Energy Resources of Australia for a response to this story. A spokesperson told The Conversation the company is committed to the “full rehabilitation” of the Ranger Project Area:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Energy Resources of Australia (ERA) has committed to update the Closure Plan and submit for approval on an annual basis. Updates to the Closure Plan will be made publicly available.</p>
<p>As noted by ERA at the time of release of the Ranger Mine Closure Plan, there are some aspects of closure planning that will be further developed and refined as a result of ongoing studies and consultation. These will be reflected in future updates to the Closure Plan.</p>
<p>ERA is committed to rehabilitate the Ranger Project Area in accordance with the Environmental Requirements as set out in relevant regulations. The final close out of rehabilitation can only occur when the Commonwealth Minister, on advice of the Supervising Scientist and Traditional Owner representatives, is satisfied that the Environmental Requirements have been met. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Australia has a <a href="https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/auscon/pages/847/attachments/original/1466127496/MPI_mine_rehab_report.pdf?1466127496">long history</a> of substandard mine closure and rehabilitation in both the uranium and wider mining sector. </p>
<p>There is a real need to see a better approach at Ranger, and the first step in that journey is by increasing the scrutiny, accountability and transparency surrounding this essential clean up work.</p>
<p><br></p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article was updated at 12.25pm, May 7, to include a response from Energy Resources of Australia.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/115566/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Lawrence has provided pro-bono advice to the Saami Council, an NGO promoting the rights and interests of the Saami people, as a human rights advisor and to Environmental Defenders Office (NSW) as a social impact expert.
Rebecca Lawrence receives funding from the Swedish Research Council for Sustainable Development (FORMAS).
The report discussed in this article was partly conducted by the Australian Conservation Foundation.</span></em></p>The success of the rehabilitation of the Ranger uranium mine will be judged by criteria created by the mining company.Rebecca Lawrence, Affiliate, Sydney Environment Institute; Honorary Associate, Macquarie University, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1060732018-12-16T19:21:07Z2018-12-16T19:21:07ZAfterlife of the mine: lessons in how towns remake challenging sites<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249385/original/file-20181207-128211-sd2oz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Old mine sites suffer many fates, which range from simply being abandoned to being incorporated into towns or turned into an open-air museum in the case of Gwalia, Western Australia.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The question of what to do with abandoned mine sites confronts both regional communities and mining companies in the wake of Australia’s recent mining boom. The companies are increasingly required to consider site remediation and reuse. Ex-mining sites do <a href="https://theconversation.com/sending-mines-to-rehab-good-for-health-good-for-the-environment-2216">present challenges</a>, but also <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-mine-to-wine-creative-uses-for-old-holes-in-the-ground-3245">hold opportunities</a> for regional areas. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-to-rehab-the-mining-downturn-risks-making-mine-clean-ups-even-more-of-an-afterthought-58502">No to rehab? The mining downturn risks making mine clean-ups even more of an afterthought</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Old mine sites can provide a foundation for unique urban patterns, functions and transformations, as they have done in the past. It is useful to look at historical gold-mining regions, such as the Victorian goldfields, to understand how these sites have shaped the organisation and character of their towns.</p>
<p>Research by The University of Queensland’s Centre for Mined Land Rehabilitation suggests Australia has <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-should-we-do-with-australias-50-000-abandoned-mines-18197">more than 50,000 abandoned mine sites</a>. Some are in isolated places. But many others are close to or embedded within regional settlements that developed specifically to support and enable mining activity. </p>
<p>Abandoned mines present unique challenges for remediation:</p>
<ul>
<li>the sites are large (sometimes enormous)</li>
<li>their landscapes are <a href="https://theconversation.com/restoration-wont-work-a-new-way-to-fix-old-mines-21236">environmentally and structurally degraded</a></li>
<li>sites are <a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-children-exposed-to-toxic-mining-metals-do-worse-at-school-48343">often contaminated</a> by substances used in processing – like arsenic in the case of historical goldmines. </li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/soil-arsenic-from-mining-waste-poses-long-term-health-threats-5901">Soil arsenic from mining waste poses long-term health threats</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These characteristics exclude mining sites from reuse for activities such as residential development. The sites are often considered fundamentally problematic. At times former mining sites have been reused opportunistically, accommodating functions and uses that could co-exist with the compromised physical landscape.</p>
<h2>How have old mines shaped our towns?</h2>
<p>The industrial patterns established during the Victorian gold-mining boom are traceable through observing the street layout and the location of civic buildings, public functions and open spaces of former gold-mining towns. </p>
<p>For example, in the gold-mining town of Stawell, a pattern of informal and winding tracks was established between mining functions. These tracks later provided the basis for the town’s street organisation and land division, including the meandering Main Street, which forms the central spine of the town.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249391/original/file-20181207-128214-lptzj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249391/original/file-20181207-128214-lptzj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249391/original/file-20181207-128214-lptzj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=216&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249391/original/file-20181207-128214-lptzj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=216&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249391/original/file-20181207-128214-lptzj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=216&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249391/original/file-20181207-128214-lptzj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249391/original/file-20181207-128214-lptzj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249391/original/file-20181207-128214-lptzj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Left: Cascading dams in Stawell are remnants of the industrial crushing processes that were linked together along naturally occurring gullies. Right: Looking from Cato Lake towards Stawell Town Hall.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Harper, Laura</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Cato Lake, behind Main Street, was transformed from the tailings dam of the Victoria Crushing Mill. St Georges Crushing Mill and its associated dams became the Stawell Wetlands. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249388/original/file-20181207-128214-1yar2qt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249388/original/file-20181207-128214-1yar2qt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249388/original/file-20181207-128214-1yar2qt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249388/original/file-20181207-128214-1yar2qt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249388/original/file-20181207-128214-1yar2qt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249388/original/file-20181207-128214-1yar2qt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249388/original/file-20181207-128214-1yar2qt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249388/original/file-20181207-128214-1yar2qt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Current residential allotments in Stawell overlaid with the geographical survey of 1887. The gaps correspond to mining claims, crushing mills, tailings dams and other industrial processes associated with mining.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Harper, Laura/Map underlay from Mining Department of Melbourne</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other mining sites were transformed into the car park for Stawell Regional Health, the track for Stawell Harness Racing Club and the ovals for the local secondary college. A survey of public open spaces in Stawell shows that over time former mining sites accommodated most of the town’s public functions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249389/original/file-20181207-128205-23o0pw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249389/original/file-20181207-128205-23o0pw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249389/original/file-20181207-128205-23o0pw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249389/original/file-20181207-128205-23o0pw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249389/original/file-20181207-128205-23o0pw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249389/original/file-20181207-128205-23o0pw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249389/original/file-20181207-128205-23o0pw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249389/original/file-20181207-128205-23o0pw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Open space in Stawell showing the correlation of past mining sites with public function:
1. Central Park – public reserve est. 1860s.
2. Cato Park and Bowls Club – was Victoria Co. Crushing Mill
3. Stawell Regional Health – built over a mullock heap associated with the St George Co. Crushing Mill.
4. Wetland Precinct – was part of St George Co. Crushing Mill
5. Stawell Harness Racing Club – was part of Wimmera Co. Crushing Mill
6. Stawell Secondary College and grounds – was part of Wimmera Co. Crushing Mill
7. Borough of Stawell reservoir (disused) – was part of Wimmera Co. Crushing Mill
8. Federation University (Stawell Campus) – was School of Mines and prior, St George Lead (surface diggings)
9. Stawell State School – public reserve established in 1865
10. North Park Recreation Reserve – was part of Galatea Co. Mine / Grants Crushing Mill
11. Stawell Leisure Complex – was part of Galatea Co. Mine / Grants Crushing Mill
12. Oriental Co. Mine Historic Area – was Oriental Co. Mine
13. Moonlight-cum-Magdala Mine Historic Area – was Magdala Mine / Moonlight Co. Mine
14. Big Hill reserve, lookout and arboretum – site of multiple claims including Sloan and Scotchman, Cross Reef Consolidated and Federal Claim</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Harper, Laura</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many other Victorian goldfields towns developed in similar ways to Stawell. These towns have lakes or other water bodies in and around their central urban areas that were born out of mines. </p>
<p>Calembeen Park and St Georges Lake in Creswick and Lake Daylesford in Daylesford were all formed through the planned collapsing of multiple underground mines to create urban outdoor swimming spots. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249390/original/file-20181207-128211-1n7vkg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249390/original/file-20181207-128211-1n7vkg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249390/original/file-20181207-128211-1n7vkg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249390/original/file-20181207-128211-1n7vkg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249390/original/file-20181207-128211-1n7vkg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249390/original/file-20181207-128211-1n7vkg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249390/original/file-20181207-128211-1n7vkg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249390/original/file-20181207-128211-1n7vkg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Calembeen Park in Creswick is a swimming hole with a diving board that takes advantage of the extreme depth of the lake formed through collapsing several underground mines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Bendigo, the ornamental Lake Weeroona was formed on the site of the alluvial diggings. Other sites in these towns became parks, ovals, rubbish tips and public functions that could be accommodated on the degraded land.</p>
<p>Abandoned mine sites outside towns have also been used for unique purposes. Deemed unsuitable for use by the farming and forestry industries, these sites have developed into havens for flora and fauna, including endangered species. A 2015 article in Wildlife Australia magazine details instances of the Eastern Bentwing-bat and the Australian Ghost Bat <a href="https://www.forestrycorporation.com.au/about/releases/safeguarding-the-public-and-protecting-threatened-bats-at-mogo-state-forest">adopting abandoned gold mines</a> as replacement habitat for breeding and raising their young. </p>
<p>The neglect of other gold-mining sites has preserved historical remnants by default. The <a href="https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/explore/parks/castlemaine-diggings-national-heritage-park">Castlemaine Diggings National Heritage Park</a> in Victoria is one example. Here, water races, puddling machines and crushing batteries are hidden amid dense bushland. </p>
<p>The town of Gwalia in Western Australia, abandoned after its mine closed, has been transformed into a <a href="http://www.gwalia.org.au/">town-sized open-air museum</a>.</p>
<h2>And what uses are possible in future?</h2>
<p>Historical gold-mining sites in or near towns continue to be adapted for unusual uses. The Stawell Goldmine on Big Hill in Stawell is being converted to accommodate the Stawell Underground Physics Laboratory (<a href="https://www.darkmatter.org.au/allposts/2018/11/27/sabre-south-and-supl">SUPL</a>), a research laboratory one kilometre below the surface. Cosmic waves are unable to infiltrate the abandoned mining tunnels, so the conditions are ideal for exploring the theorised existence of dark matter.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249565/original/file-20181209-128208-va1mfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249565/original/file-20181209-128208-va1mfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249565/original/file-20181209-128208-va1mfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249565/original/file-20181209-128208-va1mfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249565/original/file-20181209-128208-va1mfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249565/original/file-20181209-128208-va1mfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249565/original/file-20181209-128208-va1mfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249565/original/file-20181209-128208-va1mfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Working on the Stawell Underground Physics Laboratory deep underground in an old mine tunnel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Swinburne University</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/digging-for-cosmic-gold-the-hunt-for-dark-matter-at-the-bottom-of-a-gold-mine-69890">Digging for cosmic gold: the hunt for dark matter at the bottom of a gold mine</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In Bendigo it is proposed to use the extensive historical mine shafts under
the town to <a href="https://www.energy.vic.gov.au/renewable-energy/pumped-hydro">generate and store pumped hydroelectricity</a>. This scheme, recently explored as a <a href="https://www.bsg.org.au/bendigo-pumped-hydro-project/">feasibility study by Bendigo Sustainability Group</a>, would use solar panels to create power to pump underground water up through the mining shafts to be stored at the surface. When power is required the water would be released through turbines to generate electricity.</p>
<p>The lack of demand for remediating sites for market-led uses (such as urban development, farming or forestry) broadens their potential for uses that might otherwise seem marginal or improbable, such as new forms of public space. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-mine-to-wine-creative-uses-for-old-holes-in-the-ground-3245">From mine to wine: creative uses for old holes in the ground</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The scale and remoteness of many post-industrial mining sites in Australia – such as Western Australia’s <a href="http://www.superpit.com.au/">Super Pit gold mine</a>, which is 3.5 kilometres long and 600 metres deep – might mean that approaches to reuse different from those taken with historical goldmines are required. We don’t have to wait until a mine’s closure to think about how it might be used in the future.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The Conversation is co-publishing articles with <a href="http://www.alva.uwa.edu.au/community/futurewest">Future West (Australian Urbanism)</a>, produced by the University of Western Australia’s Faculty of Architecture, Landscape and Visual Arts. These articles look towards the future of urbanism, taking Perth and Western Australia as its reference point, with the latest series focusing on the regions. You can read other articles <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/future-west-30248">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106073/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The industrial patterns of mining shaped many Australian towns, which found varied uses for disused mine sites. The mining boom ensures the challenges these sites present will be with us a long time.Laura Harper, Lecturer in Architecture, Monash UniversityAlysia Bennett, Lecturer and Researcher, Department of Architecture, Monash UniversityRoss Brewin, Senior Lecturer, Department of Architecture, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/985052018-07-15T09:45:03Z2018-07-15T09:45:03ZFinding ways to keep communities alive after mine closures<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226552/original/file-20180706-122280-1k6sidt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>South Africa’s economy was built on the mining industry. But the sector has been in decline for decades. <a href="http://www.statssa.gov.za/?cat=41">Mining</a> contributed R312 billion, or 6.8%, to South Africa’s GDP and 464 667 direct jobs in 2017, a far cry from the 21% contribution to GDP in the 1970’s.</p>
<p>Over the past two decades, 6 000 mines have been <a href="http://crown.co.za/latest-news/modern-quarrying-latest-news/5530-planning-for-successful-mine-closure">abandoned</a> and a large <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278035528_Mine_closure_in_South_Africa_A_survey_of_current_professional_thinking_and_practice">number</a> are expected to be closed in the next ten years. As one consulting <a href="https://www.miningmx.com/news/platinum/32500-third-sa-platinum-harvest-mode-industry-crisis-deepens/">analyst</a> and engineer in mining puts it, “we are in mine closure inducement mode right now”. Fixed investment in the industry has been shrinking over the past 10 years, while almost 30 000 jobs have been lost since 2014. </p>
<p>Mine closures create an economic vacuum, especially if the mines have been the only generator of economic activity in an area. Essential services, such as medical and health facilities, can also disappear if they were provided for by mining companies. Distressed communities are left behind to fend for themselves.</p>
<p>Towns like <a href="https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/tough-times-for-small-town-blighted-by-mine-closure-20170529">Carletonville</a>, Kroondal and Witbank in South Africa have already felt the impact. </p>
<p>A mine closure is a multifaceted injury that occurs in a narrow time frame. Communities don’t have a chance to adapt. It’s therefore important for closures to be planned and managed throughout a mine’s life cycle so that when the inevitable happens, people are better prepared.</p>
<p>We have been conducting <a href="http://www.resilientfutures.uct.ac.za/inputs">research</a> into different approaches to mine closures, viewed from several angles. The research covers a range of topics. These include how value can be added by treating acid mine drainage through <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0892687509002453">biomining</a>, evaluating sustainable development in the context of mines preparing for <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajsd/article/view/111127">closure</a>, evaluating the legal requirements to facilitate <a href="https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004313521/B9789004313521-s009.xml">mine transformation</a> and investigating the <a href="https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/WPS_No_256_Manufacturing__Employment-Complexity_Analysis_Zc_.pdf">economic complexity</a> required to grow the South African economy beyond primary resource extraction. </p>
<p>A great deal of research is going into <a href="http://www.resilientfutures.uct.ac.za/inputs">green mining</a> – an approach that involves mining metals and minerals for the benefit of local communities and in ways that lead to minimal environmental degradation. This includes planning beyond mine closure, while the mine is still operational. </p>
<p>Members from each of the teams involved in the research at the University of Cape Town are trying to find more integrated opportunities to address the complexities of mine closures. Our approach has been to address the challenge through a <a href="http://www.resilientfutures.uct.ac.za">multi-faceted</a> approach that involves collaboration across disciplines. This approach takes into account the perspectives of natural scientists (including bio, environmental and inorganic chemists), chemical engineers, legal specialists and developmental economists.</p>
<h2>Opportunities beyond mining</h2>
<p>An area we are exploring is whether the infrastructure left behind after mine closures can be put to new use.</p>
<p>One key insight is that the infrastructure that supports mining can also be used for <a href="http://www.miningfacts.org/economy/how-does-large-scale-mining-affect-agriculture/">agriculture</a>. </p>
<p>Another avenue of research investigates planting fibre-producing plants such as bamboo or hemp on mine land. The attraction here is that fibre-producing plants could achieve multiple objectives. </p>
<p>The first is that they have the ability to rehabilitate the land itself. Fibrous plants are particularly useful because they selectively absorb metals from the soil. </p>
<p>Secondly, communities can diversify a local economy by changing the land use from mining to agricultural activity. This could spur the development of downstream industries, including the manufacturing of textiles and furniture which can be produced from the fibre and stems of some of these plants. </p>
<p>An inter-disciplinary approach has been adopted in exploring the possibility of using fibrous plants on land previously used for mining. </p>
<p>For example, the <a href="http://www.ceber.uct.ac.za/">Centre for Bioprocessing Engineering Research</a> from the University of Cape Town, is reviewing the available information on fibrous plant suitability. This is done by assessing the best match of plant and degraded land. Key considerations include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>the features of the geography and soil;</p></li>
<li><p>the resilience of the plant and its productivity; and</p></li>
<li><p>the nutrient and water requirements.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>At the same time the <a href="http://www.mineralstometals.uct.ac.za/">minerals to metals group</a> is assessing the potential for plants removing metal from the soil, the impact of plant type on removal, and ease of metal recovery. Their goal is to identify the most suitable crop types to achieve not only the best outcome for economic diversification, but also rehabilitation of the land.</p>
<p>The project draws on <a href="http://www.hsrc.ac.za/en/research-outputs/view/9301">existing research</a> that’s already been done around the economic potential of bamboo in South Africa. </p>
<h2>Opportunities</h2>
<p>South Africa isn’t short of opportunities in which to try out new approaches. Mine closures are a regular occurrence. Lonmin, for example, has announced that over the next three years it will be closing some operations with the loss of over <a href="https://www.moneyweb.co.za/news-fast-news/shrinking-platinum-sector-adds-to-ramaphosas-economy-challenge/">12 000 jobs</a>. </p>
<p>Moving from the concept of mine closure to mine transformation – taking into account the environmental as well as societal and economic effects of mining – provides new opportunities to fill the economic and governance vacuum of mines closing, easing the traumatic transition for affected communities and contributing to securing resilient future livelihoods.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98505/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The Department of Science and Technology (DST) and the National Research Foundation (NRF) have awarded funding for this communities of Practice project, via existing Research Chairs under the South African Research Chairs Initiative (SARChI) funding instrument.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cheri-Leigh Young receives funding from The National Research Foundation (NRF). This funding is provided for research pertaining to the project discussed in this article.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Francois Steenkamp receives funding from The National Research Foundation (NRF). This funding is provided for research pertaining to the project discussed in this article.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Broadhurst works for the University of Cape Town, and is affiliated with the NRF South African Research Chair in Minerals Beneficiation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Harrison receives funding from the Department of Science and Technology through the NRF, holding the SARChI Chair in Bioprocess Engineering and being a member of the Community of practice project on this topic</span></em></p>The devastating impact of mine closures could be avoided with economic and scientific interventions.Bernelle Verster, Researcher, Future Water Institute. Bioprocess engineering background, University of Cape TownCheri-Leigh Young, Postdoctoral research fellow, University of Cape TownFrancois Steenkamp, Researcher, University of Cape TownJennifer Lee Broadhurst, Associate Professor, University of Cape TownSue Harrison, Director for the centre of bioprocess engineering research, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/596672016-06-29T02:29:15Z2016-06-29T02:29:15ZTreasure from trash: how mining waste can be mined a second time<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124087/original/image-20160526-16694-xks5n4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mineral processing tailings are pumped into a storage facility. Are there still valuable commodities in this waste?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Mines typically follow a <a href="http://www.superfund.pharmacy.arizona.edu/learning-modules/tribal-modules/copper/mine-life-cycle">set path</a> from prospecting, to development, to extraction and finally closure as the finite resources are exhausted. But does that really need to be the end of the mine’s productive life?</p>
<p>All mines generate waste, one type of which is known as “tailings”. Often these solid wastes are stored at or near the mine site itself. Mine site rehabilitation can be expensive, and often the burden falls on the taxpayer rather than the mining company. </p>
<p>However, this burden could be minimised if mining companies change their perception and start to view these disused materials not as waste, but as potential resources. Tailings dumps can be gold mines – literally, in some cases.</p>
<h2>The opportunity</h2>
<p>Society’s appetite for commodities is shifting in favour of <a href="http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx1202xPA-Critical%20Metals%20and%20their%20Recycling%20Potential.pdf">critical or strategic</a> metals such as lithium, indium and cobalt. These metals are vital to support the rapidly diversifying <a href="http://www.slideshare.net/rdcormia/building-the-electron-economy-16989616">electronics</a> industry. </p>
<p>For example, earlier this year the Indian government announced an ambitious plan for <a href="http://www.wearesalt.org/india-has-an-ambitious-goal-100-percent-electric-cars/">all vehicles to be electric by 2030</a>. Hitting this target will require a lot of <a href="http://www.australian-lithium.com/about-lithium.html">lithium</a> – a <a href="https://theconversation.com/lithium-australia-needs-to-recycle-and-lease-to-be-part-of-the-boom-54037">crucial component</a> of batteries. </p>
<p>Australia is currently the world’s <a href="http://investingnews.com/daily/resource-investing/energy-investing/lithium-investing/2013-top-8-lithium-producing-countries/">top lithium producer</a>, offering a much-needed boost to <a href="http://www.9news.com.au/national/2016/05/03/00/35/western-australian-companies-work-to-cash-in-on-lithium-boom">Western Australia’s mining sector</a> in particular. But maintaining this position is tough, because building new mines can cost anything between <a href="http://www.visualcapitalist.com/a-cost-comparison-lithium-brine-vs-hard-rock-exploration/">A$150 million and A$2 billion</a>, on top of exploration costs. </p>
<p>But you don’t necessarily need a brand-new mine to get lithium, thanks to <a href="http://finfeed.com/mining/lit/lithium-australia-makes-lithium-production-breakthrough/20160222/">new techniques</a> that allow lithium to be recovered from much lower-grade materials. Instead of being simply dumped, mine tailings can be re-mined. Through this process, characterisation of these wastes will allow for tailor-made, environmentally conscientious management strategies to be developed to handle the lower-value byproducts.</p>
<p>This can also help protect the environment from these often toxic wastes. Many of Australia’s <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-09-19/taxpayers-may-foot-bill-for-mine-rehabilitation/6787954">50,000 abandoned mines</a> contain reactive sulphide minerals such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrite">pyrite</a>. These can leach acid into the environment in a process known as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_mine_drainage">acid mine drainage</a> (AMD), potentially costing <a href="http://www.earthsystems.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/BestPrac_Acid_Drainage.pdf">more than A$100,000 per hectare</a> to clean up. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124292/original/image-20160527-897-1ibux0a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124292/original/image-20160527-897-1ibux0a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124292/original/image-20160527-897-1ibux0a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124292/original/image-20160527-897-1ibux0a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124292/original/image-20160527-897-1ibux0a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124292/original/image-20160527-897-1ibux0a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124292/original/image-20160527-897-1ibux0a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124292/original/image-20160527-897-1ibux0a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Acid mine drainage in Western Tasmania.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Anita Parbhakar-Fox</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Revisiting mine tailings can not only increase the working life of existing mines, it can also potentially breathe new life into long-abandoned mine sites. </p>
<p>There are two main reasons why this might be preferable to developing new mines. First, mining costs are reduced, as these materials have already been extracted from the ground. Second, the older the mine, the greater the proportion of the target commodity that is likely to be left over, because many older mining techniques had lower recovery rates than today’s technology.</p>
<p>For example, the historic <a href="http://montominerals.com/">Baal Gammon</a> mine in northern Queensland once produced copper, tin and silver, but acid drainage from the disused site now poses a risk to <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-11-22/miner-fined-120k-over-waterways-pollution/5110288">the nearby Jamie Creek and Walsh River</a>. But <a href="http://ecite.utas.edu.au/109128">analysis</a> of the waste boulders shows that they are rich in tin and indium, both of which can be recovered using today’s metallurgical techniques. This would have the added benefit of removing the sulphide compounds that threaten the local waterways. </p>
<p>Similarly, Tasmania’s <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00167616808728685">Zeehan lead-zinc field</a> contains more than 100 legacy mine sites, many of which – such as the <a href="https://think-tasmania.com/spray-mine/">Silver Spray</a> mine – are affected by AMD. Again, <a href="http://www.mrt.tas.gov.au/portal/documents/10184/38472/UR2001_05_REPORT.pdf/7a86c00b-d60e-4fe7-b7ec-bf985419e5e8">characterisation</a> of the waste rocks that contain AMD-forming sulphides shows that they also contain significant amounts of indium. </p>
<p>In neither of these cases has a mining project been established to recover these metals – surely a missed opportunity.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124290/original/image-20160527-874-q0w3kk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124290/original/image-20160527-874-q0w3kk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124290/original/image-20160527-874-q0w3kk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124290/original/image-20160527-874-q0w3kk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124290/original/image-20160527-874-q0w3kk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124290/original/image-20160527-874-q0w3kk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124290/original/image-20160527-874-q0w3kk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Queensland’s abandoned Croydon mines contain sulphide-bearing waste rocks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Anita Parbhakar-Fox</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are signs that re-mining tailings could make more financial and environmental sense than other rehabilitation options. One example is Tasmania’s <a href="http://epa.tas.gov.au/documents/savage_river_rehabilitation_project_newsletter_march_2008.pdf">Old Tailings Dam</a>, which contains mine waste piled more than 30 metres deep between 1962 and 1982. </p>
<p>While many <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0883292716300518">rehabilitation options have been considered</a>, including flooding the tailings or covering them with vegetation, the technical challenges have been considered too great. Yet the pyrite-rich tailings also contain up to <a href="http://ecite.utas.edu.au/109127">3% cobalt</a>, which is worth <a href="http://www.lme.com/metals/minor-metals/cobalt/">well over US$23,000 per tonne</a>. </p>
<p>It may even be possible to retrieve almost all of the cobalt by using <a href="http://www.biomin.co.za/biox/overview.html">bacterial oxidation</a>. This process was initially developed to release gold from pyritic rocks, and is regarded as a greener processing technique. </p>
<p>Elsewhere in Tasmania, a similar project is under way to recover <a href="http://www.bactechgreen.com/s/Overview.asp">gold</a>, and another is proposed to <a href="http://elementos.com.au/">recover tin from mine tailings</a>. Overseas, mine tailings reprocessing projects are planned as far afield as <a href="http://www.drd.co.za/our-business/ergo">South Africa</a> and <a href="http://www.bactechgreen.com/s/NewsReleases.asp?ReportID=750159">Bolivia</a>. </p>
<p>With technology improving just as the mining sector’s economic fortunes dip, firms have more incentive than ever to comb through their trash in search of treasure. Treating waste as a potential resource could help the industry rise from the ashes of the downturn, while helping the environment too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/59667/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anita Parbhakar-Fox receives funding from The ARC Transforming the Mining Value Chain Industrial Transformation Research Hub. </span></em></p>Identifying mine waste materials as economic resources will help support global demand for critical metals, boosting the mining industry during the downturn. All with environmental benefits.Anita Parbhakar-Fox, Postdoctoral Researcher/Lecturer in Geoenvironmental Studies, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/212362013-12-09T03:32:05Z2013-12-09T03:32:05ZRestoration won’t work: a new way to fix old mines<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/37207/original/vnwrzkdp-1386556097.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=316%2C0%2C902%2C512&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Faced with abandoned mines, let's show some ambition: we could be building wetlands and rainforests.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Parks Australia</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last Saturday, toxic material <a href="http://au.news.yahoo.com/a/20201659/spill-of-contaminated-material-at-ranger-uranium-mine-locals-fear-for-kakadu-national-park/">leaked from the Ranger uranium mine</a> in the Northern Territory. The mine ceased operation in 2011 after more than 30 years in action, raising the question of what happens to a mine site once the mine closes down.</p>
<p>Rehabilitation - returning a site to the way it was before mining started - is the usual approach. But I believe there’s a better way.</p>
<h2>I’m fixing a hole</h2>
<p>A key “compliance step” in modern resource extraction, mandated under both Australian state and federal laws, is mine site rehabilitation. Under this model a mining company sets aside funds to rehabilitate areas once the resource is extracted. They can rehabilitate the entire site, or do parts progressively as the mine expands. </p>
<p>In natural settings, such as outback Australia, the usual approach is to sculpt the mined area to <a href="http://www.dmp.wa.gov.au/documents/mine_rehab.pdf">match the surrounding landscape</a>. A layer of the original soil is spread over the land surface using a stockpile set up when mining began. Seeds of native species are collected from the surrounding area and sown on the soil to establish the original native vegetation.</p>
<p>On paper this seems like an entirely reasonable approach. But in reality restoration programs designed to return sites to their prior condition encounter numerous practical problems. </p>
<p>Australian landscapes have supported vegetation for millions of years. The plant-soil relationships are profoundly complex. When topsoil is stored during mining, in some cases for years, its biological properties change. That presents a serious problem, because many native plants are unable to thrive without symbiotic root fungi and soil bacteria.</p>
<p>And removing tens of metres of subsoil (the “overburden”), produces fundamentally different hydrological regimes affecting ground water storage and run-off. </p>
<p>Over the last 20 years enormous research effort has been directed towards overcoming the barriers to rehabilitating mine sites. Most of it <a href="http://www.cmlr.uq.edu.au/">has shown</a> that in nearly every Australian environment it is extraordinary difficult to restore ecosystems back to their pre-mined condition. Restoration ecologists increasingly accept that it is <a href="http://www.ecologicalprocesses.com/content/2/1/22">not practically possible</a> to replace what has been destroyed.</p>
<p>The mining industry’s financial resources are being frittered away pursuing unrealistic attempts to replace what existed before mining. The objectives of mine site restoration need to be reframed.</p>
<h2>Biodiversity crisis, meet mine restoration crisis…</h2>
<p>Conservation biologists are <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jun/17/national-parks-biodiversity-australia">publicly protesting</a> the collapse in government support for nature conservation. The outrage is entirely understandable given the potential catastrophic loss of Australia’s globally unique biological heritage. </p>
<p>Worse, some conservation biologists fear that Australia’s attitude could set a precedent for unravelling protected areas globally - their concern is that if a rich country like Australia can’t stay the course for protected natural areas then why expect much poorer countries to forgo resource exploitation? </p>
<p>Surprising as it sounds, the mining industry can - and should - create effective and financially sustainable conservation programs. </p>
<p>By definition, miners are land managers. They extract natural resources, acquire pastoral land surrounding mines, change hydrology regimes and destroy landforms and soils that have developed over geological time scales. All of this affects wildlife. The legacy of mining remains branded into landscapes for millennia.</p>
<p>There is no question mine sites need to be rehabilitated by replacing vegetation cover that is self sustaining and ecologically healthy. The issue is that the target of “restoring” what has been lost is unrealistic. </p>
<p>Rather than trying to paper over the cracks with mine restoration, it might be more effective to divert funding from mine site rehabilitation programs and use the money to buy and manage public and private nature conservation reserves. </p>
<p>Another option would be to create novel biodiverse-rich ecosystems specifically engineered to withstand the challenges of global environmental change. For example, novel habitats could be created to sustain wildlife: wetlands for waterfowl, and tracts of rainforests. Mine sites could become biological rich islands in otherwise uniform landscapes. For example, instead of establishing a fire prone savanna at Ranger Mine site, a fire-excluding rainforest could be established. </p>
<p>Money diverted from restoration could be spent on building fences to protect native animals from non-native predators, such as foxes, <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-12-05/cat-proof-fence-for-kakadu-national-park/5138300">cats</a> and wild dogs.</p>
<p>Even more radically, Australia could use the money to take on the conservation of large endangered species from around the world. Such schemes need significant investment and could become tourist draw-cards, creating <em>ex situ</em> populations of animals that may become extinct in their native habitats.</p>
<p>The mining industry and conservationists are typically understood as adversaries, but they could become allies. Partnerships between miners and conservationists could bring about real improvements to the country’s conservation record. </p>
<p>This demands fresh thinking. The first step is to challenge the orthodox assumption that mining companies should attempt to put Humpty Dumpty back together again.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/21236/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Bowman receives funding from ARC, TERN, NERP and NASA.</span></em></p>Last Saturday, toxic material leaked from the Ranger uranium mine in the Northern Territory. The mine ceased operation in 2011 after more than 30 years in action, raising the question of what happens to…David Bowman, Professor of Pyrogeography and Fire Science, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/32452011-09-15T20:20:17Z2011-09-15T20:20:17ZFrom mine to wine: creative uses for old holes in the ground<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/3621/original/Nikonmania.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Wieliczka salt mine in Poland is now a wedding venue.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nikonmania</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Is it possible to have an ice-skating rink in an old mine? Or perhaps a wine and cheese cellar in a mine shaft? Or even a swimming pool in a processing plant? </p>
<p>It isn’t just possible – it can be environmentally, socially and economically friendly too. </p>
<h2>Restoring the environment</h2>
<p>In Australia, mining companies must rehabilitate the land they use once mining is finished. Rehabilitation usually focuses on restoring the pre-mine environment. This may be a natural environment, agriculture, forest or whatever was there before the mine.</p>
<p>In Western Australia, Alcoa focuses on <a href="http://www.alcoa.com/australia/en/info_page/mining_rehab.asp">recreating the surrounding Jarrah forest</a> after completing their bauxite mine operations. </p>
<p>In the Hunter Region, Xstrata is working on ways of <a href="http://www.lpma.nsw.gov.au/soil_conservation/project_summaries/xstrata_baal_bone_colliery_rehabilitation">restoring agricultural land</a> on old coal mines and processing plants. </p>
<p>Sometimes it isn’t possible to restore the pre-mine environment. Sometimes there has just been too much change to the landscape. Changes might include altered topography (holes and hills), the addition or removal of above- and below-ground water, and changes to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_chemistry">environmental chemistry</a>. </p>
<p>In these cases, we need to consider other options for mine rehabilitation.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/3623/original/hanspoldoja.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/3623/original/hanspoldoja.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3623/original/hanspoldoja.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3623/original/hanspoldoja.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3623/original/hanspoldoja.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3623/original/hanspoldoja.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3623/original/hanspoldoja.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Cricova wine cellar in Moldova was once a limestone mine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">hanspoldoja</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Building new ecosystems when old ones are too far gone</h2>
<p><a href="https://researchers.anu.edu.au/publications/52788">Ecosystem engineering</a> is all about designing ecosystems suitable to changed sites. These ecosystems should be stable, self-sustainable, and resilient to fire, flood and drought. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.amdandart.org/projectindex.html">AMD&ART project</a>, conducted in Pennsylvania between 1994 and 2005, included designing a landscape that could cope with changes to environmental chemistry. </p>
<p>In <a href="http://www.northernontariobusiness.com/Industry-News/forestry/Forestry-and-mining-waste-to-help-make-biofuel.aspx">Ontario,</a> industry waste is used to grow corn and canola crops for <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/biofuels">biofuels</a> production.</p>
<h2>Getting creative with old mines</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.postmining.org/index.php">The Post Mining Alliance</a> is a UK-based, not-for-profit group undertaking <a href="http://www.postmining.org/our-work/current/101-things/index.php">international research</a> into creative uses for old mine sites. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.weddingsinpoland.co.uk/wieliczkasaltmines.html">Underground salt mines in Poland</a> have been used as wedding and dining venues. Moldova is home to a <a href="http://www.argophilia.com/news/moldova-wine-cellars/21464/">wine cellar in an old limestone mine</a>, and in Italy there is a <a href="http://www.sallybernstein.com/travel/europe/italian_cuisine.html">cheese store in an old copper mine</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/3615/original/pimgmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/3615/original/pimgmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3615/original/pimgmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3615/original/pimgmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3615/original/pimgmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3615/original/pimgmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3615/original/pimgmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An ice skating rink has been installed at the Zollverein Colliery.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">pimgmx</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure> <p></p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.zollverein.de/english/index.php?f_categoryId=3">Zollverein Colliery in Germany</a> has both an ice-skating rink and swimming pool nestled in the old plant. Diving and indoor ski centres have been made in underground mines in both the UK and Germany.</p>
<p>Open cut mines can be rehabilitated to become amphitheatres, the vast open spaces providing amazing acoustics.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.edenproject.com/">The Eden Project</a> in the UK is an environmental education facility inside an old china clay mine. The project not only considers the environment, but also provides more jobs and income than the previous mine did. The project has also increased social inclusion through education and awareness campaigns.</p>
<p>The Post Mining Alliance has been able to demonstrate that many of these creative rehabilitation options consider environmental concerns, long-term community needs and engagement, and provide local and national income. </p>
<p>Creative options address more than the environment, but consider broader aspects of sustainability, community and economics.</p>
<p><figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/3607/original/coober_pedy_Michael_Hopkins.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/3607/original/coober_pedy_Michael_Hopkins.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3607/original/coober_pedy_Michael_Hopkins.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3607/original/coober_pedy_Michael_Hopkins.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3607/original/coober_pedy_Michael_Hopkins.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3607/original/coober_pedy_Michael_Hopkins.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/3607/original/coober_pedy_Michael_Hopkins.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It used to be a mine. Now it’s a hotel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Hopkins</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure> </p>
<h2>The Australian approach</h2>
<p>In Australia, we are also considering sustainable and creative options for mine rehabilitation. </p>
<p>Parts of the cult-film, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_Max">Mad Max</a> were filmed inside a converted mine. </p>
<p>Towns such as Kalgoorlie and Coober Pedy are famous for their mining history and have become popular on the tourist circuit. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.veoliaes.com.au/news-room/press-releases/woodlawn-bioreactor">Woodlawn bioreactor</a> at Tarago in New South Wales is situated in an old copper, zinc and lead mine. It provides alternative waste management, jobs and greener energy.</p>
<p>So, when recreating pre-mining environments is not possible, perhaps we should look to creative mine rehabilitation options.</p>
<p>If nothing else, there’s something pretty awesome about the idea of an <a href="http://www.cooberpedyexperience.com.au/">underground hotel</a>.</p>
<p><em>Creative uses of mines and other land restoration issues are being discussed at the <a href="http://www.soilscienceaustralia.com.au/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=133&Itemid=140">ACT/NSW Land Restoration forum</a> in Canberra today.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/3245/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessica Drake researches mine site rehabilitation at the Australian National University. She receives research funding from the mining industry. For more information regarding her research, please see her ANU profile: <a href="http://fennerschool.anu.edu.au/people/pgstudents/drakej.php">http://fennerschool.anu.edu.au/people/pgstudents/drakej.php</a></span></em></p>Is it possible to have an ice-skating rink in an old mine? Or perhaps a wine and cheese cellar in a mine shaft? Or even a swimming pool in a processing plant? It isn’t just possible – it can be environmentally…Jessica Drake, Research Fellow, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.