tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/palm-trees-33630/articlesPalm trees – The Conversation2017-10-23T19:00:15Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/861502017-10-23T19:00:15Z2017-10-23T19:00:15ZHow the first trees grew so tall with hollow cores – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191406/original/file-20171023-1689-e0yn8c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Calamophyton Forest colour copy</span> </figcaption></figure><p>Imagine a world without trees, and then try to think about the changes that would need to happen for these trees to evolve from the small primitive plants that came before them. I spend as much time as I can trying to find evidence for this transition, which is currently estimated to have happened between 390-380m years ago, in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Devonian-Period">Mid-Devonian Epoch</a>.</p>
<p>One plant type, the extinct <a href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/plants/cladoxylopsida/cladoxylopsida.html">cladoxylopsids</a> – an ancient plant group now only found as fossils – has continually demanded my attention. Despite these fossils first being found in the 1850s, understanding of the plants was highly confused for decades. This is a common problem in the study of fossil plants, because the living plants fall apart when they die, and it is often hard to determine which parts of which fossils should be joined back together. But during the 2000s we had major successes in reconstructing Devonian cladoxylopsids, culminating in a series of extraordinary discoveries of complete or almost complete fossil trees in Scotland, <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070418130435.htm">Gilboa, New York</a> and <a href="http://www.schiffarth-natursteine.de/Grauwacke/Versteinerungen/versteinerungen.html">Germany</a>. </p>
<p>The picture that emerged of the earliest types of cladoxylopsid – by then recognised to be the first forms of tree to appear – was of a long tapering trunk, up to at least eight metres high, with distinctive short branches attached around the top to form a crown. From a distance, the trees would have looked like palms, with bases up to a metre in diameter. There were no leaves as such, just branched twig-like appendages which presumably had a photosynthetic function in the carbon dioxide rich atmosphere of those times. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191346/original/file-20171023-1695-a55bqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191346/original/file-20171023-1695-a55bqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191346/original/file-20171023-1695-a55bqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191346/original/file-20171023-1695-a55bqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191346/original/file-20171023-1695-a55bqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191346/original/file-20171023-1695-a55bqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191346/original/file-20171023-1695-a55bqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191346/original/file-20171023-1695-a55bqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An artist’s impression of what cladoxylopsid trees looked like alive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Giesen</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The first trees</h2>
<p>Most trees today have a solid trunk, which gets bigger through the formation of a new ring of woody tissues – made up of <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_gateway/green_world/planttransportrev1.shtml">xylem cells</a> – under the bark each year. </p>
<p>In cladoxylopsids, however, the xylem grew in a ring of individual parallel strands around the outside of the trunk. Inside this zone, more xylem strands formed a complex network with many interconnections both to each other and to the outer parallel strands. The majority of the inside of the trunk was completely hollow.</p>
<p>This unusual structure is confusing, and raises questions about how ancient trees managed to grow so big. The outer parallel strands could easily allow for the trunk diameter to expand just by moving apart from each other, and the space between filled with soft tissues known as parenchyma. </p>
<p>But the inner network of xylem strands is a different matter. Trying to expand the diameter of this network would be catastrophic. Not only would the wood resist the change of shape, but as the outside diameter widened, the inside of the tree would be pulled inwards and downwards relative to the outside, and the whole plant would collapse.</p>
<h2>Volcanic fossil</h2>
<p>Understanding how cladoxylopsids managed to grow so big was going to need an extraordinary fossil – which arrived on my desk in late 2012 as a small trunk preserved in silica from volcanic eruptions in north-west China. The glassy silica had filled the plant cells, but not destroyed the cell walls, so we could study every cell present in the plant on the day it died. Even more incredibly, in 2015 another perfectly preserved trunk more than 70cm in diameter was found by my Chinese colleagues.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2017/10/18/1708241114.abstract">What we learnt from these fossils</a> was amazing. Each of the many hundreds of xylem strands in the tree had its own growth rings, adding woody tissue around the outside on a regular basis. The cross section looks like a ring of little trees all growing in unison. However the soft parenchyma tissue between the xylem strands was the most informative. Rather than being crushed by the growth of the wood in the stem, the tissue seemed to be proliferating on a prodigious scale. This provided the power to push the strands apart and expand the trunk diameter.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191354/original/file-20171023-1738-1riy187.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191354/original/file-20171023-1738-1riy187.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191354/original/file-20171023-1738-1riy187.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191354/original/file-20171023-1738-1riy187.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191354/original/file-20171023-1738-1riy187.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191354/original/file-20171023-1738-1riy187.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191354/original/file-20171023-1738-1riy187.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A cross-section of the Cladoxylopsid trunk from the Upper Devonian of Xinjiang, north-west China.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As a last trick, the shape of these normally round cells could be used to detect the strain put upon them. We found that the interconnections of the woody xylem strands were being slowly ripped apart as the tree grew. But at the same time the damage was being repaired, which kept the plant functioning and structurally sound as the woody skeleton accommodated the growth. Overall we determined that the bottom of the trunk slowly collapsed outward to form the large flat-bottomed tree bases characteristic of this type of plant.</p>
<p>No tree does anything as complicated today. Several types of plants, notably palms, grow a little by diffuse expansion of the soft parenchyma tissues, but this does not appear to have dramatic consequences for the xylem skeleton. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/e7fZehmBCy8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>Cladoxylopsid growth has to go down in history as the most complex way to become a tree. Maybe the lack of competition from other tree types at the beginning was what allowed this to occur. We know that simpler forms of cladoxylopsids lived towards the end of the Devonian period, and that shortly after they became extinct. Perhaps they were outcompeted by other types of plants with simpler growth strategies, or plants with seeds, or they could not cope with the low carbon dioxide world they helped create.</p>
<p>Whatever the reason for their extinction, this new finding of how they grew will help us understand how cladoxylopsids shaped our early terrestrial environments and how they interacted with the atmosphere.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86150/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Berry receives funding from NERC (Natural Environment Research Council) UK and National Geographic. </span></em></p>Cladoxylopsid trees were hugely complex and very different to those we have now.Christopher M. Berry, Senior Lecturer in Palaeobotany, Cardiff UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/786222017-06-11T08:39:46Z2017-06-11T08:39:46ZThe loss of Madagascar’s unique palm trees will devastate ecosystems<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/172900/original/file-20170608-32339-ueumhe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Dypsis decipiens - a highly threatened palm of Madagascar.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mijoro Rakotoarinivo</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Madagascar is a crucial diversity hot spot for palm tree species. <a href="https://stateoftheworldsplants.com/2017/report/SOTWP_2017_6_country_focus_status_of_knowledge_of_madagascan_plants.pdf">98%</a> of the currently 204 known species do not occur anywhere else.</p>
<p>This high diversity is because the island – and its palms – had a long period of isolation <a href="http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/news/091001_madagascar">following</a> the break up of the ancient super continent of Gondwana. The humid northeastern forests of Madagascar have the richest species diversity, there can be up to 45 different palm species in <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/280/1757/20123048">one square kilometre</a>. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, their uniqueness and prominence throughout Madagascar’s ecosystems have turned them into one of the most used and exploited plants on the island. Palms have <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Palms-Madagascar-J-Dransfield/dp/0947643826">multiple uses</a> including; thatching, construction, for basket weaving, food and even medicine.</p>
<h2>Threats to the palm</h2>
<p>The situation is so severe that the latest IUCN redlist of threatened species estimated <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/news/madagascars-palms-near-extinction">that 83%</a> of the native species are threatened and on the verge of extinction. In the case of the <em>Tahina spectabilis</em>, for example, <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/195893/0">only</a> 30 mature individuals are known to exist in the wild. It’s a particularly vulnerable species as, though it can live up to 50 years, each individual can produce flowers only once.</p>
<p>Palms are vital to rural people whose daily subsistence depends heavily on natural resources. They <a href="http://reliefweb.int/report/madagascar/possible-palm-extinction-threatens-livelihoods">use palms</a> to build their housing, for daily tools – such as brooms, strings or knife sleeves – and they also eat the palm heart. The palm is also valued by rural communities for its medicinal properties which can be used <a href="http://qualquant.org/wp-content/uploads/ethnoecology/2001%20Byg951-970.pdf">to treat</a> coughs or digestion problems. Unfortunately, many of these uses are lethal to the palm trees. For instance, extracting the palm heart kills the tree. </p>
<p>Another threat is the introduction and success of Madagascar’s palms in horticulture. It started during botanical explorations of the island but, because of their ornamental value, the harvesting of palms for the international market has really exploded <a href="https://books.google.mg/books?id=STrAt8uYb-QC&pg=PT122&lpg=PT122&dq=dypsis+cultivation&source=bl&ots=sySer-mGZi&sig=Qe6e5l7Yt0s0UMBLaFGc7sN5W9s&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwic7OC6rKzUAhVCOxoKHTZ_AhQQ6AEIYTAM#v=onepage&q=dypsis%20cultivation&f=false">over the last 30 years</a>. This has resulted in a huge amount of seeds being extracted from the natural habitat. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, seed harvesting is not always done in a sustainable way. Many collectors cut the palm trunk, killing the palm, for the whole head of fruit. Today, most of Madagascar’s palm species are sold in international markets and most of the seeds <a href="https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/1996-025.pdf">still come</a> from the wild. </p>
<p>The high demand for the palms also mean that too many seeds are being exported. Collectors will often take most of the <a href="http://www.kew.org/science/news/madagascar%E2%80%99s-palms-near-extinction">available fruits</a> without a thought about the natural regeneration of the species. For example, <a href="https://www.cites.org/eng/cop/15/prop/E-15-Prop-32.pdf">few mature</a> trees of <em>Beccariophoenix madagascariensis</em> now exist in its traditional areas – Mantadia and Fort-Dauphin. Or the majestic palm, <em>Ravenea rivularis</em>, this has seen a decline in its population <a href="http://www.kew.org/science/news/madagascar%E2%80%99s-palms-near-extinction">because</a> of its international popularity and seed harvesting.</p>
<p>And their regeneration is crucial. Palms are also victims of the massive <a href="http://www4.ncsu.edu/%7Etlbolton/world_forestry/">deforestation</a> that has plagued Madagascar since the end of the 19th century. The country <a href="http://www.eoi.es/blogs/guidopreti/2014/02/04/deforestation-in-madagascar-a-threat-to-its-biodiversity/">has lost</a> about 80% of its original forests. </p>
<p>Palms are <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/wol1/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2006.00520.x/full">slow growth plants</a>. They’re ability to reach maturity often depends on the opportunity to reach the light after <a href="http://www.tropenbos.org/publications/growth+and+survival+of+tropical+rain+forest+tree+seedlings+in+forest+understorey+and+canopy+openings.+implications+for+forest+management.">a gap in the canopy</a> becomes available from the death of another tree. Therefore, the loss of mature palm trees constitutes an irreversible act for the population. </p>
<p>And when they are taken, it’s hard to keep them alive. Seedlings will rarely survive in disturbed or secondary habitats. In fact, 90% of Madagascar’s palms are <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/280/1757/20123048">restricted to humid forests</a> and the change of the ecological niches from this primary vegetation type <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Palms-Madagascar-J-Dransfield/dp/0947643826">dramatically reduces</a> their survival rate. </p>
<p>Their loss would be devastating as palms play a vital ecological role in Madagascar’s ecosystems. The loss of several species will undoubtedly have a huge negative impact on both the fauna and flora of the island. Their fruits are eaten by many animals, their leaves and crown are often used as nests for birds, insects, reptiles or amphibians. <a href="http://www.palms.org/principes/1994/vol38n4p204-210.pdf">Studies</a> for example show that the <a href="http://lemur.duke.edu/discover/meet-the-lemurs/common-black-lemur/">black lemur</a> spend big parts of their feeding time eating fruits of the <em>Dypsis madagascariensis</em> when these are available. This illustrates how the absence of a particular palm species could lead to the <a href="http://greentumble.com/how-does-deforestation-affect-animals/">extinction</a> of animals dependent on it – whether due to the loss of adequate food, shelter or breeding habitat.</p>
<h2>What must be done</h2>
<p>To save this natural legacy, as <a href="https://www.iucn.org/theme/species/publications/species-action-plans">stated</a> by the IUCN, an action plan needs to be urgently set up. Conservation efforts must include local communities in the activities and be focused on raising awareness and increasing the species survival rate. For example, more research and projects need to look at how to improve the germination rate of seeds and how local knowledge can be integrated for their sustainable management.</p>
<p>Compared to other charismatic plants, such as <a href="http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/distributed/F/bo9113764.html">orchids</a>, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257325637_The_history_of_palm_exploration_in_Madagascar">research on palms</a> has made remarkable progress in the last two decades. Nevertheless, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12225-010-9210-7">expeditions in under-explored sites</a> often reveal new groups emphasising the need to continue taxonomic – classification – investigations. Since the publication of the book <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Palms-Madagascar-J-Dransfield/dp/0947643826">Palms of Madagascar</a> in 1995, about 34 new species have been <a href="https://stateoftheworldsplants.com/2017/report/SOTWP_2017_6_country_focus_status_of_knowledge_of_madagascan_plants.pdf">discovered</a>, these include a completely new genus (<em>Tahina</em>) <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2007.00742.x/abstract">discovered in 2007</a>. </p>
<p>Creating a solid botanical inventory of the palm will become an even bigger challenge with the huge natural ecosystem loss facing the island today.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78622/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mijoro Rakotoarinivo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>International and local demand have brought Madagascar’s palm species to the brink of extinction.Mijoro Rakotoarinivo, Lecturer, Université d’AntananarivoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/689902016-11-28T07:39:13Z2016-11-28T07:39:13ZThe end of coconut water? The world’s trendiest nut is under threat of species collapse<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147448/original/image-20161124-15344-1glvuux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>“Orange juice for breakfast is over,” an investor interested in creating large, fair trade coconut plantations recently joked to me. These days, coconut water is king.</p>
<p>For the trendy and the wealthy, including <a href="http://time.com/4488043/a-major-coconut-shortage-with-global-consequences-may-have-hit-the-caribbean/">celebrities</a> such as Rihanna, Madonna or Matthew McConaughey, <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/money/markets/article-3804564/Avocado-coconut-water-prices-hit-high-set-rise-insatiable-demand-superfoods.html">rarest coconut water</a> extracted from the <a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/images/publications/catalog/countries/Thailand_271-273.pdf">aromatic varieties</a> of the nut, is the “it” drink and even a <a href="http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/471632/madonna-rihanna-team-up-for-coconut-water-campaign">source of income</a>. </p>
<p>Coconut water is <a href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/coconuts-go-upscale-boosting-price-of-conventional-coconut-oil-1460017362">being sold</a> by luxury brands, at up to US$7 for 33 cl, about the same price as basic champagne.</p>
<h2>A booming market</h2>
<p>There is no doubt that the coconut market is exploding. Coconut water currently represents an annual turnover of US$2 billion. It is expected to reach <a href="http://www.technavio.com/pressrelease/global-coconut-water-market-to-grow-at-a-high-cagr-of-more-than-25-by-2019-says">US$4 billion</a> in the next five years. </p>
<p>In 2007, a 25% stake in <a href="http://vitacoco.com/">Vitacoco</a>, the largest brand for coconut water, was sold for <a href="http://www.forbes.com/2009/06/04/vita-coco-zico-one-leadership-cmo-network-coconutwater.html">US$7 million</a> to <a href="http://verlinvest.be/portfolio/357-2/">Verlinvest</a> company. Seven years later, another 25% stake in Vitacoco was again sold to <a href="http://www.reignwood.com/red_bull.asp">Red Bull China</a> for about <a href="http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20140714005327/en/Vita-Coco%C2%AE-Coconut-Water-Sells-25-Stake">US$166 million</a>.</p>
<p>Other large players in the coconut water business include <a href="http://www.coca-colacompany.com/press-center/press-releases/zico-8482-beverages-joins-the-coca-cola-family">Coca-Cola</a> and <a href="https://cu.pepsico.com/one/one-company-info">PepsiCo</a>, but more than <a href="http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20160420005041/en/Technavio-Announces-Top-Vendors-Coconut-Water-Market">200 brands</a> are now marketing coconut water.</p>
<h2>An essential crop</h2>
<p>But there’s another side to the story. The coconut is one of 35 food crops listed in <a href="http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/documents/PGR/PubPGR/ResourceBook/annex1.pdf">Annex 1</a> of the <a href="http://www.fao.org/plant-treaty/en/">International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture</a> and considered crucial to global food security. In 2014, <a href="http://faostat.fao.org/beta/en/#data/QC">the Food and Agriculture Organization</a> estimated global production to be 61.5 million tonnes. </p>
<p>It is an important livelihood crop for more than <a href="http://aciar.gov.au/files/node/748/pr125_pdf_50866.pdf">11 million farmers</a>, most of whom are smallholders, cultivating coconut palms on around 12 million hectares of land in at least 94 countries worldwide. The coconut palm is popularly known as the “<a href="http://aciar.gov.au/publication/pr125">Tree of Life</a>” – all its parts are useful. </p>
<p>The main products are copra – the dried inner meat of the nut, used for oil – and the husk, which provides a vital source of fibre. More recently, as we’ve seen, there is also high demand for tender coconut water and virgin coconut oil. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147350/original/image-20161124-15359-1aiysgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147350/original/image-20161124-15359-1aiysgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147350/original/image-20161124-15359-1aiysgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147350/original/image-20161124-15359-1aiysgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147350/original/image-20161124-15359-1aiysgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147350/original/image-20161124-15359-1aiysgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147350/original/image-20161124-15359-1aiysgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Braiding ropes made from the husk of the <em>niu magi magi</em> variety on Taveuni Island, Fiji, 2012.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cogent-network/9422183592/in/photostream/">Cogent/Roland Bourdeix</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Whole mature nuts are exported and sold to factories that produce desiccated coconut and coconut cream. At least half of the coconuts are <a href="http://diversiflora.blogspot.fr/2005/10/new-book-on-coconut-varieties-and.html">consumed locally</a>.</p>
<h2>Genetic diversity</h2>
<p>Over millennia, humans have slowly selected and maintained numerous coconut varieties, used for many purposes.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146597/original/image-20161118-19348-1wijyq0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146597/original/image-20161118-19348-1wijyq0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146597/original/image-20161118-19348-1wijyq0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=855&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146597/original/image-20161118-19348-1wijyq0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=855&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146597/original/image-20161118-19348-1wijyq0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=855&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146597/original/image-20161118-19348-1wijyq0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1074&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146597/original/image-20161118-19348-1wijyq0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1074&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146597/original/image-20161118-19348-1wijyq0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1074&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Diversity of coconut fruits in <em>ex situ</em> genebanks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Roland Bourdeix</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This has resulted in an extraordinary morphological diversity, which is expressed in the range of colours, shapes and sizes of the fruits. But the extent of this diversity is largely unknown at the global level. The <a href="http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-387-71201-7_10#page-1">huge amount of work</a> that has gone into coconut breeding by farmers over millennia, and by scientists during the 20th century, remains greatly under-valued.</p>
<p>The rarest coconut varieties, for instance the <a href="http://cocotierpolynesie.blogspot.fr/2010/12/les-cocotiers-cornes.html">horned coconut</a>, grown and conserved on the <a href="http://polymotu.blogspot.fr/2010/10/premieres-plantations-du-conservatoire.html">Tetiaroa Atoll</a> and in <a href="http://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:ijpgr&volume=27&issue=1&article=024">India</a>, are not even recognised as coconuts by most people, especially Westerners.</p>
<h2>Coconut conservation</h2>
<p>The genetic diversity found in coconut populations and varieties, known by scientists as “germplasm”, is conserved by millions of small farmers.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146730/original/image-20161121-4555-zzwqio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146730/original/image-20161121-4555-zzwqio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146730/original/image-20161121-4555-zzwqio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146730/original/image-20161121-4555-zzwqio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146730/original/image-20161121-4555-zzwqio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1129&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146730/original/image-20161121-4555-zzwqio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1129&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146730/original/image-20161121-4555-zzwqio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1129&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Samoan teen holds the famous <em>niu afa</em> coconut variety.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Roland Bourdeix</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A number of initiatives have been launched to recognise and support the role of these farmers, and to sustain them by promoting <a href="http://www.bioversityinternational.org/uploads/tx_news/Polymotu__a_new_concept_of_island-based_germplasm_bank_based_on_an_old_Polynesian_practice_1519.pdf">landscape management approaches</a>, such as the <a href="http://polymotu.blogspot.fr/2010/10/premieres-plantations-du-conservatoire.html">Polymotu concept</a> (“poly” meaning many, and “Motu” meaning island in Polynesian.)</p>
<p>The <a href="http://polymotu.blogspot.fr/">Polymotu concept</a> capitalises on the geographical or reproductive isolation of various species for the conservation and reproduction of individual varieties of plants, <a href="http://polymotu.blogspot.fr/2009/11/polymotu-precursors-pathi-maprao-kathi.html">trees</a> and even <a href="http://polymotu.blogspot.fr/2010/10/polymotu-precursors-bird-conservation.html">animals</a>. </p>
<p>In a project led by the <a href="https://lrd.spc.int/our-work/genetic-resources/centre-for-pacific-crops-and-trees/polymotu-conserves-special-coconut-varieties-in-the-pacific">Pacific Community</a> and funded by the <a href="https://www.croptrust.org/crop/coconut/">Global Crop Diversity Trust</a>, two small islands in <a href="http://coconutsamoa.blogspot.fr/2013/06/the-conservation-of-samoas-niu-afa.html">Samoa</a> have been recently replanted with the famous traditional <a href="http://coconutsamoa.blogspot.fr/2010/03/13.html"><em>niu afa</em></a> variety, which produces the largest coconut fruits in the world, reaching <a href="http://coconutsamoa.blogspot.fr/2010/03/19.html">more than 40 cm long</a>.</p>
<p>Sadly, the coconut is endangered. One of the main challenges of coconut cultivation is the existence of lethal diseases, which are <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-rqb1-OITXI">rapidly expanding</a> and killing millions of palms. These pandemics are known as <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpls.2016.01521/full">lethal yellowing diseases</a>. </p>
<p>The diseases ravage countries in Africa (in Tanzania, <a href="http://pub.epsilon.slu.se/13381/">Mozambique</a>, <a href="http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-7294-5_3">Ghana</a>, <a href="http://search.proquest.com/openview/f10ab2ed27703a1f724d524301b93b2d/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2032679">Nigeria</a>, <a href="http://agritrop.cirad.fr/439684/">Cameroon</a>, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07060661.2014.899275">Côte d’Ivoire</a>), and also in Asia (<a href="http://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/abs/10.1094/pdis-94-5-0636b">India</a>), North America (<a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S088557651500003X">Mexico</a>, <a href="http://www.ndrs.org.uk/article.php?id=029012">the Caribbean</a>, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1744-7348.2008.00240.x/full">Florida</a>) and the Pacific Region (<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sivQAg_4yrQ&list=PLBZ3LrHoN5qxfSNYa129wwdhwKV6LuBq-">Papua New Guinea</a>, and probably <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13314-015-0163-4">Solomon Islands</a>).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147361/original/image-20161124-15325-166kfik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147361/original/image-20161124-15325-166kfik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147361/original/image-20161124-15325-166kfik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147361/original/image-20161124-15325-166kfik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147361/original/image-20161124-15325-166kfik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147361/original/image-20161124-15325-166kfik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147361/original/image-20161124-15325-166kfik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The genetic diversity of the flowers of coconut varieties on display at the Marc Delorme Research Centre, Côte d'Ivoire.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cogent-network/9416154688/">COGENT</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Diversity under threat</h2>
<p>Many coconut varieties that could be crucial for the future of agriculture are disappearing because of the loss of traditional knowledge, rapid transformations of agricultural landscapes, climate change and westernisation.</p>
<p>Due to the fragility of insular ecosystems, the <a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/images/publications/Scientific/Bourdeixetal_Biodiversity.pdf">Pacific Region</a> is probably the location where the losses are highest.</p>
<p>During <a href="http://coconutfreaks.blogspot.fr/2016/11/the-seven-in-one-coconut-palm-in.html">a recent survey in the Cook Islands</a>, we succeeded with considerable difficulty in locating a <a href="http://cocotierpolynesie.blogspot.fr/2010/10/14.html">sweet husk</a> palm, known as <em>niu mangaro</em> locally. This is a rare, highly threatened form of coconut. </p>
<p>The husk of its unripe fruit, which in other species is usually tough and astringent, is tender, edible and sweet. It can be chewed like sugarcane. Once the fruits are ripe, the husk fibres are white and thin. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147331/original/image-20161124-15359-d2h0z6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147331/original/image-20161124-15359-d2h0z6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147331/original/image-20161124-15359-d2h0z6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147331/original/image-20161124-15359-d2h0z6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147331/original/image-20161124-15359-d2h0z6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147331/original/image-20161124-15359-d2h0z6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147331/original/image-20161124-15359-d2h0z6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147331/original/image-20161124-15359-d2h0z6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A comparison of the husk of a normal coconut (left) and a rare sweet husk coconut (right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Roland Bourdeix</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our survey was conducted together with a government agricultural officer. During the work, he took a tender coconut and started to chew the husk. Then he stopped, telling me, “I do not want people here to see me eating <em>niu mangaro</em>, because they will say I am a poor man.”</p>
<p>The consumption of traditional varieties being still perceived as socially stigmatising, not embracing a “modern” way of life. On the other hand, <a href="http://www.cookislandsnews.com/item/47171-fao-identifies-way-to-boost-cook-islands-agriculture/47171-fao-identifies-way-to-boost-cook-islands-agriculture">the consumption of imported food</a> is considered as a mark of modernity and richness. </p>
<p>During <a href="http://cocotierpolynesie.blogspot.fr/">another survey conducted in 2010</a> in Moorea Island, a Polynesian farmer interviewed about sweet husk varieties, known as <em>kaipoa</em> there, told me:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I had one <em>kaipoa</em> coconut palm in my farm, but I cut it down two years ago … Over ten years, I was unable to harvest a single fruit: all were stolen and eaten by children from the neighbourhood. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>So, a traditional variety remains appreciated by the next generation of Polynesians, but the farmer is not aware of the rarity and of the cultural value of the resource.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-rqb1-OITXI?wmode=transparent&start=18" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Coconut lethal yellowing disease in Côte d'Ivoire: state of emergency. A video from Diversiflora International.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The social and economic factors affecting coconut conservation have been the subject of discussion at two international meetings organised in 2016 by the <a href="http://www.apccsec.org/apccsec/media.php?page=home">Asia and Pacific Coconut Community</a> in Indonesia and the <a href="http://www.cpcri.gov.in/">Central Plantation Crop Research Institute</a> in India. </p>
<p>Discussions included the constraints and advantages related to coconut biology; links with conservation in institutional field gene banks; <a href="http://reprocrop.blogspot.fr/">farmer’s knowledge</a> regarding the <a href="http://reprocrop.blogspot.fr/2015/02/biologie-reproductive-des-especes.html">reproductive biology</a> of their crop; socioeconomic dynamics; and policy measures. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147060/original/image-20161122-10994-mivfte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147060/original/image-20161122-10994-mivfte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147060/original/image-20161122-10994-mivfte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147060/original/image-20161122-10994-mivfte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147060/original/image-20161122-10994-mivfte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147060/original/image-20161122-10994-mivfte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147060/original/image-20161122-10994-mivfte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nursery of coconut seedlings from the Green Dwarf variety for production of coconut water in Brazil.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cogent-network/9506087965/">Roland Bourdeix</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Big business, but little money for research</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/">International Coconut Genetic Resources Network</a> (COGENT) now comprises <a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/faq/131-countries">41 coconut-producing countries</a>, representing more than 98% of global production. Its activities are focused on conservation and breeding of coconut varieties. </p>
<p>Coconut germplasm is represented by <a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/faq/139-exsitu">about 400 varieties</a> and <a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/images/FAQ/2012_04_1680_accessions_ranked_per_name.pdf">1,600 accessions</a> in 24 genebanks. <a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/faq/141-faq-accession-cultivar">Accessions</a> are the basic units of genebanks. </p>
<p>In the case of the coconut palm, each accession is generally constituted of 45 to 150 palms, all collected at the same location. They are documented in a <a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/cgrd-version-6-0-test-version">Coconut Genetic Resources Database</a> and a <a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/conserved-germplasm-catalogue">global catalogue</a>. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/climbing-the-coconut-palm">COGENT</a> also works on sequencing the <a href="http://publications.cirad.fr/une_notice.php?dk=577727">coconut genome</a>, in the framework of a collaboration between research organisations in <a href="http://www.cnra.ci/">Côte d’Ivoire</a>, <a href="http://www.cirad.fr/en/home-page">France</a> and <a href="http://www.catas.cn/newDefault/search">China</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146615/original/image-20161118-19340-1kr20x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146615/original/image-20161118-19340-1kr20x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146615/original/image-20161118-19340-1kr20x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146615/original/image-20161118-19340-1kr20x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146615/original/image-20161118-19340-1kr20x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146615/original/image-20161118-19340-1kr20x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146615/original/image-20161118-19340-1kr20x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146615/original/image-20161118-19340-1kr20x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cultivating legumes in a coconut plantation devastated by the Lethal Yellowing Disease in Ghana.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Roland Bourdeix</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite the upturn in the global market, many coconut farmers remain insufficiently organised, and investment in coconut research is incredibly scarce.</p>
<p>A yearly investment of about US$3 to US$5 million in public international research would be enough to address most of the challenges of coconut agriculture. But private companies benefiting from the market boom are still scarcely involved in research funding. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146614/original/image-20161118-19361-5odcvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146614/original/image-20161118-19361-5odcvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146614/original/image-20161118-19361-5odcvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=863&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146614/original/image-20161118-19361-5odcvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=863&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146614/original/image-20161118-19361-5odcvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=863&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146614/original/image-20161118-19361-5odcvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1085&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146614/original/image-20161118-19361-5odcvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1085&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146614/original/image-20161118-19361-5odcvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1085&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coconut harvesters dance between trunks in Ghana.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Roland Bourdeix</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The coconut is a perennial crop, producing fruit year-round, but it takes a long time to grow. Investors, more interested in rapid profits, remain reluctant to fund the ten-year research programmes that are often needed to efficiently address the <a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/about-cogent/strategy">challenges of coconut research</a>.</p>
<p>In coconut-producing countries, <a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/network-projects/past-projects/upgrading-genebanks">under-resourced genebanks</a> and laboratories lack the necessary budget, labour, equipment and technical training to <a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/climbing-the-coconut-palm">conduct the controlled hand-pollinations</a> required for regenerating the germplasm, and to implement other activities such as <a href="http://www.cogentnetwork.org/images/publications/Coconut_genetic_resources.pdf">collecting, characterisation and breeding</a>.</p>
<p>Coconut water brands will only make billions as long as coconuts are plentiful and diverse. More importantly, people all over the world rely on the security of this vital crop. Securing its future must be a priority for everyone who farms, eats and profits from the coconut.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68990/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Roland Bourdeix is affiliated with the CIRAD, UMR AGAP, is President of Diversiflora International</span></em></p>Coconut water may be the ‘it’ drink, but its producers face multiple threats.Roland Bourdeix, Senior Researcher, CiradLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.