tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/physics-teaching-20011/articlesPhysics teaching – The Conversation2023-08-17T12:34:54Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2111712023-08-17T12:34:54Z2023-08-17T12:34:54Z3 reasons we use graphic novels to teach math and physics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542875/original/file-20230815-20-jxi8dm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C0%2C2393%2C1061&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Graphic novels can help make math and physics more accessible for students, parents or teachers in training.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/education-concept-science-technology-reading-books-royalty-free-image/1201355144?adppopup=true">Metamorworks/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Post-pandemic, some educators are trying to reengage students with technology – like videos, <a href="https://theconversation.com/video-gaming-can-bolster-classroom-learning-but-not-without-teacher-support-190483">computer gaming</a> or artificial intelligence, just to name a few. But integrating these approaches in the classroom can be an uphill battle. Teachers using these tools often struggle to retain students’ attention, competing with the latest social media phenomenon, and can feel limited by using short video clips to get concepts across. </p>
<p>Graphic novels – offering visual information married with text – provide a means to engage students without losing all of the rigor of textbooks. As two educators <a href="https://www.sarahklanderman.com/">in math</a> <a href="https://www.joshaho.com/">and physics</a>, we have found graphic novels to be effective at teaching students of all ability levels. We’ve used graphic novels in our own classes, and we’ve also inspired and encouraged other teachers to use them. And we’re not alone: Other teachers are rejuvenating this analog medium with a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/jeu.2014.0018">high level of success</a>.</p>
<p>In addition to <a href="https://gnclassroom.com/">covering a wide range of topics and audiences</a>, graphic novels can explain tough topics without alienating student averse to STEM – science, technology, engineering and math. Even for students who already like math and physics, graphic novels provide a way to dive into topics beyond what is possible in a time-constrained class. In our book “<a href="http://bloomsbury.com/uk/using-graphic-novels-in-the-stem-classroom-9781350279186/">Using Graphic Novels in the STEM Classroom</a>,” we discuss the many reasons why graphic novels have a unique place in math and physics education. Here are three of those reasons:</p>
<h2>Explaining complex concepts with rigor and fun</h2>
<p>Increasingly, schools are <a href="https://theconversation.com/textbooks-in-the-digital-world-78299">moving away from textbooks</a>, even though studies show that students learn better <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-enduring-power-of-print-for-learning-in-a-digital-world-84352">using print rather than digital formats</a>. Graphic novels offer the best of both worlds: a hybrid between modern and traditional media.</p>
<p>This integration of text with images and diagrams is especially <a href="https://theconversation.com/heroes-villains-biology-3-reasons-comic-books-are-great-science-teachers-143251">useful in STEM disciplines</a> that require quantitative reading and data analysis skills, like math and physics.</p>
<p>For example, our collaborator <a href="https://www.dordt.edu/people/jason-ho">Jason Ho, an assistant professor at Dordt University</a>, uses “<a href="https://maxthedemon.com">Max the Demon Vs Entropy of Doom</a>” to teach his physics students about entropy. This topic can be particularly difficult for students because it’s one of the first times when they can’t physically touch something in physics. Instead, students have to rely on math and diagrams to fill in their knowledge.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"964876541174931457"}"></div></p>
<p>Rather than stressing over equations, Ho’s students focus on understanding the subject more conceptually. This approach helps build their intuition before diving into the algebra. They get a feeling for the fundamentals before they have to worry about equations.</p>
<p>After having taken Ho’s class, more than <a href="https://acmsonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/journal-and-proceedings-2023.pdf">85% of his students agreed</a> that they would recommend using graphic novels in STEM classes, and <a href="https://acmsonline.org/conferences/">90% found this particular use</a> of “Max the Demon” helpful for their learning. When strategically used, graphic novels can create a dynamic, engaging teaching environment even with nuanced, quantitative topics.</p>
<h2>Combating quantitative anxiety</h2>
<p>Students learning math and physics today are surrounded by <a href="https://theconversation.com/think-youre-bad-at-math-you-may-suffer-from-math-trauma-104209">math anxiety and trauma</a>, which often lead to their own negative associations with math. A student’s perception of math can be influenced by the attitudes of the role models around them – whether it’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-parents-with-high-math-anxiety-help-with-homework-children-learn-less-46841">a parent who is “not a math person”</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2021.150213">a teacher with a high level of math anxiety</a>.</p>
<p>Graphic novels can help make math more accessible not only for students themselves, but also for parents or students learning to be teachers.</p>
<p>In a geometry course one of us (Sarah) teaches, secondary education students don’t memorize formulas and fill out problem sheets. Instead, students read “<a href="https://gnclassroom.com/graphic-novel/who-killed-professor-x/">Who Killed Professor X?</a>”, a murder mystery in which all of the suspects are famous mathematicians. The suspects’ alibis are justified through problems from geometry, algebra and pre-calculus.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/vATkt9xuA44?wmode=transparent&start=27" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A peak inside the mathematical graphic novel ‘Who Killed Professor X?’.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While trying to understand the hidden geometry of suspect relationships, students often forget that they are doing math – focusing instead on poring over secret hints and notes needed to solve the mystery. </p>
<p>Although this is just one experience for these students, it can help change the narrative for students experiencing mathematical anxiety. It boosts their confidence and shows them how math can be fun – a lesson they can then impart to the next generation of students.</p>
<h2>Helping students learn and readers dream big</h2>
<p>In addition to being viewed favorably by students, graphic novels can enhance student learning by improving <a href="http://repository.unej.ac.id/handle/123456789/97529">written communication skills</a>, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jaal.666">reading comprehension</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1598/JAAL.53.2.5">critical literacy skills</a>. And even outside the classroom, graphic novels support long-term memory for those who have diagnoses like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21504857.2019.1635175">dyslexia</a>. </p>
<p>Pause and think about your own experience – how do you learn about something new in science? </p>
<p>If you’re handed a textbook, it’s extremely unlikely that you’d read it cover to cover. And although the internet offers an enormous amount of math and physics content, it can be overwhelming to sift through hours and hours of videos to find the perfect one to get the “aha!” moment in learning.</p>
<p>Graphic novels provide a starting point for such <a href="https://gnclassroom.com/">a broad range of niche topics</a> that it’s impossible for anyone to be experts in them all. Want to learn about programming? Try the “<a href="https://gnclassroom.com/graphic-novel/secret-coders/">Secret Coders</a>” series. Want to understand more about quantum physics? Dive into “<a href="https://gnclassroom.com/graphic-novel/suspended-in-language/">Suspended in Language: Niels Bohr’s life, discoveries, and the century he shaped</a>.” Searching for more female role models in science? “<a href="https://gnclassroom.com/graphic-novel/astronauts-women-on-the-final-frontier/">Astronauts: Women on the Final Frontier</a>” could be just what you’re looking for.</p>
<p>With all that they offer, graphic novels provide a compelling list of topics and narratives that can capture the attention of students today. We believe that the right set of graphic novels can inspire the next generation of scientists as much as any single individual can.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211171/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Graphic novels pair text and images to explain complex topics – from thermodynamics to abstract math – without alienating STEM-averse students.Sarah Klanderman, Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Marian UniversityJosha Ho, Adjunct Professor of Mathematics and Computer Science, Marian UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1662702021-08-18T04:54:53Z2021-08-18T04:54:53ZEinstein’s too hard for school science? No, students love learning real modern physics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416666/original/file-20210818-25-1mml2r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=137%2C0%2C1256%2C832&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.einsteinianphysics.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Einstein-First-teacher-brochure-6-pages-final-one.pdf">Einstein-First</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Why are middle school students <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1028&context=policy_analysis_misc">losing interest</a> in physics? Why is Australia <a href="https://theconversation.com/stem-is-worth-investing-in-but-australias-major-parties-offer-scant-details-on-policy-and-funding-113739">falling behind</a> in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM)? </p>
<p>We in the <a href="https://www.einsteinianphysics.com/">Einstein-First</a> project think we have the answer. It is because students’ internet experience of science is in complete conflict with the school curriculum.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-dont-we-teach-einsteins-theories-in-school-69991">Why don't we teach Einstein's theories in school?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For <a href="https://www.scienceweek.net.au/">National Science Week</a>, I spoke to 650 students aged from 5 to 11. I asked if they had heard of black holes. At least 80% raised their hands.</p>
<p>Where do we find black holes in the school curriculum? We don’t. You can’t talk about black holes using 19th-century physics because they are all about curved space and warped time.</p>
<p>Students have made it clear to us they think science at school is about “old stuff”.</p>
<p>This is why we must modernise the curriculum. We must replace 19th-century concepts with 21st-century concepts, and teach everyone the language of modern physics, starting in primary school.</p>
<p>Today we launch our book <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Teaching-Einsteinian-Physics-in-Schools-An-Essential-Guide-for-Teachers/Kersting-Blair/p/book/9781760877712">Teaching Einsteinian Physics in Schools</a>. It is designed to spearhead a revolution in school science starting from year 3.</p>
<h2>Young students grasp Einsteinian concepts</h2>
<p>Einstein’s discoveries in 1905 started a conceptual revolution. The final steps, Einstein’s theory of gravity in 1915 and de Broglie’s 1924 discovery that all matter and radiation have a combination of waviness and bulletiness (normally called <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-wave-particle-duality-7414">wave particle duality</a>), radically changed physicists’ ideas of space, time, matter and radiation. These discoveries are the foundational concepts for almost all modern technology.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-wave-particle-duality-7414">Explainer: what is wave-particle duality</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416656/original/file-20210818-27-mbh0sg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Students stand around a lycra surface simulating spacetime" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416656/original/file-20210818-27-mbh0sg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416656/original/file-20210818-27-mbh0sg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416656/original/file-20210818-27-mbh0sg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416656/original/file-20210818-27-mbh0sg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416656/original/file-20210818-27-mbh0sg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416656/original/file-20210818-27-mbh0sg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416656/original/file-20210818-27-mbh0sg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students explore orbits on a spacetime simulator.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.einsteinianphysics.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Einstein-First-teacher-brochure-6-pages-final-one.pdf">Einstein-First</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ten years ago I asked: “Is it possible to teach Einsteinian concepts in primary school?” Colleagues said: “Of course not. You have to learn Newton’s physics first!”</p>
<p>I responded bluntly! Newtonian physics is wrong, both conceptually and factually. It says things can travel arbitrarily fast and gravity travels instantaneously, time is the same everywhere, mass and energy are independent of each other, and the universe runs like clockwork.</p>
<p>Our team ran an initial trial teaching Einsteinian physics in a primary school. Our most astonishing discovery was that children were not astonished: they just took the ideas in their stride. This led to <a href="https://www.einsteinianphysics.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Einstein-First-teacher-brochure-6-pages-final-one.pdf">eight years of trials</a> in a variety of primary and high schools.</p>
<p>We taught the students that light comes as photons that have a combination of waviness and bulletiness, that space is curved by matter and this changes geometry, and that time is different on top of a mountain. None of this particularly surprised them.</p>
<p>And the children loved it. One year 3 teacher <a href="https://www.einsteinianphysics.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Einstein-First-teacher-brochure-6-pages-final-one.pdf">said</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“By the end they were using vocabulary and clearly understanding concepts that would normally not be introduced until high school. It was really hard to drag them away from their activities. What was surprising was that they so easily accepted concepts that most adults and teachers find very difficult.”</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Activity-based learning works — and it’s fun</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416640/original/file-20210817-19-1xur766.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Students use nerf guns to model photons ejecting electrons" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416640/original/file-20210817-19-1xur766.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416640/original/file-20210817-19-1xur766.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=736&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416640/original/file-20210817-19-1xur766.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=736&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416640/original/file-20210817-19-1xur766.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=736&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416640/original/file-20210817-19-1xur766.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416640/original/file-20210817-19-1xur766.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416640/original/file-20210817-19-1xur766.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students use nerf guns to learn about how photons eject electrons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.einsteinianphysics.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Einstein-First-teacher-brochure-6-pages-final-one.pdf">Einstein-First</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The children love the activity-based learning. And they love toys, so we use toys wherever possible. </p>
<p>We use Nerf gun bullets as toy photons, ping-pong balls as toy electrons and toy molecules made of magnetic tennis balls and ping-pong balls. Sometimes we use toy cars as photons and use objects with increasing mass to increase their bulletiness (i.e. momentum). These toys allow experiments such as the dissociation of toy molecules by toy UV photons to explain why UV light can break our DNA and cause skin cancer, and why radio (and 5G!) photons are safe because they have much less bulletiness.</p>
<p>Einsteinian physics has enormous explanatory power, whether at the level of quantum interactions or gravity. Einsteinian gravity describes space as an elastic fabric. We use lycra as our two-dimensional toy spacetime. The stretching of space and time is easily measured and almost all gravitational phenomena can be observed by rolling various balls on the lycra, as the video below shows. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/TdoXg2QSVUk?wmode=transparent&start=57" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Students from year 3 and up have taken part in trials of the Einsteinian physics program.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-is-there-gravity-144061">Curious Kids: why is there gravity?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Students at all levels love to play with these spacetime simulators. They study how photon trajectories are deflected when space is curved, how gravity gradient forces tear up comets, how orbits change their orientation in space (called precession), how stars and planets form and how galaxies get their shapes. As a year 7 teacher <a href="https://www.einsteinianphysics.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Einstein-First-teacher-brochure-6-pages-final-one.pdf">said</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“[It] makes it much easier to talk to students about interesting things, like the latest black hole discovery.”</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Lessons that make sense of our world</h2>
<p>The absorption of infrared photons by CO₂ molecules drives climate change. Toy molecules held together by magnets allow students to explore the different ways a CO₂ molecule vibrates compared with an O₂ molecule, and learn how photon absorption causes this.</p>
<p>We combine our toys with real but relatively low-cost devices, such as solar panels, electric drills, LED lights and laser pointers. </p>
<p>Laser pointers allow the waviness of light to be explored in a whole range of interference experiments. Solar panels demonstrate bulletiness, photons ejecting electrons, and are ideal for almost all electricity and energy studies at primary and middle school. A solar panel can drive a 12V electric drill, which can be used for lifting, creating frictional heat and using energy that comes from converting photons to a stream of electrons – the photoelectric effect for which <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/facts/">Einstein won the Nobel Prize</a>.</p>
<h2>Helping teachers overcome their fears</h2>
<p>The biggest obstacle to introducing Einsteinian physics is the scare factor for teachers. People still claim it’s too difficult for teachers. We have found if we put the activity first, like geometry on woks for example, teachers with no science background easily grasp the concept that the shape of space can be measured doing geometry.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Primary school children moving magnetic pins around a shiny metal domed surface" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416639/original/file-20210817-17-fkrbe1.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416639/original/file-20210817-17-fkrbe1.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=616&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416639/original/file-20210817-17-fkrbe1.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=616&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416639/original/file-20210817-17-fkrbe1.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=616&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416639/original/file-20210817-17-fkrbe1.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=774&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416639/original/file-20210817-17-fkrbe1.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=774&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416639/original/file-20210817-17-fkrbe1.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=774&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Learning about geometry on curved space using an upturned wok.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.einsteinianphysics.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Einstein-First-teacher-brochure-6-pages-final-one.pdf">Einstein-First</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.routledge.com/Teaching-Einsteinian-Physics-in-Schools-An-Essential-Guide-for-Teachers/Kersting-Blair/p/book/9781760877712">Teaching Einsteinian Physics in Schools</a> is based on international experience involving more than 20 authors. It is presented at the level needed for school teachers, including some material for senior high school. </p>
<p>It is free of scary equations because these, whether Einsteinian or Newtonian, have no place in the school curriculum. Instead we teach lots about how to deal with the huge numbers and tiny numbers we must envisage to deal with the universe, as well as probability and “the maths of arrows” (vectors) because these powerful concepts are important for everyone.</p>
<p>Most students will not specialise in physics. The goal of Einstein-First is that all students should finish the compulsory years of science with the basic knowledge and vocabulary of our best understanding of the physical universe.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-must-include-more-women-in-physics-it-would-help-the-whole-of-humanity-165096">We must include more women in physics — it would help the whole of humanity</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>After trialling our year 7 program on gravity, a teacher <a href="https://www.einsteinianphysics.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Einstein-First-teacher-brochure-6-pages-final-one.pdf">reported</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“The lessons feature the modelling of concepts with hands-on ‘concrete’ materials, an instructional approach that provides multisensory learning opportunities allowing all students to be successfully included.”</p>
<p>“Girls benefit especially from the way the program is presented with group learning and activities. It is not intimidating, and teachers like myself enjoy the program because it makes my teaching feel much more worthwhile.”</p>
<p>“The notable thing about the Einsteinian physics lessons is that students are fully engaged, disruption is rare, and students with learning difficulties are practically indistinguishable from mainstream students.”</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166270/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Einstein-First is a collaboration led by UWA, Curtin and
ANU, and funded by the Australian Research Council with additional
support from the WA government, the Independent Schools
Association of WA, the Gravity Discovery Centre and the Science
Teacher’s Association of WA.
I wish to acknowledge the enormous contributions of our team members including Jyoti Kaur, Kyla Adams, Shon Boublil, Anastasia Popkova, Darren McGoran, Aishwarya Banavathu, David Wood, David Treagust, Susan Scott, Grady Venville, Li Ju, Marjan Zadnik, Elaine Horne, Richard Meagher, Steve Humfrey and especially my co-editor, Magdalena Kersting, who took on the prodigious task of putting together our book Teaching Einsteinian Physics in Schools.</span></em></p>In trials teaching Einsteinian physics in schools, our most astonishing discovery was that children were not astonished: they just took the ideas in their stride.David Blair, Emeritus Professor, ARC Centre of Excellence for Gravitational Wave Discovery, OzGrav, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1655322021-08-12T03:05:04Z2021-08-12T03:05:04ZEinstein was ‘wrong’, not your science teacher<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415561/original/file-20210810-21-1ckayzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5568%2C3700&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/group-small-school-kids-teacher-class-1494179396">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“Your teacher was wrong!” It’s a phrase many a high school or university student has heard. As practising and former science teachers, we have been challenged with this accusation before. </p>
<p>Whereas those with advanced science understanding (including the students’ lecturers and high school teachers) may well say their previous teachers were “wrong”, “incomplete” might be more appropriate. These teachers were probably right in selecting age-appropriate scientific models and teaching these in age-appropriate ways. </p>
<p>If we were to put Einstein in front of a year 7 class, he might well present content to those students way beyond their level of understanding. This highlights a common misunderstanding of what is (and isn’t) taught in schools, and why.</p>
<h2>Teaching at the level of the students</h2>
<p>Our cognitive development, defined by <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-09595-000">different stages</a> according to age, means learning is gradual. Teaching involves choosing the <a href="https://earlychildhood.qld.gov.au/earlyYears/Documents/foundation-paper.pdf">right pedagogies</a> to impart knowledge and skills to students in a manner that matches their cognitive development. </p>
<p>In this article, we will use understanding of forces in science to demonstrate this gradual progression and evolution of education.</p>
<p>In Australian schools, forces are taught from <a href="https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/science/?strand=Science+Understanding&strand=Science+as+a+Human+Endeavour&strand=Science+Inquiry+Skills&capability=ignore&priority=ignore&year=12000&elaborations=true&cd=ACSSU005&searchTerm=ACSSU005#dimension-content">kindergarten (foundation)</a> to <a href="https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/senior-secondary-curriculum/science/physics/?unit=Unit+3">year 12</a>. Throughout their education, and especially in primary education despite the <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-challenges-for-science-in-australian-primary-schools-42413">various challenges</a>, it is more important that students learn <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/early_childhood_misc/16/">science inquiry skills</a> than simply science facts. This is done within the contexts of all science topics, including forces.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-challenges-for-science-in-australian-primary-schools-42413">Five challenges for science in Australian primary schools</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Stages of learning are a long journey</h2>
<p>Before a child can learn about the science of the world around them they must first acquire language skills through <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F026565908500100113">interactions with adults</a> such as book reading (particularly picture books).</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/XCwDRVuiGRI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Newtonian Physics for Babies by Chris Ferrie.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In preschool and kindergarten, play-based learning using <a href="https://www.acecqa.gov.au/sites/default/files/2018-02/belonging_being_and_becoming_the_early_years_learning_framework_for_australia.pdf">early years learning principles</a> is particularly important. Dropping objects such as rocks and feathers to see which falls faster, or what sinks, might lead to comments like “heavy things fall faster” or “heavy things sink”. Of course, this is “wrong” since air resistance is not being considered, or density relative to water, but it is is “right” for five-year-old children.</p>
<p>At this age, they are learning to make observations to make sense of the world around them through curious play. Children may lack a full understanding of complicated topics until they are <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1131460">capable of proportional reasoning</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Who sank the boat? The red wombat. Year 1." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414870/original/file-20210805-27-15b0906.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414870/original/file-20210805-27-15b0906.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414870/original/file-20210805-27-15b0906.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414870/original/file-20210805-27-15b0906.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414870/original/file-20210805-27-15b0906.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414870/original/file-20210805-27-15b0906.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414870/original/file-20210805-27-15b0906.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Who sank the boat? The red wombat. Year 1.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo: Simon Crook</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In junior high school, students learn about <a href="http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-ADV-B-00039-00001/1">Newton’s Laws of Motion</a> through various experiments. These typically use traditional equipment such as trolleys, pulleys and weights, as well as online interactives.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/GZTssXYuHHk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">What are Newton’s Laws of Motion? Using an animation to explain from PhET by Physics High.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In senior years, students examine uniform acceleration and its causes. As well as performing first-hand investigations, such as launching balls in the air and using video analysis, students need higher mathematical skills to deal with the algebra involved. Strictly speaking, they should take into account friction, but ignoring it is normal at this level. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Projectile motion with a phone and a hose" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414875/original/file-20210805-21-pqsvoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414875/original/file-20210805-21-pqsvoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414875/original/file-20210805-21-pqsvoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414875/original/file-20210805-21-pqsvoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414875/original/file-20210805-21-pqsvoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414875/original/file-20210805-21-pqsvoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414875/original/file-20210805-21-pqsvoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Exploring projectile motion with a phone and a hose.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo: Tom Gordon</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Online simulations are particularly good for this topic. <a href="https://theconversation.com/students-with-laptops-did-better-in-hsc-science-46326">Our research has shown</a> simulations can have a statistically significant and positive effect on student learning, particularly with the <a href="https://www.learntechlib.org/p/148410/">student-centred opportunities</a> they present. (They are also very useful while learning from home in lockdown.) </p>
<p>Have a go at the simulation below.</p>
<iframe src="https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/projectile-motion/latest/projectile-motion_en.html" width="100%" height="600" scrolling="no" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/students-with-laptops-did-better-in-hsc-science-46326">Students with laptops did better in HSC science</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Students then extend their learning to Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation. Students now need to apply higher mathematical skills, with further algebra and potentially calculus. Although this model is incomplete, and cannot explain the orbit of Mercury (among other things), this knowledge was enough to get us to the Moon and back.</p>
<p><a href="www.physicshigh.com"><img src="https://www.physicshigh.com/uploads/9/8/0/7/98073256/gravitation-5_orig.gif" alt="gravitation" width="100%"></a></p><p></p>
<p>Getting beyond Newtonian physics and its limitations, undergraduate students learn <a href="https://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/vol6-doc/272">Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity</a> where gravity is not thought of as a force between two objects, but as the warping of spacetime by masses. To tackle this content, students need the mathematical prowess to solve Einstein’s nonlinear field equations.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414931/original/file-20210806-27-be8zfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414931/original/file-20210806-27-be8zfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414931/original/file-20210806-27-be8zfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414931/original/file-20210806-27-be8zfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414931/original/file-20210806-27-be8zfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414931/original/file-20210806-27-be8zfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414931/original/file-20210806-27-be8zfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Einstein’s field equation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/keithmiller/65779420">Photo: Keith Miller/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Science is always incomplete</h2>
<p>So have we finally reached the correct view? No, general relativity does not provide a complete explanation. Theoretical physicists are working on a quantum theory of gravity. Despite a century of searching, we still have <a href="https://theconversation.com/approaching-zero-super-chilled-mirrors-edge-towards-the-borders-of-gravity-and-quantum-physics-162785">no way to reconcile gravity and quantum mechanics</a>. Even this is an unfinished model.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YNEBhwimJWs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Quantum gravity and the hardest problem in physics | PBS Space Time.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/approaching-zero-super-chilled-mirrors-edge-towards-the-borders-of-gravity-and-quantum-physics-162785">Approaching zero: super-chilled mirrors edge towards the borders of gravity and quantum physics</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Teachers aren’t “wrong’”, they are being appropriately incomplete, just as Einstein was incomplete. So how can we avoid such accusations? </p>
<p>Perhaps the answer lies in the language we use in the classroom. Rather than say “This is how it is … ” we should instead say “One way of looking at it is … ”, or “One way to model this is …”, not as a matter of opinion, but as a matter of complexity. This allows the teacher to discuss the model or idea, while hinting at a deeper reality.</p>
<p>Is Einstein actually wrong? Of course not, but it is important to realise that our models of forces and gravity are incomplete, as with most of science, hence the academic pursuit of higher knowledge. </p>
<p>More importantly, our teachers understand the process of introducing students to increasingly sophisticated models so they better understand the universe we live in. This matches their cognitive development through childhood. </p>
<p>Learning is a journey, not simply the end point. As the aphorism attributed to Einstein states, “Everything should be as simple as it can be, but not simpler.”</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article was co-authored by Paul Looyen, Head of Science at Macarthur Anglican School and Content Creator at PhysicsHigh.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165532/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Looyen, Head of Science at Macarthur Anglican School and Content Creator at PhysicsHigh, is a co-author of this article.
Simon Crook is the Director of CrookED Science, a STEM education consultancy. He has taught physics in high schools since 1994 and science in primary schools.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Gordon does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Teachers are right in selecting age-appropriate scientific models and teaching these in age-appropriate ways – even though the science they present isn’t the whole story.Simon Crook, Honorary Associate, School of Physics, University of SydneyTom Gordon, PhD candidate. Sydney University Physics Education Research (SUPER) group, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/860832017-10-29T11:12:46Z2017-10-29T11:12:46ZPhysics is taught badly because teachers struggle with basic concepts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191827/original/file-20171025-25516-g7rtyl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C70%2C7875%2C5667&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Technology can be integrated into effective teaching and learning of physics at secondary schools in Mauritius.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1DKin/Lesson-1/Introduction">Kinematics</a> describes the motion of objects through numbers, diagrams, words and equations and is taught in schools around the world as part of the physics curriculum.</p>
<p>But our ongoing research in Mauritius <a href="http://www.mrc.org.mu/English/Pages/Science--Technology-Education-CF.aspx">shows</a> that the people who are meant to teach kinematics in the classroom – physics teachers – don’t understand the concepts that underpin it. This echoes research done elsewhere, which has explored how physics teachers struggle with a number of key concepts, like <a href="https://www.learner.org/resources/series28.html">the seasons</a>.</p>
<p>Our study contributes to a broader body of research about the importance of teachers’ knowledge for effective learning. If a teacher doesn’t understand key underlying concepts in her subject, her students will not learn well. A teacher may be able to define velocity, but if he doesn’t understand related concepts – like displacement and time – he will struggle to teach effectively. </p>
<p>It may sound like this research is stating the obvious. But gathering data and testing teachers’ knowledge allows researchers to develop scientifically-grounded advice for teacher education institutions. This is important because misconceptions about physics, or science more generally, will persist if teachers don’t adopt a totally different approach to their own professional development.</p>
<p>This is true both in terms of their own knowledge and their approach to teaching. Teachers have an obligation to be well versed in a subject’s content knowledge and ways of teaching. This will allow them to impart knowledge, skills <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20004508.2017.1343606">and values</a> to students during the teaching-learning process and beyond.</p>
<p>If teachers don’t grasp the concepts they need to teach, there’s a risk that more and more students will shy away from science, in particular physics. </p>
<h2>Teachers’ conceptual understanding</h2>
<p>Our study is part of a <a href="http://www.mrc.org.mu/English/Pages/Science--Technology-Education-CF.aspx">broader research project</a> that examines how <a href="https://theconversation.com/technology-can-help-kids-learn-but-only-if-parents-and-teachers-are-involved-84125">technology can be integrated</a> into effective teaching and learning of physics at secondary schools in Mauritius. </p>
<p>We worked with 26 physics teachers from 26 of the country’s secondary schools. They had been teaching for an average of five years. Their students were between 16 and 17 years old.</p>
<p>The study consisted of a pre-test, three training workshops and a test after the workshops. The tests were conducted using a well-established questionnaire called the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243781089_Testing_student_interpretation_of_kinematic_graphs">Test of Understanding of Graphs in Kinematics</a>. It has been used extensively worldwide to test students’ knowledge about kinematics. But it’s rarely been applied to testing teachers’ knowledge of the physics content they share with students.</p>
<p>The standard improved questionnaire consists of 26 multiple choice questions. We added two additional items related to reasoning: an explanation of what approach was used to reach the answer and the teachers’ degree of confidence in their answers.</p>
<p>The pre-test results were extremely worrying. Not one teacher answered all the questions correctly. In most cases, their mistakes were caused by misconceptions. For instance, one question asked respondents to determine the greatest change in velocity from an acceleration-time graphical relationship. 38% of the teachers considered “time” as a constant physical quantity rather than an independent variable. That led them to the wrong conclusion. </p>
<p>When teachers do not understand the concepts that underpin any scientific theory, they cannot teach that theory effectively. That’s why our next step after the pre-test was to improve teachers’ knowledge. </p>
<h2>Workshops to grow understanding</h2>
<p>The 26 teachers were required to attend three professional development workshops – one a week over a period of three weeks – as part of our intervention. </p>
<p>The workshops, which focused on concepts in kinematics, were run by the lead investigator in collaboration with members of the research team. Multimedia was used, forcing the teachers to step away from traditional learning approaches. This allowed them to develop their conceptual understanding and a critical mindset. </p>
<p>After the workshops, the same questionnaire was administered – and the results showed marked improvement. The data shows a mean gain of around 22% in teachers’ responses from the pre-test to the post-test. This suggests a strong positive correlation between the workshops and the teachers’ post-test performances. Their ability to work through concepts and to solve problems was clearly strengthened. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191852/original/file-20171025-25544-c4pvq5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191852/original/file-20171025-25544-c4pvq5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191852/original/file-20171025-25544-c4pvq5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191852/original/file-20171025-25544-c4pvq5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191852/original/file-20171025-25544-c4pvq5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191852/original/file-20171025-25544-c4pvq5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=628&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191852/original/file-20171025-25544-c4pvq5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=628&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191852/original/file-20171025-25544-c4pvq5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=628&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teachers performed significantly better in a test of their conceptual knowledge after attending workshops than they had before the extra training.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Yashwant Ramma</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of course, a few workshops or a one-off professional development course won’t address all teachers’ misconceptions. Dislodging firmly held misconceptions is an ongoing process and will only happen through continuous, collaborative endeavours.</p>
<p>This is where teacher education institutions come in. They need to revisit how they train teachers to understand concepts, and ensure that they’re using the best possible approaches to prepare teachers for the physics classroom.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86083/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yashwant Ramma and team received funding from Mauritius Research Council. </span></em></p>Gathering data and testing teachers’ knowledge allows researchers to develop scientifically-grounded advice for teacher education institutions.Yashwant Ramma, Professor & Chair, Research, Mauritius Institute of EducationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/841252017-09-25T17:00:07Z2017-09-25T17:00:07ZTechnology can help kids learn, but only if parents and teachers are involved<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/187024/original/file-20170921-8233-bjbxpx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mauritian physics students hard at work during the project's testing phase.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mauritius Institute of Education</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Educational psychologist Dr Benjamin Bloom wanted to understand how people learn. So in 1965 he and his colleagues created <a href="https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/">Bloom’s taxonomy</a>: a system for identifying, understanding and addressing learning. They came up with a system that’s composed of two elements: thinking and the ability to apply knowledge, and then feelings and emotions. </p>
<p>When a student learns about gravity, the cognitive elements would include knowledge and understanding of the concept of a force pulling an object towards the Earth; acceleration, mass and so on. The moment the student has developed understanding, she would be in a position to apply (psychomotor) – the acquired knowledge and skills in new situations. For example, she might want to see what would happen if something different was done to the same object – would it experience the same acceleration?</p>
<p>This learning process doesn’t happen in an isolated context. It takes place during interactions with peers and teachers – what the model refers to as the affective domain. That is the elements of learning that affect emotional development. Elements of interest, motivation and values would help the student to appreciate the discussion and value the ideas as well as encourage her to develop social skills appropriate to working in groups. Eventually, development of this domain benefits broader communities and society as a whole.</p>
<p>Some researchers <a href="https://www.securedgenetworks.com/blog/8-Studies-Show-iPads-in-the-Classroom-Improve-Education">claim</a> that integrating technology into teaching and learning improves students’ grades. Others argue that technology makes little difference to how students perform because traditional approaches to teaching still predominate. </p>
<p>A lot of research in this area has focused on technology as a tool. But what is the value of technology as a medium to encourage interactions between parents, teachers and students – tapping into the affective domain – and ensure that students construct knowledge?</p>
<p>Myself and other academics from the <a href="http://www.mie.ac.mu/">Mauritius Institute of Education</a> and London’s <a href="http://www.brunel.ac.uk/">Brunel University</a> wanted to know how technology could be used to transform the teaching and learning process into an innovative, interactive environment that promotes students’ cognitive development driven by the affective domain. So we embarked on <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20004508.2017.1343606">a study</a> that attempted to build a case for incorporating the affective domain in the teaching and learning of physics using technology. </p>
<h2>A space to develop the affective domain</h2>
<p>The study was carried out in two phases: exploratory and evaluative. The evaluative phase confirmed the findings made in the exploratory phase.</p>
<p>The exploratory phase involved one teacher, 22 students (all 13 and 14 years old) from a coeducational school situated in Mauritius’ central region and 19 parents.</p>
<p>In the evaluative phase 31 students from an all-girls’ school (in the same region as the first school), 15 parents and one physics teacher participated. </p>
<p>We developed a framework called the Pedagogical Technological Integrated Medium. It is founded on a well-documented framework, <a href="http://matt-koehler.com/tpack2/tpack-explained/">TPACK</a>, which was created to facilitate the use of technology in schools. Our framework helps learners to create knowledge and develop an understanding of physics through interactions between teachers, students and parents.</p>
<p>We created an <a href="http://science.mie.mu/physics/">interactive website</a> to monitor how parents, teachers and students were engaging with the framework. The site encompasses a series of home tasks (parent–student and parent-teacher interactions), in-class tasks (student-teachers) and out-of-school activities (parent-student-teacher interactions). </p>
<p>For instance, students used the website to consolidate their existing knowledge of <a href="https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/the-concept-of-measurement.257360/">measurement</a> as a concept in physics. They did this in collaboration with their parents before attending classes.</p>
<p>The experiment showed that learners benefited enormously from the approach we had adopted. By creating the affective domain through interactions with their parents (at home) and teachers (at school), the students were able to construct physics knowledge. The added dimension was that we used technology as a medium to meet this end.</p>
<h2>Benefits of our approach</h2>
<p>The framework was well received by students, parents and teachers. One parent told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I was happy that my daughter was discussing with me and I encouraged her to complete all the tasks and to tell me if she had any difficulty.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Students said they wanted to do more activities and be provided with more notes on the website because this would help them “to learn better”. One said, </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I would like to try it first before learning it [the concept] at school.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The teachers were also happy. One said that, “the activities contained in the web lesson have helped me to understand in which specific areas students hold misconceptions”. The teacher also hailed the chance to “innovate in my teaching”. </p>
<p>Integrating the affective domain into our model has shown the potential of key educational stakeholders – parents, students and teachers – to collaborate. The teacher established a network with parents and learners and used the insights gained to construct her interactive lessons. </p>
<p>The schools we worked with are planning to use the website to sustain the interaction that’s been developed between teachers, students and parents. We also plan to get more schools in Mauritius using this system.</p>
<h2>The affective domain matters</h2>
<p>Our study has provided evidence of a change in students’ attitudes: they claimed to be interested, motivated and better prepared to learn new concepts in class. </p>
<p>It’s been known for a long time that educational technology can offer opportunities for cognitive development in learning science. We’ve now proved that this isn’t sufficient unless the affective domain forms an integral part of teaching and learning when technology is integrated into the process.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84125/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yashwant Ramma receives funding from Mauritius Research Council. </span></em></p>The affective domain - motivation, interest and values and their inter-relationships - forms an integral component in facilitating learners’ construction of physics knowledge.Yashwant Ramma, Professor & Chair, Research, Mauritius Institute of EducationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/469952015-09-04T05:37:25Z2015-09-04T05:37:25ZPost-16 education must be reformed to tackle damaging arts-science divide<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93635/original/image-20150902-6185-ijcreu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Stop dividing children into arts and science specialists at an age when they are not ready to choose.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/comedynose/3571102858">Pete/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Education sits at the heart of our society – and politicians know it. When Tony Blair famously said “education, education, education” it was essentially an election slogan. We are constantly told by our politicians that English A levels are the “<a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/alevels-remain-on-the-gold-standard-1278179.html">gold standard</a>” in education. I say, maybe it’s time for a rethink.</p>
<p>At the heart of the problem is the early specialisation in post-16 education. As a practising scientist I like to think that I can at least have some understanding of any science story presented in the news. But for a large proportion of the population that isn’t the case; our society almost seems to believe that the situation is a virtue. If a politician says “I never could do maths” no one thinks “Philistine”, whereas if they admitted to never having read any Shakespeare or Dickens the reaction would be very different. Why does our society think this is OK?</p>
<p>Science underpins so many decisions; political and personal. In our daily life and jobs, we increasingly need to use quantitative skills: the ability to interpret graphs, utilise spreadsheets and manipulate data. Our national academies recognise this, with a <a href="http://www.britac.ac.uk/policy/count_us_in_report.cfm">recent report</a> from the <a href="http://www.britac.ac.uk/">British Academy</a> to go with last year’s <a href="https://royalsociety.org/%7E/media/education/policy/vision/reports/vision-full-report-20140625.pdf">Vision report</a> from the <a href="https://royalsociety.org/">Royal Society</a>, both calling for all students to continue with some form of maths post-16.</p>
<p>This issue cuts both ways of course. Scientists need to be able to write and communicate better. Whether or not they can quote chunks of poetry, ancient or modern, is not the point. Scientists need to be able to write lucidly and put their work in context. Just about every branch of science is going to touch on the human condition and they need to be able to understand what their research means for the public. Some grasp of history, literature and social science could help them communicate this.</p>
<p>So in my upcoming Presidential Address to the <a href="http://www.britishscienceassociation.org/">British Science Association</a>, I will be urging politicians to reconsider the structure of our post-16 education. England and Wales are unlike almost all other developed countries in our early specialisation. This leads to a damaging divide between arts and science.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93630/original/image-20150902-6155-ctzcwy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93630/original/image-20150902-6155-ctzcwy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=839&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93630/original/image-20150902-6155-ctzcwy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=839&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93630/original/image-20150902-6155-ctzcwy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=839&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93630/original/image-20150902-6155-ctzcwy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1054&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93630/original/image-20150902-6155-ctzcwy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1054&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93630/original/image-20150902-6155-ctzcwy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1054&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Maybe we could learn a thing to two from Renaissance artists like Leonardo da Vinci?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">wikimedia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Implicitly, at the point of choosing GCSE topics, a 14-year-old will see themselves heading off in one direction or the other. Schools sometimes appear to encourage this, perhaps for the simple reason of easing the timetable. A broader post-16 education would mean moving from the typically narrow choices of A levels to something akin to the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/information-on-the-european-baccalaureate">European Baccalaureate</a> system (or perhaps the Scottish Higher system), where more subjects are studied for longer.</p>
<h2>The teaching shortage</h2>
<p>Of course, all this would require an adequate supply of qualified teachers. Currently, however, we neither have <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/aug/29/shortage-teachers-new-schools-crisis-uk-trainee-shortfall">enough teachers entering</a> the profession nor staying on for long subsequently. This is a massive problem in many subjects. </p>
<p>In primary school teaching, many schools have no one qualified in science or with a maths degree (the <a href="https://royalsociety.org/%7E/media/education/policy/vision/reports/vision-full-report-20140625.pdf">Vision report</a> says only 3% and 5% of primary school teachers have maths and science degrees or specialist teaching qualifications in those subjects respectively). In turn this creates a confidence problem: teachers who haven’t looked at a maths problem since they were 16 are expected to teach numeracy skills they may feel unsure about themselves. </p>
<p>This problem is particularly acute when there is no one else with more relevant experience in the school to whom they can turn for specific advice. This is no criticism of the teachers themselves, but, when teachers have to teach beyond their own areas of confidence and competence, it is harder for them to stimulate the children and to answer their questions.</p>
<p>In the sciences a related problem occurs at secondary school. Teachers may be science teachers, but if their qualification is in biology it is tough for them to teach GCSE physics. Again, this is not meant to apportion blame to the teachers. The <a href="http://www.iop.org/">Institute of Physics</a> has suggested we need <a href="https://www.iop.org/news/10/sep10/file_44832.pdf_">1000 more physics graduates a year</a> entering the teaching profession if we are to reach a situation where a third of science teachers are qualified in physics – and it would still take 15 years. </p>
<p>To do this would need around a quarter of all physics graduates training as teachers each year. It is hard to imagine that happening, particularly given the level of salaries graduates can otherwise command.</p>
<p>England has this strange habit of splitting our children up into arts and sciences at an age when hormones are surging and peer pressure is liable to be at its most powerful. We should be pressing the government to modify our system so that all children keep studying a broad range of subjects post-16 – and providing adequate funding to do so. In time this would translate into primary school teachers with more confidence to enthuse the next generation in maths and science. </p>
<p>Furthermore, this change would empower everyone to be able to make better-informed decisions about the things that affect them in their everyday life and to make sure that day by day people are able to cope with the numeracy requirements of their jobs with confidence.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46995/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Athene Donald iwas Chair of the Royal Society's Education Committee from 2010-14 and was a member of the committee which produced the Vision report. </span></em></p>Why are we splitting our children up into arts and sciences at an age when hormones are raging and peer pressure is so powerful? It’s time for an overhaul of post-16 education.Athene Donald, Professor of Experimental Physics and Master of Churchill College, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.