tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/poisonous-plants-13422/articles
poisonous plants – The Conversation
2017-04-04T14:04:19Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/75566
2017-04-04T14:04:19Z
2017-04-04T14:04:19Z
We’re closer to learning when humans first daubed arrows with poison
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163457/original/image-20170331-31763-1vgslll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The San's arrows may look dainty, but when tipped with poison they are lethal for hunting.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Fred Dawson/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Exactly when did human beings start tipping their weapons with poison to hunt prey? This is a question at the forefront of recent archaeological research. </p>
<p>In southern Africa San (or Bushman) hunter-gatherer groups, such as the /Xam of the Western Cape and the Ju/wasi and Hei//om of Namibia, used poisoned arrows for hunting during the <a href="http://www.sahumanities.org/ojs/index.php/SAH/article/view/362">19th and 20th centuries</a>. The origins of this technology, though, may be far older than we thought.</p>
<p>Recently, traces of the poison <a href="http://www.medicinenet.com/ricin/article.htm">ricin</a> were found on a 24 000 year-old wooden poison applicator at Border Cave in South Africa’s Lebombo mountains. If this identification is correct it would mean that people in southern Africa were among the first in the world to harness the potential of plant-based poisons. </p>
<p>South Africa has provided plenty of evidence of behaviours that could be attributed to cognitively complex <em>Homo sapiens</em>. This includes early evidence of hafted <a href="https://www.academia.edu/4561170/Quartz-tipped_arrows_older_than_60_ka_further_use-trace_evidence_from_Sibudu_KwaZulu-Natal_South_Africa">projectile technology</a>, the selection of aromatic plants for <a href="http://in-africa.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Wadley-et-al-2011-Science-MSA-bedding-Sibudu.pdf">bedding materials</a>), and the use of ochre as an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=KJn93toAAAAJ&sortby=pubdate&citation_for_view=KJn93toAAAAJ:_FxGoFyzp5QC">insect repellent</a>.</p>
<p>The early use of poison is one more indicator of an advanced repertoire of behavioural and technological traits that have characterised our species from the earliest times. The problem is that it’s not easy to identify the remnants of ancient poisons. Organic molecules, including those that make up different poisons, degrade over time and seldom resemble their parent compound. For this reason it is often very difficult to accurately identify ancient organic residues.</p>
<p>Now a team of archaeologists and organic chemists from the Universities of the Witwatersrand, Pretoria and Johannesburg has <a href="http://www.sajs.co.za/potential-identifying-plant-based-toxins-san-hunter-gatherer-arrowheads/madelien-wooding-justin-bradfield-vinesh-maharaj-dwayne-koot-lyn-wadley-linda-prinsloo-marlize">published</a> details of a method that can – with reasonable accuracy – identify plant-based toxins and other unique chemical markers present on archaeological artefacts . </p>
<p>This may allow scientists to infer the presence of toxic plant ingredients applied to ancient weapons. It adds to our growing appreciation of the full complexity of early human populations – in southern Africa as well as in the world. </p>
<h2>Testing the method</h2>
<p>Anyone who’s watched BBC nature documentaries will <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=826HMLoiE_o">recall</a> scenes of small groups of Bushman hunting antelope with their delicate little bows and arrows. This flimsy equipment was able to bring down large game because of poison. </p>
<p>The most well known source of arrow poison in southern Africa is a beetle larva known as Diamphidia. The Diamphidia grub is still used today by traditional hunters living in the Kalahari. The grub is eviscerated between the hunter’s fingers and its entrails applied directly to an arrowhead’s base. The poison, known as diamphotoxin, can bring down a fully-grown giraffe. </p>
<p>But <a href="http://www.sahumanities.org/ojs/index.php/SAH/article/view/362">historical records</a> indicate that many other, different plant ingredients were used. The particular ingredients and recipes used to make arrow poison <a href="http://www.sahumanities.org/ojs/index.php/SAH/article/view/362">differed</a> between groups and locations. </p>
<p>A recent <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/109/33/13214.abstract">archaeological discovery</a> at Border Cave (on South Africa’s border with Swaziland), revealed trace amounts of a substance still adhering to a 24 000 year-old wooden poison applicator. This substance was <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/109/33/13214.abstract">identified</a> as by-products of the poison ricin. Ricin is produced by the castor bean plant, from which castor oil originates. This discovery, though not without its detractors, sparked <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618215014111">renewed interest</a> in identifying poison ingredients on archaeological artefacts in various parts of the world.</p>
<p>This is where our research comes in.</p>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.sajs.co.za/potential-identifying-plant-based-toxins-san-hunter-gatherer-arrowheads/madelien-wooding-justin-bradfield-vinesh-maharaj-dwayne-koot-lyn-wadley-linda-prinsloo-marlize">paper</a> presented the results of a pilot study designed to accurately detect minute amounts of organic compounds from poisonous plants found on archaeological artefacts. We used an analytical technique known as ultra performance liquid chromatography – mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) – to characterise the organic compounds present in 11 species of poisonous plant found in southern Africa. </p>
<p>To test the reliability of our detection technique and our ability to accurately identify the most likely plant source of identified compounds, we conducted a blind test. Three plant extracts were prepared following a known poison recipe and applied to a modern arrowhead. The plants used in this recipe were known to only one of the authors. Once the poison coating on the arrowhead had dried, a small amount was scraped off and analysed using UPLC-MS. </p>
<p>We were able to identify two of the three plants used in the poison recipe; identification of the third, belonging to the euphorbia taxa, was not definitive.</p>
<p>Finally, a 90-year-old poisoned arrowhead from Namibia was analysed following the same protocol. The results showed that our method can be used tentatively to identify toxins based on comparative overlays with fresh plant material. Furthermore, the method is able to identify non-toxic compounds that may be unique to specific species of plants. This means the plant in question could be identified even in the absence of known toxins.</p>
<h2>Opening new doors</h2>
<p>Our study’s importance lies in the ability to recognise organic components of ancient plant-based poisons that may be hundreds – or even thousands – of years old. This is particularly impressive in instances where several ingredients were mixed together to prepare an arrow poison and where only minute amounts of this poison survive on the implement. </p>
<p>No historical information exists on the variety of plants used (nor, indeed, the recipes) for arrow poisons in the eastern half of southern Africa. Also, apart from the single discovery at Border Cave, we have no idea when people started using poisons to assist in hunting. Hopefully this new method can help to address both of these issues and build on existing scholarship of Africa’s indigenous knowledge systems.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/75566/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Justin Bradfield does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The early use of poison is one more indicator of an advanced repertoire of behavioural and technological traits that have characterised our species from the earliest times.
Justin Bradfield, Postdoctoral Research Fellow (Evolutionary Studies Institute), University of the Witwatersrand
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/41930
2015-05-19T12:33:32Z
2015-05-19T12:33:32Z
Russian whistleblower poisoned with heartbreak grass – an ancient perspective
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82203/original/image-20150519-30494-vrrt54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Arthur Conan Doyle himself was also poisoned by heartbreak grass – but this was self-inflicted, and not fatal.</span> </figcaption></figure><p>An expert in plant toxicology has <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/may/18/russian-whistleblower-traces-poison-stomach-plant-expert-says-alexander-perepilichnyy-inquest">found traces of a rare plant poison</a> in the stomach of Russian whistleblower Alexander Perepilichny, who collapsed and died outside his Surrey home in 2012 after warning that he had received death threats from the Kremlin.</p>
<p>The extremely poisonous species of gelsemium detected is known as “heartbreak grass”. Such an evocative name is bound to whet the imaginations of many the world over – poisons fascinate us all, especially when they have their roots in the natural world. Just think of the endless cases in literature, from Shakespeare’s <a href="http://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/romeoscenes.html">Romeo and Juliet</a> to Agatha Christie’s <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CVBObgUR2zcC">And Then There Were None</a>. And a new <a href="http://powerofpoison.co.uk/the-exhibition/">exhibition</a> centred on the allure of poisons has just opened in London.</p>
<p>No less than Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the author of the Sherlock Holmes whodunnits, experimented with heartbreak grass. In a letter to the British Medical Journal sent on September 20, 1879, Conan Doyle recounted how a neuralgia led him to consume a tincture of gelsenium. He then decided to self-experiment on himself to see how much he could take without overdosing. He suffered from dizziness and severe diarrhoea as a result.</p>
<p>So what makes poisons so captivating? It could be the instinctive knowledge that we could all experience poisoning. Many of us will have spent several unpleasant hours courtesy of some contaminated food (usually meat); many of us will have had side-effects from prescription or recreational drugs; many of us will have reacted strongly to the bite of a mosquito or the sting of a wasp. All these afflictions are cases of poisoning: cases where our body cannot cope with an external substance. </p>
<h2>The dose makes the poison</h2>
<p>Conversely, we know that many poisons can heal when taken in the right amount: “the dose makes the poison,” as the adage goes. Although that aphorism is often attributed to Paracelsus (16th-century CE), the principles behind it were empirically observed well before, perhaps even from the beginnings of humanity. Animals can instinctively differentiate between poisonous and non-poisonous plants (although there is of course no foolproof method – individuals will die in the process), and humans are no different from other mammals in that respect. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82194/original/image-20150519-30494-i6ovrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82194/original/image-20150519-30494-i6ovrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82194/original/image-20150519-30494-i6ovrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82194/original/image-20150519-30494-i6ovrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82194/original/image-20150519-30494-i6ovrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82194/original/image-20150519-30494-i6ovrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=975&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82194/original/image-20150519-30494-i6ovrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=975&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82194/original/image-20150519-30494-i6ovrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=975&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mandrake being pulled up by dog, 1250.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Wellcome Library, London</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The botanical writings of the philosopher Theophrastus of Eresus (fourth century BCE) represent an important step in the theoretical definition of poisons. Theophrastus tells us that edible plants tend to be sweet to the taste; whereas poisonous and medicinal ones tend to be bitter. So the bitter taste of wormwood (<a href="https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/all/artemisia-spp/"><em>Artemisia spp</em>.</a>) is indicative of its medicinal qualities when taken in the right amount and its poisonous ones when taken in excess. There are, however, exceptions to the “bitter taste” rule – dangerous exceptions such as mandrake root (<a href="http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Mandragora+officinarum"><em>Mandragora officinarum L</em>.</a>), whose taste is sweet. In small amounts mandrake can be used medicinally but in larger quantities it kills. </p>
<p>Then again, humans and other animals can build a resistance to some poisons by habituating themselves to them, that is, by taking increasingly large amounts of that poison daily. In the ancient Greek and Roman world, cow’s milk was primarily used as a purge, a means to empty the stomach and bowels. In other words, cow’s milk was a poison, albeit not a lethal one. Today, in the Western world, most people can drink relatively large amounts of cow’s milk without adverse effect, although the proportion of people who are – or claim to be – lactose intolerant is not negligible. </p>
<p>Another substance often used as a purge in Greek and Roman antiquity was hellebore. Theophrastus tells us the story of a drug-seller who boasted about his ability to eat sprigs of hellebore without being purged. Then came along a shepherd who turned the drug-seller into ridicule by publicly ingesting an entire bunch of hellebore sprigs.</p>
<h2>The poison master</h2>
<p>In French, the technical word for habituation to poison is “<em>mithridatisation</em>”, which is derived from the name of an ancient king: Mithradates VI of Pontus (134-63 BCE). He was one of the fiercest enemies of Rome, and no less than three wars – the Mithridatic Wars – were waged against him. There are several stories of alleged poisoning in Mithradates’s family; in particular, his father died in circumstances that are not entirely clear. </p>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Large jar for holding mithridatum, early 18th century.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Wellcome Library, London</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Mithradates lived in dangerous times when dynastic killings, often by means of poison, were common. And so in preparation for his probable eventual poisoning, he started to take small doses of poison every day. At the same time, he worked on developing an antidote that would protect him. The success of that enterprise depended on gaining as much knowledge as possible about poisons and antidotes. The king therefore surrounded himself with famous physicians who informed him about the latest pharmacological discoveries. He also gathered plant knowledge from all his subjects. The story goes that he mastered well over ten languages and addressed all his subjects in their native tongue, thus gaining invaluable expertise from them. </p>
<p>Eventually, the king developed a particularly successful antidote. It was so effective that, when Mithradates was finally defeated by the Romans, and when he tried to take his life by ingesting poison, he failed to die, even though all his family members had succumbed to the effects of the deadly substance. Finally, the king asked one of his servants to kill him with a sword. How the mighty fall!</p>
<p>The Roman general who defeated Mithradates took hold of his specimen collections and writings and brought them to Rome. There they were translated into Latin, and the antidote of Mithradates, allegedly following the original recipe created by the deadly king, became one of the bestselling drugs of all time: <a href="http://triggered.edina.clockss.org/ServeContent?rft_id=info:doi/10.1124/mi.6.2.1">Mithridatium</a>, a remedy that allegedly treated all cases of poisoning and cured many diseases beside.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/41930/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurence Totelin has received funding from the Wellcome Trust.</span></em></p>
There’s much that Perepilichny could have learned from Arthur Conan Doyle, and him in turn from an ancient king called Mithradates.
Laurence Totelin, Lecturer in Ancient History, Cardiff University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/33970
2014-11-07T17:43:12Z
2014-11-07T17:43:12Z
Meet five of the UK’s most poisonous plants
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63983/original/rp5swwg7-1415370462.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cuckoo pint</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Phil Sellens</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Serious poisoning by plants is very rare in the UK so the death of a gardener in Hampshire after <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/gardener-dies-after-brushing-against-deadly-wolfsbane-flower-on-millionaires-estate-9845675.html">brushing against a deadly flower</a> was extremely unusual.</p>
<p>Despite the British countryside’s genteel reputation there are a surprisingly large amount of poisonous plants growing both in the wild and in gardens. Some just cause discomfort, but others have the potential to kill. Here are five to watch out for.</p>
<h2>Wolfsbane</h2>
<p>Wolfsbane belongs to the plant genus <em>Aconitum</em>, a group of plants which are all poisonous. The native plant, also called monkshood, has large leaves with rounded lobes and purple hooded flowers. Although it can be found throughout the UK, cases of accidental poisoning are very rare. Still, people plant it in their gardens, possibly unaware of the potential hazard. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63984/original/cppdhhv5-1415370821.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63984/original/cppdhhv5-1415370821.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63984/original/cppdhhv5-1415370821.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63984/original/cppdhhv5-1415370821.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63984/original/cppdhhv5-1415370821.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63984/original/cppdhhv5-1415370821.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63984/original/cppdhhv5-1415370821.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63984/original/cppdhhv5-1415370821.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Beautiful but deadly: Wolfsbane.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Randi Hausken</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is one of the most toxic plants that can be found in the UK, the toxins in the plant can cause a slowing of the heart rate which can be fatal and even eating a very small amount can lead to an upset stomach. But its poison can also act through contact with the skin, particularly if there are open wounds. The roots are thought to be especially poisonous but even so, people have been known to eat the roots and survive so it is very difficult to know how much contact is needed to kill someone. </p>
<p>As with any poisonous plant, the best way to avoid it is to learn to recognise what it looks like. Once you can recognise it then you can make sure you don’t eat it and only handle it with gloves on.</p>
<h2>Foxglove</h2>
<p>Foxglove grows in woodlands and hedgerows. It is a common garden plant, popular due to its tall purple flowers. Its large soft leaves grow in a rosette. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63985/original/hk3wcxs9-1415371474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63985/original/hk3wcxs9-1415371474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63985/original/hk3wcxs9-1415371474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63985/original/hk3wcxs9-1415371474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63985/original/hk3wcxs9-1415371474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63985/original/hk3wcxs9-1415371474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63985/original/hk3wcxs9-1415371474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63985/original/hk3wcxs9-1415371474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Foxglove.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brian Eastop</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If any part of the plant is eaten it causes vomiting and diarrhoea together with other unpleasant symptoms, and just like wolfsbane it can slow the heart down causing heart attacks. Even contact can cause irritation to the skin. </p>
<p>However, foxglove has saved more lives than it has cost as drugs derived from the plant are used to treat heart conditions.</p>
<h2>Cuckoo pint</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63986/original/s8zcgjx5-1415371609.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63986/original/s8zcgjx5-1415371609.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63986/original/s8zcgjx5-1415371609.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=816&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63986/original/s8zcgjx5-1415371609.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=816&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63986/original/s8zcgjx5-1415371609.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=816&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63986/original/s8zcgjx5-1415371609.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1025&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63986/original/s8zcgjx5-1415371609.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1025&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63986/original/s8zcgjx5-1415371609.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1025&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Cuckoo pint.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Phil Sellens</span></span>
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<p>The cuckoo pint (<em>Arum maculatum</em>) or lords and ladies, is found growing in woodlands and hedgerows. Its flowers are poker-shaped surrounded by a green leaf-like hood but it is the bright red and orange berries of this plant that are poisonous. </p>
<p>If eaten, the berries cause irritation in the mouth and throat which leads to swelling and pain and can result in difficulty breathing. It also causes an upset stomach.</p>
<h2>Deadly nightshade</h2>
<p>As its name suggests, deadly nightshade is another poisonous plant. Deadly nightshade is most common in central, southern and eastern England but is also found less commonly in other parts of the UK. It is a shrubby plant with purple bell-shaped flowers and shiny black berries. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/64123/original/btmz8x9h-1415618165.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/64123/original/btmz8x9h-1415618165.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/64123/original/btmz8x9h-1415618165.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/64123/original/btmz8x9h-1415618165.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/64123/original/btmz8x9h-1415618165.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/64123/original/btmz8x9h-1415618165.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/64123/original/btmz8x9h-1415618165.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Deadly nightshade.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atropa_Bella-donna3.jpg">Tom Oates</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the first instance poisoning results in symptoms including dilated pupils, loss of balance and a rash but it can eventually lead to hallucinations and convulsions. Atrophine, a drug extracted from nightshade, is used in eye examinations to dilate the pupil. It’s even used as a <a href="http://www.wired.com/2007/11/building-a-bett/">nerve gas antidote</a>.</p>
<h2>Hemlock</h2>
<p>Hemlock isn’t native to the UK but can be found in most areas. It grows in ditches and riverbanks and in disturbed area such as waste ground and rubbish tips. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63989/original/y2v538kg-1415371744.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63989/original/y2v538kg-1415371744.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63989/original/y2v538kg-1415371744.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63989/original/y2v538kg-1415371744.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63989/original/y2v538kg-1415371744.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63989/original/y2v538kg-1415371744.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=651&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63989/original/y2v538kg-1415371744.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=651&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63989/original/y2v538kg-1415371744.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=651&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hemlock.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Conium_maculatum_Lincolnshire_2.jpg">Mick Talbot</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>Hemlock is a tall green plant with purple spots on its stem and leaves similar to the carrot plant, it has white flowers. If it is eaten hemlock causes sickness and in severe cases it can kill by paralysing the lungs.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/33970/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carly Stevens does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Serious poisoning by plants is very rare in the UK so the death of a gardener in Hampshire after brushing against a deadly flower was extremely unusual. Despite the British countryside’s genteel reputation…
Carly Stevens, Lecturer, Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.