tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/school-dropout-17386/articlesSchool dropout – The Conversation2022-05-29T19:54:31Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1799442022-05-29T19:54:31Z2022-05-29T19:54:31ZWhat do kids like and dislike about school? This is why it matters – and we can do something about it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465449/original/file-20220526-21-qo0vf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C297%2C4819%2C3068&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>“School SUX</em>!”</p>
<p>We’ve all heard it and some of us have felt it. It’s such a common sentiment that parents and teachers might be tempted to dismiss it. After all, school is good for you! Like vegetables. It is something you have to have, whether you like it or not.</p>
<p>But does the intrinsic “good” and compulsory nature of school education mean we should ignore students who say they don’t like it? Or that we shouldn’t try to make it more palatable? </p>
<p>Feeling positive about school is associated with <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258506119_Persistent_Absenteeism_among_Irish_Primary_School_Pupils">higher attendance</a>, better classroom adjustment and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23093716">engagement</a>, and higher <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0140197113000390">academic achievement</a>. </p>
<p>Students don’t have to <em>love</em> school to experience these benefits. Even those who like school will dislike aspects of it: subjects they aren’t good at, having to get up early, lack of tuckshop options, and so on. </p>
<p>But, for some students, dislike for school can become pervasive – they dislike almost everything about it. </p>
<p>Some of these students may <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17367730/">drop out</a> of school, which has serious implications for their future job prospects, financial security and quality of life. So, yes, it matters a great deal if students don’t like school and it’s important to know <em>why</em>, so we can do something about it.</p>
<h2>How did we research dislike for school?</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.825036/full">recent study</a> investigated associations between school liking and factors that previous research suggests make students more likely to stay in school or leave: teacher <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10648-016-9389-8">support</a>, connectedness to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1054139X06004228?via%3Dihub">school</a>, and the use of detentions, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0038040718816684">suspensions</a> and expulsions. </p>
<p>Our aim was to learn how we might be able to improve schooling from the perspective of students who like it the least. We surveyed 1,002 students in grades 7-10 from three complex secondary schools. These are the grades and types of schools with the highest suspension and lowest retention rates. </p>
<p>We wanted to find out how these students feel about school and teachers, as well as their experiences of exclusionary discipline, and whether there were important differences between those who said they did and did not like school.</p>
<h2>What did we find?</h2>
<p>The good news is that two-thirds of our study sample said they like school. Almost half of these students said they had always liked it. One of them said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Love it. I’d prefer to live at school. Like, if Hogwarts was an actual place, I’d go there.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Worryingly, one-third of students said they do not like school. Although school liking was highest in grade 7, most students indicated their dislike began in the transition to high school. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Yeah, it was probably as soon as I hit high school. Year 7 things got a lot harder.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This dislike appears to increase over time, with grade 9 having the highest proportion of dislikers. These patterns correspond with suspension rates, <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/125844/1/IJIE_Suspension%20in%20QLD%202006-2017_FINAL.pdf">which double in grade 7 and peak in grade 9</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465419/original/file-20220526-24-ncc005.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Table showing grade levels and percentages of students who said dislike of school started in those years" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465419/original/file-20220526-24-ncc005.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465419/original/file-20220526-24-ncc005.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=230&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465419/original/file-20220526-24-ncc005.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=230&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465419/original/file-20220526-24-ncc005.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=230&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465419/original/file-20220526-24-ncc005.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=289&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465419/original/file-20220526-24-ncc005.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=289&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465419/original/file-20220526-24-ncc005.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=289&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.825036/full#A1">Source: L. Graham et al, Frontiers in Psychology, 2022</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What do students like and dislike most?</h2>
<p>Our suspicion that students in these two groups like and dislike different things about school proved correct. While “friends” was the most-liked aspect of school for both groups, a much higher proportion of school likers than dislikers chose “learning”. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I feel like every day I go to school, I just flex my knowledge. I like to learn. Learning’s alright.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>By contrast, a much higher proportion of dislikers chose “breaktime” as their most-liked aspect. The attraction became clearer through interviews:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“What do you like most about school?” […] “Break. So I get to see my friends.”</p>
</blockquote>
<iframe title="Most-liked aspects of school for school likers and dislikers" aria-label="Grouped Column Chart" id="datawrapper-chart-vevYQ" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/vevYQ/3/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border: none;" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>A similar pattern emerged for the least-liked aspects of school. A much higher proportion of dislikers than likers selected schoolwork, teachers and discipline policy as the aspects they disliked most.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Pretty much work, because they give you all the assessments and expect it to be done so quick […]”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These findings are fairly intuitive and resonate with <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/125846/14/GrahamVanBergen_Sweller_Caught_between_a_rock_a_hard_place_FINAL_pdf.pdf">previous research</a> with students with a history of disruptive behaviour who also nominated schoolwork and teachers. </p>
<p>The previous study found an interesting connection between the two. Students who find learning difficult will often clash with teachers whose job it is to make them do their work. Some teachers are kinder and more supportive in how they do that than others. </p>
<p>High school is especially difficult for these students because they have to navigate more teachers and are not good at “code-switching” to meet diverse rules and expectations.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“It was hard because you go from having a teacher the whole term who would let you do stuff and then if you tried to do that in another class, it would just be like no, you can’t do that. Yeah, and they just yell at you.”</p>
</blockquote>
<iframe title="Least-liked aspects of school for school likers and dislikers" aria-label="Grouped Column Chart" id="datawrapper-chart-GJPZh" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/GJPZh/1/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border: none;" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Students who clash with teachers also tend also to experience exclusionary discipline. In our sample, not liking school was significantly associated with having received a detention, suspension or expulsion in the past 12 months. Forty-one percent of dislikers reported having been suspended (versus 14% of likers).</p>
<p>Our analyses also found large differences in students’ ratings of teacher support. Dislikers provided lower ratings on every item. </p>
<p>The highest-rated item for both groups was: “My teacher always wants me to do my best.” The lowest was: “My teacher has time for me.” The largest difference between groups was for “My teacher listens to me.”</p>
<h2>What can schools do?</h2>
<p>Relationships between teachers and students <em>can</em> be improved and educators do not have to wait for governments to act. A simple start would be for school leaders to implement <a href="https://research.qut.edu.au/c4ie/wp-content/uploads/sites/281/2022/02/Practice-Guide-Student-Driven-School-Change.pdf">student-driven school change</a> to address issues from the perspective of <em>all</em> students, but especially those who say they least want to be there. </p>
<p>As for government policy, the findings from our study highlight one possibility for consideration. When Queensland <a href="https://search.informit.org/doi/epdf/10.3316/informit.360099246761570">shifted</a> grade 7 from the primary phase to the secondary phase in 2015, steps were takens to better support children in their first year of high school. Support included a core teacher model, when one teacher takes the same students for English and humanities or maths and science, reducing the number of teachers that students have to navigate, and dedicated play areas for grade 7 students to help reduce anxiety.</p>
<p>The findings from our study of three Queensland secondary schools suggest that initiative may have had some success for up two-thirds of grade 7 students at least. Yet, if school liking declines in grades 8 and beyond, mirroring the rise in suspensions, is it not time to consider whether grade 8s and 9s may benefit from more intensive pastoral care? </p>
<p>We could always ask them!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179944/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Linda J. Graham receives funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC), the Queensland Government and the Spencer Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jenna Gillett-Swan receives funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC) and the Queensland Government.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Callula Killingly and Penny Van Bergen do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A third of students say they don’t like school, and that dislike often begins around the time they enter high school. But the reasons they give point the way to solutions to this problem.Linda J. Graham, Professor and Director of the Centre for Inclusive Education, Queensland University of TechnologyCallula Killingly, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Centre for Inclusive Education, Queensland University of TechnologyJenna Gillett-Swan, Associate Professor in Education, Wellbeing and Children's Rights, Queensland University of TechnologyPenny Van Bergen, Professor in Educational Psychology, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1752162022-02-09T13:23:10Z2022-02-09T13:23:10ZPandemic-related school closings likely to have far-reaching effects on child well-being<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443545/original/file-20220131-25-nypi1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=49%2C0%2C5521%2C3628&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Schools are wrestling with the consequences of long-term closures because of the pandemic.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/APTOPIXVirusOutbreak-CaliforniaSchools/2a962a3bafab4f62a6737755fc714a7f/photo">AP Photo/Jae C. Hong</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A global analysis has found that kids whose schools closed to stop the spread of various waves of the coronavirus <a href="https://academic.oup.com/wbro/article/36/1/1/6174606">lost educational progress and are at increased risk of dropping out</a> of school. As a result, the study says, they will <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/12/06/learning-losses-from-covid-19-could-cost-this-generation-of-students-close-to-17-trillion-in-lifetime-earnings">earn less money from work over their lifetimes</a> than they would have if schools had remained open. </p>
<p>Educational <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=C9YZiOsAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">researchers like me</a> know these students will feel the <a href="https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse/consequences">effects of pandemic-related school closures</a> for many years to come. Here are four other ways the closings have affected students’ well-being for the long term.</p>
<h2>1. Academic progress</h2>
<p>At the end of the 2020-2021 school year, most students were about <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/education/our-insights/covid-19-and-education-the-lingering-effects-of-unfinished-learning">four to five months behind</a> where they should have been in math and reading, according to a July 2021 report by McKinsey and Co., a global management consulting firm.</p>
<p>When the researchers looked at the data from fall 2021, though, they found <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/education/our-insights/covid-19-and-education-an-emerging-k-shaped-recovery">students attending majority-white schools are catching up</a>. But students from historically disadvantaged backgrounds – including those attending majority-Black or low-income schools – are falling further behind. As a result, students attending majority-Black schools are now estimated to be a full year behind those attending majority-white schools.</p>
<p>Differences also can vary by grade level. High schools have been <a href="https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w29398/w29398.pdf">closed more total days</a> than elementary schools. According to a recent news report, <a href="https://www.chalkbeat.org/2022/1/24/22895461/2021-graduation-rates-decrease-pandemic">2021 graduation rates dipped</a> across the country, and some education leaders fear future graduating classes may be hit even harder. Schools have scrambled to provide options such as credit recovery to boost graduation rates, leaving concerns about the quality of learning. </p>
<p>College and university leaders have been <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/center/teaching-learning/2021/09/01/assessingu-should-we-worry-about-learning-loss">preparing</a> for first-year students with less knowledge, weaker study habits and more difficulty concentrating than new college arrivals in past years.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443547/original/file-20220131-118117-1td8b9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Children wearing masks sit on a classroom floor" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443547/original/file-20220131-118117-1td8b9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443547/original/file-20220131-118117-1td8b9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443547/original/file-20220131-118117-1td8b9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443547/original/file-20220131-118117-1td8b9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443547/original/file-20220131-118117-1td8b9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443547/original/file-20220131-118117-1td8b9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443547/original/file-20220131-118117-1td8b9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Schools are adapting their classroom procedures to prevent the spread of disease.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirusOutbreakStandardizedTests/7ce902458dfc4acdabc13b3c557ae50b/photo">AP Photo/Mary Altaffer</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. Social-emotional development</h2>
<p>Even early in the pandemic, <a href="http://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.5840">school closings were harming students’ social and emotional well-being</a>, according to a review of 36 studies across 11 countries including the U.S. By summer 2021, <a href="https://www.mheducation.com/prek-12/explore/sel-survey.html">teachers and administrators in the U.S.</a> said students felt more emotional distress, disengagement, depression, anxiety and loneliness than in previous years.</p>
<p>When schools resumed in fall 2021, large numbers of children in the U.S. had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01253-8">lost a primary caregiver</a> over the previous year to COVID-19. A colleague and I raised concerns about the <a href="https://theconversation.com/students-are-returning-to-school-with-anxiety-grief-and-gaps-in-social-skills-will-there-be-enough-school-mental-health-resources-165279">anxiety and grief</a> those students would likely feel.</p>
<p>In addition, <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/education/our-insights/covid-19-and-education-an-emerging-k-shaped-recovery">28% of all parents</a> of children in grades K-12 are “very concerned” or “extremely concerned” about their child’s mental health and social and emotional well-being. That’s down from a high of 35% in spring 2021, but is still 7 percentage points higher than before the pandemic. Parents of Black and Hispanic students are 5 percentage points more likely to be worried than parents of white students.</p>
<p>Schools and organizations have focused resources on supporting students’ social, emotional and mental health. The <a href="https://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/us-department-education-releases-new-resource-supporting-child-and-student-social-emotional-behavioral-and-mental-health-during-covid-19-era">U.S. Department of Education</a>, for example, recommends, based on research, that teachers integrate lessons around compassion and courage into classroom activities, and that schools establish wellness teams to help students.</p>
<p>States have said they plan to address these needs with <a href="https://www.ncsl.org/ncsl-in-dc/standing-committees/education/cares-act-elementary-and-secondary-school-emergency-relief-fund-tracker.aspx">federal funds meant to help schools respond to the pandemic</a>. In <a href="https://ctmirror.org/2021/11/26/school-age-children-are-seeking-out-mental-health-care-more-than-ever/">Connecticut</a>, for example, school districts will hire additional mental health support staff, offer social-emotional programs and partner with local agencies to increase access to supports. </p>
<h2>3. Behavioral habits</h2>
<p>The return to in-person learning has been accompanied by school leaders’ <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/threats-of-student-violence-and-misbehavior-are-rising-many-school-leaders-report/2022/01">reports</a> of increasing student misbehavior and threats of violence. These increases were more likely to be reported in larger districts and where most students had engaged in remote or hybrid learning – rather than in-person instruction – during the prior school year.</p>
<p>Viral social media “challenges” – like memes on TikTok suggesting students “<a href="https://www.distractify.com/p/tiktok-school-challenges-list-2021">smack a staff member</a>” or skip school on a particular day – certainly aren’t helping educators provide safe and supportive environments. </p>
<p>Parents’ distress is also affecting their children. Students whose parents are depressed, anxious, lonely and exhausted are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2021.101375">more likely to misbehave in school</a> – and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2021.101375">that connection grew stronger</a> during lockdown periods when schools were closed.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, news reports show students are <a href="https://edsource.org/2021/absenteeism-surging-since-schools-reopened/661507">missing more school</a> than they were before the pandemic, with more kids out for more than 15 days of a school year. Given <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-019-01072-5">links</a> between chronic absenteeism and increased high school dropout rates, <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/education/our-insights/covid-19-and-education-an-emerging-k-shaped-recovery">researchers warn</a> this increase in missed school could lead between 1.7 million and 3.3 million students in eighth through 12th grade to not graduate on time.</p>
<h2>4. Physical health</h2>
<p>Adults have suffered <a href="https://www.asrn.org/journal-nursing/2665-the-pandemic-body-how-the-covid-era-changed-us-%E2%80%93-from-hair-loss-to-weight-gain.html">hair loss, sore eyes, irritable bowels and skin flare-ups</a> as a result of the pandemic. One study found that Chinese preschool children whose schools closed during the pandemic <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366-021-00912-4">were shorter than preschoolers</a> in previous years, though the researchers did not observe noteworthy differences in weight change. </p>
<p>Schools can be a primary place for children to access physical activity and healthy food. Amid school closures, researchers are exploring the effects of losing out on these benefits. During lockdowns in Italy, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.22861">children with obesity engaged in less physical activity</a>, slept and used screens more and increased their consumption of potato chips and sugary drinks.</p>
<p>In the U.S., <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2033629">1 in 4 families</a> with school-age children don’t have reliable access to food. Abrupt school closures cut off <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2033629">more than 30 million children</a> from free and reduced-price lunches and breakfasts delivered at school.</p>
<p>The U.S. Department of Agriculture, which oversees school food programs, provided waivers to <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/fns-disaster-assistance/fns-responds-covid-19/child-nutrition-covid-19-waivers-previous-school-years">let schools provide meals</a> in ways that fit their students’ needs. In Connecticut, for example, researchers found that letting families know about wider availability and pickup sites for to-go school meals <a href="https://doi.org/10.5304/jafscd.2021.102.020">boosted the number of students who received food</a> during the pandemic.</p>
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<p>Time will tell if the costs of school closings will be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.28786">worth the benefits</a>. These early indicators show that decisions are not as simple as reducing the physical health risks of COVID-19. A full assessment would consider the effects across all aspects of child well-being, including how diverse populations are affected. </p>
<p>Connection, collaboration and positive interaction are fundamental to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10888691.2018.1515296">healthy childhood</a> growth and development. Working together, schools, families and communities can <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.758788">assess and address every child’s needs</a> to reduce the lasting effects of school closings.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175216/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sandra M. Chafouleas receives funding from the National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Education, Connecticut State Department of Education, the Neag Foundation, and the Principal Foundation.</span></em></p>The ways in which school closings affect children are just beginning to be known, but early indications are they’re taking a negative toll on kids’ learning and overall well-being.Sandra M. Chafouleas, Professor of Educational Psychology, University of ConnecticutLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1280372020-02-04T15:15:32Z2020-02-04T15:15:32ZDomestic violence: girls who grow up in deprived areas at increased risk<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313501/original/file-20200204-41481-1hlpu8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=18%2C9%2C2985%2C1985&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/rear-view-young-school-girl-age-448505044">ChameleonsEye/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Violence committed by intimate partners is one of the <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42495/9241545615_eng.pdf?sequence=1">most common</a> forms of violence against women. In 2019, 6% – <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/domesticabuseprevalenceandtrendsenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2019">or one million women in the UK</a> – reported having experienced physical, psychological, or sexual violence by a current or former partner in the last year alone. But despite its prevalence, relatively <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(14)61703-7/fulltext">few interventions</a> exist that prevent partner violence in the first place.</p>
<p>In our new <a href="https://journals.lww.com/epidem/Fulltext/2020/03000/Long_term_Exposure_to_Neighborhood_Deprivation_and.16.aspx">research published in Epidemiology</a> with colleagues at the Universities of <a href="https://www.spi.ox.ac.uk/cebi">Oxford</a> and <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/medical-school/research/population-health-sciences/?_ga=2.187012896.901362393.1575325564-1925919185.1574789733">Bristol</a>, we found that women who spent longer periods of their childhoods in deprived neighbourhoods were more likely to experience intimate partner violence.</p>
<p>We used data from Bristol’s <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/alspac/">Children of the 90s Study</a>. Participants were followed from birth and we looked at the neighbourhoods they were living in every one to three years during the first 18 years of their lives. Participants then reported on their experiences of partner violence between ages 18 to 21. </p>
<p>Overall, we found that 32% of the women in our study <a href="https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/9/3/e025621">experienced intimate partner violence between the ages 18 to 21</a>. Our findings also show that women who spent longer periods living in deprived neighbourhoods during the first 18 years of their lives were nearly 40% more likely to experience partner violence in early adulthood. They also tended to experience this violence more frequently.</p>
<h2>Possible explanations</h2>
<p>Longer exposure to neighbourhood deprivation during childhood has been associated with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3286027/">lower cognitive ability</a>, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0003122411420816">school dropout</a>, and <a href="https://europepmc.org/abstract/med/23720166">early parenthood</a>. Our research extends this evidence and suggests that sustained exposure to more deprived neighbourhoods over childhood also increases women’s later risk of experiencing partner violence.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953612004558">Several</a> <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1524838012445641?casa_token=VKv7TVdESgoAAAAA:2WEojcTVd4nrBFh3a_CG6CD9OSu6gcM8b49coM0jx93J5L1CF4EtZslP9NE7AYBwYjCpiC_vJ8SbjA">reviews</a> have suggested <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1524838013515758?casa_token=hS4qoed47DsAAAAA:mMF7V2bOVf1e8_p7LHGPirl3g5yBiPGtYImXVbR066_RR2Cm52bUMuGQX1b9Zt9Rgmi2dWT9Zt15CA">factors</a> that could explain <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1524838017717744?casa_token=EQG0tA01fv4AAAAA:gg47hfGpum8SzSabpuT5QvlhbYg0bprX_K9wlsx56rTCngge3WSC_viUKaslyvHbcszcxAoLcSgosw">why this is the case</a>. </p>
<p>For instance, neighbourhoods with fewer social and economic resources tend to have <a href="https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/G/bo5514383.html">higher rates of violence</a>. Sustained exposure to this neighbourhood violence may in turn normalise aggression in relationships. Living in more deprived neighbourhoods may also increase trauma or stress. This can heighten a person’s risk of substance misuse or social isolation. It can also increase relationship strain and can prevent people from seeking help. All of these factors may then exacerbate the risk of partner violence or the ability to leave. </p>
<h2>Neighbourhood deprivation</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0145213419304442">A new study</a> from the US sheds further light on how deprived neighbourhoods may affect child development and the risk of partner violence in adulthood. </p>
<p>The researchers interviewed groups of men who were in treatment programmes for perpetrating partner violence. Among their findings, growing up in disadvantaged neighbourhoods was shown to reinforce models of violence, increase trauma, decrease interpersonal trust and safety and influence traditional gender norms.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313504/original/file-20200204-41527-iffftw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313504/original/file-20200204-41527-iffftw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313504/original/file-20200204-41527-iffftw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313504/original/file-20200204-41527-iffftw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313504/original/file-20200204-41527-iffftw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313504/original/file-20200204-41527-iffftw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313504/original/file-20200204-41527-iffftw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Women who spend longer periods of their early lives in less affluent neighbourhoods are at greater risk of experiencing violence during their early adulthoods.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/adult-blur-city-dawn-171296/">Pexels</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The researchers highlight the critical ways “structural forces” – from <a href="https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/incarceration-rates-international-perspective/">mass incarceration</a> to social and economic changes over time like <a href="https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780190915858.001.0001/oso-9780190915858-chapter-9">urban development and changes in employment opportunities</a> – shaped participants’ neighbourhoods and experiences.</p>
<p>If women who grow up in more disadvantaged neighbourhoods are more likely to have partners with similar backgrounds, these factors may further explain our findings.</p>
<h2>Reducing inequalities</h2>
<p>Intimate partner violence can affect women from all walks of life. <a href="https://mrc.ukri.org/documents/pdf/complex-interventions-guidance/">But to design effective prevention</a>, factors that change the risk of this violence must be targeted.</p>
<p>To our knowledge, <a href="https://journals.lww.com/epidem/pages/articleviewer.aspx?year=9000&issue=00000&article=98463&type=Abstract">our research</a> is the first to look at the relationship between neighbourhood disadvantage and intimate partner violence over a long period of time. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29771615">Most studies on partner violence</a> only look at the neighbourhoods women are living in at one point in time. This does not account for the fact that some people move and that <a href="http://www.rootcausecoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Where-When-Why-and-For-Whom-Do-Residential-Contexts-Matter-Moving-Away-from-the-Dichotomous-Understanding-of-Neighborhood-Effects.pdf">this change in environments may matter</a>. Indeed, our findings suggest that these differences in the duration of exposure to neighbourhood deprivation matter when determining the risk of partner violence.</p>
<p><a href="https://academic.oup.com/wbro/article/33/2/218/5091868">Emerging</a> <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-015-2460-4">evidence</a> – mainly from low and middle-income countries – has shown that targeting conditions like income inequality reduces partner violence. Our results suggest that policy and intervention strategies that reduce neighbourhood inequalities may also prevent this violence.</p>
<p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0886260504267838?casa_token=f61-KPfrxpEAAAAA:8HnzPHVwEd-l99Mn8JCu_ip42sgL6PGD_mriHksH03G5AgBc6zVZieTGQWCCNencWOTxSPJnP9GkJQ">Women’s reports</a> on their experiences of violence are critical to understanding the burden of intimate partner violence. But research and policy that moves beyond individual factors to account for the role of neighbourhood and societal contexts over time is needed for large scale change to happen.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/128037/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexa Yakubovich receives funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR).
In addition to CIHR, Alexa's work on the research described in this article was funded by a Rhodes Scholarship from The Rhodes Trust and scholarships and grants from the University of Oxford and University of Manitoba.</span></em></p>Women who lived in more deprived neighbourhoods during the first 18 years of their lives were nearly 40% more likely to experience partner violence in early adulthood.Alexa Yakubovich, Postdoctoral Fellow in Public Health, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1249272019-11-27T14:35:41Z2019-11-27T14:35:41ZMid-high school certificate is a game changer for South Africa<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303495/original/file-20191125-74576-1mvqriv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every year, <a href="https://www.iol.co.za/saturday-star/news/matricresults-drop-out-crisis-in-sa-schools-18693946">more than 300,000 pupils drop out</a> of South African schools after Grade 9. The average age at this level of schooling is 15 years old. Some of them aren’t academically prepared to progress to the next grade; some leave because of financial difficulties. Many of the pupils who leave school at that stage remain unemployed for years. Around <a href="https://sajems.org/index.php/sajems/article/view/515/470">half</a> of the population under 25 years old is unemployed, in an economy that’s <a href="http://www.hsrc.ac.za/uploads/pageContent/7429/LMIP_SkillsSupplyandDemand_Sept2016">barely growing and lacks skilled workers</a>. </p>
<p>The South African government has <a href="https://www.education.gov.za/Newsroom/Speeches/tabid/950/ctl/Details/mid/8127/ItemID/7624/Default.aspx">proposed</a> a new certificate for school leavers at Grade 9, which is the second year of high school. It’s aimed at giving them some indication of competence in the job market. Currently, the only school leaving certificate is issued at the end of Grade 12, the final year of high school.</p>
<p>Some critics argue that the new certificate may encourage more pupils to drop out of school. But we argue that the additional testing for the certificate is a positive move. This is because of its potential to improve the <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/the-purpose-of-tests-7688">quality and structure of education</a> in ways that support youth employment and the economy. </p>
<p>The General Education Certificate will be a formal qualification that school leavers can use to enrol at technical and vocational education and training colleges or to look for work. </p>
<h2>Post-school pathways</h2>
<p>As things stand, after Grade 9 pupils can enter into the academic stream from Grade 10 to Grade 12 in schools. Or they can enter technical or occupational streams at colleges. This latter route is not popular. In a 2015 Trends in International Mathematics and Science <a href="https://www.hsrcpress.ac.za/books/timms-2015-grade-9-national-report">Study</a>, more than 70% of Grade 9 pupils said they wanted a tertiary qualification in the form of a certificate, diploma or university degree. </p>
<p>In the same survey, only 4% intended to apply at Further Education and Training colleges after Grade 9. Reasons for this include a lack of awareness about other training options. This overwhelming preference for the academic pathway is a problem in a country ranked among the <a href="http://www.hsrc.ac.za/en/media-briefs/education-and-skills-development/timss-study-results">lowest</a> in academic tests.</p>
<p>The South African education environment is structured in a way that hasn’t allowed young people to be realistic about their potential and the availability of options other than finishing high school to gain a university entrance.</p>
<p>To change this, the minimum competencies required to obtain the new mid-level high school certificate must be made explicit. The subjects that will be chosen for assessment must be valued by society. Examples are English for business communication and mathematics for numeracy. These subjects should signal the readiness of learners to succeed in technical vocational and occupational programmes or the labour market. </p>
<p>One of the positive side effects of putting in place an assessment tool for a high quality and economically relevant qualification is that the quality of education offered at lower grades in the schooling system will improve. The assessment would, for example, force schools and teachers to spend more resources and effort at lower grades to prepare pupils better for the Grade 9 certificate exams. They currently make this kind of effort for the Grade 12 certificate. </p>
<p>When vocational and training colleges are expected to play a more important role in the education system, they will have more opportunities to offer relevant training in areas such as agriculture, business, tourism, information and communications technology. This can happen if colleges receive more public and private funding. </p>
<p>If the mid-high school certificate becomes a generally accepted qualification for admission into <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/18146627.2017.1352452">technical and vocational education and training colleges</a>, fewer learners will wait until completing Grade 12 before applying to those colleges. </p>
<p>Most technical and vocational college qualifications are ranked lower than or similar to a Grade 12 certificate. It’s therefore a waste of time for pupils to complete Grade 12 before entering a college programme at a lower qualification level. </p>
<h2>Concerns</h2>
<p>Critics point out that many of the country’s vocational training institutions aren’t <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/18146627.2017.1352452">equipped</a> to cope with a possible influx of learners who have the new certificate. Although this argument has merit, it can also be argued that with the new certificate in place, there would be an incentive to improve the curriculum and management of those institutions. </p>
<p>With more public and private sector focus on these colleges they would be forced to respond to job market needs better than they do now. The Grade 9 certificate would contribute to improving the colleges’ responsiveness to market demands. </p>
<p>Another concern is that the certificate would encourage higher drop-out rates from the schooling system. This may be true for pupils who want to enter the job market but currently stay in school because they don’t have alternatives. The certificate would give them something to show the job market. </p>
<p>With more options made more explicit, leaving the academic route to follow more vocational technical and occupational streams couldn’t be classified as dropping out of the schooling system altogether. </p>
<h2>Going forward</h2>
<p>The quality of the mid-level high school certificate should provide a choice of different types of technical and vocational programmes. These should include short term occupational and trade qualifications through private colleges, not only the three year technical programmes normally offered at public colleges. </p>
<p>This means that all vocational and training college programmes must have high economic currencies that are responsive to the practical demands of the labour market. </p>
<p>For the education system to work better as a whole, there needs to be more alignment of vision, policy and implementation between the Department of Basic Education and the Department of Higher Education and Training. Both government departments must find strategies for working with the private sector to ensure that education and training is always relevant to economic needs. </p>
<p>With a meaningful mid-level high school certificate and the above mentioned programmes in place, the prevailing negative mindsets of learners and employers around vocational technical and occupational routes are also likely to disappear.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124927/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nhlanhla Mbatha receives funding from the School of Business Leadership at University of South Africa. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vijay Reddy receives funding from Department of Basic Education and the Dependent of Science and Innovation.</span></em></p>Some critics argue that the new certificate may encourage more pupils to drop out of school. But we argue that it is a positive move.Cyril Nhlanhla Mbatha, Professor of Economics, School of Business Leadership (Unisa), University of South AfricaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1001802018-07-25T14:46:21Z2018-07-25T14:46:21ZLots of young South Africans aren’t going to technical colleges. What can be done<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228416/original/file-20180719-142432-1uu9ctf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many South African students prefer universities and neglect technical colleges.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Kim Ludbrook</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Improved education is widely regarded as one of the key dimensions needed to address South Africa’s pervasive legacy of poverty, inequality and youth unemployment. Improving access to higher education and to technical colleges in particular has a special place in this debate.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.chet.org.za/books/responding-educational-needs-post-school-youth;https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/5k4c0vvbvv0q-en.pdf?expires=1531994593&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=57C1F93BAD9C1A55F149D01B24BE8F05;http://www.lmip.org.za/sites/default/files/documentfiles/HSRC%20LMIP%20Report%2023%20WEB.pdf">research</a> is clear on this. The completion of any post-schooling education substantially improves labour market prospects. Therefore increasing access is critical.</p>
<p>But much of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/africa/search?utf8=%E2%9C%93&q=fees+must+fall">debate</a> has focused on the high costs of tertiary education and the need for fees to fall at universities. A bigger challenge is increasing the overall number of students enrolled in the technical college system known in South Africa as Technical and Vocational Education and Training.</p>
<p>Technical colleges are intended to provide vocational or mid-level skills education to school leavers with a minimum schooling level of Grade 9. They offer an important alternative to university for improving education and skills development. </p>
<p>The South African government realises the importance of these colleges and has announced a goal of having <a href="http://www.dhet.gov.za/Planning%20Monitoring%20and%20Evaluation%20Coordination/Investment%20Trends%20on%20Post-School%20Education%20and%20Training%20in%20South%20Africa%20-%202018.pdf">2.5 million</a> students enrolled in them. This is a tall order. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.dhet.gov.za/DHET%20Statistics%20Publication/Statistics%20on%20Post-School%20Education%20and%20Training%20in%20South%20Africa%202016.pdf">Latest statistics</a> show that public and private colleges together had about 780 000 students, compared to about 970 000 in public universities. That’s despite admission requirements being lower for college applicants. This indicates that technical colleges are not a first choice institution for post-secondary schooling.</p>
<p>Policymakers are therefore faced with a challenge. But how should they fix it?</p>
<p>Some answers can be found from data collected in a long-term research project – the <a href="http://www.nids.uct.ac.za">National Income Dynamics Study</a> – that assessed the changing life circumstances of 28,000 individual South Africans. It provides interesting insights. </p>
<p>The information shows that young people from poor families are the ones who aren’t signing up for any kind of tertiary education. This is a critical cohort of people in the country. But to make it possible for them to attend technical colleges – and for government to increase technical college enrolments fourfold – a number of things will have to change. </p>
<p>This includes tackling the preference for university and the limited enrolment of young people who don’t complete Grade 12 in college. Only 60% of children entering South African schools go on to write the Grade 12 exam and only a third enrol in post-secondary schooling. </p>
<p>Fixing all the problems will take a lot. To broaden access, attention needs to focus on the group that’s not currently participating in any form of post-secondary education. </p>
<h2>Why young people drop out</h2>
<p>One of the key aims of the study was to determine the factors influencing when, why and how South Africans move in and out of income poverty. The study has data on the circumstances of young people at the point when they are in matric (Grade 12 - the final year of school). Therefore it presents a unique opportunity to examine post-schooling enrolment across the entire system.</p>
<p>The data is illuminating. While there are a number of factors that combine to hinder further access to education after leaving school, three rise above others: academic merit (as measured by numeracy scores); household income; and level of parental education.</p>
<p>It shows that academically able young people from high income and low income households are more likely to enrol at university. High income households because they can afford university fees. Low income students because educational grants and scholarships come to their rescue. </p>
<p>Academically eligible youth from middle-income households, tend rather to enrol in technical colleges even though their scores suggest they may qualify to study at university. It is likely that this is due to short-term funding constraints.</p>
<p>The data also shows that while technical college students are more socio-economically similar to those not enrolled in any post-secondary schooling, they tend to have noticeably higher scores on their numeracy tests, marginally higher household incomes during Grade 12, and mothers who are more educated.</p>
<p>Young people with lower scholastic ability in low- and middle-income houses therefore appear to be the most at risk for not progressing to post-schooling training. This finding should make them a prime target for policy intervention.</p>
<h2>Funding reform, and more</h2>
<p>These insights have a valuable contribution to make to the current debate around free university education and what a new funding model for higher education should look like if post-secondary schooling numbers are going to improve.</p>
<p>Based on the insights from the data, it’s clear that funding should be directed at a number of key groups. The first is middle-income students with scholastic ability who qualify to study at university but who end up at technical colleges due to financial constraints. </p>
<p>But to maximise impact, funding must also be used to increase enrolments and broaden the base of students, particularly those with lower levels of scholastic ability, in post-secondary schooling. Enabling young people who would not otherwise have studied, the opportunity to gain a skill and hence a foothold in the labour market, must be a priority.</p>
<p>Challenges over and above funding also need to be addressed if the target for expanded access to technical colleges is to be met.</p>
<p>The problems afflicting technical colleges must be addressed. They are often perceived as second-rate institutions compared to universities. This may reflect institutional challenges – including poor management – as well as a disconnect between course content and the skills needed in the labour market. Understanding these underlying reasons and taking steps to ensure that they become institutions of choice will be necessary to broaden access.</p>
<p><em>This article is based on <a href="http://www.nids.uct.ac.za/images/papers/2016_09_NIDSW4.pdf">work</a> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L2bI6UzP1Lo&t=6s">and a study</a> that forms part of the Siyaphambili Project, a hub for post-schooling information and research in South Africa</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100180/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicola Branson receives funding from the Kresge Foundation. The study on which the article is based was conducted as part of the Labour Market Intelligence Partnership, research consortium headed by the Human Sciences Research Council (South Africa) and funded by the Department of Higher Education and Training (South Africa).
</span></em></p>South Africa needs to improve efforts to increase student numbers at technical colleges.Nicola Branson, Senior Research Fellow, SALDRU, School of Economics, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/878442017-11-30T02:35:40Z2017-11-30T02:35:40ZAs students near graduation, career and technical education provides a boost<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196751/original/file-20171128-28866-125hthj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Students work on an experiment in a biotech class at Antioch High School in Antioch, California. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Rethinking-Vocational-Education/e55c08ead3084d288e24022cd7f92806/9/0">AP Photo/ Ben Margot</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For the past decade or so, every American president has sought to use career and technical education – or CTE – as a way to boost achievement and prepare students for the jobs of tomorrow.</p>
<p>When the <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/policy/sectech/leg/perkins/index.html">Bush administration</a> signed into law the existing federal CTE policy in 2006, the goal was to increase “focus on the academic achievement of career and technical education students.” </p>
<p>Under the <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/cte/transforming-career-technical-education.pdf">Obama administration</a>, career and technical education was seen as a way to “prepare all students, regardless of their backgrounds or circumstances, for further education and cutting-edge careers.” </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFTkBF5Faus&feature=youtu.be&t=40m3s">current administration</a> has taken the same stance – with the president stating in April that “vocational education is the way of the future.” </p>
<p>Academic research shows that taking CTE classes can <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.3102/0091732X16678602">benefit students</a> by improving their odds of graduation, boosting their chances of participating in advanced math and science coursework, and increasing their earnings immediately after high school. </p>
<p>However, it’s not just CTE implemented in any old way that has proven beneficial. Rather, as a current education policy Ph.D. student who focuses on college and career readiness, I have discovered that the timing of CTE matters when it comes to high school completion and dropout prevention. </p>
<p>This conclusion is based on a <a href="http://new.every1graduates.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/0002831217734805.pdf">research study</a> that associate professor and education researcher <a href="https://education.ucsb.edu/research-faculty/bio?first=Michael&last=Gottfried">Michael Gottfried</a> and I conducted this past year, examining the impact that CTE has during different years in high school.</p>
<h2>Later years really count</h2>
<p>To conduct our study, we used a nationally representative data set that included more than 11,000 students in public schools around the country.</p>
<p>We found that CTE taken during the freshman and sophomore years in high school did not relate to a student’s chances of graduating from high school or lower his or her chances of dropping out. However, CTE in the junior and senior years related to both increased chances of graduating on time and decreased chances of dropping out.</p>
<p>Specifically, we found that taking CTE classes during senior year was associated with a 2.1 percent improved chance of on-time graduation and a 1.8 percent lower chance of dropping out. While these percentages may seem small, it’s important to keep in mind that this is for each CTE unit completed. In other words, a student taking two CTE units in his or her senior year would expect a 4.2 percent increase in chances of graduating on time. This CTE bump is similar to the benefit from <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2112764">participating in an academic club</a>, which can reduce the chances of dropout by about 1.8 percent.</p>
<p>So why does CTE have an relationship to graduation and dropout for juniors and seniors, but not for freshman and sophomores?</p>
<h2>Factors for success</h2>
<p>Based on <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1071751">previous research</a>, three potential factors explain how CTE may relate to high school graduation, as well as <a href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42748.pdf">other positive outcomes</a> for students. These three factors are skill-building, engagement and relevance.</p>
<p>During the early years of high school, participation in CTE courses may provide the building blocks for later learning by teaching <a href="https://ccrscenter.org/sites/default/files/CCRS%20Primer%20Brief.pdf">college and career readiness skills</a> and promoting <a href="https://www.rti.org/sites/default/files/resources/cte-outcomes-els_final.pdf">engagement</a>. Ultimately, we found that these early courses did not have a direct relationship with on-time graduation. However, students who take CTE early in high school are more likely to take CTE later in high school. Building the early skills matters, just not in direct relation to graduation or dropping out. </p>
<p>Taking CTE courses later in high school may also connect more closely with <a href="http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/CTE_Oct2010.pdf">school relevance</a>. As students get to the end of high school, they begin thinking about what’s next in life. For some, that future includes college. For others, they might go directly into a career. Whichever path a student is considering, CTE courses later in high school can help to show how high school is an important place to prepare for the next step.</p>
<h2>Looking forward</h2>
<p>We were encouraged by our finding that CTE is related to improved graduation rates and lower dropout rates, and we believe there are some important takeaways from these findings.</p>
<p>First, the timing of CTE matters. This should be taken into consideration in designing both high school CTE programs and CTE policies. Second, the results support increasing CTE in high school to encourage engagement and relevance. Finally, our findings support the renewal of current federal CTE policy through the <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/5587">Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act</a>, which recently passed through the House of Representatives and went on to the Senate. The new version of the policy tries to improve the alignment between employer needs and CTE programs. It also seeks to encourage cooperation between stakeholders and increase CTE participation for traditionally underrepresented groups, such as students with disabilities and minority students. Our findings support the reauthorization of the policy by showing that the existing CTE policy has succeeded in promoting the first step in college and career readiness – high school graduation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87844/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jay Stratte Plasman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Career and technical education, or CTE, can boost the chances of high school graduation and lower the likelihood of dropping out, but timing is crucial, researchers argue.Jay Stratte Plasman, Ph.D. Candidate in Education Policy, Leadership, and Methodology, University of California, Santa BarbaraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/793462017-06-14T20:07:47Z2017-06-14T20:07:47ZLeaving school early means you’re likely never to return to study and training in adult life<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173543/original/file-20170613-32034-76ew1m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">To the taxpayer, each long-term early school leaver costs $335,000.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>One in eight Australians will never get Year 12 qualifications. Some, but not all of these people, make up the one in eight Australians who will be disengaged from full-time work, study or training for most of their lives. </p>
<p>These groups are the subject of Mitchell Institute’s <a href="http://www.mitchellinstitute.org.au/reports/costs-of-lost-opportunity/">Counting the Costs of Lost Opportunity report</a>. The report paints a picture of Australians who, from a young age, miss out on opportunities to reach their full potential so, as adults, struggle to contribute to society and find success.</p>
<p>The Australians caught in these statistics represent a level of failure in the education system. This failure carries a huge cost for the individuals, their families, the economy and the country. </p>
<h2>Early school leavers</h2>
<p>Completion of Year 12 or an equivalent qualification is an indication of whether young people have developed knowledge and skills to prepare them for further study or participation in the workforce. </p>
<p>It is one of the benchmarks that separates those who will proceed to further study and training from those who will not. </p>
<p>But it is not as simple as students reaching Year 10 or 11 then deciding school isn’t for them. <a href="http://www.mitchellinstitute.org.au/reports/educational-opportunity-in-australia-2015-who-succeeds-and-who-misses-out/">Evidence suggests</a> paths towards dropping out and disengagement begin early, and certain segments of the population are particularly at risk. </p>
<p>Failure to complete Year 12 can also be in response to difficulties that emerge late in the schooling years, such as health problems (including mental health), family disruption and severe bullying or victimisation. </p>
<h2>Disengaged young people</h2>
<p>Looking solely at early school leavers who did not complete Year 12 does not accurately or fully identify those on a trajectory to a lifetime of disengagement, as some return to study later in life. </p>
<p>A better picture is gained from looking at those not fully engaged in employment, education or training by the age of 24. </p>
<p><a href="http://melbourneinstitute.unimelb.edu.au/hilda/publications/hilda-statistical-reports">By tracking</a> 25 to 44 year olds from 2001-2014, we found that almost 90% of men and 82% of women who had not completed Year 12 did not return to study and training. </p>
<p>They were early leavers in their teen years, and as adults they still had no qualifications.</p>
<p>About 18% of early leavers remain disengaged from education, training and work their entire adult lives. This is about two and a half times higher than the rate for people who complete Year 12. </p>
<p>It is clear that achievement is largely locked in by the age of 25 and if you don’t have a Year 12 qualification by then, you are unlikely ever to. </p>
<h2>Cost of missing out at age 19</h2>
<p>To the taxpayer, each long-term early school leaver costs $335,000. </p>
<p>Across that cohort of 38,000 early leavers, the annual fiscal burden amounts to over $315 million for those who will remain without Year 12 or equivalent qualifications across their adult lives. </p>
<p>The full lifetime cost to the taxpayer of this cohort is $12.6 billion. </p>
<p>From the social perspective, each early leaver costs the Australian community $616,000. This equates to over $580 million annually for the cohort of long-term early leavers. The full lifetime burden amounts to $23.2 billion.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173683/original/file-20170613-8123-1ac2nvt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173683/original/file-20170613-8123-1ac2nvt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173683/original/file-20170613-8123-1ac2nvt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173683/original/file-20170613-8123-1ac2nvt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173683/original/file-20170613-8123-1ac2nvt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173683/original/file-20170613-8123-1ac2nvt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173683/original/file-20170613-8123-1ac2nvt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fiscal and social costs of early school leaving at net present value.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lamb and Huo (2017)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Cost of missing out at age 24</h2>
<p>The cost to Australian taxpayers for each person who will remain disengaged from work for more than half their lives is $412,000 over a working lifetime. Across the cohort of 46,000 disengaged young people, this amounts to over $471 million each year or $18.8 billion over a working lifetime.</p>
<p>For communities, each disengaged young person costs about $1 million over a lifetime. This is almost $1.3 billion annually per cohort and $50.5 billion for the group’s full lifetime cost. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173684/original/file-20170613-11089-1lyhf30.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173684/original/file-20170613-11089-1lyhf30.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173684/original/file-20170613-11089-1lyhf30.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173684/original/file-20170613-11089-1lyhf30.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173684/original/file-20170613-11089-1lyhf30.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173684/original/file-20170613-11089-1lyhf30.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173684/original/file-20170613-11089-1lyhf30.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fiscal and social costs of long term disengagement at net present value.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lamb and Huo (2017)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Employment, crime, welfare and health impacts</h2>
<p>Disparities in educational attainment lead to major differences in many areas of life: people who miss out face increased likelihood of experiencing unemployment or underemployment, crime, public welfare dependency and poor health. </p>
<p>In 2016, employment levels were <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/6523.0">far better</a> for those with degrees or diplomas compared with early leavers. 80% of people with a Bachelors degree or above and 75% of people with an Advanced Diploma or Diploma were employed, compared with 67% for people with Year 12 and only 44% of those with Year 11 or below. </p>
<p>In 2009, prisoners aged 25-34 years were much less likely to have a Year 12 qualification than people of the same age in the general population (14% compared to 63%), and significantly more likely to have completed less than Year 9 (17% compared to 1%). </p>
<p>Similarly, people aged between 15-64 with no qualifications are almost two and a half times more likely than those with university degrees to be dependent on government income support. </p>
<p>And, lower levels of educational attainment are associated with poorer health, including conditions such as strokes, hypertension, high cholesterol, depression and diabetes. </p>
<h2>What needs to be done?</h2>
<p>The costs of having young Australians grow up without the skills needed to thrive in the 21st century emphasises an urgent need for educational reform – we simply cannot afford to do nothing. </p>
<p>In the determination of how much economic potential is being lost, it is equally vital to identify the policies that might harness the lost potential. </p>
<p>It’s important to look at the strategies that are needed to transform our schools and make our education system work well for all. </p>
<p>This is an important next stage of the work. It will need to look at the benefits of interventions such as:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>providing targeted access to high-quality programs in early childhood education</p></li>
<li><p>better addressing the welfare and schooling needs of young people from disadvantaged backgrounds</p></li>
<li><p>ensuring access to high quality programs and support as young people ascend school</p></li>
<li><p>investing in the vocational education and training (VET) system to ensure high quality training pathways and equitable access as a priority.</p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79346/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Lamb co-authored the Counting the Costs of Lost Opportunity report. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shuyan Huo co-authored the Counting the Costs of Lost Opportunity report. </span></em></p>Achievement is largely locked in by the age of 25, so those who do not have a Year 12 qualification by then are unlikely ever to have one.Stephen Lamb, Research Chair in Education and Director of the Centre for International Research on Education Systems, Victoria UniversityShuyan Huo, Senior Research Fellow, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/757602017-04-19T22:33:43Z2017-04-19T22:33:43ZThe myth of the college dropout<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165910/original/file-20170419-2414-1uczzk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C57%2C3208%2C1772&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mark Zuckerberg is, quite famously, a college dropout. But his case is the exception – not the rule.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Paul Sakuma</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Facebook founder <a href="https://www.forbes.com/profile/mark-zuckerberg/">Mark Zuckerberg</a> was asked to give this year’s commencement address at Harvard, he <a href="https://twitter.com/harvard/status/839184579340685312?lang=en">asked for advice</a> from <a href="https://www.forbes.com/profile/bill-gates/">Bill Gates</a>.</p>
<p>Zuckerberg said, “They know we didn’t actually graduate, right?”</p>
<p>To which Gates replied, “Oh, that is the best part! They actually give you a degree!”</p>
<p>This recent exchange between two famous Harvard dropouts might lead you to think college doesn’t matter. Numerous media stories and even famous billionaires are <a href="http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1988080_1988093_1988082,00.htm">glamorizing dropouts</a> or encouraging kids to <a href="http://www.newsweek.com/2017/03/03/peter-thiel-fellowship-college-higher-education-559261.html">skip college entirely</a>.</p>
<p>While it’s true there are successful college dropouts, statistically speaking, they are not the norm. As researchers in education and talent, we found that the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2017.1302874">vast majority</a> of the country’s success stories are college graduates, such as <a href="https://www.forbes.com/profile/sheryl-sandberg/">Sheryl Sandberg</a> (Harvard), <a href="https://www.forbes.com/profile/jeff-bezos/">Jeff Bezos</a> (Princeton) and <a href="https://www.forbes.com/profile/marissa-mayer/">Marissa Mayer</a> (Stanford).</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"839184579340685312"}"></div></p>
<h2>The myth of the mega-successful college dropout</h2>
<p>In a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2017.1302874">recent study</a>, we investigated how many of the wealthiest and most influential people graduated college. We studied 11,745 U.S. leaders, including CEOs, federal judges, politicians, multi-millionaires and billionaires, business leaders and the most globally powerful men and women.</p>
<p>We also examined how many people graduated from an “elite school.” (<a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289613000263">Our definition</a> included the eight Ivy League schools, plus many of the top national universities and liberal arts colleges consistently high in the <a href="https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges">U.S. News rankings</a> for both undergraduate and graduate education.)</p>
<p><iframe id="Egg6u" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/Egg6u/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>We found about 94 percent of these U.S. leaders attended college, and about 50 percent attended an elite school. Though almost everyone went to college, elite school attendance varied widely. For instance, only 20.6 percent of House members and 33.8 percent of 30-millionaires attended an elite school, but over 80 percent of <a href="https://www.forbes.com/powerful-people/list/">Forbes’ most powerful people</a> did. For whatever reason, about twice as many senators – 41 percent – as House members went to elite schools.</p>
<p>For comparison, based on census and college data, we estimate that only about 2 to 5 percent of all U.S. undergraduates went to one of the elite schools in our study. The people from our study attended elite schools at rates well above typical expectations.</p>
<h2>Do elite schools matter?</h2>
<p>This year, elite schools saw an <a href="http://www.marketwatch.com/story/ivy-league-schools-have-gotten-even-more-selective-2017-04-01">increase</a> in applications and selectivity. <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w17159">Research</a> suggests there is <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/04/what-is-an-elite-college-really-worth/521577/">no difference in adult income</a> between students who attended highly selective schools and students with similar SAT scores who attended less selective schools. At least for long-term earnings, where you go may not be critical, as long as you attend and graduate.</p>
<p>Yet, our data show that for students with talent and motivation to make it to the top of U.S. society, an elite college might just help you get there – whether it’s the networks you acquire or the brand on your resume.</p>
<p>While looking at over 11,000 successful leaders, we rarely encountered people who came from extremely poor or disadvantaged backgrounds. Helping <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2372732215621310">disadvantaged talented students</a> enter elite schools could promote <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-nation-at-risk-how-gifted-low-income-kids-are-left-behind-56119">diversity</a> among future leaders.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165912/original/file-20170419-2392-1ym9i49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165912/original/file-20170419-2392-1ym9i49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165912/original/file-20170419-2392-1ym9i49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165912/original/file-20170419-2392-1ym9i49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165912/original/file-20170419-2392-1ym9i49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165912/original/file-20170419-2392-1ym9i49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165912/original/file-20170419-2392-1ym9i49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165912/original/file-20170419-2392-1ym9i49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Princeton University had a record-setting number of applicants for its class of 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/3gmYy">Sindy Lee / flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>College matters</h2>
<p>Admittedly, the educational path of the cream of the crop may not apply to most people. So, going to college <a href="https://qz.com/367077/frank-bruni-is-wrong-about-ivy-league-schools/">may not be the right or even the best path</a> for everyone. However, if you’re a student thinking about not going to college or considering dropping out, remember that even Gates and Zuckerberg got into college. Even if you’re not aiming for mega success, doing the work to get into and graduate from college today may <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2017.1302874">open important doors</a>.</p>
<p>Perhaps in the future, college may not be as important to employers. But for now, college dropouts who rule the world are rare exceptions – not the rule.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/75760/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While the media glamorizes famous college dropouts like Mark Zuckerberg and Bill Gates, the reality is that most successful people in the U.S. went to – and finished – college.Jonathan Wai, Research Scientist, Duke UniversityHeiner Rindermann, Professor of Educational and Developmental Psychology, Chemnitz University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/708532017-01-05T08:49:23Z2017-01-05T08:49:23ZWhy caution is called for when analysing South Africa’s matric results<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151797/original/image-20170105-18650-1kp9fgr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There are big problems in South Africa's school systems. These aren't often discussed when matric results are released.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">REUTERS/Siphiwe Sibeko</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>South Africans are poring over the latest set of <a href="http://www.enca.com/south-africa/2016-matric-results-by-numbers">matric results</a> which show how the country’s school leavers performed in their final exams after 12 years of formal schooling. Nearly 718 000 people wrote the exams and 72.5% of them passed – a small increase on last year.</em></p>
<p><em>The results always generate a great deal of debate – and often anger. The Conversation Africa’s education editor Natasha Joseph asked Associate Professor Elizabeth Walton to explain the results and why it’s crucial to remember the young people behind the numbers.</em></p>
<p><strong>There’s a huge focus on matric results every year, particularly on the national pass rate. Is this a useful obsession?</strong></p>
<p>I am not convinced that this annual obsession with matric results is productive. The national pass rate is a very blunt instrument with which to dissect South Africa’s very complex educational problems. The national pass rate obscures important differences in provincial achievements, the urban/rural divide and the unequal outcomes for learners in poorer schools. </p>
<p>It also does not tell us much about the quality of the passes, nor about the subjects taken. The national pass rate also reflects only the learners who sat the exam. It does not take into account the <a href="http://www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/Documents/Publications/General%20Household%20Survey%202013.pdf?ver=2015-07-07-111309-287">numbers of early school leavers</a> who did not make it to matric. </p>
<p>This year the <a href="http://www.education.gov.za/Newsroom/Speeches/tabid/950/ctl/Details/mid/3816/ItemID/4238/Default.aspx">announcement</a> by Angie Motshekga, the Minister of Basic Education, showed 828 020 candidates registered for the examinations. But only 717 971 – full time and part time – actually wrote the exams. This means that more than 100 000 learners made it to grade 12, but fell before the final hurdle.</p>
<p><strong>Is a final set of exams at the end of 12 years of schooling the best way for South Africa to judge pupils’ readiness for entering the world of work or continuing on to tertiary education? What other options exist?</strong></p>
<p>Many education systems around the world combine a school-based assessment component with some external standardised assessment as a school leaving qualification. But it seems to me that we should not be looking at a major change at this stage. The system needs to settle and mature. I do think, though, it would be good to revisit South African academic Professor Stephanie Allais’ <a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africa-should-scrap-simple-pass-or-fail-exam-results-for-school-leavers-34928">proposal</a> that the current pass or fail system be scrapped.</p>
<p>She suggests that learners should instead be allowed to complete grade 12 with a basket of subjects and results which could then be presented to an employer or institution of higher learning. This would shift the focus from the national pass rate to the enrolment and results of individual subjects. It might also mean that schools could be less concerned with an overall school pass rate and rather focus on subject-level improvement over time. </p>
<p>It is possible to improve a school’s pass rate without actually improving teaching and learning; for example by finding ways to exclude learners who may compromise a school’s results, or by not offering subjects that are perceived to be difficult, like maths and physical science. </p>
<p>I also think we need to be realistic in terms of what we expect a matric qualification to signal. The minister of basic education has <a href="http://www.education.gov.za/Newsroom/Speeches/tabid/950/ctl/Details/mid/3816/ItemID/4238/Default.aspx">noted</a> that it is an exit qualification and not primarily a tool for evaluating the progress of the system.</p>
<p>For those who are not looking to pursue further education, a matric certificate is expected to provide proof of preparation for the world of work. Others expect it provide evidence of the foundations of academic literacy and subject competence that will enable success in higher learning. These expectations are not always compatible with what South Africans regard as “basic education”. </p>
<p>To address this “one-size-fits-all” matric, the Department of Basic Education has <a href="http://www.gov.za/speeches/basic-education-department-briefs-portfolio-committee-skills-revolution-15-mar-2016-0000">proposed</a> a three stream education system with an Academic Stream, a Technical Vocational Stream and a Technical Occupational Stream. This is expected to address the problem of early school leaving and prepare learners for the world of work. </p>
<p><strong>Maths and science results often get the most attention. They are obviously important “canaries in the coal mine” that point to the system’s overall health. But are there subjects that deserve more attention and whose results can paint a picture of what’s going wrong – or right?</strong></p>
<p>I think it is vital that maths and science retain our attention, for several reasons. These are gateway subjects for the science, technology, engineering and maths occupations South Africa <a href="http://www.dhet.gov.za/Gazette/Government%20Gazette%20No%2039604,%2019%20January%202016.%20List%20of%20Occupations%20in%20High%20Demand%202015.pdf">urgently needs</a> to develop. They’re also subjects that bear huge scars of apartheid’s legacy.</p>
<p>They also build sequentially: poor foundations are not easily addressed by late interventions. Having said that I do think that languages, particularly indigenous African languages, also need our focus to secure their growth and development. The introduction of <a href="http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=RMnJX-XwQYE%3d&tabid=420&portalid=0&mid=2373">South African Sign Language</a> as a home language examined at matric level is a definite success story.</p>
<p><strong>What if you’re a young person who’s failed matric? What’s your best option?</strong></p>
<p>This is an important question, because any analysis of the matric results must hold in tension the system and the individual. We cannot ignore the fact that there are real young people with hopes and dreams behind all the numbers. Failure is devastating – particularly in the face of a trend that sees South Africans celebrating individual “top achievers” in newspapers and at prestigious events.</p>
<p>I think we should be wary of this. It assumes that success at school is purely the result of individual effort and ability. Those who don’t succeed are <a href="http://randburgsun.co.za/311238/update-public-shocked-by-lowered-maths-pass-rate/">presumed to be lazy</a> and disinterested in education. These celebrations convey the message that everyone is equally positioned to succeed in a meritocratic process. </p>
<p>In fact, educational success in South Africa has much to do with <a href="http://ci.org.za/depts/ci/pubs/pdf/general/gauge2015/Child_Gauge_2015-Schooling.pdf">household income</a>, the <a href="http://www.ekon.sun.ac.za/wpapers/2007/wp162007/wp-16-2007.pdf">location of the school </a> and good early childhood and foundation phase <a href="http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2223-76822015000200003">education opportunities</a>.</p>
<p>Some learners will be upset because they expected to do well; this sometimes happens when the demands of school-based assessment have not been as rigorous as the <a href="http://www.education.gov.za/Curriculum/NationalSeniorCertificate(NSC)Examinations.aspx">National Senior Certificate</a> exams set by the Department of Basic Education. </p>
<p>There are opportunities to rewrite through the department’s <a href="http://www.education.gov.za/Curriculum/NationalSeniorCertificate(NSC)Examinations/SecondChanceProgramme/tabid/956/Default.aspx">Second Chance Programme </a>. Learners should also seek <a href="http://lifelinesa.co.za/">counselling support</a> for persistent feelings of hopelessness.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/70853/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Walton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>South Africa’s annual matric pass rate obscures important differences in provincial achievements, the rural and urban divide and the unequal outcomes for learners in poorer schools.Elizabeth Walton, Associate professor, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/639722016-10-13T01:27:02Z2016-10-13T01:27:02ZReading, writing and mental health care: why schools need added services<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139816/original/image-20160929-27014-vep5ec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Young students in classroom via Shutterstock.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-243585589/stock-photo-row-of-students-in-a-primary-interracial-classroom-afro-american-girl-paying-attention-to-the-teacher.html?src=Hg4bnMe6xGvDvyNiE2XqJA-1-78">From www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Students across the country have stepped into their classrooms, filled with excitement to start a new year. In many cases, though, students also bring physical, social, and emotional concerns. </p>
<p>For some students, these concerns are normal back-to-school jitters that will not affect their schoolwork. For others, these worries profoundly detract from their ability to learn.</p>
<p>One in five children in the United States has a diagnosable mental health disorder, but<a href="https://www.aap.org/en-us/advocacy-and-policy/federal-advocacy/pages/mentalhealth.aspx"> only 21 percent</a> of those children needing mental health services receive care.</p>
<p>Consider these comments from a parent of a young girl in south Georgia, where the poverty rate is high and high school <a href="http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/tables/ACGR_RE_and_characteristics_2013-14.asp">graduation rates are low</a> compared to the national average:</p>
<p><em>“She is continually talking about killing herself and she tells me that I don’t understand,” said the parent of a 12-year-old girl who has been seeing a therapist at a public middle school. “She tells me that ‘my therapist understands me and I can talk to her.’ She can see the school therapist whenever she needs to do so. This not only provides her the support that she needs to stay in school but it reassures me that whenever she has suicidal thoughts, help is nearby. The therapist has helped us find a group for family therapy and has met with us at home, too.”</em></p>
<p>This 12-year-old is not alone. According to school therapist Samantha Boatwright, self-harming behaviors and suicidal thoughts are just two of the concerns often shared with her by the youth and families that she supports in her position at a public middle school in south Georgia.</p>
<p>While some may argue the job of schools is to focus solely on academics, it is difficult to ignore the issues that may impair a child’s ability to focus, engage, and learn.</p>
<p>Children with emotional disturbance <a href="https://www.nami.org/getattachment/Learn-More/Mental-Health-by-the-Numbers/childrenmhfacts.pdf">drop out</a> of high school at high rates and <a href="http://www.childrensdefense.org/library/data/mental-health-factsheet.pdf">have higher rates of absenteeism and suspension </a>or expulsion than their peers. In addition, racial, ethnic and socioeconomic <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3011932/">disparities in children’s mental health</a> status and care still exist. </p>
<p>As director and researcher, respectively, at The Center of Excellence for Children’s Behavioral Health at Georgia State University, we have extensively studied these issues and examined potential ways to address them. We know this is a serious public health problem that affects the children involved, their families and society as a whole. We are supporting solutions by partnering with state agencies to promote optimal care for youth with behavioral health difficulties. </p>
<h2>Increasing access through school-based mental health</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139822/original/image-20160929-27026-uiaoq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139822/original/image-20160929-27026-uiaoq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139822/original/image-20160929-27026-uiaoq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139822/original/image-20160929-27026-uiaoq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139822/original/image-20160929-27026-uiaoq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139822/original/image-20160929-27026-uiaoq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139822/original/image-20160929-27026-uiaoq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some students have a desire to self-harm via Shutterstock.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-343217441/stock-photo-teenage-girl-self-harming-with-knife-blade.html?src=BIhFdKH-w0o0mSA-x4IVTw-1-3">From www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>School-based mental health programs were first introduced in the 1980s. According to the most recent data, over one-third of<a href="http://youth.gov/youth-topics/youth-mental-health/school-based"> school districts </a> in the U.S. used school or district staff and over one fourth used outside agencies to provide mental health services in the schools. </p>
<p>Recently, there has been <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10802-005-7645-3">increased interest</a> and momentum in integrating behavioral health services into the school environment due to several factors. Recent federal legislation targets <a href="https://www.aap.org/en-us/advocacy-and-policy/federal-advocacy/pages/mentalhealth.aspx">access to mental health</a> services, and there have been education <a href="http://www.ed.gov/essa">reforms</a> focused on outcomes, early intervention, and flexible learning supports. </p>
<p>The Affordable Care Act has been a boost, allocating funding to support improved and expanded services at <a href="http://www.ncsl.org/portals/1/documents/health/HRSBHC.pdf">school-based health centers</a> and community-school health partnerships.</p>
<p>Evidence from existing state programs shows school-based mental health initiatives increase access to needed mental health services and promote earlier identification of and intervention for mental health needs of <a href="http://ghpc.gsu.edu/files/2016/04/COE_SBMH_Brief_Final.pdf">individual students </a>. Additionally, these programs foster a better school climate with increased attendance and academic performance, and <a href="http://ghpc.gsu.edu/files/2016/04/COE_SBMH_Brief_Final.pdf">fewer discipline referrals and classroom disruptions</a>.</p>
<h2>Helping nearly 1,000 students a month</h2>
<p>In Georgia, the Office of Children, Young Adults and Families (CYF) in the state’s Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Disabilities initiated and funded the Georgia Apex Program, during the 2015-2016 school year to increase school-based mental health services. </p>
<p>The intent, according to CYF Director Danté McKay, is “to provide early detection of mental health needs, increase access to services, and spark increased collaboration between community mental health service providers and schools.”</p>
<p>In its first year the school-based mental health program provided more than $9.5 million in state grants to embed therapists from 29 community service provider agencies into schools across the state. The goal was to promote universal prevention and to provide early intervention and services for at-risk students and their families. </p>
<p>Preliminary results from the first year of the Georgia Apex Program show the program served an average of 951 students each month over the school year. It also provided services to more than 2,400 first-time recipients referred to school-based mental health services. </p>
<p>Providers began serving 104 schools in August, 2015 and eventually served 136 schools by May, 2016.</p>
<p>There were challenges, such as space and family engagement. There were also successes, such as expansion of access and enhanced partnerships between providers and schools. These findings mirror those from <a href="http://ghpc.gsu.edu/files/2016/04/COE_SBMH_Brief_Final.pdf">school-based mental health programs</a> implemented in other parts of the country. </p>
<p>There are notable examples of individual student successes, including at-risk students graduating high school, better school attendance, fewer discipline referrals, and improved grades among program participants.</p>
<p>But, like most new endeavors, support for the program must be built. Initially, increasing awareness and obtaining buy-in from local school officials is critical, as is engaging families because a lack of parental involvement can delay or prevent students from receiving services.</p>
<p>However, with reports of early success, more Georgia schools are requesting therapists and provider agencies plan to increase the number of participating schools during the 2016-2017 school year. </p>
<h2>Developing community partnerships key</h2>
<p>To make sure all children learn and progress, schools must address the developmental and mental health needs of children. This is particularly true for those at <a href="http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_929.html">high risk</a>, including children living in areas of high poverty or grappling with community violence.</p>
<p>This places greater demands on K-12 schools. Therefore, schools weave together a basket of resources from the school district and broader community to ensure students who need additional supports receive these services.</p>
<p>Yet, mental health concerns are often <a href="http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_929.html">overlooked</a> and under-resourced. In some communities, this is simply because of the lack of available resources. However, other barriers exist for families seeking mental health supports including shortages of mental health providers, financial challenges, transportation, scheduling, and stigma-related concerns. Providing mental health services within the school setting can help to address some of these challenges.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63972/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The Center of Excellence for Children's Behavioral Health at Georgia State University receives funding from the Georgia Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Disabilities. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>The Center of Excellence for Children's Behavioral Health at Georgia State University receives funding from the Georgia Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Disabilities.</span></em></p>A small minority of children with mental health issues is getting the help they need. School-based mental health is essential to keep students engaged.Ann DiGirolamo, Director, Center of Excellence for Children's Behavioral Health, Georgia Health Policy Center, Georgia State UniversityDeana Farmer, Senior Research Associate, Georgia Health Policy Center, Georgia State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/515702016-02-03T19:04:46Z2016-02-03T19:04:46ZAustralian students are becoming increasingly disengaged at school – here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109764/original/image-20160201-11642-1n9165d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How can we keep students engaged at school?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Around<a href="http://www.curriculum.edu.au/leader/engagement1,37021.html?issueID=12851"> one in five</a> Australian school students don’t find school engaging, which means they are <a href="http://www.bass.edu.au/files/6913/5966/8146/Sullivan_BaSS_Punish_Them_or_Engage_Them_Report_Overview__visual.pdf">less likely to learn properly.</a>. It’s an issue that tends to worsen as students become older.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2356&context=ajte">study</a> showed that in year 7, 70% of students observed found school engaging, but in year 9, this dropped to 55%.</p>
<p>Part of the reason is that the brightest kids are not being challenged enough, leading to students becoming <a href="http://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/files/Literature%20reviews/2015%20Report%20-%20Children%20at%20risk%20of%20disengaging%20from%20school%20-%20literature%20review%20-%20final.pdf">disconnected and disengaged</a> from their studies. </p>
<p>Disengagement has resulted in Australian classrooms <a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview.pdf">becoming rowdier</a> and bullying becoming more prevalent. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://www.bass.edu.au/files/6913/5966/8146/Sullivan_BaSS_Punish_Them_or_Engage_Them_Report_Overview__visual.pdf">2012 study</a> revealed that just 60% of students in South Australian secondary schools found school engaging. While over two thirds of teachers reported disengaged behaviours on an “almost daily basis”.</p>
<h2>Why are students not engaged at school?</h2>
<p>There are many possible <a href="http://www.bass.edu.au/files/6913/5966/8146/Sullivan_BaSS_Punish_Them_or_Engage_Them_Report_Overview__visual.pdf">reasons</a> for disengagement. Among these are the possibilities that the tasks being set are too challenging or too boring resulting in students being easily distracted; or that lessons being taught are perceived as uninteresting or irrelevant.</p>
<p>This has marked implications for the academic progress of these students, who are then at risk of dropping out of school prior to completion. </p>
<h2>Disengagement can lead to dropping out</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/files/Literature%20reviews/2015%20Report%20-%20Children%20at%20risk%20of%20disengaging%20from%20school%20-%20literature%20review%20-%20final.pdf">Around 25%</a> of disengaged young people do not complete school, with some variation nationally from primary to secondary school. This should be concerning. </p>
<p>Of the 25% who did not complete school in 2013-14, <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4221.02014?OpenDocument">one in four</a> students indicated that they did not like school, with some indicating that their disinterest was on account of not doing well. </p>
<p>Of concern is the <a href="http://www.bass.edu.au/files/6913/5966/8146/Sullivan_BaSS_Punish_Them_or_Engage_Them_Report_Overview__visual.pdf">quietly disengaged</a> student, who sometimes goes unnoticed because they are usually compliant, but not as productive as they could be. </p>
<h2>How to make students more engaged</h2>
<p>While engaged students are keen to perform well, achieve highly, and consequently look forward to successful post-school lives, disengagement can lead to poorer academic performance for some students, and therefore limited success. This can in turn affect their quality of life. </p>
<p><strong>Personalised learning approach</strong></p>
<p>Teaching children in the same way means some of the brightest kids often are not challenged enough. Personalised learning has been <a href="http://education.qld.gov.au/publication/production/reports/pdfs/federalist-paper.pdf">identified</a> as one of the essentials to school success. This involves using <a href="https://www.eduweb.vic.gov.au/edulibrary/public/publ/research/publ/personalising-education-report.pdf">individually designed strategies</a> which tap into student strengths to help increase the level of student engagement. This <a href="http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/support/pages/personalised.aspx">could include</a>, using open learning spaces, student developed timetables and behaviour guidelines.</p>
<p><strong>Add sense of purpose to learning</strong></p>
<p>Getting students involved with projects and using real-life scenarios <a href="http://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1207&context=research_conference">could contribute</a> to a sense of ownership and bring enjoyment to learning. Through these approaches, students are more likely to feel that school is relevant, important and prepares them meaningfully for life outside school.</p>
<p><strong>Foster student wellbeing</strong></p>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2846654/">Positive interactions</a> between teachers and students can help create classroom stability, feelings of security and overall gratification with the learning process. Forming <a href="http://cie.asu.edu/ojs/index.php/cieatasu/article/viewFile/745/162">positive relationships</a> at school can also <a href="http://www.tlrp.org/pub/documents/enrichingschoolingcommentary.pdf">contribute towards</a> a student’s emotional and social wellbeing.</p>
<p>Teachers need to compare their strategies with their peers in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the different methods they use to increase student engagement at schools.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/51570/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pearl Subban is affiliated with Monash University. </span></em></p>Around one in five Australian school students are disengaged, leading to disruptive behaviours in class and students dropping out.Pearl Subban, Lecturer, Faculty of Education, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/505112015-11-11T22:20:29Z2015-11-11T22:20:29ZWhy is school not working for so many young people?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101532/original/image-20151111-21223-19edzv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Disadvantaged children find schools increasingly irrelevant to their lives.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is a growing number of young people giving up and <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/primary-school-kids-missing-years-of-schooling-20151105-gkriht.html">dropping out</a> of school in Australia.</p>
<p>Kids as young as eight are switching off during these fundamental school years and missing out on huge chunks of their education.</p>
<p>The reports keep piling up, painting a <a href="https://www.vu.edu.au/news-events/news/educational-opportunity-in-australia-2015-report-who-succeeds-and-who-misses-out">disturbing picture</a> of a growing disadvantaged group of young people <a href="http://www.hwllen.com.au/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=22&Itemid=148">slipping through the cracks</a>.</p>
<p>But are we getting any closer to understanding the problem? </p>
<p>There can be no doubt that in Anglo-Western countries like Australia, the UK, Canada and the US young people who are being failed by the system are no longer a small disaffected minority of students.</p>
<p>Research shows the education system fails <a href="http://theconversation.com/australian-education-fails-one-in-four-young-people-but-not-the-wealthy-ones-49663">one in four young people</a> in Australia – a figure that has remained stuck for the past two decades or so. In some states this figure is as high as 50%.</p>
<p>If we don’t act soon, then this group of young people may rapidly escalate.</p>
<p>A few years ago some American commentators referred to the problem in the US as the <a href="https://docs.gatesfoundation.org/Documents/TheSilentEpidemic3-06Final.pdf">“silent epidemic”</a>. And they were talking only about the tip of the iceberg — the young people who had given up and dropped out of school. </p>
<p>The even larger problem may lie in the vast number of young people who barely endure school, or who engage with it only episodically, if at all.</p>
<p>It is probably no exaggeration to say that we are in the throes of a social epidemic that is going on largely unnoticed and un-debated, and is silently endured by those most affected.</p>
<h2>Current solutions too simplistic</h2>
<p>A common thread runs through the dominant explanations of the problem — which amount to “deficit” explanations. </p>
<p>That is to say, there must be something missing or wrong with the lives of these young people, their backgrounds, families, educational histories and communities that have to be remedied.</p>
<p>Having located the “problem” as being to do with some kind of alienation/disaffection from school, the solutions reflect these presumptions: </p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.vu.edu.au/news-events/news/educational-opportunity-in-australia-2015-report-who-succeeds-and-who-misses-out">early interventions</a>; </li>
<li><a href="http://www.education.vic.gov.au/about/programs/bullystoppers/Pages/prinprevent.aspx">anti-bullying strategies</a>;</li>
<li>more rigorous <a href="http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/opinion/leaders/article4476434.ece">school discipline policies</a>; </li>
<li><a href="http://www.schools.nsw.edu.au/studentsupport/programs/attendance.php">school truant officers and pastoral care programs</a>; </li>
<li>greater <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13603110802657685#.VkKn_OmKhvE">parental involvement</a>;</li>
<li><a href="https://www.bookdepository.com/From-Silent-Witnesses-Active-Agents-John-Smyth/9781433113734">re-engagement and second-chance programs</a>;</li>
<li>even <a href="http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ820461">naming and shaming underperforming schools</a>, which will supposedly improve their game through exposure to school choice.</li>
</ul>
<p>What remains obscured in these accounts and their supposed solutions is the fact that they are simplistic or one-dimensional explanations for a complex multi-layered social problem. </p>
<p>Glaringly absent from most of these accounts is any extensive explanation or worldview of the problem from the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13603120600894232?journalCode=tedl20">young people themselves</a>, their families, or from their more thoughtful teachers.</p>
<h2>The reasons young people give</h2>
<p>Here are some not-so-conventional explanations mostly revealed by young people themselves.</p>
<p>The already disadvantaged increasingly struggle to see the purpose of schooling. This increasingly includes even the middle classes as young people completing university are finding that the prospects of <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/business/the-economy/generation-y-overqualified-but-unprepared-for-work-20151106-gkt2ud.html">getting a job</a> suitable to their fields of study is difficult if not bleak. Two in three respondents (in a <a href="http://www.coop.com.au/white-papers">graduate survey</a>) are concerned about getting a career-related job.</p>
<p>They find schools increasingly irrelevant to their lives. </p>
<p>With social media becoming such a prominent part of young lives, and popular culture everywhere, schools can appear to some young people to be dinosaur institutions. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.voced.edu.au/content/ngv%3A30513">Research shows</a> that if young people don’t find schools a hospitable place, they will develop their own identity outside <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Dropping-Out-Drifting-Being-Excluded/dp/0820455075">the school</a>.</p>
<h2>Schools struggle to understand working-class kids</h2>
<p>Schools are middle-class institutions and, as such, have difficulty understanding why the working class have so much <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Education-working-class-working-class-industrial/dp/B0007IT4GG">trouble fitting in</a>. </p>
<p>The argument they give is that it’s the young people who have to change, not the school.</p>
<p>Continuing to have individualised policy solutions to a historical inter-generational issue will not work. </p>
<p>Privatisation, testing, competition and school choice do not improve the educational trajectories of <a href="http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-5916-2_27">disadvantaged young people</a>.</p>
<p>Removing “trouble makers” may seem to make schools tidier places for parents <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/national/schools-in-battle-to-lure-students-20110829-1jign.html">exercising school choice</a>, but it does nothing to alleviate the lives of those pushed even further to the educational margins.</p>
<p>Dropping out of school should be seen as a form of <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3216661?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">resistance by youngsters</a> who feel education has little respect for their lives, families, backgrounds, experiences, even their strengths, and aspirations.</p>
<p>Maybe it is time we started exploring why school is not working for increasing numbers of disadvantaged young people, by adopting a sociological rather than a psychological perspective — one that is more attentive to the accounts of young people.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/50511/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Smyth received funding for this research from the Australian Research Council</span></em></p>Australian education fails one in four young people. It is time we started exploring why school is not working for increasing numbers of disadvantaged children.John Smyth, Visiting Professor of Education and Social Justice, University of Huddersfield; and Emeritus Professor, Federation University AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/399062015-05-28T10:07:39Z2015-05-28T10:07:39ZWith harsher disciplinary measures, school systems fail black kids<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83014/original/image-20150526-24751-jfz3vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Black students are more likely to get suspended for minor violations.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mcgeorgeblsa/5605655056/in/photolist-9xmrX7-9xisuM-9xirTz-jzzjUF-jzzk4D-jzBsbE-jzABBK-8eb8XF-8eb9gT-8eepkU-8eb8SB-8eepuN-8eb8Jp-8eepKU-8eepd7-8eepzu-8eepDu-p9cFFs-5zGgmE-9q4kzu-9X1aUf-6yfGAt-5w9zeC-jzCpwb-jzAByP-jzzjjn-jzAB1V-jzAAXZ-jzzjFe-jzAAKp-jzCq5f-jzABSz-jzCq2E-jzzjJk-jzAB9a-jzBrx5-jzzknV-jzAAMP-jzCqaW-jzBrVj-jzAC34-jzCqKo-jzCqk5-jzzk1T-jzCpBw-jzzjUk-jzCqeo-jzCpQC-jzCqqA-jzCpB1">McGeorge BLSA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Although it has been over 60 years since the <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/347/483">Brown v Board of Education</a> decision, black students are still more likely to receive out-of-school suspensions for minor violations of the code of conduct. As a result, they are more likely to <a href="http://csgjusticecenter.org/youth/school-discipline-consensus-report/">drop out of school</a> or enter the juvenile justice system. </p>
<p>Black students constituted 32%-42% of those <a href="http://ocrdata.ed.gov/Downloads/CRDC-School-Discipline-Snapshot.pdf">suspended</a> during the 2011-12 school year, even though they represented 16% of the student population. </p>
<p>As racial tensions resurface in the aftermath of the conflicts and riots in Ferguson and Baltimore, we need to consider whether some of these issues have their origins in the manner in which children of color are treated in our schools. </p>
<p>As a clinical professor of law at the Rutgers University Law School’s Education and Health Law Clinic, I provide legal representation to parents and their children in cases where they are being denied an appropriate education or are suspended from school. </p>
<p>This includes filing legal complaints, attending meetings and assessing the appropriateness of a student’s educational program. At the clinic, my colleagues and I have seen firsthand the disparities in the treatment and resources provided by schools. And often, I have seen that suspension of young black students begins as early as kindergarten. </p>
<h2>Educational inequities for black kids</h2>
<p>Our educational system continues to fail children of color. </p>
<p><a href="http://hepg.org/hep-home/books/racial-inequity-in-special-education">Research shows</a> that black males are disproportionately more likely to be placed in special education and classified as mentally retarded and emotionally disturbed. </p>
<p>They are also <a href="http://hepg.org/hep-home/books/racial-inequity-in-special-education">more likely</a> to be placed in segregated placements, more likely to be educated in poorly performing schools and more likely to be referred to the juvenile justice system for infractions that occur in school. </p>
<p>They are also the least likely to be provided the positive supports and the assistance that they need in order to succeed. </p>
<p>None of this is new.</p>
<p>Children of color have historically been subjected to educational inequities. After the landmark decision of <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/347/483">Brown v Board of Education</a> in 1954, where the Supreme Court held that it was unconstitutional to maintain segregated schools, practices and policies were developed to maintain segregated settings. </p>
<p>States in the South refused to comply with Brown, while other parts of the country developed practices such as IQ testing and tracking students into specific programs that often kept children of color in <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/early-republic-and-antebellum-history/jim-crow-moves-north-battle-over-northern-school-segregation-18651954?format=HB">different classes</a> from their white counterparts. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.childrensdefense.org/?referrer=https://www.google.com/">Children’s Defense Fund (CDF)</a>, headed by <a href="http://www.childrensdefense.org/about/leadership/marian-wright-edelman/">Marian Wright Edelman</a>, was one of the first organizations to look at the disparities in access to education. In its groundbreaking report in 1975, <a href="http://www.childrensdefense.org/library/archives/digital-library/school-suspensions-are-they-helping-children.html">“School Suspensions: Are They Helping Children?,” </a> the CDF analyzed the reports submitted to the <a href="http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/index.html">Office of Civil Rights</a>.</p>
<p>Although black students accounted for 27.1% of the students enrolled in the school districts reporting to the Office of Civil Rights in the 1972-73 school year, the report found that they made up 42.3% of the racially identified suspensions. </p>
<p>At the high school level, black students were suspended at more than three times the rate of white students: 12.5% versus 4.1%.</p>
<h2>Persistent patterns of suspensions</h2>
<p>These inequities in suspensions and removal from school continue to persist. </p>
<p>In recent times, the term “<a href="https://www.aclu.org/what-school-prison-pipeline">school-to-prison pipeline</a>” is often used to describe systemic practices that ultimately lead students of color into the criminal justice system. These policies often cause the suspension or removal and sometimes the arrest of students from school for nonviolent or minor violations.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83018/original/image-20150526-24740-lr4zss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83018/original/image-20150526-24740-lr4zss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83018/original/image-20150526-24740-lr4zss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83018/original/image-20150526-24740-lr4zss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83018/original/image-20150526-24740-lr4zss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83018/original/image-20150526-24740-lr4zss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83018/original/image-20150526-24740-lr4zss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Arrested students fall behind the class, thus perpetuating the cycle of poverty.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/megstewart/4708081840/in/photolist-4NEq3X-4NJBt3-4NJBjW-4NJAX1-4NEpQe-4NEmpZ-4NEnQg-4NJBeY-4NJEbG-4NJB81-4NEmxg-4NEpoH-4NEpDF-4NEp8x-4NEmZr-4NJBWs-4NJAqj-4NJE8U-8aYW2e-kLQEU-kLQDb-bpZbAb-4fgeGF-kLQHz-8b39GQ-8b37zS-9zg5L1-CWpuh-9AupEb-2BYecv-8DMEuR-F9aAy-4mxUwa-9AQLZQ-3dKGdW-wWy8-kLPMZ-wWEz-8BMPvR-kLQDV-kLPdD-6ueSc2-Kgsj2-7Zn5HM-92Hgey-92HfLQ-92EeJp-92HgbL-92E8UB-92Hg8J">Meg Stewart</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED541735">vast majority</a> of suspensions are not for serious or violent offenses. Most are for minor infractions such as tardiness, dress code violations or disruptive behavior. </p>
<h2>Why suspension matters</h2>
<p>Students who are suspended for substantial periods <a href="https://www.aclu.org/files/assets/aclu_statement_for_sjc_subcomm_hearing_on_the_school_to_prison_pipeline_12_2012.pdf">lose valuable instruction</a> time and fall behind in school. </p>
<p>The unfairness of these practices increases gaps in learning and eventually makes it difficult for black kids to keep up in school. <a href="http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED541735">Researchers</a> have found that the use of harsh punishment for minor offenses has a negative impact on children, including increasing the chances of dropping out of school. </p>
<p>The US Department of Education Office of Civil Rights in its 2014 <a href="http://ocrdata.ed.gov/Downloads/CRDC-School-Discipline-Snapshot.pdf">Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC)</a> on discipline provides a stark example of how the educational system continues to fail children of color. </p>
<p>For the 2011-12 school year, for out-of-school suspensions by race/ethnicity and gender, black students on average were suspended or expelled at a rate three times greater than white students. </p>
<p>At the preschool level, although black children represented 18% of enrolled students, they represented 48% of the students suspended more than once. </p>
<p>Although black students represented 16% of the student population, they <a href="http://ocrdata.ed.gov/Downloads/CRDC-School-Discipline-Snapshot.pdf">accounted</a> for 27% of the students who were referred to law enforcement and 31% of the students who were arrested. </p>
<h2>Prejudices against students with disabilities</h2>
<p>Students of color with disabilities are also <a href="http://ocrdata.ed.gov/Downloads/CRDC-School-Discipline-Snapshot.pdf">disproportionately suspended</a> from school compared to their white counterparts. They are twice as likely to be suspended than their non-disabled peers. And they are referred to law enforcement at greater rates. </p>
<p>Although students in special education represent 12% of enrollment, they <a href="http://ocrdata.ed.gov/Downloads/CRDC-School-Discipline-Snapshot.pdf">constitute</a> one-quarter of students arrested and charged with juvenile offenses.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/%2Croot%2Cstatute%2C">Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)</a> outlines specific protections for parents and their disabled children and requires that school districts provide an appropriate education and services such as counseling, social skills and other supports to meet their unique needs. However, the needs of these children are often not met. </p>
<p>Moreover, there are many protections that apply before a disabled student could be considered for suspension or removal for substantial periods of time. Often, these protections are ignored, and the services that should be provided are not. </p>
<h2>Change is needed</h2>
<p>Suspension of students for minor infractions is certainly not the solution. We don’t have to look far to see the consequences of policies that take students out of school and place them in vulnerable, nonproductive settings. </p>
<p>The cost - a life of poverty or incarceration – further continues to perpetuate a cycle of failure. </p>
<p>Myriad systems have worked against poor children of color to deprive them of the educational opportunities that their white counterparts have taken for granted. Poverty, violence, inadequate housing and other systemic inequities place these children in a pipeline for failure. Most of us would not be able to endure the burden, if placed in their small shoes. </p>
<p>A great deal of change is needed to combat these pervasive educational inequities. The US Departments Of Education and Justice have begun to take some important steps by issuing <a href="http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-201401-title-vi.html">guidelines</a> to school districts to reduce the numbers of students who are being removed or suspended from school and encouraging schools to find alternatives to suspensions. </p>
<p>These are important steps, but much work remains to be done.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39906/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Esther Canty-Barnes does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Black students get suspended or expelled at a rate three times greater than white students. The cost: they fall behind in school, and the cycle of poverty and failure is perpetuated.Esther Canty-Barnes, Clinical Professor of Law and Director of the Education and Health Law Clinic, Rutgers UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.