tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/toddlers-14820/articlesToddlers – The Conversation2024-03-17T19:01:29Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2256682024-03-17T19:01:29Z2024-03-17T19:01:29ZWhy is toddler milk so popular? Follow the money<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582110/original/file-20240315-28-i7q9zu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C0%2C997%2C666&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/toddler-hands-holding-cup-white-fresh-2057012747">FotoDuets/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Toddler milk is popular and becoming more so. Just over a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jhn.12851">third of Australian toddlers</a> drink it. Parents <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)01933-X/fulltext">spend</a> hundreds of millions of dollars on it globally. Around the world, toddler milk makes up nearly half of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mcn.13097">total formula milk sales</a>, with a 200% growth since 2005. Growth is expected to continue.</p>
<p>We’re concerned about the growing popularity of toddler milk – about its nutritional content, cost, how it’s marketed, and about the impact on the health and feeding of young children. Some of us voiced our concerns on the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-03-12/toddler-milk-nutrition-benefits-marketing-parents/103517864">ABC’s 7.30 program recently</a>.</p>
<p>But what’s in toddler milk? How does it compare to cow’s milk? How did it become so popular?</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/gOFTZmptaN0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">We shared our concerns about toddler milk and what this means for parents and children.</span></figcaption>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/misleading-food-labels-contribute-to-babies-and-toddlers-eating-too-much-sugar-3-things-parents-can-do-194168">Misleading food labels contribute to babies and toddlers eating too much sugar. 3 things parents can do</a>
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</em>
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<h2>What is toddler milk? Is it healthy?</h2>
<p>Toddler milk is marketed as appropriate for children aged one to three years. This <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10140693/">ultra-processed food</a> <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/nutrition-and-packaging-characteristics-of-toddler-foods-and-milks-in-australia/1C6BA80843B773FC058BD3087D1A22BA">contains</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>skim milk powder (cow, soy or goat)</p></li>
<li><p>vegetable oil</p></li>
<li><p>sugars (including added sugars)</p></li>
<li><p>emulsifiers (to help bind the ingredients and improve the texture)</p></li>
<li><p>added vitamins and minerals.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Toddler milk <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/nutrition-and-packaging-characteristics-of-toddler-foods-and-milks-in-australia/1C6BA80843B773FC058BD3087D1A22BA">is usually</a> lower in calcium and protein, and higher in sugar and calories than regular cow’s milk. Depending on the brand, a serve of toddler milk can contain as much sugar as a <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/nutrition-and-packaging-characteristics-of-toddler-foods-and-milks-in-australia/1C6BA80843B773FC058BD3087D1A22BA">soft drink</a>. </p>
<p>Even though toddler milks have <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00394-019-01950-5">added vitamins and minerals</a>, these are <a href="https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/373358/9789240081864-eng.pdf?sequence=1">found in and better absorbed</a> from <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/synthetic-vs-natural-nutrients">regular foods and breastmilk</a>. Toddlers do not need the level of nutrients found in these products if they are eating a varied diet. </p>
<p>Global health authorities, including the <a href="https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/373358/9789240081864-eng.pdf?sequence=1">World Health Organization</a> (WHO), and Australia’s <a href="https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n56_infant_feeding_guidelines_150917(1).pdf">National Health and Medical Research Council</a>, do not recommend toddler milk for healthy toddlers.</p>
<p>Some children with specific metabolic or dietary medical problems might need tailored alternatives to cow’s milk. However, these products generally are not toddler milks and would be a specific product prescribed by a health-care provider. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.choice.com.au/babies-and-kids/feeding-your-baby/first-foods/articles/are-toddler-milks-necessary">Toddler milk</a> is also up to <a href="https://nutritionj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12937-022-00765-1">four to five times</a> more expensive than regular cow’s milk. “Premium” toddler milk (the same product, with higher levels of vitamins and minerals) is more expensive. </p>
<p>With the <a href="https://theconversation.com/undernourished-stressed-and-overworked-cost-of-living-pressures-are-taking-a-toll-on-australians-health-223625">cost-of-living crisis</a>, this means families might choose to go without other essentials to afford toddler milk.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582090/original/file-20240315-30-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Woman holding blue plastic spoon of formula powder over open tin of formula, milk bottle in background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582090/original/file-20240315-30-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582090/original/file-20240315-30-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582090/original/file-20240315-30-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582090/original/file-20240315-30-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582090/original/file-20240315-30-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582090/original/file-20240315-30-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582090/original/file-20240315-30-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Toddler milk is more expensive than cow’s milk and contains more sugar.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/powder-milk-blue-spoon-on-light-779728180">Dragana Gordic/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/8-everyday-foods-you-might-not-realise-are-ultra-processed-and-how-to-spot-them-197993">8 everyday foods you might not realise are ultra processed – and how to spot them</a>
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<h2>How toddler milk was invented</h2>
<p>Toddler milk was created so infant formula companies could <a href="https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/nutritionlibrary/breastfeeding/information-note-cross-promotion-infant-formula.pdf?sfvrsn=81a5b79c_1">get around rules</a> preventing them from advertising their infant formula. </p>
<p>When manufacturers <a href="https://www.jandonline.org/article/S2212-2672(21)01197-7/abstract">claim benefits</a> of their toddler milk, many parents assume these claimed benefits apply to infant formula (known as <a href="https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/nutritionlibrary/breastfeeding/information-note-cross-promotion-infant-formula.pdf?sfvrsn=81a5b79c_1">cross-promotion</a>). In other words, marketing toddler milks also boosts interest in their infant formula.</p>
<p>Manufacturers also create brand loyalty and recognition by making the labels of their toddler milk look similar to their infant formula. For parents who used infant formula, toddler milk is positioned as the next stage in feeding.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-youre-feeding-with-formula-heres-what-you-can-do-to-promote-your-babys-healthy-growth-106165">If you're feeding with formula, here's what you can do to promote your baby's healthy growth</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How toddler milk became so popular</h2>
<p>Toddler milk is <a href="https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/article-abstract/82/3/425/7172846?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false">heavily marketed</a>. Parents <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37203416/">are told</a> toddler milk is healthy and provides extra nutrition. Marketing <a href="https://uconnruddcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2909/2020/09/Infant-Formula-and-Toddler-Milk-Brief_9-23-19.pdf">tells parents</a> it will benefit their child’s growth and development, their brain function and their immune system.</p>
<p>Toddler milk is also presented as a <a href="https://uconnruddcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2909/2020/09/Infant-Formula-and-Toddler-Milk-Brief_9-23-19.pdf">solution</a> to fussy eating, which is common in toddlers.</p>
<p>However, regularly drinking toddler milk could increase the risk of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kathy-Cowbrough-2/publication/44645020_Feeding_the_toddler_12_months_to_3_years--challenges_and_opportunities/links/53e2409e0cf2d79877aa22e5/Feeding-the-toddler-12-months-to-3-years--challenges-and-opportunities.pdf">fussiness</a> as it reduces opportunities for toddlers to try new foods. It’s also sweet, needs no chewing, and essentially displaces energy and nutrients that whole foods provide.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582092/original/file-20240315-20-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Toddler wearing bib with food smeared on face" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582092/original/file-20240315-20-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582092/original/file-20240315-20-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582092/original/file-20240315-20-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582092/original/file-20240315-20-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582092/original/file-20240315-20-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582092/original/file-20240315-20-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582092/original/file-20240315-20-3y4x18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Toddler milk is said to help fussy eating, but it may make things worse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/little-girl-toddler-picking-her-food-492304303">zlikovec/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-tell-if-your-kids-fussy-eating-phase-is-normal-92118">How to tell if your kid's 'fussy eating' phase is normal</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Growing concern</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/28-04-2022-who-reveals-shocking-extent-of-exploitative-formula-milk-marketing">WHO</a>, along with public health academics, has been raising concerns about the marketing of toddler milk for years.</p>
<p>In Australia, moves to curb how toddler milk is promoted have gone nowhere. Toddler milk is in a category of foods that are <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/F2008B00660/asmade/text">allowed to be fortified</a> (to have vitamins and minerals added), with no marketing restrictions. The Australian Competition & Consumer Commission also <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/media-release/accc-to-reauthorise-agreement-to-not-advertise-infant-formula-seeks-submissions-on-toddler-milk-advertising">has concerns</a> about the rise of toddler milk marketing. Despite this, there is no change in how it’s regulated.</p>
<p>This is in contrast to <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/topics/pregnancy-birth-and-baby/breastfeeding-infant-nutrition/marketing-infant-formula">voluntary marketing restrictions</a> in Australia for infant formula.</p>
<h2>What needs to happen?</h2>
<p>There is <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)01933-X/fulltext">enough evidence</a> to show the marketing of commercial milk formula, including toddler milk, influences parents and undermines child health.</p>
<p>So governments need to act to protect parents from this marketing, and to put <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)01933-X/fulltext">child health over profits</a>. </p>
<p>Public health authorities and advocates, including us, are calling for the restriction of marketing (not selling) of all formula products for infants and toddlers from birth through to age three years.</p>
<p>Ideally, this would be mandatory, government-enforced marketing restrictions as opposed to <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/topics/pregnancy-birth-and-baby/breastfeeding-infant-nutrition/marketing-infant-formula">industry self-regulation</a> in place currently for infant formulas.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/essays-on-health-how-food-companies-can-sneak-bias-into-scientific-research-65873">Essays on health: how food companies can sneak bias into scientific research</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>We musn’t blame parents</h2>
<p>Toddlers are eating <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/mcn.13097">more processed foods</a> (including toddler milk) than ever because time-poor parents are seeking a convenient option to ensure their child is getting adequate nutrition.</p>
<p>Formula manufacturers have used this information, and created a demand for an unnecessary product. </p>
<p>Parents want to do the best for their toddlers, but they need to know the marketing behind toddler milks is misleading.</p>
<p>Toddler milk is an unnecessary, unhealthy, expensive product. Toddlers just need whole foods and breastmilk, and/or cow’s milk or a non-dairy, milk alternative.</p>
<p>If parents are worried about their <a href="https://raisingchildren.net.au/toddlers/nutrition-fitness">child’s eating</a>, they should see a health-care professional.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Anthea Rhodes, a paediatrician from Royal Children’s Hospital Melbourne and a lecturer at the University of Melbourne, co-authored this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225668/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer McCann is a researcher with the Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), a co-chair of the Infant and Toddler Foods Alliance, and a member of the Public Health Association of Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karleen Gribble is a member of the Public Health Association of Australia, the World Breastfeeding Trends Initiative, the Australian Breastfeeding Association, the Infant and Toddler Food Research Alliance and the Infant and Young Child Feeding in Emergencies Core Group. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Naomi Hull is a member of, and volunteers for, the Australian Breastfeeding Association and is a member of the Public Health Association of Australia. She is also an executive on the Infant and Toddler Food Research Alliance. Naomi is the National Coordinator for the World Breastfeeding Trends Initiative Australia.</span></em></p>Toddler milk is high in sugar and can leave toddlers reluctant to try new foods. It’s also heavily marketed to time-poor parents. We’re worried.Jennifer McCann, Lecturer Nutrition Sciences, Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, Deakin UniversityKarleen Gribble, Adjunct Associate Professor, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Western Sydney UniversityNaomi Hull, PhD candidate, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2087012023-10-31T16:18:14Z2023-10-31T16:18:14ZBooks on toddler sleep can give inflexible advice – parents should be reassured that one size doesn’t fit all<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552067/original/file-20231004-17-6a6bk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5751%2C3819&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/little-africanamerican-girl-toy-sleeping-bed-1577602816">Pixel-Shot/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you are a parent of a young child, sleep may well have become an obsession for you. </p>
<p>Toddlers often wake frequently during the night. Sleep deprivation is a <a href="https://www.lullabytrust.org.uk/safer-sleep-advice/coping-with-sleep-deprivation-as-a-new-parent/">real problem</a> for parents. And parents are often asked – and judged – about how their child is sleeping. </p>
<p>It’s no wonder that there is a healthy industry providing parents with books of advice on how to get their children to sleep for longer. But these books also often offer contradictory advice. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/chso.12714">research</a> with my colleague Amanda Norman, I examined parenting “self-help” books aimed at parents with children aged between two and five. We looked at how parenting books address parents – and how books like this <a href="https://doi.org/10.21827/ejlw.12.38836">made us feel</a> as parents ourselves. </p>
<p>We found each of the books tended to give parents one approach for dealing with their child’s sleep, rather than a range of options. But these methods were polarised between <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/55084b9ae4b022bff6dce256/t/569eeb2e5827c3cdcbf484c3/1453255472504/Gentle+Birth+Gentle+Mothering+Ebook.pdf">gentle parenting</a>, which focused on following the needs of the child, and “behaviourist” techniques that reward desired behaviour and prioritise routine.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Sleeping toddler in dark room" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552068/original/file-20231004-16-p00xui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552068/original/file-20231004-16-p00xui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552068/original/file-20231004-16-p00xui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552068/original/file-20231004-16-p00xui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552068/original/file-20231004-16-p00xui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552068/original/file-20231004-16-p00xui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552068/original/file-20231004-16-p00xui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Finally asleep.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cute-little-boy-yellow-pyjamas-sweetly-365694512">Smolina Marianna/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our own parenting experiences, gentle approaches felt vague and left us unclear of a path forward. The behaviourist methods made us feel like failures because the advice was so rigid it made it hard to follow well.</p>
<h2>Instructing parents</h2>
<p>Books about children’s sleep often take an authoritative or moralising tone with parents: an expert telling them what to do rather than a peer discussing ideas to try to help with their children’s sleep. We found these in both behaviourist and gentle parenting approaches.</p>
<p>A routine-driven, behaviourist approach, such as that taken in psychologist Tanya Byron’s 2008 <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=0SnUVwAflKcC&oi=fnd&pg=PA9&dq=tanya+byron+your+toddler+&ots=tn8poyjESE&sig=GVgnrAx4wsWPOuoulrb3Aw-TwsI&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=tanya%20byron%20your%20toddler&f=false">Your Toddler</a>, lays out how to respond to a child’s behaviour to get them to sleep through the night in their own bed. The book recommends that children who sleep through the night – the approved behaviour – should be rewarded, for example with a sticker. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/343547/new-toddler-taming-by-green-dr-christopher/9781446459348">New Toddler Taming</a> (2011) a book which also takes a behaviourist approach, paediatrician Christopher Green suggests use of his “patent rope trick” to keep children in their bedrooms, though noting that “to some, if not most, parents it’s going to seem a little bit old-fashioned and a fair bit silly”: </p>
<p>“Take a length of rope and loop one end around the <em>inner</em> handle of the toddler’s bedroom door. Attach the other end to the <em>outer</em> handle of a nearby door. Carefully adjust the rope so that when the bedroom door is pulled open, the aperture is a little less than the diameter of the offending child’s head. As all of you who have had babies know, if the head is not going to get out, nothing is. The result is that the toddler is not locked in, they just cannot get out.” </p>
<p>He adds that a light should be left on outside the bedroom, so the child will not become frightened, yet at the same time the child is “very aware that bed is the place he is meant to be. He may resort to crying to break your resolve but once again this ploy will fail when you use the rope trick in conjunction with the controlled crying technique.”</p>
<p>Gina Ford, a former maternity nurse and author of bestselling infant sleep books, also takes a behaviourist approach in her book <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Contented-Toddler-Years-Gina-Ford/dp/0091912660">The Contented Toddler Years</a>. This includes briefly comforting a crying child before putting them back in their cot or bed. But the assertion that this is unlikely to be necessary more than once or twice before the child goes to sleep can seem improbable when faced with a living, breathing toddler. </p>
<p>American paediatrician <a href="https://www.sterling.edu/sites/default/files/nighttime-parenting-how-to-get-your-baby-and-child-to-sleep-william-sears-8b83fca.pdf">William Sears’</a> book Nighttime Parenting: How to Get Your Baby and Child to Sleep takes a gentle parenting approach. Sears argues for a “lazy” method that meets a baby’s needs while also preserving the parents’ own sleep by sharing a bed. </p>
<p>Co-sleeping – children sleeping in the same bed as their parent – means that parents can meet their child’s needs during the night as they would be met during the day, by connecting with them and offering cuddles and being emotionally available. This approach, however, may not be particularly helpful to parents who struggle to get enough sleep when sharing a bed with a child, or who feel they need some time alone. </p>
<p>Constant availability from a parent – maintaining the “powerful biological connection between you and your baby” – is also recommended in <a href="https://www.pinkymckay.com/">Pinky McKay’s</a> 2006 gentle parenting book <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Sleeping-Like-Baby-Solutions-Toddlers/dp/0143004522">Sleeping Like a Baby</a>. This advice comes alongside examples of the negative results of not responding to infant wakes for children later in life. In one quote, a mother says: “I feel devastated that I have betrayed my child.”</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.7765/9781847794161">Other research</a> that has looked at how mothering has changed since the end of the second world war found that overly strict advice often resulted in mothers feeling ambivalent about parenting books from “experts”. </p>
<p>This was our experience as parents. Our own feelings and experiences with managing – or failing to manage – sleep were very much entwined in the reading process. We tried to implement advice from parenting books, failed, and then found our own ways through. </p>
<p>As researchers, we also found that there was little space given in these books for individual contexts, such as the baby or parent’s temperament, or factors such as ethnicity, social class, or additional needs such as neurodiversity. There was no mention of the views of the children themselves.</p>
<p>The management of children’s sleep was treated as an issue with a one-size-fits-all solution. But children – and their parents – are individuals with their own needs. The blueprints offered in books offering advice on improving baby sleep should be read with caution; we cannot make a child sleep.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208701/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexandra Scherer received funding from The British Academy for the start of this research project on sleep.</span></em></p>We found each of the books tended to give parents one approach for dealing with their child’s sleep, rather than a range of options.Alexandra Scherer, Lecturer in Childhood Studies, University of PortsmouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2078152023-08-09T12:31:31Z2023-08-09T12:31:31ZBabies almost all try crawling to get from Point A to Point B, but CDC says it’s not a useful developmental milestone<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541295/original/file-20230804-27-srqigc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1439%2C4181%2C2735&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Babies are curious about their world and want to explore.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/studio-shot-of-babies-in-diapers-crawling-royalty-free-image/73230112">Jose Luis Pelaez Inc/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Infant milestones can be a source both of pride and anxiety for a new parent. Baby’s firsts – first tooth, first steps, first word – are moments of joy that many parents immediately compare with charts listing “normal” age ranges for each achievement to occur.</p>
<p>For a pediatrician, these milestones are useful indicators of typical or atypical development. When they occur outside that normal range, it might be time to look for some underlying cause, which could enable early detection and intervention if something’s amiss.</p>
<p>Since 2004, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has published a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/milestones/index.html">set of milestone checklists</a> as part of its “<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/index.html">Learn the Signs. Act Early</a>” program. Important skills are listed for a series of ages, enabling anxious parents to know whether baby is developing typically.</p>
<p>In early 2022, the CDC <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2021-052138">published a major update to the milestones</a>. The new version has a much stronger basis in research evidence and has attempted to simplify language and help caregivers know when to contact a health care provider. Among all the changes, a major milestone was removed. Crawling no longer appears in the milestone checklists.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="baby crawls toward camera with woman out of focus in background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">About 80% of babies give hands-and-knees crawling a try.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/two-mothers-meeting-for-play-date-with-babies-at-royalty-free-image/1153668944">monkeybusinessimages/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Crawling to get from here to there</h2>
<p>As infants develop awareness of the world around them, they naturally start wanting to explore it. Mobility is the gateway to that exploration. Crawling is typically an infant’s first efficient strategy to get from Point A to Point B, and it often means that new parents must suddenly baby-proof their home and make sure all the Point Bs are safe.</p>
<p>Crawling is a transitional phase of mobility – children and adults are capable of crawling but choose to walk if they’re able to do so – and it often overlaps with precursors to walking such as pulling-to-stand and “cruising” while holding on to furniture. </p>
<p>Studies have indicated that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2013.04.010">over 80% of infants progress through hands-and-knees crawling</a> during development of locomotion. Others <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.1984.tb00189.x">use alternative crawling strategies</a> like scooting along on their bottoms, or rolling.</p>
<p>The World Health Organization studied hundreds of children around the world and found that, on average, children develop <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2006.tb02379.x">hands-and-knees crawling by 8.5 months of age</a>. But that’s just an average. Of course babies each develop on their own schedule. The range for starting to crawl (the 1st percentile to the 99th) was 5.2 to 13.5 months. And 4.3% of the babies in the study skipped hands-and-knees crawling altogether.</p>
<p>Clinicians who work with children have long recognized the importance of motor development. Scientists have called motor behaviors the “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1430">raw material for perception, cognition, and social interaction</a>.” In particular, crawling can be an early window to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2013.04.010">understanding a child’s problem-solving strategies</a>. And researchers have used <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.23.13982">movement analysis at 4-6 months</a>, when some babies are getting close to hands-and-knees crawling, for early diagnosis of disorders such as autism and cerebral palsy.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/PEP.0000000000000937">Therapists worry that removing crawling</a> from the milestone list means it will be devalued and the important physical, sensory and cognitive benefits it affords for the baby will be missed when evaluating childhood development.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="baby standing holding onto side of bed, looking back at camera" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pulling up to stand is a developmental milestone that typically happens at a predictable age.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/adorable-baby-boy-in-white-sunny-bedroom-in-winter-royalty-free-image/961494366">tatyana_tomsickova/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Off the evidence-based list of milestones</h2>
<p>Much of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/PEP.0000000000000937">CDC’s reasoning</a> for removing crawling from the milestone list is centered on data.</p>
<p>Pediatricians have charts that say how fast children typically walk based on their age, but no such normative data exists for crawling. There are no clear, laboratory-based descriptions of the various types of crawling. We lack long-term studies that show when babies transition between patterns. And there are very few studies on the implications of skipping crawling and going straight to walking.</p>
<p>Despite these data gaps, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06213.x">crawling has been studied for nearly a century</a>, and researchers have used it to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1993.tb04193.x">understand the complex development</a> of multiple neuromotor systems. Crawling is also important in understanding developmental continuity, or where new skills grow from.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, the CDC is correct: There are no age-based normative data charts for crawling as there are for walking.</p>
<h2>Locomotion in the lab</h2>
<p>As a biomedical engineer who <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=C7j3KnYAAAAJ&hl=en">specializes in pediatric locomotion biomechanics</a>, I have firsthand knowledge of this lack of crawling data.</p>
<p>I’ve used a technique called <a href="https://www.gillettechildrens.org/conditions-care/gait-and-motion-analysis">3D motion analysis</a> for decades to gather minute details on the walking of children with limb loss, cerebral palsy and other neuromotor conditions, all in an effort to help improve their mobility. My colleagues and I attach small markers to skeletal landmarks like hips and knees, and special cameras track the markers and reconstruct skeletal movement.</p>
<p>But among all my lab’s studies on walking, I’ve completed only <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/JPO.0b013e3181cc57bc">one 3D motion analysis study on crawling</a>. We examined the motion of very young children with limb loss in a new prosthetic treatment protocol developed here at Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta – but it was really tricky to do.</p>
<p>We had to create new musculoskeletal models for our analysis system. We had to use tiny reflective markers, because babies make more contact with the ground than older kids, and a big marker might be uncomfortable. We had to position cameras at new angles to track those tiny markers. Diapers created a big challenge, given their movement relative to the baby’s skeleton.</p>
<p>And as any parent or caregiver can attest, babies can be a tough population to work with. They don’t follow directions well, they’re temperamental, and they’ll pull a reflective marker off their skin and pop it in their mouth in a second if you let them. We had to watch our study subjects like hawks.</p>
<p>In short, crawling is just more difficult to study than walking.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="baby crawling on a pathway in distance, with a computer readout of measurements of the baby's pressure on the path" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A new study is collecting crawling biomechanic data using a pressure-sensing pathway.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark Geil</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Collecting crawling data</h2>
<p>To address this challenge, my colleagues and I are now embarking on what we believe is the largest lab-based study of infant crawling development. We’re studying babies from their first crawling attempts all the way through their transition to walking.</p>
<p>This study relies on a new technique with a pressure-sensing pathway that avoids the complications of 3D motion capture. We’ll see 75 typically developing infants, and also study children with limb loss and cerebral palsy. </p>
<p>Our goal is to gain insights into how children transition from crawling to walking, with the hope they will one day help health care providers understand early motor development and spot neuromotor issues earlier. </p>
<p>We’re also hopeful that these hundreds of visits to the lab will result in the first normative data set on crawling development, addressing some of the issues that prompted the CDC to remove crawling from the milestone list. So, while our lab stays full of toys, Cheerios and baby wipes for a few years, we’re generating data that might improve parents’ and clinicians’ understanding of early motor development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207815/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Geil receives funding from The Gerber Foundation. </span></em></p>Revisions to the CDC’s developmental milestone checklists removed crawling as a skill that babies pick up at a typical age. A biomedical engineer describes how more research may clarify its role.Mark Geil, Associate Dean for Research and Professor of Biomechanics, Kennesaw State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2038252023-05-08T18:02:17Z2023-05-08T18:02:17ZToddlers can engage in complex games as they get to know each other over time<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523939/original/file-20230502-26-1a8jnc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=251%2C110%2C3164%2C1734&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">As toddlers form peer relationships, social pretend play and games increase. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A mother wondered about her two-year-old child Oliver’s socialization with peers when he played at his friend’s house or when he was at his child-care centre. Since Oliver is still learning to talk, he cannot describe his social experiences.</p>
<p>This is a fictional situation, but researchers encounter similar challenges when gathering information about very young children’s experiences with peers. Yet, it is important to study young children’s socialization with peers, as <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-00748-011">these early, initial interactions set the stage for the quality</a> of later relationships.</p>
<p>In collaboration with colleagues Ayelet Lahat, Holly Recchia, William Bukowski and Jonathan Santo, we used a unique dataset to study how these young children’s relationships form. We included 32 toddlers of two different age cohorts, with children either aged about 20 months or about 30 months. </p>
<p>Each toddler was paired with two same-age, same-gender toddlers. Each pair met for 18 different 45-minute play dates over a four-month period, so each child had a total of 36 play dates. We observed how very young children (20-month-olds) <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221121854">developed peer relationships</a>, and how they are capable of engaging in complex games as they get to know a peer over time. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two children seen sitting on a carpet playing" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523485/original/file-20230429-16-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C17%2C5793%2C3035&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523485/original/file-20230429-16-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523485/original/file-20230429-16-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523485/original/file-20230429-16-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523485/original/file-20230429-16-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523485/original/file-20230429-16-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523485/original/file-20230429-16-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Each child in the study had 18 play dates with two different peers, for a total of 36 play dates, over a four-month period.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Cottonbro Studio/Pexels)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Interaction between two regular playmates</h2>
<p>Our study recruited parents in a mid-sized Canadian city (in Waterloo Region, Ont.) by phone, based on birth announcements in a local newspaper. Most parents in the sample had at least some post-secondary education.</p>
<p>Collecting data was not easy, since parents had to agree to 36 play dates with one of two regular playmates in the study. Having a series of play dates allowed us <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1130782">to explore the changes in children’s interactions</a> as they formed a relationship with a peer. </p>
<p>Play dates alternated between the toddlers’ homes, and between visits with the two different play partners. All participating parents were mothers. Mothers were asked to allow the children to interact freely with one another and not to direct or organize their play; they were free to respond to the toddlers’ overtures.</p>
<p>A researcher followed the children and dictated all peer-related social actions onto one track of an audio tape recorder. On a second track, the children’s verbal and vocal behaviour was recorded.</p>
<h2>How consistent are children with different peers?</h2>
<p>All children’s interactions were coded into: </p>
<ul>
<li>the type of actions: for example, does the child smile, watch or show another child something?</li>
<li>type of sequences: for example, a conflict, a game or a series of actions made by children in response to an action made by the peer, such as a child offering to share a snack and the other child accepting.<br></li>
<li>type of contributions: if a child initiates or ends a sequence.</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two children seen sharing a water bottle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523934/original/file-20230502-4869-rxhhxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523934/original/file-20230502-4869-rxhhxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523934/original/file-20230502-4869-rxhhxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523934/original/file-20230502-4869-rxhhxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523934/original/file-20230502-4869-rxhhxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523934/original/file-20230502-4869-rxhhxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523934/original/file-20230502-4869-rxhhxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A study coded children’s interactions to understand how children develop relationships with peers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Flickr/Jessica Lucia)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The dataset is complex <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60144-6">to analyze because each child had two play partners</a>, and because the play took place over time. </p>
<p>However, the dataset is unique and valuable because it provides the opportunity to study how young children develop peer relationships and how consistent they are in how they interact with different children. </p>
<h2>Role of age and language ability</h2>
<p>A first study examined the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221121854">change in interactions over time</a>. We found that as toddlers form peer relationships, positive interactions such as games, social pretend play and relationship-affirming gestures (like greeting or thanking each other, or laughing in delight) further increased, and conflicts or negative actions (such as inflicting bodily harm or disruptive fussing) decreased.</p>
<p>Toddlers’ interactions become increasingly more organized and positive as the relationship evolved. Age and language ability predicted changes in frequency and length of the different types of sequences.</p>
<h2>Importance of initial behaviours</h2>
<p>A second <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276932">study on positive and negative actions</a> found that toddlers’ behaviours, when they initially meet, set the stage for the relationships they develop. So, it is important for toddlers to have more positive interactions at the beginning of the relationship.</p>
<p>A third study on social pretend play, which is currently in press, indicated that young children are capable of engaging in social pretend play — a form of complex interaction — with peers.</p>
<p>Successful initiations of pretend play increased faster as children got to know one another, towards later play dates. Children’s age and language abilities were positively associated with the frequency and the length of social pretend play.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two children seen running outdoors." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523940/original/file-20230502-22-mz7m14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523940/original/file-20230502-22-mz7m14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523940/original/file-20230502-22-mz7m14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523940/original/file-20230502-22-mz7m14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523940/original/file-20230502-22-mz7m14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523940/original/file-20230502-22-mz7m14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523940/original/file-20230502-22-mz7m14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Changes in children’s interactions as they get to know one another are complex.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/ Caleb Oquendo)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Consistent play partners matter</h2>
<p>Changes in children’s interactions as they get to know one another are complex.
Overall, positive interactions tend to increase and early positive interactions predict later positive interactions.</p>
<p>Caregivers and parents should be aware that toddlers develop relationships with peers. Having a consistent play partner is important, as children’s interactions become more involved and sophisticated once they get to know one another. </p>
<p>It is important for young children to have a positive play partner, as a positive peer can promote positive peer interactions and relationships.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two children seen playing with sand." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523484/original/file-20230429-18-tq8yu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523484/original/file-20230429-18-tq8yu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523484/original/file-20230429-18-tq8yu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523484/original/file-20230429-18-tq8yu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523484/original/file-20230429-18-tq8yu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523484/original/file-20230429-18-tq8yu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523484/original/file-20230429-18-tq8yu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It is important for young children to have a positive play partner.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/Yan Krukau)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Socially sophisticated play</h2>
<p>These findings suggest several considerations and practices for parents and caregivers and for child policy. </p>
<p>It is important for caregivers and parents to intervene and support children when they experience negative interactions with peers as children get to know one another (during the first few times when two unfamiliar toddlers meet) and to encourage positive interactions between them. If a child doesn’t know how to initiate interactions with a peer, adults may model or encourage the child to invite the peer to play games by sharing toys.</p>
<p>Our study documents that even 20-month-old children are able to engage in socially sophisticated play. Parents and all caregivers and educators should provide materials to enable very young children’s play. </p>
<p>The opportunity to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012370877-9.00066-9">develop relationships with specific peers can be fostered</a> by regularly attending early childhood education programs or regularly playing with the same children.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203825/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hildy Ross receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michal Perlman receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Lawson Foundation, McCain Foundation and others.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nina Howe receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Concordia University Research Chair in Early Childhood Development and Education. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zhangjing Luo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A unique dataset from 32 children on 36 different play dates provided the opportunity to study how young children develop peer relationships, and how consistent they are with different children.Zhangjing Luo, Ph.D Student, Developmental Psychology and Education, University of TorontoHildy Ross, Distinguished Professor Emerita, Department of Psychology, University of WaterlooMichal Perlman, Professor of Applied Psychology and Human Development, University of TorontoNina Howe, Professor of Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Research Chair in Early Childhood Development and Education, Concordia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1941682022-11-23T02:06:04Z2022-11-23T02:06:04ZMisleading food labels contribute to babies and toddlers eating too much sugar. 3 things parents can do<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495237/original/file-20221115-11-u9ap2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=34%2C86%2C5716%2C3733&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/irvine-california-united-states-01042020-600w-1613416633.jpg">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australian infants and toddlers are eating unhealthy amounts of sugar. This is mostly because the products marketed and sold by the processed food industry are high in sugar. </p>
<p>Based on the last <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28231135/">Australian National Nutrition Survey</a>, children aged 2–3 years consumed <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4364.0.55.0112011-12?OpenDocument">32 grams of added sugar per day</a> equivalent to 8 teaspoons of white sugar.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/nutrition-and-packaging-characteristics-of-toddler-foods-and-milks-in-australia/1C6BA80843B773FC058BD3087D1A22BA">research</a> shows the increased availability of ultra-processed foods for very young children may be contributing to a sugary diet.</p>
<p>So what can parents do about it?</p>
<h2>What too much sugar does to children</h2>
<p>The problem with too much sugar in our diets is it provides kilojoules but little else nutritionally. </p>
<p>These extra kilojoules <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23321486/">promote weight gain and obesity</a>. They also contribute strongly to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8501477/">tooth decay in young children</a> and often <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4727.0.55.0052012-13?OpenDocument">displace healthy options</a> like fruits, vegetables, and dairy foods from a child’s diet.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/dental-oral-health/oral-health-and-dental-care-in-australia/contents/healthy-mouths#:%7E:text=Maintaining%20a%20healthy%20mouth%20relies%20upon%20practising%20good,twice%20a%20day%20using%20fluoride%20toothpaste%20%28DoH%202018%29.">One in every four</a> Australian children has dental cavities in their baby or permanent teeth. </p>
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<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/not-all-calories-are-equal-a-dietitian-explains-the-different-ways-the-kinds-of-foods-you-eat-matter-to-your-body-156900">Not all calories are equal – a dietitian explains the different ways the kinds of foods you eat matter to your body</a>
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<p>The <a href="https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789241549028">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) recommends “free sugar intake” be limited to less than 10% of our total daily kilojoules for everyone. In fact, the WHO is now considering reducing that amount down to 5% given the knowledge <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4364.0.55.011%7E2011-12%7EMain%20Features%7EConsumption%20of%20Added%20Sugars%20-%20A%20comparison%20of%201995%20to%202011-12%7E20">children’s sugar intakes remain high</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer/nutrition/Pages/Sugar.aspx">Free sugars</a> are those added to foods and drinks, as well as sugars naturally present in honey, fruit juices, and fruit juice concentrates. Free sugars do not include natural sugars found within whole (unprocessed) fruits and vegetables or milk. </p>
<p>Results from the <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4364.0.55.011%7E2011-12%7EMain%20Features%7EDietary%20Energy%20from%20Free%20Sugars%7E9">Australian National Nutrition Survey</a> indicate toddlers aged 2–3 years consumed 11% of their total energy intake from free sugar on average. Half of the toddlers exceeded the current WHO free sugar recommendation.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1595180332533567494"}"></div></p>
<h2>Where is the sugar coming from?</h2>
<p>The latest National Health <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4364.0.55.011%7E2011-12%7EMain%20Features%7EDietary%20Energy%20from%20Free%20Sugars%7E9">survey</a> also tells us sugar comes mostly from highly processed foods like bakery products, sugar-sweetened beverages, chocolate and confectionary, breakfast cereals and desserts. </p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26794833/">These foods</a> provide 80–90% children’s daily added sugar intake. </p>
<p>But it’s not just about treats. Commercial infant and toddler foods are a major source of hidden sugars in young children’s diets. These are largely ultra-processed foods that have undergone multiple industrial processes. They contain ingredients such as added sugar, salt, fat as well as additives to make them appealing. Ultra-processed foods often contain ingredients that would not be used if we made a similar product at home.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/nutrition-and-packaging-characteristics-of-toddler-foods-and-milks-in-australia/1C6BA80843B773FC058BD3087D1A22BA">Our research</a> shows, ultra-processed foods, particularly snack foods, are common. They comprise 85% of all foods marketed as for toddlers in Australia (as of 2019). </p>
<p>These ultra-processed toddler foods often contain ingredients like fruit pastes, purees or concentrates. They can sound healthy – with slogans like “made from real fruit” – but are very different from the whole fruit they come from. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495239/original/file-20221115-15-44kkrd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="toddler being offered cut up fruit" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495239/original/file-20221115-15-44kkrd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495239/original/file-20221115-15-44kkrd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495239/original/file-20221115-15-44kkrd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495239/original/file-20221115-15-44kkrd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495239/original/file-20221115-15-44kkrd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495239/original/file-20221115-15-44kkrd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495239/original/file-20221115-15-44kkrd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Offer whole food rather than ultra-processed foods.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mother-gives-toddler-baby-fruits-600w-2197707739.jpg">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ultra-processed-foods-are-trashing-our-health-and-the-planet-180115">Ultra-processed foods are trashing our health – and the planet</a>
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<p>Consumers might assume these products are healthy due to the labelling and images of fruit on the package. But our body <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10408398.2018.1502743?journalCode=bfsn20">handles ultra-processed foods</a> very differently than it does a whole food, which has had no or minimal processing. </p>
<p>Some toddler foods marketed as “no added sugar” or “all natural” are in some cases, up to <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/nutrition-and-packaging-characteristics-of-toddler-foods-and-milks-in-australia/1C6BA80843B773FC058BD3087D1A22BA">50% fruit sugar</a> in the form of fruit purees or concentrates. </p>
<p>Some <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/nutrition-and-packaging-characteristics-of-toddler-foods-and-milks-in-australia/1C6BA80843B773FC058BD3087D1A22BA">toddler milks</a>, which are also ultra-processed, contain more sugar in the same volume than a soft drink. And nearly a third of <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/nutrition-and-packaging-characteristics-of-toddler-foods-and-milks-in-australia/1C6BA80843B773FC058BD3087D1A22BA">savoury foods</a> for toddlers contain fruit purees as well. </p>
<p>While this may make the food more palatable to a child, ensuring parents buy it again, it also ensures children will develop a preference for sweetness.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/food-and-drinks-are-getting-sweeter-even-if-its-not-all-sugar-its-bad-for-our-health-187605">Food and drinks are getting sweeter. Even if it's not all sugar, it's bad for our health</a>
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<h2>3 things parents can do</h2>
<p>While there is no need to remove all free sugar, the evidence tells us most children are consuming more than is good for them. So how can we cut that down?</p>
<p><strong>1. Demand accurate labelling</strong></p>
<p>Honest food labelling where food manufacturers are required to reveal how much added sugar is in food products is needed. For example, a clear “added sugar” definition would ensure that all harmful sugars are included in food labels, including the highly processed fruit-based ingredients used in infant and toddler foods. You can sign up to advocate for this via the <a href="https://www.opc.org.au/kids-are-sweet-enough">Kids are Sweet Enough</a> campaign.</p>
<p><strong>2. Pantry swaps</strong></p>
<p>Replace sugar-sweetened foods with foods often already in the kitchen. Swap out the common sources of sugar including cakes, biscuits, pastries, sugar and sweet spreads with wholegrain breads, low sugar cereals (like porridge or Weet-Bix), vegetables and fruits (cut to safe swallowing size) and nut pastes.<br>
<a href="https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n56b_infant_feeding_summary_130808.pdf">Swap</a> sugar-sweetened beverages, sweetened dairy products and toddler milks with plain water (boiled and cooled for children over 6 months) and unflavoured cows milk (from 12 months of age). </p>
<p><strong>3. Plug into places to learn more</strong></p>
<p>For practical advice and support on feeding your baby or toddler, download the My Baby Now App from the App Store or Google Play. </p>
<p>Parents can join our free online course <a href="https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/infant-nutrition">Infant Nutrition</a>, or <a href="https://www.infantprogram.org/">search here</a> to see if the INFANT (INfant Feeding, Activity Play and NuTrition) Program is running in your area.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sugar-detox-cutting-carbs-a-doctor-explains-why-you-should-keep-fruit-on-the-menu-173992">Sugar detox? Cutting carbs? A doctor explains why you should keep fruit on the menu</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194168/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Miaobing(Jazzmin) Zheng receives funding from National Health Medical Research Council Early Career Fellowship. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel Laws has previously been funded by National Health and Medical Resource Council Early Career Fellowship (2015-2017). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer McCann, Julie Woods, and Karen Campbell do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>‘Free sugars’ should only make up 10% of children’s diets. But Australian toddlers are eating 11% sugar on average.Jennifer McCann, Lecturer, PhD student, Deakin UniversityMiaobing (Jazzmin) Zheng, NHMRC Early Career Research Fellow, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1931922022-10-25T20:22:51Z2022-10-25T20:22:51ZDevelopment of vision in early childhood: No screens before age two<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491691/original/file-20221025-22-wx4aqi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C7%2C979%2C655&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Electronic devices are not, in and of themselves, a source of visual problems. Using these devices inappropriately can interfere with the natural development of the eye, as well as reading and learning skills. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Things are busy on a rainy Saturday afternoon when I make a trip to the mall to finalize some back-to-school shopping. I pass by a lot of people, including several parents with young children under two years old, in strollers, and am struck by the fact that all of the children have a tablet or phone in their hands. Has technology become the ultimate tool for keeping children calm?</p>
<p>As an optometrist and eye health expert, this observation saddens me every time I see it, since I know all the harmful effects such exposure to electronic tools can have on children.</p>
<p>These effects are all the more critical during the first years of life, both on the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34625399/">visual level</a> and on the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36190219/">cognitive and social development of children</a>.</p>
<h2>Visual development of children</h2>
<p>The human eye develops <a href="https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/family-resources-education/health-wellness-and-safety-resources/helping-hands/infant-vision-birth-to-one-year">through stimulation</a>. The quality of the optical stimulus influences the growth of the eyeball via a complex and balanced mechanism. At birth, the eye is hyperopic, that is to say, its power is not perfectly adjusted to its size. A child sees at short distances and is barely able to distinguish a shadow when grandpa comes to the bedroom door.</p>
<p>In the first few weeks, the eye grows, the retina matures and a balance is established between the growth of the eyeball and the power of the inner lens. At six months of age, each of the toddler’s two eyes has the vision of an adult eye. From this moment on, the eyes will develop their coordination, in order to generate vision in three dimensions. It’s also starting at the age of six months that the communication between the eyes develops in the visual brain as well.</p>
<p>Billions of neurological connections will have to be made during the <a href="https://opto.umontreal.ca/clinique/pdf/EFFETS%20DES%20ECRANS%20SUR%20LE%20D%C3%89VELOPPEMENT%20VISUEL%20DES%20ENFANTS.pdf">first eight years of life</a>. This maturation time is long, but necessary, considering that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763413001917">more than a third of the brain’s neurons are dedicated to vision</a>.</p>
<h2>A question of distance</h2>
<p>Electronic devices are not, in themselves, a source of visual problems. Rather, the inappropriate use of these devices can interfere with the natural development of the eye, as well as reading and learning skills.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two small children with glasses sitting on white chairs : a boy with a tablet computer, a girl with a cell phone" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">For normal visual development, it is recommended that exposure to electronic devices be avoided between the ages of zero and two years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The first thing to consider is viewing distance. The eye is designed to look at a near distance that is about equal to the length of the forearm (distance from the elbow to the fingertips of the hand). That means about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698913000795">30 cm for a young child, and 40 cm for an adult</a>. However, tablets and phones are held on average 20-30 cm from the eye, and this distance <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cxo.12453">becomes shorter with prolonged exposure</a>. The visual effort required to maintain a clear image at this distance is therefore doubled.</p>
<p>A distance that is too short influences the quality of the retinal image (and therefore visual development) and causes <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?hl=fr&lr=&id=jGGROHBFYt8C">excessive eye fatigue</a>. It is also important to understand that when eyes must accommodate short distances, they automatically converge towards the nose in order to focus at the normal reading distance. Too much effort spent accommodating the short distance is therefore accompanied by a greater than normal convergence. As the eye cannot maintain this prolonged effort over a long period of time, it will relax its effort and the perceived image will become blurred for a while, a sensory penalty that we want to avoid. After a period of rest, the eye will resume its effort, and this alternation between the clearness and the blur will continue as long as attention to the close image is required. So, ideally, the tablet or phone should always be kept at the distance of the forearm.</p>
<h2>Constant stimulation is not recommended</h2>
<p>The use of electronic tools, with games or videos, requires a constant attention span, without breaks. This is the second factor to consider. When a child draws in a notebook or reads a paper book, he or she will instinctively stop at some point, look elsewhere, far away, and become interested in something else around them. These pauses and breaks are beneficial <a href="https://www.aoa.org/healthy-eyes/eye-and-vision-conditions/computer-vision-syndrome?sso=y">for the visual system to recover from its effort</a>. Focusing on targets at a distance is also beneficial to the child’s visual development. With electronic tablets, it is not uncommon to see children doing sessions of more than two to three hours continuously, without looking up from the screen.</p>
<p>The visual apparatus of children from zero to two years old is simply not sufficiently developed and robust to undergo such stress from constant stimulation in front of the screen. In particular, the structural elements of the sclera (the deep layer of the eye), which give the eye rigidity and determine its size, develop between zero and two years of age and then stabilize. The visual stimulus at these ages can interfere and therefore <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335108098_Scleral_structure_and_biomechanics">influence the development of visual defects and pathology in later life</a>.</p>
<p>It is also important to note that the screen can emit blue light. Children’s eyes do not filter these rays like those of an adult. This means that children are exposed to more blue light, which may stimulate nearsightedness and disrupt the secretion of melatonin, <a href="https://www.myopiainstitute.com/eye-care/how-blue-light-affects-your-vision-and-overall-health/">which regulates our biological clock</a>. This can disrupt the naps necessary for children of this age, as well as sleep during the night. Sleep loss can also lead to myopia.</p>
<h2>Let’s learn about electronics</h2>
<p>For normal visual development, it is therefore recommended to <a href="https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/128/5/1040/30928/Media-Use-by-Children-Younger-Than-2-Years?_ga=2.208746386.1459529850.1665228699-655911314.1665228699?autologincheck=redirected?nfToken=00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000">avoid all exposure to electronic devices between the ages of zero and two</a>. The exception would be occasional video conversations, under the supervision of a parent, to say hello to a grandparent who lives far away, for a few minutes.</p>
<p>From the age of two years on, an hour of exposure per day can be considered, especially to consult educational sites, always accompanied by a parent or an educator.</p>
<p>When the visual system is mature, around the age of six to eight, exposure can be increased gradually, without exceeding two to three hours per day, with 10-minute breaks every hour. Electronic device use should be avoided during meals, family activities, and at least one hour before sleep.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Young mother holding her cute, crying baby daughter, looking at a tablet during a virtual video call business or family meeting at a distance" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rare video conversations, with parental supervision, to wave to a grandparent from a distance, for a few minutes, can be considered.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Let’s play outside!</h2>
<p>The best advice for successful visual development is to encourage exposure to outdoor light for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6678505/#:%7E:text=Each%20additional%20hour%20of%20daily,by%2013%25%20%5B23%5D.">at least one hour per day, ideally two hours</a>. We are talking about playing, walking, and activities that are done outside. The amount of light is then much greater than indoors, which would stimulate the production of dopamine, a chemical mediator essential to regulating the growth of the eye. This is the most effective way to prevent the onset of myopia in children.</p>
<p>It is also important to make sure that a child’s visual system is normal and developing naturally. Therefore, the first examination by an optometrist should be done at six months of age (to validate that the eye has normal optics and that there are no congenital defects), and then at three years of age to evaluate eye coordination. If everything is normal, the next examination will take place at five years of age, and annually thereafter, <a href="http://nada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/BK-ChildrenAndTheirVision-2018-EN.pdf">considering that vision can change rapidly</a>.</p>
<p>In the case of an abnormality, the earlier we intervene in the process, the easier it is to restore normal oculo-visual function, either by exercise or by optical means.</p>
<p>By following these recommendations for visual hygiene, we will protect children’s visual system and ensure their normal development.</p>
<p>And let’s not forget that the most beautiful screen in the world is nature! We should offer it to our children more often.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193192/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Langis Michaud ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>The impact of using electronic devices is critical during the first years of life, both visually and on the cognitive and social development of the child.Langis Michaud, Professeur Titulaire. École d'optométrie. Expertise en santé oculaire et usage des lentilles cornéennes spécialisées, Université de MontréalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1923622022-10-18T10:44:05Z2022-10-18T10:44:05ZLockdown babies behind on communication milestones: to help toddlers’ language skills, just talk and listen<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490029/original/file-20221017-25-ip1by0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C0%2C5092%2C3532&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-father-holding-daughter-on-hands-1445320412">Natalia Rapoport/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://adc.bmj.com/content/early/2022/09/19/archdischild-2021-323441">Research has found</a> that babies born during lockdown have been later to meet some language and communication milestones. During this time, babies met fewer new people and had fewer chances to socialise with other adults and babies, whether in baby groups or in family and friends’ homes, and parents had work responsibilities while caring for their babies. This may have led to the lag in skills in the 2020 babies.</p>
<p>Parents often worry more about their child not talking than they do about their child <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/000992289403300507">not meeting other milestones</a>. Parents are also more accurate in telling researchers when their child should <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9471009/">meet talking milestones</a> than other milestones, such as play or gesture. </p>
<p>Many children who are a bit slow to talk but catch up later, and children who are more likely to carry on having language problems are not necessarily the ones who talk late, but the ones who also don’t <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0093934X03000968?via%3Dihub">understand as many words</a> as their peers.</p>
<p>But it’s important to keep a good handle on whether a child is experiencing some delay with communication, as children who have a serious language delay when they start school are more likely to have problems <a href="https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/1092-4388%282004/013%29">making friends later on</a>. In general, good language skills help children <a href="http://www.complexneeds.org.uk/modules/Module-1.1-Understanding-the-child-development-and-difficulties/All/downloads/m01p040d/the_foundation_years_preventing_poor_children_becoming_poor_adults.pdf">to do well at school</a>.</p>
<p>The best way to help your toddler with their language and communication is to make sure that people talk to them and listen to them, whoever they are coming into contact with.</p>
<h2>No ‘right way’ to talk</h2>
<p>Parents may feel they aren’t talking to their children in the right way, but research shows there really isn’t a “right way” which will definitely improve your child’s language over a long period of time. Parents from different cultures talk to their children differently, and so far we have found that small changes in talking to toddlers are <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED539264.pdf">unlikely to affect</a> a child’s language at school age.</p>
<p>We do know that talking to children about what they are interested in is one of the most effective ways to help the youngest toddlers to learn new words. A <a href="https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcpp.12725">controlled trial</a> carried out in the north of England taught some parents to use this type of “contingent talk” – talking about what a child is paying attention to, when they are paying attention to it. </p>
<p>So, for example, parents were taught to say “oh that’s the LORRY you’re playing with, what a fun LORRY” while their child was already paying attention to the lorry. Other parents in the trial were just taught about healthy eating and dental health.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Toddlers playing together" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490033/original/file-20221017-25-hm8kgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490033/original/file-20221017-25-hm8kgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490033/original/file-20221017-25-hm8kgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490033/original/file-20221017-25-hm8kgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490033/original/file-20221017-25-hm8kgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490033/original/file-20221017-25-hm8kgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490033/original/file-20221017-25-hm8kgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Learning to communicate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/group-young-children-playing-water-table-794064370">Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The researchers made sure that they included families from a wide range of backgrounds, including families in low income areas. The study found that children whose parents were given these tips on talking to their children when their children were just under one year old were saying more words when they were 18 months old than those in families who didn’t get these tips. </p>
<p>But as with previous research, there <a href="https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcpp.12725">wasn’t a measurable difference</a> between the two groups of toddlers six months after that. So while it’s good to talk to toddlers, it doesn’t necessarily mean changing the way you talk to them is going to carry forward into their future language skills.</p>
<p>Specific instructions on how to talk to a baby or toddler may also be jarring for parents when they differ from practices from their own culture. Of the babies born in England and Wales in 2020, <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/livebirths/bulletins/parentscountryofbirthenglandandwales/2020">30% have a mother</a> who wasn’t born in the UK. Out of those babies, their mother’s most common country of birth was Pakistan. The top ten countries of birth for non-UK-born mothers in 2020 also include Romania, Nigeria, Somalia and India. </p>
<p>We know that parents from different parts of the world use different ways of talking to children and have different ideas on bringing up their children. For example, research has found that <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0300443910740105">parents in Sub-Saharan Africa</a> are more likely to use <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09575140500128079">“instrumental” speech</a> to children – trying to ask them to do something, or pointing out something dangerous near the toddler. In the past, researchers in western settings have mainly studied parents talking to toddlers when they were playing together, focusing on toys and games.</p>
<p>Given how concerned parents of babies born in lockdown might be, the important thing to remember is that however you talk to your toddler now, it’s likely to help them. Whether this is part of a dedicated sit-down play session, getting them to help you with things around the house, or learning to do what adults are doing – it’s all good.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192362/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katie Alcock receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council, and has in the past received funding from the Royal Society/Newton Fund.</span></em></p>Parents often worry that their child might not be talking enough.Katie Alcock, Senior Lecturer, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1821252022-05-26T20:39:17Z2022-05-26T20:39:17ZCan you use rapid antigen tests in children under 2 years old?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460487/original/file-20220429-17-drojpg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C0%2C995%2C666&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/brown-teddy-bear-sitting-on-sofa-2106255734">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As we head into winter, you may have a sniffly child under two years old at home. Is it just a cold? Or could it be COVID?</p>
<p>You may be tempted to reach into the cupboard for a rapid antigen test to find out. But some manufacturers say their COVID tests aren’t suitable for children under two.</p>
<p>Can you use a test intended for adults or older children? How do you test a wriggling or grumpy small child anyway? We’re infection control and child health researchers. Here are our tips.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-or-just-a-common-cold-what-to-do-when-your-child-gets-sick-this-winter-140727">Coronavirus or just a common cold? What to do when your child gets sick this winter</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Are there special tests for this age group?</h2>
<p>Of the 47 different rapid antigen tests <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/covid-19-rapid-antigen-self-tests-are-approved-australia">authorised</a> for home use in Australia at the time of writing, most (57%) state they are not suitable for children under two. This leaves 20 tests that are.</p>
<p>You can <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/covid-19-rapid-antigen-self-tests-are-approved-australia">check the list</a> on the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) website to see if the test you have at home is one of them.</p>
<p>Just because a test isn’t approved for a particular age doesn’t necessarily mean it doesn’t work at all. It usually means the test has not been tested, or its use determined, for that age. But try to use a test approved for under twos if you can.</p>
<p>However, rapid antigen tests are generally not as accurate in children as they are in adults. They are: </p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>highly specific</strong> – rapid antigen tests for children have <a href="https://ebm.bmj.com/content/early/2022/01/04/bmjebm-2021-111828">high specificity</a>. This means if the test is done correctly, it is unlikely to say your child is positive if it is not </p></li>
<li><p><strong>but not as sensitive</strong> – rapid antigen tests are less sensitive in children than adults. In other words, they’re not as good at detecting if a child has COVID. But tests are <a href="https://ebm.bmj.com/content/early/2022/01/04/bmjebm-2021-111828">more likely</a> to correctly detect COVID if the child has symptoms.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/15-things-not-to-do-when-using-a-rapid-antigen-test-from-storing-in-the-freezer-to-sampling-snot-176364">15 things not to do when using a rapid antigen test, from storing in the freezer to sampling snot</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Which type of test to use?</h2>
<p>Of the 20 tests approved for use in under twos, 16 use nasal swabs and four sample saliva. </p>
<p>The accuracy of different sampling methods in children differs by viral variant. While it was once thought nasal swabs were <a href="https://journals.lww.com/pidj/fulltext/2020/09000/nasal_swab_as_preferred_clinical_specimen_for.33.aspx">more accurate</a> in children, this may not necessarily be the case with the Omicron variant.</p>
<p>There’s <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.12.22.21268246v1">preliminary evidence</a>, which has yet to be independently verified, saliva swabs may be better able to detect Omicron. So we’ll see how the evidence develops.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462928/original/file-20220513-18-gc9eud.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Rapid antigen test components with nasal swab" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462928/original/file-20220513-18-gc9eud.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462928/original/file-20220513-18-gc9eud.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462928/original/file-20220513-18-gc9eud.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462928/original/file-20220513-18-gc9eud.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462928/original/file-20220513-18-gc9eud.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462928/original/file-20220513-18-gc9eud.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462928/original/file-20220513-18-gc9eud.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tests that use nasal swabs may be more accurate. But that may depend on the viral variant.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/covid19-nasal-swab-test-kits-saracov2-2027424992">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Taking a saliva sample may not be as straightforward as you think. </p>
<p>Depending on the test, your child may need to cough (several times, on demand) and spit into a tube. Or after you swab your child’s tongue and mouth, your child will need to keep the spongy tip of the swab in their mouth for a few minutes, without sucking or biting it. So getting an under two-year-old to cooperate is unlikely.</p>
<p>If you do go down this route you can use a <a href="https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/COVID-19_swabbing/">tongue depressor</a> to flatten the tongue to take the sample. You can buy these from a pharmacy.</p>
<p>But with a bit of preparation (and an extra pair of hands) you should be able to use a nasal test on a young child. You should be able to do this without causing pain or distress, a <a href="https://www.rchpoll.org.au/polls/covid-19-testing-in-kids-what-concerns-parents/">common worry</a> for parents considering COVID testing their child.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-prepare-your-child-for-a-covid-test-165248">How to prepare your child for a COVID test</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How do I prepare?</h2>
<p>Understand what the <a href="https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/COVID-19_swabbing/">COVID test</a> involves and plan to have the resources you need.</p>
<p>As you take the test components out of the packet, remember to keep them out of reach of your child. The chemicals can be toxic if swallowed, or can cause skin and eye irritation. Parents should also ensure small children don’t swallow test components, such as small bits of plastic.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462932/original/file-20220513-13-onvo9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Toddler holding security blanket in park or garden" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462932/original/file-20220513-13-onvo9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462932/original/file-20220513-13-onvo9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462932/original/file-20220513-13-onvo9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462932/original/file-20220513-13-onvo9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462932/original/file-20220513-13-onvo9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462932/original/file-20220513-13-onvo9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462932/original/file-20220513-13-onvo9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Holding a favourite toy or blanket may help your child relax.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/toddler-boy-blue-eyes-overalls-outside-134286551">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s also helpful to have two adults: one to perform the test and the other to hold and support the child.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.rch.org.au/kidsinfo/fact_sheets/Reduce_childrens_discomfort_during_tests_and_procedures/">Distraction</a> helps take your child’s mind off the test by concentrating on something more pleasurable. Young children can be easily distracted by listening to a favourite song. So have a song ready on your phone.</p>
<p>For toddlers, it can help to have another adult to provide more engaging distraction such as watching a video on a phone or tablet, or switching on a light-up toy.</p>
<p>Holding a favourite toy or blanket may also help your child relax. </p>
<h2>How do I actually take the sample?</h2>
<p>One adult can use a <a href="https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/COVID-19_swabbing/">secure hugging hold</a> to reduce movement during the test while the other adult takes the sample. </p>
<p>The adult holding the child sits the child upright on their lap and holds them close to make them feel secure. They cross one arm across the child’s body and place the other hand on the child’s forehead.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464418/original/file-20220520-13-ke69da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Sleeping baby wrapped tightly in checked blanket" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464418/original/file-20220520-13-ke69da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464418/original/file-20220520-13-ke69da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464418/original/file-20220520-13-ke69da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464418/original/file-20220520-13-ke69da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464418/original/file-20220520-13-ke69da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464418/original/file-20220520-13-ke69da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464418/original/file-20220520-13-ke69da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wrapping in a blanket can help.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/newborn-baby-boy-tightly-wrapped-blue-1142319218">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If you’re testing the child by yourself, you can wrap them in a blanket to hold them still while you take the sample. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.childrens.health.qld.gov.au/chq/information-for-families/helping-your-child-through-a-procedure/">Staying calm</a> yourself communicates to your child they are safe. Maintain a steady voice and breathe calmly during the test. </p>
<p>Slowly insert the tip of the swab inside the nose <a href="https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/COVID-19_swabbing/">for about 1cm</a> or until you meet resistance. Angle it along the base of the inside of the nose horizontally rather than pointing it upwards as you insert it (<a href="https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/COVID-19_swabbing/">go low</a>). </p>
<p>There is at least one nasal test that provides a smaller swab for young children so <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/covid-19-rapid-antigen-self-tests-are-approved-australia">check the TGA site</a> if you wish to use it. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/go-low-go-slow-how-to-rapid-antigen-test-your-kid-for-covid-as-school-returns-175615">Go low, go slow: how to rapid antigen test your kid for COVID as school returns</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What do I do next?</h2>
<p>Children’s <a href="https://journals.lww.com/pain/Fulltext/2015/01000/Remembering_the_pain_of_childhood__applying_a.6.aspx">memories of medical tests</a> can influence how they respond next time. So, as your young child may need another rapid antigen test in the future, finish on a positive note. </p>
<p>Play with your child after the test and provide positive reinforcement. Give your toddler a simple reward, such as a stamp or sticker. </p>
<p>If the test is unsuccessful, give your child a chance to recover before trying again.</p>
<p>However, if you feel anxious about performing the test, or repeating it, seek the support of a health professional. Every test should be the best possible experience for your child to avoid unnecessary distress.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-in-babies-heres-what-to-expect-181940">COVID-19 in babies – here's what to expect</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182125/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thea van de Mortel teaches into the Graduate Infection Prevention and Control program at Griffith University. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karin Plummer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Can you use a test intended for adults or older children? How do you test a wriggling or grumpy small child anyway? We’re infection control and child health researchers. Here are our tips.Thea van de Mortel, Professor, Nursing and Deputy Head (Learning & Teaching), School of Nursing and Midwifery, Griffith UniversityKarin Plummer, Research Fellow, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1776332022-03-25T00:34:41Z2022-03-25T00:34:41ZYes, the ‘terrible twos’ are full-on – but let’s look at things from a child’s perspective<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452124/original/file-20220315-23-1fhj6lu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=60%2C50%2C6611%2C4261&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://theconversation.com/whats-in-a-milestone-understanding-your-childs-development-50894">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Meet Eli. He entered the second year of his life with gusto and now, aged 18 months, he is discovering new things every day including ideas he wants to try out immediately. Like, right now. Waiting is not an option. </p>
<p>Combined with his passion for life he often becomes emotionally overwhelmed and erupts into frequent meltdowns. Words and phrases like “no”, “do it myself” and “mine” are used often.</p>
<p>Sometimes the smallest thing ends with Eli kicking, biting and crying. Although he’s still developing a command of words, he shouts “I don’t love you, Dad!” with devastating accuracy. These outbursts happen at home and out in public. </p>
<p>Research <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544286/#:%7E:text=%5B1%5D%20Researchers%20have%20found%20that,of%20four%2Dyear%2Dolds.">shows</a> tantrums occur in 87% of 18 to 24-month-olds, 91% of 30 to 36-month-olds, and 59% of 42 to 48-month-olds – often on a daily basis.</p>
<p>The “terrible twos” might sound accurate, but branding toddlerhood (18 months to 36 months) this way is an injustice to this group. The generic label fails to grasp the huge developmental growth happening at this age. It also fails to celebrate the developing emotional life of a toddler, at once complex, multifaceted and exhilarating.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-in-a-milestone-understanding-your-childs-development-50894">What’s in a milestone? Understanding your child’s development</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What’s going on?</h2>
<p>Eli is at a “<a href="https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Touchpoints.html?id=Y0FEnQAACAAJ&redir_esc=y">developmental touchpoint</a>”, where a unique surge in capacities is coupled with behaviour falling apart. At this age, children begin to establish independence while simultaneously needing to learn ways of coping with intense feelings such as fear, anger, frustration and sadness. Researchers are still <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/imhj.21877">discovering</a> what a normal trajectory for emotional regulation development looks like, and what might help or hinder it. </p>
<p>Intense, uncontrolled feelings and defiance are normal at this age. But it can be challenging for parents to support their toddlers through this stage.</p>
<p>Focusing solely on a toddler’s behaviour fails to capture the significant role sensitive care-giving plays in social and emotional development in the early years. </p>
<p>A core component of sensitive and responsive parenting is a parent’s capacity to put themselves into the mind of their very young child and understand the child’s <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16210239/">behaviour has meaning and is driven by internal experiences</a> such as feelings, thoughts, desires and intentions.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1502185488173645828"}"></div></p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/jamming-with-your-toddler-how-music-trumps-reading-for-childhood-development-49660">Jamming with your toddler: how music trumps reading for childhood development</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A child’s-eye view</h2>
<p>Being able to understand the world from the child’s perspective helps a parent to <a href="https://www.appi.org/Handbook_of_Mentalizing_in_Mental_Health_Practice_Second_Edition">anticipate, interpret and respond</a> to the child’s behaviour in ways that build a child’s capacity to regulate their emotions.</p>
<p>Eli’s dad didn’t experience tantrums with his first child, who had a calmer disposition, so he finds Eli’s emotional outbursts hard to tolerate. He becomes angry when Eli refuses to do what he is told and yells at him to “stop it!”. This frightens Eli, who sometimes retreats and sometimes escalates in his distress.</p>
<p>Eli’s dad is unaware of his toddler’s internal experiences and is confused by his own “out-of-control” feelings when parenting him. Frequent emotional outbursts coupled with an authoritative parenting style <a href="https://www.appi.org/Handbook_of_Mentalizing_in_Mental_Health_Practice_Second_Edition">places children at risk</a> of developing more serious emotional and behavioural problems. </p>
<p>Eli’s dad needs to understand that his primary role at this stage is to put his child’s experiences at the centre of his mind. This requires him to try to make sense of what Eli is communicating about himself through his behaviour and to respond in a sensitive way. This can help a child like Eli not be overwhelmed by intense feelings.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452125/original/file-20220315-13-4qeoee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="young girl having tantrum" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452125/original/file-20220315-13-4qeoee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452125/original/file-20220315-13-4qeoee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452125/original/file-20220315-13-4qeoee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452125/original/file-20220315-13-4qeoee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452125/original/file-20220315-13-4qeoee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452125/original/file-20220315-13-4qeoee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452125/original/file-20220315-13-4qeoee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s important to figure out the big feeling behind the tantrum.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://image.shutterstock.com/image-photo/closeup-asian-little-cute-girl-600w-1484664989.jpg">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3 guidelines for parents:</h2>
<p><strong>1. Be aware of your own responses</strong></p>
<p>Tantrums can be emotionally activating for parents. Being aware and making sense of your own feelings will help you to respond sensitively to your child’s distress. When Eli’s dad makes sense of his struggles with managing anger, he is calmer, enabling him to focus on Eli’s emotional experiences.</p>
<p><strong>2. Identify and validate your child’s difficult feelings</strong></p>
<p>Young children need help from their parents to recognise that the feelings they are expressing through their behaviours are just that: feelings that will pass in time. They need help to name them, work out what is causing them and figure out what might help. </p>
<p><strong>3. Search for underlying meaning</strong></p>
<p>Remember not to take emotional outbursts personally. Viewing a tantrum as a means of communication helps parents consider the likely causes of a child’s distress and to think through possible solutions. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/3FsBaRYRPnU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Maurice Sendak’s Where the Wild Things Are is a tribute to tantrums.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/having-problems-with-your-kids-tantrums-bed-wetting-or-withdrawal-heres-when-to-get-help-125299">Having problems with your kid's tantrums, bed-wetting or withdrawal? Here's when to get help</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Making changes</h2>
<p>With new insights, parents like Eli’s dad can can help their child put themselves back together again after emotional outbursts, which may be less frequent. With consistent support, toddlers can learn to tolerate frustration, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23006014/">gain a sense of control of strong feelings</a> and find words to express what is happening inside them.</p>
<p>Parenting a toddler is no easy task. Today’s parents have the advantages of remarkable leaps in <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/article/temper-tantrum.html?action=click&module=RelatedLinks&pgtype=Article&login=smartlock&auth=login-smartlock">neuroscientific and developmental knowledge</a>. However, these can be difficult to access and even more difficult to put into practice. Unwittingly we can fall back into the familiar ways we were parented, or we might attempt try to do the opposite of how we were parented only to find we have lost direction. </p>
<p>Investment in early intervention programs <a href="https://www.hachette.com.au/mona-delahooke/beyond-behaviours-using-brain-science-and-compassion-to-understand-and-solve-childrens-behavioural-challenges">for everyone</a> or at a <a href="https://www.guilford.com/books/Psychotherapy-with-Infants-and-Young-Children/Lieberman-Horn/9781609182403">targeted level</a> where the parent-child relationship is in trouble, could provide the building blocks for lifelong emotional well-being for families and for society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177633/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Terrible or terrific? There is a lot going when you’re two.Rochelle Matacz, Adjunct Senior Lecturer, Edith Cowan UniversityLynn Priddis, Adjunct associate professor, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1733982022-01-07T13:30:09Z2022-01-07T13:30:09ZWhy kids shouldn’t eat added sugar before they turn 2, according to a nutritional epidemiologist<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438849/original/file-20211222-48933-i4s8nb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C18%2C6016%2C3989&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Avoiding or reducing added sugar in your child's diet can be tricky.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/happy-little-kid-licking-ice-cream-royalty-free-image/1276999205?adppopup=true">Andrii Zorii/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I remember a decade ago sitting in front of my 9-month-old daughter, who was in her high chair, and trying to spoon-feed her a pureed green vegetable. It didn’t matter if it was peas, green beans or something else, because the outcome was the same: I spooned it into her mouth, and it came right back out.</p>
<p>Compare this with feeding her applesauce, for which she would open her mouth after each bite and almost bounce in her chair with pleasure. I nearly danced along with her. This was easier! Let’s just keep doing this! But as a nutritional epidemiologist, I knew that solely satisfying her desire for sweetness would not benefit her health in the long run.</p>
<p>At the University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, <a href="https://publichealth.pitt.edu/home/directory/lisa-m-bodnar">I study</a> the consequences of poor nutrition on the health of mothers and children. I recently served on a National Academies of Science, Engineering and Medicine committee that <a href="https://www.nap.edu/resource/25747/Feeding%20Infants%20and%20Children_%20Report%20Highlights.pdf">summarized guidelines on feeding infants and children</a> up to age 2. As part of the committee, I helped to write a report about feeding young children added sugars and sugar-sweetened beverages. And – spoiler alert! – experts advise no added sugar for infants and little to no added sugar for children 12 to 24 months old. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nutrition/data-statistics/added-sugars.html">Added sugars</a> are sugars and syrups that are added to foods during processing or preparation or later at the table. They can be natural sugars, like honey, or artificial sweeteners, like high-fructose corn syrup. Yogurt, baby snacks, fruit drinks, desserts and sweet bakery products are the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2019.09.007">most common sources</a> of added sugars in the diets of infants and toddlers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Different types of sugars in bowls, scoops and bags on a wooden table." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438848/original/file-20211222-23072-1f2q6gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438848/original/file-20211222-23072-1f2q6gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438848/original/file-20211222-23072-1f2q6gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438848/original/file-20211222-23072-1f2q6gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438848/original/file-20211222-23072-1f2q6gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438848/original/file-20211222-23072-1f2q6gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438848/original/file-20211222-23072-1f2q6gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sugar, sugar, everywhere.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/many-different-types-of-sugar-on-a-wooden-royalty-free-image/1299489310?adppopup=true">Avtor/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/sugar/sugar-101">Unlike sugars that naturally occur</a> in fruits, dairy products, vegetables and bread and other grains, natural sugars and artificial sweeteners added to foods are the ones we should eliminate or limit in the diets of young children. But why? </p>
<p>From birth to 24 months, proper growth and development require calories and nutrients. Foods and beverages high in added sugars provide a lot of calories – referred to as “empty calories” – but not a lot of nutrients. Offering foods with added sugars to children from birth to 24 months is problematic because they eat relatively small amounts of food at this stage. To ensure healthy nutrition, the food they eat must be high in nutrients. If young kids fill up on high-calorie, sugar-laden foods or drinks, it leaves less room for nutritious foods. </p>
<p>Children who are fed diets high in added sugars are more likely than children with lower sugar intakes to have a number of negative health consequences as they develop, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2011.09.009">childhood obesity</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000439">cardiovascular disease</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.23804/ejpd.2019.20.02.09">tooth decay</a>.</p>
<p>Diet from birth to 24 months also shapes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.20927">long-term food preferences</a>. People are hard-wired to crave sugar because it built up fat stores and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00545">kept our ancestors from starving</a> when food was scarce. But kids can learn to accept bitter foods high in nutrients, like vegetables, if <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.93.2.271">they are offered them repeatedly</a> in early childhood. <a href="https://healthyeatingresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/her_feeding_guidelines_report_021416-1.pdf">Setting healthy diet patterns</a> early in life can help children maintain a healthy weight and avoid chronic disease.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Little boy eating a slice of green pepper while being held by mom." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438844/original/file-20211222-19-1n395av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438844/original/file-20211222-19-1n395av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438844/original/file-20211222-19-1n395av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438844/original/file-20211222-19-1n395av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438844/original/file-20211222-19-1n395av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438844/original/file-20211222-19-1n395av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438844/original/file-20211222-19-1n395av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If your child doesn’t like veggies at first, try, try again.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/toddler-eating-a-green-pepper-royalty-free-image/1339054800?adppopup=true">MoMo Productions/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Considering that about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2019.09.007">85% of infants and toddlers</a> in the U.S. consume added sugar daily, here are some practical tips for parents and caregivers of babies and young children for eliminating or limiting their sugar consumption:</p>
<h2>1. Look on the food label</h2>
<p>Check the amount of added sugars on the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/new-nutrition-facts-label/how-understand-and-use-nutrition-facts-label">nutrition facts label</a> on foods and drinks before you buy them. Labels include the amount of “Total Sugars” and, below that, the amount of “Added Sugars.” One 8-ounce serving of chocolate milk contains 15 grams of added sugar, for example, while regular cow’s milk has no added sugar.</p>
<h2>2. Switch to healthier drinks</h2>
<p>Swap out sugary drinks with water or milk (breast milk, formula or other milk, depending on the child’s age). Eliminate or limit sugary beverages like regular soda, flavored milks, Kool-Aid, fruit drinks, juice with less than 100% fruit, sports drinks, energy drinks and sweetened water or tea.</p>
<h2>3. Ditch sugar during food prep</h2>
<p>Prepare foods for your young child at home without adding sugar.</p>
<h2>4. Be aware of the different names for sugar</h2>
<p>Some packaged foods literally have “sweetened” in their name, such as sweetened applesauces or sweetened peaches. But sugar is not always so easy to spot. Often foods we don’t expect to contain added sugars do, like yogurts. Added sugars go by many different names, such as high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice concentrates, cane sugar, corn sweetener, lactose, glucose, sucrose and maple syrup. So always check the ingredient list.</p>
<h2>5. Be mindful of sugar lurking in packaged or store-made foods</h2>
<p>If you offer your child packaged or store-prepared foods and beverages, such as dry cereal, fruit pouches or jars of baby food, they should contain little to no added sugars.</p>
<h2>6. Try again and often</h2>
<p>Offer children bitter foods like vegetables over and over. Young children need to be exposed to foods <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/an.115.008649">30 or so times</a> before they learn to like them! </p>
<p>[<em>Over 140,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-140ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>As a registered dietitian and licensed nutritionist who has counseled families – but also as a mother to three children – I have learned that reducing added sugar is not as easy as we professionals often make it seem. In fact, it may be infeasible for many people because of limited access to or the higher price of healthy foods. Some people have pressing needs that may take priority over a healthful diet. And fast-food restaurants and convenience stores seem to be everywhere you look.</p>
<p>So don’t try to make all of these changes with your child at once. Choose one that seems most feasible, and try that first. Gradually add another. Remember that falling off a healthy habit is normal. The important thing is getting back on the horse and trying again.</p>
<p></p><hr> <p></p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439239/original/file-20220103-48418-1p7tcpi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439239/original/file-20220103-48418-1p7tcpi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439239/original/file-20220103-48418-1p7tcpi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439239/original/file-20220103-48418-1p7tcpi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439239/original/file-20220103-48418-1p7tcpi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439239/original/file-20220103-48418-1p7tcpi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439239/original/file-20220103-48418-1p7tcpi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em>This article is part of a series examining sugar’s effects on human health and culture. <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/sugar-2022-114641">You can read the articles on theconversation.com.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173398/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa Bodnar receives funding from the National Institutes of Health. </span></em></p>Children who are fed diets high in added sugars are more likely than children with lower sugar intakes to have a number of negative health consequences as they develop.Lisa Bodnar, Professor of Epidemiology, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1601462021-05-18T12:23:22Z2021-05-18T12:23:22ZThe typical child care worker in the US earns less than $12 an hour<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400624/original/file-20210513-20-1kvhhcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C0%2C7844%2C5229&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Taking care of little ones is physically demanding work.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/teacher-keshawna-edwards-zips-up-the-coat-of-montana-mason-news-photo/1232802545">Matt Roth for The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400616/original/file-20210513-20-19npgiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400616/original/file-20210513-20-19npgiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400616/original/file-20210513-20-19npgiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400616/original/file-20210513-20-19npgiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400616/original/file-20210513-20-19npgiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400616/original/file-20210513-20-19npgiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400616/original/file-20210513-20-19npgiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<p>The American Families Plan, announced by President Joe Biden in <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/04/28/fact-sheet-the-american-families-plan/">April 2021</a>, aims to make child care more affordable for parents. Importantly, it also seeks to ensure caregivers are paid a <a href="https://livingwage.mit.edu/">living wage</a> – enough to meet basic needs given the local cost of living. If passed, all workers in child care and pre-K programs that receive federal subsidies would earn at least US$15 per hour. Preschool teachers and child care workers with similar qualifications as kindergarten teachers would be paid in line with what kindergarten teachers earn. </p>
<p>Currently, child care workers who care for infants and toddlers tend to earn much less than those who care for older children.</p>
<p>In 2019, child care workers across the United States earned <a href="https://cscce.berkeley.edu/workforce-index-2020/">an average wage of $11.65</a> per hour. That includes people who worked in child care centers and schools as well as private homes. As a result, in several states, <a href="https://cscce.berkeley.edu/workforce-index-2020/">over 25%</a> of those workers – <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/08/19/903913689/1-in-5-child-care-jobs-were-lost-since-pandemic-started-women-are-affected-most">overwhelmingly women</a> – live at or below the poverty level.</p>
<p>Although early childhood caregivers saw a slight increase in wages in 2020, to <a href="https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes399011.htm">$12.88 per hour</a>, it was a temporary bump due to some being <a href="https://castro.house.gov/media-center/press-releases/-castro-haaland-urge-house-leadership-to-establish-family-care-for-essential-workers-and-vulnerable-family-caregivers-during-covid-19">classified as essential workers</a> or receiving <a href="https://ncchildcare.ncdhhs.gov/Portals/0/documents/pdf/N/NC_Emergency_Child_Care_Operations_Guidelines_Application_Form_03252020.pdf?ver=2020-03-25-203439-153">hazard pay</a> during the COVID-19 pandemic. </p>
<p>The median annual income for a child care worker is about <a href="https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes399011.htm">$25,500</a> for 12 months of work, compared to a preschool teacher’s median salary of just under <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/preschool-teachers.htm">$32,000</a> for, often, 10 months. A kindergarten teacher, meanwhile, earns roughly <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htm#tab-5">$58,000</a>, typically for 10 months.</p>
<h2>Critical development years</h2>
<p>As experts in <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-jT5usEAAAAJ&hl=en">child development</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=V-FwbJkAAAAJ&hl=en">infant and toddler mental health</a>, we know how important high-quality care is for a child’s development. </p>
<p>A child’s brain develops rapidly from ages 0-5 when the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/35081509">foundational structures</a> for learning and human interaction are established. Research shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579407000326">sensitive and stimulating caregiving</a>, where materials and experiences are carefully selected to engage a child’s senses, set off a series of connections between neurons in their brain. </p>
<p>A caregiver helps a child thrive by providing consistent attention, <a href="https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/serve-and-return/">back-and-forth communication</a> and emotional responsiveness – during routine times of diapering and feeding, as well as during planned activities. </p>
<p>Failure to respond or responses that are provided by a primary caregiver experiencing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2018.1">higher levels of anxiety</a> have been shown to have an impact on the way <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1387">the child’s brain develops</a>. </p>
<h2>Impact of low wages</h2>
<p>According to the Center for the Study of Child Care at University of California Berkeley, <a href="https://cscce.berkeley.edu/workforce-index-2020/">caregivers in only 10 states</a> are paid what’s considered a living wage. As a result, nearly half of this workforce nationwide depends on public income support programs like food stamps or Medicaid.</p>
<p>The salary inequities can’t be explained away by lower levels of academic training or easier workdays. Early childhood educators with bachelor’s degrees earn <a href="https://cscce.berkeley.edu/workforce-index-2020/the-early-educator-workforce/early-educator-pay-economic-insecurity-across-the-states/">as little as half</a> of what K-8 teachers with the same credentials earn. </p>
<p>And whether caregivers are sitting on the floor playing with a child or lifting them into highchairs, the job is physically demanding – especially <a href="https://worldpopulationreview.com/state-rankings/child-care-ratio-by-state">in states</a> like Florida and Texas where one caregiver may be responsible for 10 or more toddlers. Plus, the average toddler weighs <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/clinical_charts.htm">over 25 pounds</a>.</p>
<p>Low wages, few benefits, stressful work conditions and feeling like their work isn’t valued are factors affecting the <a href="https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/product-files/Teacher_Turnover_REPORT.pdf">high turnover rates</a> and staffing shortage in child care.</p>
<p>A shortage of qualified staff hurts employers, but it also affects the young children who depend on them for care. Continuously changing caregivers influences quality of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21666">interaction and attachment</a>. During such a critical period of growth in a child’s life, when development depends on the caregiver’s attention to a child, we believe caregivers should be paid a wage that makes it possible for them to afford health care – including mental health services, should they be needed – and minimizes distraction from worries about their own economic stability.</p>
<p>[<em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/160146/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melissa Jozwiak previously received funding from State of New Mexico PreK for universal prek.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carl Sheperis does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Biden administration wants workers in child care and pre-K programs to earn at least $15 per hour.Melissa M. Jozwiak, Associate Professor of Early Childhood, Texas A&M University-San AntonioCarl Sheperis, Professor of Mental Health Counseling, Texas A&M University-San AntonioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1540362021-02-01T12:12:41Z2021-02-01T12:12:41ZTouchscreens may make toddlers more distractible – new three-year study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381123/original/file-20210128-23-techgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C15%2C5168%2C3430&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/toddler-staring-tablet-education-gadget-dependency-770994562">riggleton/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Working from home as a parent, a touchscreen device can be a marvellous tool. Pass one to your child, and they’ll be quietly occupied for your Zoom meeting, or for the crunch time as you approach an important deadline. Yet touchscreens can also feel like a tradeoff for parents, who have long feared that screen time may be harmful for their childrens’ development.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-81775-7">Our three-year study</a> following children from the age of one to three-and-a-half measured the link between touchscreen use and toddlers’ attention. For the first time, we were able to show that toddlers who used touchscreens were less able to avoid distractions when completing a task on a screen than toddlers with no or low daily touchscreen use. On the other hand, we found that toddlers with high daily touchscreen use were better able to spot flashy, attention-grabbing objects when they first appear on a screen.</p>
<p>These findings are important given the rising levels of screen time observed during COVID-19 national lockdowns. In the UK, for instance, <a href="https://www.psy.ox.ac.uk/news/ep-researchers-find-that-uk-lockdown-linked-to-widening-disadvantage-gap-for-babies-and-toddlers">three in four parents have reported</a> that their children have spent more time watching TV or playing with a tablet during lockdowns. <a href="https://www.ofcom.org.uk/about-ofcom/latest/media/media-releases/2020/uk-internet-use-surges">Individual adult screen time</a> also went up by an hour across the board during the UK’s spring lockdown.</p>
<p>Even before the pandemic, mobile media was already an integral part of family life. Some <a href="https://www.ofcom.org.uk/research-and-data/media-literacy-research/childrens/children-and-parents-media-use-and-attitudes-report-2019">63% of toddlers aged three to four</a> used a tablet at home in 2019 – more than double the percentage identified by similar research in 2013. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27531985/">In our previous studies</a>, we recorded daily touchscreen-device usage by children as young as six months of age.</p>
<h2>Toddlers on tablets</h2>
<p>Mobile touchscreen media, such as smartphones and tablets, are a common form of entertainment for infants and toddlers. But there has been growing concern that touchscreen use in toddlers may negatively affect the development of their attention. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young girl uses a touchscreen phone on a kitchen table" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Young children are using touchscreen technology more than ever during lockdowns.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/girl-play-phone-cafe-during-waiting-299527919">Elena Stepanova/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>The first few years of life are critical for children to <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-085114">learn how to control their attention</a>, selecting relevant information from the environment while ignoring distractions. These early attention skills are known to promote later social and academic success – but until recently there was no empirical scientific evidence to suggest a negative impact of touchscreen use on attention control.</p>
<p>In 2015, we started the <a href="https://www.cinelabresearch.com/tablet-project">TABLET Project</a> at Birkbeck’s Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development to see whether any such association might exist. We followed 53 one-year-old infants who had different levels of touchscreen usage. We observed them through toddlerhood (18 months) and up to pre-school age (three-and-a-half years). </p>
<p>At each age, parents reported online how long their child spent using a touchscreen device (tablet, smartphone or touchscreen laptop) each day. Families also visited our <a href="http://www.cbcd.bbk.ac.uk/babylab">Babylab</a> to complete a set of experimental assessments with the research team. This included some computer tasks which used an eye-tracker, enabling researchers to quantify very precisely what babies looked at on a screen. </p>
<p>By measuring how fast and how often toddlers looked at objects that appeared in different screen locations, we could understand how children controlled their attention. We were particularly interested in their “saliency-driven” attention (an automatic form of attention which allows us to react quickly to moving, bright or colourful objects) and their “goal-driven” attention (a voluntary form of attention that helps us focus on task-relevant things).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An example of what appears on screen when we measure toddlers’ attention. Illustrated by Ana Maria Portugal, researcher in the TABLET team.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>After three years of data collection, we found that infants and toddlers with high touchscreen use had faster saliency-driven attention. This means they were quicker to spot new stimuli on the screen, like a cartoon lion which suddenly appears. This effect replicated and confirmed our findings in <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2769281">a previous study in 2020</a>.</p>
<p>We then presented tasks that directly required toddlers to suppress their saliency-driven attention and instead use voluntary attention. We found that the children with higher touchscreen use were both slower to deliberately control their attention, and less able to ignore distracting objects when trying to focus their attention on a different target.</p>
<h2>Grabbing attention</h2>
<p>Our research is not conclusive and does not demonstrate a causal role of touchscreens. It could also be that more distractible children happen to be more attracted by and absorbed in the attention-grabbing features of interactive screens. </p>
<p>And, while touchscreens share similarities with TV, and video gaming, our new research finds different associations with attention than previously reported with these other media platforms. This suggests that touchscreens might produce different effects on the developing brain than other screens.</p>
<p>Next, we want to conduct further research which might help us draw conclusions about the positives and negatives of touchscreens for toddlers. For instance, while being faster at spotting a new stimulus on a screen may at first appear to be a negative finding, it’s easy to imagine vocations and situations in which this skill might be incredibly useful – such as air traffic control, or airport security screening. </p>
<p>In our increasingly complex audiovisual media environment, it might actually be useful to prime young children on the digital technologies they’ll use to learn, work, and play. But our findings also present a possible downside: that toddlers with high touchscreen use may find it harder to avoid distraction in busy settings like nursery classrooms.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/154036/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ana Maria Portugal received funding from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span><a href="mailto:rb2246@bath.ac.uk">rb2246@bath.ac.uk</a> receives funding from Wellcome Trust. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Professor Tim Smith receives funding from Leverhulme Trust, Nuffield Foundation, Wellcome, ESRC, and Bial. Professor Smith collaborates with Hopster TV.</span></em></p>Young children may find it harder to control their attention if they use touchscreens regularly.Ana Maria Portugal, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Karolinska InstitutetRachael Bedford, Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, University of BathTim J. Smith, Professor, Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1464112020-10-05T15:05:25Z2020-10-05T15:05:25ZPlaytime in Soweto: what mothers said about activity for toddlers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358567/original/file-20200917-20-1242n6k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Play is a crucial element of children's development.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">DisobeyArt/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Physical activity, sleep and rest time are important for young children. They <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29219071/">ensure</a> healthy growth and development. And the best way to get children physically active is to get them playing.</p>
<p>South Africa has created <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31877557/">guidelines</a> that map the ideal levels of physical activity for children in their first five years of life. These state that infants should have daily “tummy time” and floor based play; they shouldn’t be restrained in a car seat or high chair for extended periods of time. It’s advised that toddlers should play actively for 180 minutes a day. The guidelines recommend that infants and toddlers shouldn’t have any screen time.</p>
<p>In the first two years of life, of course, babies don’t have much autonomy over their behaviours. So they rely on their caregivers to give them opportunities for play. But what happens if caregivers aren’t aware of how important playing is?</p>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/epdf/10.1186/s12887-020-02321-4?sharing_token=DOnJdB-RVn_or5Npebkkx2_BpE1tBhCbnbw3BuzI2RNjXX4RWhNmCvhv7l3n4xiKuvSNlmOOaPHkTlmM0zkpHcl0oK6Kg4NBrTuGLyppjOCabimlsqYsWnH1wUhc0o5JpIT1WAlZ7sn4msBoRq_jGAxHsBSLFUTIZ304kBiIa6A%3D">We conducted a qualitative study</a> to try and understand what mothers in Soweto, Johannesburg, think about play and physical activity during the first two years of life. We also wanted to understand whether and how they promote this behaviour. This is the first study in South Africa examining these important concepts.</p>
<p>Soweto is a large, densely populated urban township which comprises one third of Johannesburg’s population. It was chosen because we <a href="https://theconversation.com/young-women-in-soweto-say-healthy-living-is-hard-heres-why-118198">already know</a> that young women in the area struggle to keep active themselves; they are limited by their environment, including a lack of space and resources to keep healthy. Given how big it is, Soweto is also representative of a large majority of the population. We focused on mothers because it is established that most children under 2 in South Africa live with their mother, while <a href="http://webcms.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/367/South%20African%20Child%20Gauge%202018%20-%20Nov%2020.pdf">less than 40% live with their fathers </a>.</p>
<p>We found that mothers were worried about how playing outdoors might put their children at risk of injuries or becoming victims of crime. They also didn’t have enough money to buy toys or books, or to pay for their children to go to creche. This isn’t to suggest they weren’t playing with their children: it just happened in an unstructured way, through singing, dancing and talking. They also knew that play was important, although they didn’t see it as an independent behaviour to be encouraged or promoted.</p>
<p>These findings offer useful insights into how to promote play among children, specifically those in poorer settings. Caregivers could be encouraged to let infants have daily <a href="https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/145/6/e20192168?casa_token=J5lQq5hm9d8AAAAA%3A0FMuq22CpPxdNCeNmz-qyKbvGp7lnd-iepvDyvp6j62ABXcypUFYN9OAhz1XyBkWanhfLXXwcSw4">tummy time</a> (lying on their stomach so that they can start to develop neck muscles and motor skills to lift their head and eventually sit up and crawl), and to play with babies through dancing and singing, storytelling, playing with a ball, and allowing babies to crawl, walk or run as much as possible without restricting their movements.</p>
<h2>What mothers told us</h2>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26062040/">Research has shown</a> that outdoor play is essential for childhood development.</p>
<p>The mothers in our study said it was dangerous for their children to play outside. They worried that their child might hurt themselves outside, might fall in the communal outdoor toilet (which raised both safety and hygiene concerns), might land up on the streets (yards are not always fenced), and might get hit by cars. Another major fear was that their child might be abducted, kidnapped or raped. Sadly, these anxieties are borne out by South Africa’s <a href="https://www.crimestatssa.com/">high crime rates</a>.</p>
<p>So, the women either kept their children inside where play was limited because of space constraints and was often substituted by a TV, or allowed them to play in a locked yard under supervision if they had access to such space. </p>
<p>Financial constraints were another issue. One mother of an 18-month-old boy said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Sometimes like if you’re at the mall and your baby wants a ball but you don’t have money and a ball keeps your baby active it’s a problem.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Most of the mothers did not read to their children, or even own a book. Reading in the early years when brains are rapidly developing <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED567231.pdf">is important</a> for cognitive and language development, as well as later school placement. But <a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africas-reading-crisis-is-a-cognitive-catastrophe-89052">research</a> has shown that South Africans generally don’t read much or at all. The mother of a seven-month-old girl told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>No I don’t read, I don’t even own a book</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Screen time</h2>
<p>We found that many of the mothers used TV as a “babysitter”. Most seemed to believe that their babies were able to decide how much TV to watch and when to watch; they said the TVs were constantly on in their homes. Often, children watched TV because their mothers or the rest of the family were watching, or because their mothers needed to do something else, like clean or cook. </p>
<p>Some mothers in the sample believed that TV time is beneficial. However, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18460044/">studies</a> have found that TV time is associated <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23820003/">with language delay</a> in infants – that is, it took them longer than their peers to learn to speak.</p>
<p>Limiting screen time may be particularly difficult for mothers who are looking after children on their own and may have limited resources or time to find alternatives.</p>
<p>Our findings are useful because they offer insight into the realities that keep caregivers from playing more or in a structured way with their children.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146411/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alessandra Prioreschi receives funding from the NIH funded VECD Fogarty Global Health programme, as well as from the DST/NRF centre of excellence in human development. </span></em></p>The women in our study knew that play was important, although they didn’t see it as an independent behaviour to be encouraged or promoted.Alessandra Prioreschi, Associate Director and Researcher at the Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit (DPHRU), University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1422442020-07-31T12:23:07Z2020-07-31T12:23:07ZTimeouts improve kids’ behavior if you do them the right way<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350520/original/file-20200730-23-l4mu8g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=371%2C323%2C4447%2C2630&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The disciplinary technique can reduce aggression and help get children to follow family rules.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/girl-sitting-on-chair-in-empty-room-royalty-free-image/523527668"> Brooke Fasani Auchincloss/The Image Bank via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With parents spending more time with their children than usual due to the COVID-19 pandemic, their need for discipline that works is greater than ever. Fortunately, there are some proven techniques.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://mpsi.wayne.edu/profile/Du4864">developmental psychologist</a>, I believe that anyone raising little kids could learn how to better use <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9371-x">timeouts</a>. This disciplinary technique is among the best ways to stop frustrating child behavior, like not listening, breaking family rules or being overly aggressive.</p>
<figure>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Following all the required steps is essential.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Incorrect and incomplete information</h2>
<p>Psychologists have encouraged parents, other guardians and frequent caregivers to use timeouts, which are generally appropriate for children between the ages of 2 and 5, <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2019-09751-001">since the 1960s</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10826-010-9371-x">During timeouts</a>, parents and other guardians briefly stop paying attention to their child and make the child sit quietly and calm down. Timeouts are meant to halt misbehavior and get children to stop acting out in the future.</p>
<p>Researchers have found over and over that <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18205039/">timeouts generally work well</a> – as long as parents and other primary caregivers consistently follow five specific steps.</p>
<p>The trouble is, much of the information available on the internet and through other channels is inaccurate or incomplete.</p>
<p>When a team of scholars <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4179870/">reviewed about 100 websites</a>, they found that not one of them included every essential step. So it shouldn’t be surprising that other researchers have found that <a href="https://www.academicpedsjnl.net/article/S1876-2859(16)30407-7/abstract">most parents who use timeouts fail to follow</a> them all.</p>
<p>Another problem is that timeouts aren’t appropriate for all forms of misbehavior. They’re best reserved for when kids behave aggressively, when they break things, or when they refuse to follow directions that makes them unsafe. For instance, your child hitting his brother or sister would be an appropriate reason to give a timeout. But tantrums, whining and talking back are not. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parents/essentials/consequences/ignoring.html">Parents should try other strategies</a>, such as ignoring the child for these behaviors.</p>
<p>What’s more, I do not recommend them at school, where, although there has not yet been conclusive research, I believe that other strategies work better.</p>
<p>Instead of using timeouts whenever a child misbehaves, adults should try other techniques, such as ignoring minor misbehavior, and consider if they can improve on how they react when a child misbehaves.</p>
<p>For parents and other guardians, that means making sure that their children’s days are filled with happy and fun “<a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2019-09751-001">time in</a>.” Parents can accomplish this by devoting at least 10 minutes a day to one-on-one play with their children. Parents should also be on the lookout for children’s good behavior and praise all the wonderful things their children do.</p>
<p>Kids should know which kinds of misbehavior will lead to timeouts, where they’ll have to go during timeouts and how long they’ll last. Parents should explain what will happen during timeouts when everyone is calm and happy, using a stuffed animal to demonstrate each step.</p>
<p><iframe id="d0RWZ" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/d0RWZ/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Key steps</h2>
<p>Timeouts are supposed to be boring, not scary or extremely punitive. Parents need to stay calm and quiet the whole time, saying only the bare minimum to children about each step. </p>
<p>Before making your child begin their timeout, explain clearly why they have to do one. For instance, you could briefly say, “You hit your sister, you’re going to a timeout.” Then walk your child to the timeout chair. I recommend using a quiet, boring location, rather than a room with lots of toys, filled with people or where a TV or another distracting device is on. It helps to use a sturdy chair suitable for grownups, rather than one designed for children because kid-sized chairs can be easily pushed over or even thrown by upset children.</p>
<p>Kids should spend one minute for each year of their age in the chair. There’s no evidence that making <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9371-x">timeouts last any longer than that works better</a>. </p>
<p>It’s OK if they get out of the chair, which does happen a lot. Parents can return their children to the chair, while staying calm and quiet. This might have to happen more than once because timeouts are boring by design and not all children can stand being bored.</p>
<p>[<em>Get the best of The Conversation, every weekend.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklybest">Sign up for our weekly newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>If a child will only sit for 30 seconds at first, then end it after 30 seconds. But it needs to be up to the adult in charge, not the child, to say when the timeout is over. Once everyone involved gets the hang of doing timeouts the right way, they can gradually last longer. If your child was cooperative, thank them for that afterward. </p>
<p>Once the timeout ends, reconnect. This could be sitting on the floor and playing together. Or parents, other guardians and frequent caregivers can watch for things the child does that they want to see happen more often and praise that behavior. </p>
<p>Both parents and children need to follow all of these steps every time for timeouts to work. If you have trouble controlling your own temper, try something else. Also, timeouts aren’t appropriate for all children. </p>
<p>In most families, however, I find that timeouts work because young children realize that hitting and other kinds of misbehavior will bring about an unwanted break from having fun.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142244/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lucy (Kathleen) McGoron receives funding from the National Institute of Mental Health. </span></em></p>Having loads of extra quality time with a toddler or preschooler and feeling flustered? Make sure you know how and where to do this basic disciplinary method the right way.Lucy (Kathleen) McGoron, Assistant Professor of Child and Family Development, Wayne State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1373402020-05-19T12:16:17Z2020-05-19T12:16:17ZWithout child care, work and family are impossible<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335209/original/file-20200514-77276-1o6ntjy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Work and family, without good childcare, are mutually exclusive.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/woman-hanging-children-on-clothesline-to-dry-royalty-free-image/1042679068?adppopup=true">Getty/Malte Mueller</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I have a Ph.D. from Harvard and a 20-month-old child. </p>
<p>Without child care, <a href="https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/623625/Cheeky-photos-unveil-truth-behind-parent">life revolves around the toddler</a>. </p>
<p><a href="http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=jnBSYuwAAAAJ&hl=en">I am a political science professor and researcher</a>, but lacking child care, I count myself lucky to work a few hours each day. </p>
<p>I am increasingly aware there is no such thing as the so-called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/work-family-conflict">work/family conflict</a>. This is not only a personal observation. Scholars have found that good jobs – full-time, with benefits – and family, without help, are simply <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/unbending-gender-9780195147148?cc=us&lang=en&">incompatible</a>. </p>
<p>The concept is also wrong. If <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/241535/percentage-of-childless-women-in-the-us-by-age/">three-quarters of American women become mothers</a>, and also <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/%7E/media/legacy/uploadedfiles/pcs/content-level_pages/reports/2014/womensworkreporteconomicmobilityacrossagenerationpdf.pdf">most women do paid work</a>, then doing both is, well, life; it’s not some existential, context-free choice.</p>
<p>Work and family are both <a href="https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D86Q270S/download">full-time pursuits</a>. If the problem is framed as a choice between them, the battle is lost, since family will usually win. Telecommuting and <a href="https://www.thebalancecareers.com/workplace-flexibility-definition-with-examples-2059699">“workplace flexibility”</a> are important but do not make up for a lack of time and space to think and work.</p>
<p>Those who need care, especially little children, are needy and adorable, and mothers are <a href="https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/31308/4/Lobmaier_Female%26male_discrimination_manuscript.pdf">evolutionarily</a> disposed to focus on them.</p>
<p>(Whoops, excuse me, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xg1Gs2eS6WE">the toddler is trying to kill herself again</a> … OK, child saved, with minimal screaming on both of our parts. Now what was I thinking? Did I reorder all our prescriptions? Hold on, I’ll be back.)</p>
<p>The national shift to home-based work and schooling has had challenging consequences for parents, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/06/upshot/pandemic-chores-homeschooling-gender.html">especially mothers</a>. Sometimes these effects are lovely, like giving us more time with family, but if your goal is getting work done, good luck to you.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335214/original/file-20200514-77263-12he6s0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335214/original/file-20200514-77263-12he6s0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335214/original/file-20200514-77263-12he6s0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335214/original/file-20200514-77263-12he6s0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335214/original/file-20200514-77263-12he6s0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335214/original/file-20200514-77263-12he6s0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335214/original/file-20200514-77263-12he6s0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335214/original/file-20200514-77263-12he6s0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Can you type with a toddler in your lap?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/aerial-view-of-mother-working-in-office-at-home-royalty-free-image/1180387443?adppopup=true">Getty/Tom Werner</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Not alone</h2>
<p>Working at home these days without <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15575330609490207">child care</a> is incredibly difficult unless I can escape to <a href="https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/a-room-of-ones-own-by-virginia-woolf">another room</a> and close a door. This inevitably triggers screaming, but oh well.</p>
<p>She’s worse than a cat; she climbs on me, presses things on the computer, sucks its edges and screams for attention, in addition to the normal baby bodily functions that comprise a disproportionate section of my thinking – when did she last poop? Is that a <a href="https://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/guide/common-rashes#1">rash</a>?</p>
<p>It’s not just me. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/04/21/early-journal-submission-data-suggest-covid-19-tanking-womens-research-productivity">Submissions from women to academic journals</a> have plummeted since COVID-19 hit. </p>
<p>One geography professor <a href="https://twitter.com/lunavives/status/1251566489519489025">tweeted</a>, “It’s hard enough to keep my head barely above the water with the kids at home and interruptions every 2 min … I can’t imagine writing a paper now.” </p>
<p>Another scholar said the data on diminished submissions from women made her cry because it wasn’t just her. </p>
<p>It turns out that someone has to supervise – and sometimes force – children’s learning, even if online, and this takes actual work. With parks, museums, sports, pools and movie theaters closed, and with kids mostly unable to hang out with friends, someone also has to do the physical and <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/disappearing-acts">emotional labor</a> of keeping children busy, engaged and upbeat. This too is work. </p>
<p>Then there is the simple fact that family members are eating, working and playing in houses most of the time, which means more cooking, more cleaning, more grocery shopping and, yes, more <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/03/13/toilet-paper-shortage/">toilet paper</a>.</p>
<p>(OMG the baby took a two-hour nap. I got to exercise and even shower. No time for leg-shaving but I’m still a new woman. Now what was I thinking…)</p>
<p>Because it is not just time, you see. Sometimes the child is playing quietly, and theoretically I could sit down and bang out a research article, but my brain is fuzzy as hell. </p>
<p>I used to wonder what cows thought, standing there chewing their cud in a field. Now I know. They are thinking nothing. Especially with the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/20/books/review/lactivism-by-courtney-jung.html">nursing</a>, I have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5005964/">great sympathy with cows</a> lately. </p>
<p>Before the baby, and before COVID-19, I had great plans for composing scholarly articles in my head during all that nursing downtime. But I forgot that <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/npp2011172">hormones</a> can change your brain and behavior. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335228/original/file-20200514-77235-11fjbme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335228/original/file-20200514-77235-11fjbme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335228/original/file-20200514-77235-11fjbme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335228/original/file-20200514-77235-11fjbme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335228/original/file-20200514-77235-11fjbme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335228/original/file-20200514-77235-11fjbme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335228/original/file-20200514-77235-11fjbme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335228/original/file-20200514-77235-11fjbme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Submissions by women to academic journals have plummeted since COVID-19 hit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mother-working-from-home-royalty-free-image/667662917?adppopup=true">Getty/ KT images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Hormones play a role</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Gender-Trouble-Feminism-Subversion-Routledge/dp/0415389550">Feminist theory</a> and <a href="https://www.basicbooks.com/titles/anne-fausto-sterling/sexing-the-body/9780465077144/">research</a> finds that much of what people think of as “biological sex” – female or male – is socially constructed, as in, strongly based on culturally contingent assumptions about women and men as groups. I firmly believe, and teach, this as evidence-based truth.</p>
<p>Hormones, though, have undeniable <a href="https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/should-psychiatrists-prescribe-gender-affirming-hormone-therapy-transgender-adolescents/2016-11">physical and mental effects</a>. If they are turning your body into a milk-production and child-protection facility, there can be some <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13803390701874379">side effects on brain function</a>. Many of these changes (increased empathy and vigilance) are <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/19/health/pregnancy-brain-change.html">useful evolutionarily</a>, and the physical alterations <a href="http://www.ajnr.org/content/ajnr/23/1/19.full.pdf">appear to be short-lived</a>. But there can also be negative effects on <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/11/well/family/reframing-mommy-brain.html">memory and focus</a>. If your brain is your job, as mine is, this can cause some serious work disruption.</p>
<p><a href="https://history.house.gov/People/Listing/S/SCHROEDER,-Patricia-Scott-(S000142)/">Pat Schroeder had two young children</a> when first elected to Congress as a Democrat from Colorado in the 1970s. When asked how she could do both jobs, she <a href="https://history.house.gov/People/Listing/S/SCHROEDER,-Patricia-Scott-(S000142)/">famously</a> replied, “I have a brain and a uterus, and I use them both.” </p>
<p>I try to live up to Schroeder’s standard, but lately I’ve found I have to qualify it; I tell myself she meant sequentially, not simultaneously. </p>
<p>Sequential is fine, as long as I have time and space to switch gears – I’m a first-time mom at 40 and the gears sometimes stick or stall out – and the peace of mind to focus beyond the child and the never-ending <a href="https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/03/14/chapter-5-americans-time-at-paid-work-housework-child-care-1965-to-2011/">housework</a>. We don’t call this <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/family/archive/2019/05/breadwinning-wives-gender-inequality/589237/">“women’s work”</a> anymore, and men <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4242525/">do more than they used to</a>, but it’s essential work and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/019251300021004003">still mostly done by women</a>.</p>
<h2>There’s another way</h2>
<p>With luck and science, COVID-19 will recede soon, and we can trickle back to <a href="https://news.stanford.edu/2020/03/30/productivity-pitfalls-working-home-age-covid-19/">offices</a>, for which I have a newfound respect. </p>
<p>Will the U.S. take something positive from this crisis by learning an enduring lesson about the power of child care?</p>
<p>Americans tend to think of having children as an expensive, private choice. The alternative is to think of it as a <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/free-rider/#PubGoo">public good</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://apolitical.co/en/solution_article/tackle-motherhood-penalty-look-scandinavia">Other countries</a> offer far more generous parental leave and low-cost, high-quality daycare, knowing that “work versus family” is a false formulation. The U.S. is losing serious talent and promoting <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13668803.2011.571396">gender inequality</a> by continuing to misunderstand the problem. </p>
<p>There are many potential options when child care is made a priority in a society.</p>
<p>Government subsidies for child care centers would help low-income workers have access to good care. The U.S. almost <a href="https://newrepublic.com/article/113009/child-care-america-was-very-close-universal-day-care">managed this in 1971</a>, when Congress passed, on a bipartisan vote, a bill to establish child care centers across the country, funded in part by the federal government. President Richard Nixon vetoed the bill.</p>
<p>Universal pre-K starting at age 3, as in <a href="http://teachnyc.net/pathways-to-teaching/early-childhood-education/all-about">New York City</a>, is another option to advance the interests of working parents and children. </p>
<p>And because working parents are drowning in <a href="https://www.fatherly.com/news/maps-average-cost-childcare-us/">high child-care costs</a>, the government could offer subsidies and tax relief for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200608000112">curriculum-based care</a> – which encourages <a href="https://earlylearningsuccess.net/curriculum-field-early-childhood-education/">child development and learning</a> as well as safety – for those early years. I make a pretty good salary, but still, an <a href="https://www.moneyunder30.com/childcare-costs">extra US$1,000 a month</a> or more to ensure my child is safe and well cared for while I work is painful.</p>
<p>It’s not a work-family conflict; it is a lack of high-quality, low-cost child care. Framing the problem otherwise damages the ability to enact good solutions. </p>
<p>It also makes a lot of good, hardworking parents feel enduring guilt over a problem that isn’t theirs alone to solve.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re too busy to read everything. We get it. That’s why we’ve got a weekly newsletter.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklybusy">Sign up for good Sunday reading.</a> ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/137340/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shauna Shames does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A scholar and mother of a young child who is now working at home explores what’s called the ‘work-family conflict’ – and finds that’s the wrong label for the impossible choices faced by parents.Shauna Shames, Associate Professor of Political Science, Rutgers UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1117272019-02-16T03:01:38Z2019-02-16T03:01:38ZPutting babies under general anaesthetic won’t affect their development, new research shows<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259207/original/file-20190215-1745-m1gdpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A new study found no detectable impact on brain development.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">From shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Making the decision to operate on a baby or toddler can be complex and confronting for parents. It involves weighing the risks versus the expected benefits for the child.</p>
<p>One of the questions impacting the decision has traditionally been whether general anaesthesia is safe for vulnerable, rapidly developing brains.</p>
<p>Parents in this situation can be reassured after a new study published in <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)32485-1/fulltext?rss=yes">The Lancet</a> this week showed a single episode of general anaesthesia in infancy had no detectable impact on subsequent brain development.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-your-child-has-to-go-to-hospital-it-is-always-hard-even-when-it-is-for-the-best-42349">When your child has to go to hospital it is always hard - even when it is for the best</a>
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<h2>Why the worry?</h2>
<p>The Food and Drug Administration in the United States <a href="https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/InformationbyDrugClass/ucm527779.htm">sounded a note of caution</a> as long ago as 2007 after some studies showed some of the gases used in general anaesthesia seemed to have permanent negative effects on the developing brains of rats and monkeys. </p>
<p>Research was planned and funded to settle this issue by examining evidence in the real world. After all, human brains are not the same as rat brains. </p>
<p>Studies that had been <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4101478/">done in humans</a> were observational (backward-looking). This makes it hard to differentiate the effect of the anaesthesia from effects of the condition for which the surgery was being performed, or other factors affecting the child.</p>
<h2>What this study offers</h2>
<p>The strengths of the study are significant. First, it was large, involving 722 participants from children’s hospitals across seven countries, including Australia. </p>
<p>It was also well-designed. In particular, this was a prospective (forward-looking) study with a design that enabled researchers to clearly discern the isolated effect of the anaesthesia. </p>
<p>This was achieved by comparing the same procedure done for the same reason using either spinal anaesthesia, where the patient is numb in the area of surgery but awake, or conventional general anaesthesia, where the patient is unconscious. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259214/original/file-20190215-1717-171bcsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259214/original/file-20190215-1717-171bcsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259214/original/file-20190215-1717-171bcsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259214/original/file-20190215-1717-171bcsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259214/original/file-20190215-1717-171bcsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259214/original/file-20190215-1717-171bcsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259214/original/file-20190215-1717-171bcsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Parents are often worried about the effect an anaesthetic will have on their baby.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">From shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The procedure chosen for the study was the repair of a <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/inguinal-hernia/symptoms-causes/syc-20351547">groin hernia</a>, a condition where internal tissues of the abdomen protrude through a weak spot in the abdominal muscle. People who undergo the surgery overwhelmingly have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23932620/">good outcomes and low complication rates</a>. It’s also performed in children who are generally otherwise fairly healthy. </p>
<p>This surgery is usually done within the first couple of months of a child’s life to prevent abnormal development of the lower abdominal wall which would make the hernia difficult and painful to repair later. It also decreases the risk of requiring emergency surgery. </p>
<p>The children recruited into this study were all younger than six months old at the time of surgery. </p>
<p>Another major strength of the study was the length of time the children were followed. Those who were operated on stayed under assessment until they turned five. At this age, the children were given standard tests of brain function which are known to be good at predicting future development. Normal testing at this age would show with a lot of confidence that there was no detriment from the general anaesthesia. And this was found to be the case. </p>
<p>Each of these attributes means the findings are likely to be reliable and able to be generalised from country to country.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/looking-online-for-info-on-your-childs-health-here-are-some-tips-97701">Looking online for info on your child's health? Here are some tips</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Some things to be aware of</h2>
<p>The only real weakness of the study was that the population assessed was overwhelmingly male (84% of participants) as groin hernia is much more common in baby boys. The authors acknowledge this and highlight the need for future studies to include more girls. </p>
<p>It’s also important to emphasise that in order to enable a clear and definite answer, this study only looked at a single episode of general anaesthesia. It was not designed to assess the risk of repeated or unusually prolonged exposure to general anaesthesia. So it provides a piece of the puzzle, but not the complete picture. </p>
<p>Taken as a whole, this study is reassuring for parents of children undergoing elective surgery at an early age. In a practical sense, it allows other factors such as surgical risk, or the impact of deferring or avoiding the operation, to take a more important place in decision-making. </p>
<p>Parents can put concerns about general anaesthesia harming their baby’s brain to bed for now, at least as far as one-off operations go.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111727/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Vagg does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>One of the concerns parents have if their baby needs surgery is whether the general anaesthetic will affect the child’s developing brain. New research finds it won’t.Michael Vagg, Clinical associate professor, Deakin University School of Medicine and Pain Specialist, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1009262018-08-03T12:11:20Z2018-08-03T12:11:20ZThe five best parenting books grounded in science: an expert’s choice<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230404/original/file-20180802-136673-zwp8bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">(After) bed-time reading.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/one-year-old-baby-among-books-573851983?src=cv3yS-D-iDIYJ4Hm67QwyQ-1-2">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>New parenting books seem to pop up all the time. How to do it the French way, the Tiger Mom way, the New Kid by Friday way, or how to just muddle through –
the choice can be a little overwhelming. How can we know which guide will give us the answers to the questions that are most relevant to our needs, with an approach that we feel comfortable with?</p>
<p>I came across – and read – a vast selection while writing my own parenting book, <a href="http://www.foyles.co.uk/witem/education/little-kids-big-dilemmas-your-parentin,sarah-kuppen-9781138857919">Little kids, big dilemmas: Your parenting problems solved by science</a> – and there really does seem to be a guide for everyone. For my own contribution, I used a science-led, <a href="http://www.littledilemmas.com/">evidence-based approach</a>. And while the selection for genuinely research-oriented parenting books is not particularly large, there are a few I would highly recommend. </p>
<p>So here are my top five parenting books to have within reach for help in navigating what are often those bewildering early years. What to read when you don’t really have time to read:</p>
<h2>1. Our favourite gift</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230562/original/file-20180803-41338-1htf7zm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230562/original/file-20180803-41338-1htf7zm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=918&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230562/original/file-20180803-41338-1htf7zm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=918&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230562/original/file-20180803-41338-1htf7zm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=918&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230562/original/file-20180803-41338-1htf7zm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1154&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230562/original/file-20180803-41338-1htf7zm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1154&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230562/original/file-20180803-41338-1htf7zm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1154&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amazon</span></span>
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</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/1069296/your-baby-week-by-week/">Your Baby Week by Week</a>
by Simone Cave and Dr Caroline Fertleman was the book I used for my own children. It was a gift to us and I have given it many times as a gift to others. The thing that’s really great is that you can dip in and out as you like. </p>
<p>In those first few months when you’re really exhausted and all you want is a response to the exact question you’re looking for, this book provides specifics on questions such as how much milk, sleep and crying time your child needs. </p>
<p>The real essentials to caring for your baby. </p>
<h2>2. Mum knows best</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230561/original/file-20180803-41351-1gx3d7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230561/original/file-20180803-41351-1gx3d7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230561/original/file-20180803-41351-1gx3d7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230561/original/file-20180803-41351-1gx3d7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230561/original/file-20180803-41351-1gx3d7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230561/original/file-20180803-41351-1gx3d7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230561/original/file-20180803-41351-1gx3d7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amazon</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/content/science-mom">The Science of Mom: A Research-Based Guide to Your Baby’s First Year</a> by Alice Callahan takes a clear, nicely paced approach to talking the reader through the science on some of the most contentious parenting issues. </p>
<p>Particularly relevant to the author’s American audience is the discussion on vaccination, which lays out the evidence in an accessible, no-nonsense fashion. </p>
<p>Callaghan also covers research on many of the areas parents care about most, such as feeding and sleeping. </p>
<h2>3. Science for everyone</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230560/original/file-20180803-41351-1b37p7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230560/original/file-20180803-41351-1b37p7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230560/original/file-20180803-41351-1b37p7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230560/original/file-20180803-41351-1b37p7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230560/original/file-20180803-41351-1b37p7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230560/original/file-20180803-41351-1b37p7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230560/original/file-20180803-41351-1b37p7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amazon</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I really like <a href="http://theinformedparentbook.com/">The Informed Parent: A Science-Based Resource for Your Child’s First Four Years</a>
by Tara Haelle and Emily Willingham. It’s obvious the authors have plenty of experience communicating science to the lay reader. Not only do they present the up-to-date knowledge on controversial topics, they also discuss this in relation to the personal choices they made when raising their own children. </p>
<p>They give just the right amount of personal anecdote, making the review of the research evidence easy to digest and the book overall an easy read. I also like that they address in detail the thorny topic of sleep training and controlled crying.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230417/original/file-20180802-136673-1n4kis5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230417/original/file-20180802-136673-1n4kis5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230417/original/file-20180802-136673-1n4kis5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230417/original/file-20180802-136673-1n4kis5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230417/original/file-20180802-136673-1n4kis5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230417/original/file-20180802-136673-1n4kis5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230417/original/file-20180802-136673-1n4kis5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Why didn’t you read past Chapter 1?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-crying-baby-girl-226262737?src=SxJa_3EzypUGtN9VCBN6gQ-1-2">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Focus on discipline</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230559/original/file-20180803-41360-1m6t8x5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230559/original/file-20180803-41360-1m6t8x5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230559/original/file-20180803-41360-1m6t8x5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230559/original/file-20180803-41360-1m6t8x5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230559/original/file-20180803-41360-1m6t8x5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230559/original/file-20180803-41360-1m6t8x5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230559/original/file-20180803-41360-1m6t8x5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amazon</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>With 1.6m copies already sold, <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/1-2-3-Magic-Effective-Discipline-Children/dp/149262988X/ref=tmm_pap_swatch_0?_encoding=UTF8&qid=1533209225&sr=1-1">1-2-3 Magic: 3 Step Discipline for Calm, Effective and Happy Parenting</a>
by Dr Thomas W. Phelan is <em>the</em> book on discipline and young children. Phelan believes that all discipline situations can be sorted into two categories – the behaviours you want to start (such as tidying up or getting ready for school) and those you want to stop (such as whining, fighting or anything anti-social). </p>
<p>While it can sometimes can feel overly controlling, this book is full of clear practical advice. Parents are certain to find something useful to add to their disciplining repertories. </p>
<h2>5. Talking it over</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230557/original/file-20180803-41360-1s2c6jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230557/original/file-20180803-41360-1s2c6jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=921&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230557/original/file-20180803-41360-1s2c6jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=921&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230557/original/file-20180803-41360-1s2c6jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=921&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230557/original/file-20180803-41360-1s2c6jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1158&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230557/original/file-20180803-41360-1s2c6jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1158&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230557/original/file-20180803-41360-1s2c6jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1158&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amazon</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Talk-Little-Kids-Will-Listen/dp/184812614X/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1533209310&sr=1-1&keywords=How+To+Talk+So+Little+Kids+Will+Listen%3A+A+survival+guide+to+life+with+children+ages+2-7">How To Talk So Little Kids Will Listen: A survival guide to life with children ages 2-7</a>
by Joanna Faber and Julie King is part of the very popular series emanating from the original international bestseller – <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/How-Talk-Kids-Will-Listen/dp/1848123094/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1533209349&sr=1-1&keywords=How+to+talk+so+kids+will+listen+and+listen+so+kids+will+talk">How to Talk So Kids Will Listen and Listen So Kids Will Talk</a>. </p>
<p>Through the use of practical examples, the authors illustrate the unhelpful communication patterns parents often fall into when dealing with their kids. They also provide loads of story examples, which many parents will relate to, with examples of how to deal with them. There is something here for everyone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100926/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Kuppen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An author picks her best reads for a scientific approach to raising children.Sarah Kuppen, Senior Lecturer in Developmental Psychology, Anglia Ruskin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/938022018-04-05T12:36:37Z2018-04-05T12:36:37ZIn the Night Garden: how Igglepiggle and his friends talk your toddler’s language<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213377/original/file-20180405-189824-k9n55p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The bedtime crew.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">DHX Media</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Bedtime can often be a trying experience for young children – and their parents. But evidence suggests that <a href="https://theconversation.com/regular-bed-times-as-important-for-kids-as-getting-enough-sleep-19396">regular bedtimes</a> are very important for children’s wellbeing and development. </p>
<p>One regular element of the routine for many families is the children’s TV show <a href="https://www.inthenightgarden.co.uk/">In the Night Garden</a>. Narrated by classical actor Derek Jacobi, it is a programme which aims to calm and relax toddlers before a good night’s sleep – and has been broadcast almost every bedtime on the BBC channel <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/tv/cbeebies">CBeebies</a> for the past 11 years.</p>
<p>In the Night Garden’s colourful mix of characters and concepts can seem surreal – and even incomprehensible to adult viewers. But it certainly seems to engage young children – and uses a mixture of key tools to entertain and entrance its target audience. </p>
<p>To begin with, it is deliberately repetitive. Toddlers seem to <a href="https://www.babycentre.co.uk/x556931/why-does-my-toddler-love-repetition">love repetition</a>, whether of a phrase or name, such as Upsy Daisy, or the same activity, such as Makka Pakka’s face washing. </p>
<p>As well as learning through repetition, children also find it <a href="https://www.babble.com/toddler/how-to-read-out-loud-toddlers/">relaxing and comforting</a>. Each episode of In the Night Garden follows a recognisable and predictable structure, ending with the tittifers (colourful exotic birds) singing. Afterwards each of the characters goes to bed (except for Igglepiggle, who wanders off through the forest, falling over and waving) before the forest goes dark and the stars come out.</p>
<p>Another regular feature of the programme which toddlers enjoy is rhyme. There is evidence that exposure to this linguistic tool through nursery rhymes and songs can <a href="https://journals.uvic.ca/index.php/jcs/article/view/17841">support children’s development</a> in many ways, especially <a href="http://www.earlyliteracylearning.org/cellreviews/cellreviews_v4_n1.pdf">reading</a>. So although adults may think the Igglepiggle song (“Yes, my name is Igglepiggle, Igglepiggle-niggle-wiggle-woo”) sounds like nonsense, to toddlers it has instant appeal.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213379/original/file-20180405-189813-1tqqfnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213379/original/file-20180405-189813-1tqqfnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213379/original/file-20180405-189813-1tqqfnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213379/original/file-20180405-189813-1tqqfnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213379/original/file-20180405-189813-1tqqfnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213379/original/file-20180405-189813-1tqqfnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213379/original/file-20180405-189813-1tqqfnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Who’s not in bed?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">DHX Media</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This linguistic element continues in the simple sounds of the characters’ names and the dialogue between them – the sounds are reflective of the way a toddler’s language is developing. For example, they generally master <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/014272378100200601">vowel sounds before consonants</a> and The Tombliboos are named Unn, Ooo and Eee, phonetically reflecting how a toddler might say the numbers One, Two, Three. </p>
<p>This is also emphasised by the fact that the Tombliboos always appear in this order, with their names spoken as they appear. And there is considerable use of words that are similar to <a href="http://www.theroadmap.ualberta.ca/vocalizings/parents/13-24">baby babble</a> in their formation. They have a consonant, vowel, consonant, vowel (CVCV) structure such as the beige, small, round-bodied doll named Makka Pakka.</p>
<p>Aside from language, toddlers make extensive <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4564136/">use of gestures</a> in their communication and will usually express ideas and feelings in this way before being able to express them using speech. The characters of In the Night Garden do the same. There are whole episodes which feature characters <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00fd6k0/credits">waving</a> at each other and giving each other <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0968525/">kisses</a> – both gestures that are commonly practised and enjoyed by toddlers. </p>
<p>Excitement is often expressed by the characters dancing and there is much shrugging of shoulders, especially by Igglepiggle when he is unsure of something.</p>
<h2>Play time</h2>
<p>Around the age of two, children tend to stop being preoccupied with the world as it is and start <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1973-31048-000">engaging with their imagination</a>. This is reflected in their play as they begin to shift from experimenting with the physical properties of objects (banging bricks together) towards more <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780121326807500053">symbolic play</a>, perhaps pushing a brick along the floor pretending it is a car. </p>
<p>It is this early symbolic play that In the Night Garden seems to be replicating. Examples of this include the Pontipines, ten peg doll-like characters who represent a family living in a semi-detached house at the foot of a tree. The familiar game of toddlers pretending they are on the phone is also mirrored in the “Trubliphones” which allow characters to communicate with each other as they wander through the garden.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/rWHEYRmug18?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Another type of behaviour enjoyed by many toddlers is their <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/mar/09/psychology.uknews">attachment</a> to a special toy or comfort blanket. They may find it reassuring that the main character of the show, Igglepiggle, is almost always seen with his red comfort blanket in tow. It is a clear acknowledgement of the importance of such a comforter – and the role it may play in helping children learn to <a href="https://www.babycenter.com/0_how-to-raise-an-emotionally-intelligent-child_11946.bc">control their emotions</a>.</p>
<p>It is no coincidence that the content of In the Night Garden reflects the developmental stage of its target audience. Andrew Davenport, the show’s creator (and co-creator of the Teletubbies) has a <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/features/3635301/Andrew-Davenport-Ooo-whats-all-the-fuss.html">degree in speech sciences</a>. His personal <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2010/aug/15/in-the-night-garden-interview">bookshelves include works</a> written by well-known developmental psychologists. </p>
<p>It also nothing new that something designed as entertainment for children seems so bizarre and nonsensical to adults. Traditional popular nursery rhymes include a cow jumping over the moon and an old woman living in a shoe. Neither would be out of place on the colourful set of In The Night Garden – a different world carefully designed for the curious minds of young children (and their weary parents).</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/93802/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Rose does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Upsy Daisy and the Tombliboos are finely tuned in to the developing minds of toddlers.Sarah Rose, Lecturer in Developmental Psychology, Staffordshire UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/903102018-03-01T19:18:22Z2018-03-01T19:18:22ZExplainer: what are middle ear infections and how are they treated?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208189/original/file-20180227-36680-nl3sv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">For some children, ear infections will become a persistent problem.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/crying-baby-close-shot-1034090173?src=5cJN4pvDOhFZhWnqy8hGyQ-1-1">Shutterstock/bookzv</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Middle ear infections (otitis media) are a common and often painful condition that most children will experience at least once in their first year.
The infection takes hold when a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25434680">bacteria or virus</a> invades the middle ear. </p>
<p>Babies aged <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2732519">six to 12 months</a> are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23905821">particularly susceptible</a> because their immune systems have yet to develop the ability to mount a defence against the offending bugs. </p>
<p>Babies’ Eustachian tubes – which drain fluid from the middle ear and the throat – are also not fully developed. This allows bacteria to build up rather than be removed from the ear. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208187/original/file-20180227-36696-6zssq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208187/original/file-20180227-36696-6zssq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208187/original/file-20180227-36696-6zssq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208187/original/file-20180227-36696-6zssq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208187/original/file-20180227-36696-6zssq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208187/original/file-20180227-36696-6zssq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=653&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208187/original/file-20180227-36696-6zssq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=653&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208187/original/file-20180227-36696-6zssq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=653&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Babies’ Eustachian tubes aren’t fully developed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com">Shutterstock/Alila Medical Media</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With treatment and monitoring, most children will recover quickly. But for some, ear infections will become a persistent problem. </p>
<h2>Symptoms and treatment</h2>
<p>It can be difficult to know if your child is suffering an ear infection. Common signs are pulling at their ears, irritability, fever and lack of appetite. Older children may complain that their ears are sore but it can be difficult to detect in younger children.</p>
<p>Ear infections often occur along with a cold, so children may also have a cough, runny nose or sore throat.</p>
<p>If your child is in a significant amount of pain, get their ears checked by your GP. The doctor will recommend some pain relief and ask you to monitor the condition at home for around 48 hours, by which time most acute ear infections have subsided. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bulging-ear-drums-and-hearing-loss-aboriginal-kids-have-the-highest-otitis-media-rates-in-the-world-64165">Bulging ear drums and hearing loss: Aboriginal kids have the highest otitis media rates in the world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>If your child suffers repeated ear infections (more than three within six months, or more than four in a year) the doctor is likely to refer you to an ear, nose and throat (ENT) specialist. </p>
<p>If there is runny fluid or pus coming from their ear, it’s important to seek treatment as soon as possible, even if that means going to the <a href="http://kidshealthwa.com/guidelines/otitis-media/">emergency department</a>. Usually the pus will be removed, the ear cleaned out, and antibiotic drops prescribed. Follow-up assessments with audiologists (allied health hearing specialists) and ENT doctors will be arranged to check their hearing and if the ear drum has healed. </p>
<p>Some types of ear infections are asymptomatic, meaning there is no pain or discomfort, but the child may have problems hearing.</p>
<p>If left untreated, ear infections can cause developmental delays. So, if you are concerned about your child’s ears or hearing, even if there is no obvious sign of infection, it is important to get their ears checked.</p>
<h2>The problem with recurring infections</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/25303240">Our study</a> found that more than one quarter of children have had recurring middle ear infections by the time they are three years of age. Having recurring ear infections in infancy <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13575279.2017.1403889">dramatically increases the risk</a> of having ongoing problems with ear infections throughout childhood.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/my-child-has-glue-ear-what-do-i-do-83815">My child has glue ear – what do I do?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This can cause <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23906989">hearing loss</a> and impact on <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/106/4/725.short">school readiness</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2387994">performance in class</a>, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/21695717.2017.1325094">mental health</a> and overall <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24627408">quality of life</a>. </p>
<p>Hearing loss as a result of ear infections can also persist into adulthood. The effects get worse with age and hearing <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25401378">declines at a faster rate than those without recurrent ear infections</a>. </p>
<h2>How to reduce the risk</h2>
<p>Keeping children’s vaccinations up-to-date is important for reducing the risk of ear infections and many other diseases. The introduction of the PCV-13 pneumococcal vaccine for all children at two, four and six months of age has resulted in a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25159581">dramatic reduction</a> in middle ear infections. </p>
<p>For those who are able to, breastfeeding is another way. Breast milk contains antibodies to some of the bacteria that cause ear infections. Exclusive breastfeeding for more than four months has been <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/25303240/">found</a> to decrease the risk of ear infections. </p>
<p>Focusing on wiping runny noses and washing hands (after going to the toilet, before eating, after changing nappies, and after wiping noses) can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10742313">reduce</a> the spread of infections. Parents and carers can also teach these good hygiene practices to children. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cleaning-your-hands-may-be-more-complicated-than-you-think-26315">Cleaning your hands may be more complicated than you think </a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Good infection control practices are especially important for young children with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/25303240/">older siblings</a>, those who live in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21593705">overcrowded living conditions</a>, and for those who <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13575279.2017.1403889">attend childcare centres</a>, where the risk of ear infections is higher.</p>
<p>Parents should keep children with active ear infections away from other children, including from school and childcare centres, as much as possible until they are well.</p>
<p>If you’re unsure whether your child has an ear infection, or if it has returned, talk to your GP so it can be identified and treated early.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90310/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brad Farrant receives funding from the NHMRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Brennan-Jones receives research funding from the NHMRC and the Western Australian Department of Health. </span></em></p>Middle ear infections (otitis media) are a common and often painful condition that
most children will experience at least once in their first year.Brad Farrant, Adjunct Research Fellow in Early Childhood Development, The University of Western AustraliaChris Brennan-Jones, NHMRC Health Professional Research Fellow, Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/876182017-12-08T00:25:35Z2017-12-08T00:25:35ZWhat to teach your preschooler about internet safety<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198073/original/file-20171207-31528-eq4uy0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Internet safety in early childhood is a new area of research because, until now, children as young as four weren't able to easily access the internet. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fifteen years ago, parents and caregivers did not have to worry about teaching pre-school aged children about internet safety. A new <a href="https://www.childrenscommissioner.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Case-for-general-comment-on-digital-media.pdf">report</a> prepared for the <a href="https://www.childrenscommissioner.gov.uk/">Children’s Commissioner of England</a> suggests this time has passed. </p>
<p>Children now live in a digital age, which means internet access is <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1461444816685930">a daily part of life</a> for many young children around the world.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196433/original/file-20171127-2025-5y7h4c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196433/original/file-20171127-2025-5y7h4c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196433/original/file-20171127-2025-5y7h4c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196433/original/file-20171127-2025-5y7h4c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196433/original/file-20171127-2025-5y7h4c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196433/original/file-20171127-2025-5y7h4c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196433/original/file-20171127-2025-5y7h4c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s easier for very young kids to go online now, because touchscreen technology requires less fine motor skills.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.academia.edu/9148007/0_8_very_young_children_and_the_domestication_of_touchscreen_technologies_in_Australia">Touchscreen technologies</a> have changed how accessible the internet is for very young children, particularly between the ages of four and five. It’s now quicker and easier to connect to the internet using these technologies, as they don’t require the same level of fine motor and literacy skills used to navigate a <a href="https://search.proquest.com/openview/7a426858bea773e262cfb830787cd7bd/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=48173">mouse and keyboard</a>. </p>
<p>More recently, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/23738871.2017.1355401?journalCode=rcyb20">the Internet of Things</a> has become widespread. The Internet of Things uses small chips embedded in everyday items, including children’s toys, to communicate information to the net. Children’s dolls, teddy bears and figurines can record their play and upload this information as data to the web. This can occur without children’s consent because they wouldn’t be aware they’re generating data. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/six-things-every-consumer-should-know-about-the-internet-of-things-78765">Six things every consumer should know about the 'Internet of Things'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The three main risks</h2>
<p>Internet safety addresses three main risks faced by children online. These are <a href="http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/24368/1/D3.2_Report-Cross_national_comparisons-2nd-edition.pdf">contact, conduct and content risks</a>: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>contact risks involve children talking to unknown people on the internet. Contact risks also include the harvesting of children’s data, such as recording their activity on an online game </p></li>
<li><p>conduct risks are about behaving respectfully online and learning to manage digital footprints</p></li>
<li><p>content risks are concerned with the type of material children view and consume when accessing the internet. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>For pre-school aged children, content risks include accidentally viewing inappropriate content such as pornography. Content also considers the quality of material made available to children. How people are represented in society is mirrored back to children through the media they consume. Quality content for young children has been a concern of the <a href="https://childrenandmedia.org.au/">Australian Council on Children and the Media</a> for many years. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-way-your-children-watch-youtube-is-not-that-surprising-but-it-is-a-concern-here-are-some-tips-87597">The way your children watch YouTube is not that surprising – but it is a concern. Here are some tips</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Contact risks are most likely to occur for pre-school aged children in the form of pop-ups. Children of this age can also be active in virtual worlds, such as <a href="https://www.pocoyo.com/en/pocoyoworld">Pocoyo World</a> or <a href="https://www.clubpenguinisland.com/">Club Penguin</a>, where they can engage with other members. Children may not always know the members they are playing with in these worlds. </p>
<p>Conduct involves learning how to be respectful online. Parents can model good conduct behaviours to their children by always asking permission to take photos before posting to social media. </p>
<h2>Children as young as four are now online</h2>
<p>Internet safety in early childhood is a new area of research because, until now, children as young as four weren’t able to easily access the internet. </p>
<p>A recent <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjet.12529/full">study</a> conducted with 70 four-year old children examined what children understand about the internet and being safe online. In this study, only 40% of children were able to <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09575146.2016.1193723?tokenDomain=eprints&tokenAccess=WXbZzfugJ7qNnXy7Uy7f&forwardService=showFullText&doi=10.1080%2F09575146.2016.1193723&doi=10.1080%2F09575146.2016.1193723&journalCode=ceye20">describe the internet</a>. This was despite all of the children having access to internet at home, predominately through touchscreen technologies. </p>
<p>Children’s understandings of the internet were associated with their experiences going online and using technologies with their families. They defined the internet as being “in the iPad” or something they used “in the lounge room” to “play games”. </p>
<p>Children were also aware the internet “was used by Mummy for her work” or “by my big sister for her emails”. Some 73% of the children said they would tell someone their address on the internet. And 70% said they would also tell someone how old they were. A further 89% of children indicated they would click on a pop-up even if they did not know what the pop-up was about. </p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="SploL" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/SploL/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<h2>Parenting young children for internet safety</h2>
<p>Because children face content, contact and conduct risks online, they require a basic understanding of the internet. The most important thing parents can teach their children about <a href="http://raisingchildren.net.au/articles/internet_safety_preschoolers.html">internet safety</a> is that “the internet” means a network of technologies that can “talk” to each other. </p>
<p>This is like teaching children to be sun smart. First, we explain the sun can harm our skin. Next we teach children to wear a hat, a long-sleeved shirt and sunscreen to protect themselves. </p>
<p>For internet safety, we should first explain the internet uses many technologies that share information created and collected by lots of people. Then we can teach our children how to protect themselves online. Some things to teach your child are: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>seek adult help when you encounter a pop-up </p></li>
<li><p>only use adult approved sources for content</p></li>
<li><p>don’t share personal information online</p></li>
<li><p>try to be near an adult when using a device</p></li>
<li><p>only click on apps and tabs a parent or caregiver has set up for you. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>The internet forms a large part of daily life for many young children. From watching their favourite YouTube clips, to playing games, to talking with a long-distance relative over video-conferencing, being online is not much different to a young child than being offline. Being safe in both spaces is possible with adult support.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87618/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Edwards receives funding from the auDA Foundation for the research reported in this article. </span></em></p>Touchscreen technologies have made it easy for children as young as four to go online. Here are some things to teach them about how to be safe on the internet.Susan Edwards, Professor of Education, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/871752017-12-04T19:16:59Z2017-12-04T19:16:59Z‘No, I don’t wanna… wahhhh!’ A parent’s guide to managing tantrums<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197235/original/file-20171130-30907-zuvyj4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Nine in ten children will have occasional tantrums.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/toddler-crying-aumumn-background-761625523?src=Vn-WgfytQGPSyNA7p38HsQ-3-67">ElenaDECAEN/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The first almighty toddler tantrum is a milestone in every child’s development that will never make the baby book. Epic meltdowns, especially those in public, can throw even the most confident parent off their game.</p>
<p>Between the ages of one and four, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20524545">nearly 90% of children</a> will have occasional tantrums. They involve <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23006014">children expressing their anger and frustration</a> by screaming, crying, falling to the floor, flailing limbs, hitting, kicking, throwing items and, in some children, holding their breath. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197233/original/file-20171130-30896-eagai4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197233/original/file-20171130-30896-eagai4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197233/original/file-20171130-30896-eagai4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197233/original/file-20171130-30896-eagai4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197233/original/file-20171130-30896-eagai4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197233/original/file-20171130-30896-eagai4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197233/original/file-20171130-30896-eagai4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The cause can often be nonsensical.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-little-asian-boy-crying-garden-740786479?src=IyLhKbC-VEPQmE0lMaQJXA-3-15">Shutterstock/TumNuy</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23006014">Tantrums often start</a> when a child wants something they can’t have, wants to avoid something, wants attention or if the child is hungry, tired, unwell or just frustrated.</p>
<p>But the cause can often be nonsensical, as blogger Greg Pembroke parodied in his book <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Reasons-Kid-Crying-Greg-Pembroke/dp/0804139830">Reasons my Kid is Crying</a> (which include “I let him play on the grass”, “We told him the pig says ‘oink’,” and “The neighbour’s dog isn’t outside”). </p>
<p>Tantrum throwing peaks at age two, as children experience the perfect storm of not being able to express themselves verbally while simultaneously developing their sense of autonomy and independence.</p>
<h2>What’s normal and what’s not?</h2>
<p>While part of normal child development, tantrums are a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26783943">common reason for parents</a> to seek psychiatric help for their child. At the more serious end of tantrum behaviour, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2045487">around 7% of children</a> exhibit tantrums multiple times a day, lasting for 15 minutes or more. Half of these children usually have an underlying behavioural or developmental problem.</p>
<p>Tantrums that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23006014">might be classed as “abnormal”</a> tend to be those that continue past the preschool age, last longer than 15 minutes, involve the child injuring themselves or others, occur more than five times a day, or where mood is low between tantrums instead of returning to normal.</p>
<p>Other <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22928674">signs that tantrums are more severe</a> are when they occur with non-parental adults or happen out of the blue, with no seeming provocation. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-eyes-have-it-changing-kids-minds-about-bad-behaviour-34141">The eyes have it: changing kids' minds about bad behaviour</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Unsurprisingly, the family of a child who is prone to frequent tantrums may also need support. One <a href="http://www.anadolupsikiyatri.net/?mno=246897">recent study</a> found that half of all mothers of children presenting for help with tantrum behaviours had a mental health problem themselves, commonly depression and anxiety.</p>
<p>Other family factors that were <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2045487">associated with frequent or severe tantrums</a> in children include maternal irritability, marital stress, low parental education level, when child care is exclusively provided by the mother, and when corporal punishment is used in the home.</p>
<p>All of this paints a picture of a family under considerable stress, whether it precedes or results from the child’s tantrums. Either way, frequent tantrums are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12806225">likely to escalate stress in the home</a> so it’s important the whole family system is given means to cope. </p>
<h2>What to do when your child has a meltdown</h2>
<p>For the 90% of parents who are experiencing tantrums as part of normal child development, the best way to deal with them is to try to avoid them. It’s easier said than done, but as much as you can, be <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23006014">consistent and predictable</a> with rules and routines. And ensure expectations of your child are appropriate for their age. </p>
<p>Offer choices in decision-making to encourage independence while ensuring the available options are acceptable to you as a parent. For example, “Would you like a yoghurt or a cracker?” (Not “what would you like to eat?”).</p>
<p>Or, “Would you like to listen to Play School or Wiggles in the car today?” (Not “what do you want to listen to?” Doing that one wrong can end up with months of playing Alvin and the Chipmunks Greatest Hits, which is as bad as it sounds). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197092/original/file-20171130-30912-nwt1mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197092/original/file-20171130-30912-nwt1mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197092/original/file-20171130-30912-nwt1mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197092/original/file-20171130-30912-nwt1mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197092/original/file-20171130-30912-nwt1mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197092/original/file-20171130-30912-nwt1mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197092/original/file-20171130-30912-nwt1mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Encourage older children to say how they’re feeling.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/729251812?src=IyLhKbC-VEPQmE0lMaQJXA-3-48&size=huge_jpg">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A regular mealtime and sleep routine will help avoid the hungry and overtired meltdowns, and removing sources of frustration for the child (such as a jar of biscuits they can see but not reach) can also help.</p>
<p>As the child gets older, encourage your child to express how they are feeling in words. The words to describe emotions can also be mirrored back to children to help teach emotional literacy, for example “You seem really angry about this” or “I can tell that this has made you feel really sad”.</p>
<p>As much as consistency is important as a parent, so is picking your battles. If the issue isn’t important or compromising safety, it <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23006014">might not be worth</a> the showdown. </p>
<p>Also, remember to give your child plenty of positive attention when their behaviour warrants it, as a child who is feeling overlooked may provoke negative attention just to get any attention at all.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-children-use-their-emotions-to-learn-57938">How children use their emotions to learn</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>If prevention hasn’t worked, a few <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23006014">strategies</a> may help. Remain calm, don’t escalate the situation and don’t cave in to ensure tantrums are not seen as a productive exercise. Time-outs, where the child is moved away from the problem situation, can help both parent and child to calm down. The <a href="https://www.healthychildren.org/English/family-life/family-dynamics/communication-discipline/Pages/Time-Outs-101.aspx">American Academy of Pediatrics recommends</a> one minute of time-out per year of the child’s age.</p>
<p>If you’re in a public place, try to redirect the child’s attention and if that doesn’t work, keep calm and leave the location if necessary. </p>
<p>Finally, many years ago in a study of chimpanzees <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1997)23:5%3C329::AID-AB3%3E3.0.CO;2-D/abstract">researchers observed</a> the phenomenon of reconciliation after conflict. Just like chimpanzees, more than one-third of toddlers want to end their tantrum with a hug, known as “post-tantrum affiliation”. It’s a nice way to signal the end of the crisis and a return to being part of normal family life with the knowledge that, for most families, the tantrum phase will pass.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87175/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Monique Robinson receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC).</span></em></p>Tantrum throwing peaks at age two, as children experience the perfect storm of not being able to express themselves verbally while simultaneously developing their sense of autonomy and independence.Monique Robinson, Early Career Fellow, Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/837522017-11-20T02:25:59Z2017-11-20T02:25:59ZDiapers, potties and split pants: Understanding toilet training around the world may help parents relax<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195246/original/file-20171117-19245-1c14v0z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Chill: There's no one right way.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/david_martin_foto/24073729359">David D</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Are two-year-olds too young to start toilet training?</p>
<p>For many children, yes. Especially boys. At least, that’s what American pediatricians would likely say. Nowadays, only <a href="http://www.aafp.org/afp/2008/1101/p1059.html">around half of children in the U.S.</a> are fully toilet-trained by age three.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195240/original/file-20171117-19320-ipdm73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195240/original/file-20171117-19320-ipdm73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195240/original/file-20171117-19320-ipdm73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195240/original/file-20171117-19320-ipdm73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195240/original/file-20171117-19320-ipdm73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195240/original/file-20171117-19320-ipdm73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1081&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195240/original/file-20171117-19320-ipdm73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1081&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195240/original/file-20171117-19320-ipdm73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1081&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Split pants let a Chinese boy go when he needs to.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_boy_with_open_rear_pants_closeup.jpg">Daniel Case</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Chinese grandmothers would be appalled. They’d likely point out that with “split pants,” most kids are trained by age two. This traditional wardrobe item features an opening along the crotch seam, allowing children to urinate and defecate freely without soiling their clothes. These garments remain the pants style of choice for toddlers living in the Chinese countryside.</p>
<p>Parenting advice about divergent toilet-training methods (not to mention plenty of other child-rearing questions) is typically dished out as if it were the only reasonable, reliable option. Nowadays, parents are confronted with guidance claimed to be scientifically founded, and presented as relevant to all children, even when different strategies are in direct conflict with each other. With over 2,000 parenting advice books in print in English – and, along with so many parenting blogs, there’s even a <a href="https://www.mcsweeneys.net/articles/great-parenting-blogs-through-the-ages">parody of the genre</a> – it’s easy to see why many modern parents feel confused about how to raise their children.</p>
<p>As an anthropologist, I’ve been studying child-rearing practices around the world for 25 years. Living with my husband (writer Philip Graham) in small villages in the rainforest of West Africa for extended periods convinced me that we humans are a resilient species, able to thrive in so many distinctive settings. Discovering the incredible diversity of ways to raise children inspired us to rethink and change some of our own family’s child-rearing practices (around bed-sharing, independence and household tasks, for instance).</p>
<p>There’s no one-size-fits-all model of child-rearing advice for all the world’s parents. To spread this message, my colleagues and I collaborated on the book “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316480625">A World of Babies: Imagined Childcare Guides for Eight Societies</a>,” based on our own and others’ long-term ethnographic fieldwork in places ranging from Israel and the Palestinian territories to China, Portugal, Peru, Denmark, Côte d'Ivoire and a Somali-American community in Minneapolis. By presenting multiple solutions to the commonest challenges facing parents, we hope to provide a bit of a tonic for parents, to assure them that there’s more than one path to raising a well-adjusted child.</p>
<h2>Toilet training from birth?</h2>
<p>So, why do parents choose a given child-rearing practice? Often, it comes down to money and availability. Let’s revisit that question about toilet training.</p>
<p>In Côte d'Ivoire, Beng mothers begin training their infants’ bowels a few days after birth. They administer enemas twice daily, beginning the day a newborn’s dried-out umbilical cord stump drops off. By the time the little one is a few months old, caregivers shouldn’t have to worry about him pooping during the day at all.</p>
<p>What could account for such a seemingly extreme practice? For one thing, disposable diapers are unavailable in Beng villages – and throughout much of the global south. Moreover, even if they were sold in local markets, few subsistence-farming families could afford them. (And the planet can’t afford them, either. Environmentalists calculate that “disposable” diapers constitute the <a href="http://realdiapers.org/diaper-facts">third-largest single consumer item in landfills</a>, and their <a href="http://www.peggyomara.com/2014/01/16/a-tale-of-two-diapers/">production requires some 7 billion gallons of oil each year</a>.)</p>
<p>But availability and affordability tell only part of the story. The structure of labor plus deep-seated values also shape parents’ choices.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195254/original/file-20171117-19320-u89aa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195254/original/file-20171117-19320-u89aa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195254/original/file-20171117-19320-u89aa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=924&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195254/original/file-20171117-19320-u89aa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=924&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195254/original/file-20171117-19320-u89aa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=924&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195254/original/file-20171117-19320-u89aa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1161&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195254/original/file-20171117-19320-u89aa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1161&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195254/original/file-20171117-19320-u89aa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1161&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A Beng babysitter carrying a young charge.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alma Gottlieb</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Côte d'Ivoire (as elsewhere across sub-Saharan Africa), Beng babies spend most of their days attached to someone’s back. Often, that someone is not the mother – who is working in her fields, producing crops to feed her large family. Beng society (unlike traditional Chinese society) also rates all feces (including those of babies) as disgusting, and the thought of a baby pooping on someone’s back produces revulsion.</p>
<p>Given the local attitude toward feces, no potential babysitter would take care of a child likely to poop on her back while being carried. Hence, starting potty-training from birth aims to help a mother get her farmwork done. In that sense, early toilet-training promotes an adequate food supply for a mother’s family.</p>
<p>A Western observer might shrink in horror from this practice, imagining long-lasting emotional maladjustments from early trauma. But, discounting the ravages of poverty that challenge health and deny educational and economic opportunity, these very early toilet-trained babies appear to grow into just as happy and well-adjusted adults as diaper-wearing children might become.</p>
<h2>Context counts for what works</h2>
<p>In motivation, this practice may not even be as exotic as it might appear to a non-Beng reader. In the U.S., women’s labor needs may also dictate potty-training schedules, albeit with a later timeline. Many daycare centers accept only children who are fully potty-trained. If a working mother lacks both in-home daycare options and babysitting relatives, she may work frantically to potty-train her toddler as soon as possible, so she may return to full-time paid work.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195256/original/file-20171117-19305-3ohgzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195256/original/file-20171117-19305-3ohgzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195256/original/file-20171117-19305-3ohgzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195256/original/file-20171117-19305-3ohgzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195256/original/file-20171117-19305-3ohgzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195256/original/file-20171117-19305-3ohgzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=797&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195256/original/file-20171117-19305-3ohgzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=797&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195256/original/file-20171117-19305-3ohgzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=797&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This Palestinian girl cares for her baby brother as part of the extended ‘hamula’ family who raise children collectively whenever possible.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bree Akesson</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For stay-at-home moms, or working moms who have nearby relatives to care for their child, different life situations may dictate toilet-training decisions. In the Palestinian territories, for instance, many women start toilet-training around 14 or 15 months. They’re able to start early because they aren’t working outside the home, so they have the time. On the other hand, a Palestininan working woman may start toilet-training later, maybe around age two. In this case, women in the extended family (“hamula”) would care for the child while the mother worked, so no daycare rule compels early toilet-training.</p>
<p>Once we explore the local context of people’s daily lives, seemingly exotic or even abusive practices – split pants, infant enemas – suddenly seem far less so. Opening the minds of worried new parents to “other” ways of raising children may assuage fears that if they fail to “do the right thing,” their children will be doomed. Through exploring comparative commode customs, along with many other parenting practices, it’s clear there are many “right ways” to raise a child.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83752/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alma Gottlieb is a Professor Emerita of Anthropology at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and a Visiting Scholar in Anthropology at Brown University. She is on the advisory boards for the following organizations: Cape Verdean-American Community Development (Pawtucket, RI); World Affairs Council of Rhode Island; Cape Verdean-Jewish Annual Seder (Boston); and IndivisibleRI. She is on the Editorial Board of the following scholarly journals: AnthropoChildren: Perspectives Ethnographiques sur les Enfants & l'Enfance/Ethnographic Perspectives in Children & Childhood; Anthropology and Education Quarterly; Anthropology Today; and Mande Studies. Since 1979, she has received funding from the following agencies: Jacobs Foundation (Zurich), European Commission/U.S. Department of Education, National Endowment for the Humanities, John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation, American Association of University Women, and Social Science Research Council. She is co-founder and co-director (with Philip Graham) of the Beng Community Fund, a non-profit, 501 (c) (3) organization to benefit the Beng community of Côte d’Ivoire.</span></em></p>Opening the minds of worried new parents to other ways of raising children may assuage fears that if they fail to ‘do the right thing,’ their children will be doomed.Alma Gottlieb, Professor Emerita of Anthropology, African Studies, and Gender and Women's Studies, University of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/561182016-10-17T10:23:25Z2016-10-17T10:23:25ZHow do children develop a sense of self?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139262/original/image-20160926-31866-1230b9o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Who's that? Understanding it's them in the mirror offers toddlers another sense of perspective.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-461122078/stock-photo-small-kid-staying-by-reflection-and-watching-himself-little-boy-looking-at-himself-near-mirror.html?src=7OJAKc8850hTQqpx2hoUrQ-1-12">Goami/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>From the moment they are born, babies are exposed to information that can teach them about who they are. By touching their own face and body, or by kicking and grabbing things, they start to enjoy the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Margaret_Sullivan/publication/232511696_Violation_of_Expectancy_Loss_of_Control_and_Anger_in_Young_Infants/links/004635294e01e38954000000.pdf">influence of their actions on the world</a>. But it is not until children approach their second birthday that they start to develop a sense of self and are able to reflect on themselves from the perspective of somebody else.</p>
<p>One indication of this new objective self-awareness is that children start recognising themselves in a mirror or photograph – something most children do <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279798249_Variability_in_the_early_development_of_visual_self-recognition">by the age of two</a>. This kind of self-awareness can be assessed scientifically by surreptitiously putting a small mark on a child’s forehead, such as by kissing them while wearing lipstick. The child can’t feel the mark so their sense of touch can’t alert them to its presence – but they can see it if they look in a mirror. If the child has the capacity to see themselves as another person would, they will reach up to touch the mark when shown a mirror, indicating that they equate the mirror image with their own body. </p>
<h2>Finding the concept of the ‘self’</h2>
<p>Toddlers also naturally demonstrate their self-awareness by their ability to use and understand self-referential language such as <em>I</em>, <em>me</em>, <em>you</em> and <em>my</em>. Another example is when they claim something as their <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-9507.00131/abstract;jsessionid=C0A964746A270876A8BE8D5643B0C0E3.f04t03?userIsAuthenticated=false&deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=">own property</a> – the cry of “it’s mine” is the origin of many sibling disputes. </p>
<p>The appearance of <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/emotions/according-experts/self-conscious-emotions">self-conscious emotions</a> such as embarrassment, pride, guilt and shame also demonstrates that a child is developing self-consciousness. Parents may notice that by the time they are three-years-old, their child is motivated to make amends for wrongdoing, can be proud of their own behaviour, or hides when unhappy about something they have done.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139275/original/image-20160926-31837-1hbnbtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139275/original/image-20160926-31837-1hbnbtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139275/original/image-20160926-31837-1hbnbtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139275/original/image-20160926-31837-1hbnbtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139275/original/image-20160926-31837-1hbnbtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139275/original/image-20160926-31837-1hbnbtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139275/original/image-20160926-31837-1hbnbtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">‘It’s my teddybear!’ Self-awareness in action.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-964588/stock-photo-little-girl-in-pyjamas-on-the-bed-holding-her-teddybear-making-faces.html?src=KPPjW-H6u1t1dDU2x0fScQ-2-0">Pauline Breijer/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Toddlers’ ability to think about themselves from the perspective of a second person also marks the start of their acquisition of what’s called “<a href="https://portfolio.du.edu/SusanHarter/page/44342">self-concept</a>” – stable thoughts and feelings about the self. Between their first and second birthdays, children will be able to produce simple self-descriptions and evaluations such as “I am a good boy”, which will become more complex over time. By the time a child is around eight-years-old, they will have a relatively stable idea of their own personality traits and dispositions, and whether they feel like a valuable and competent person.</p>
<p>Individual differences in personality and feelings of self-worth can influence a child’s approach to social situations and academic achievement. Children with positive perceptions of themselves have the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21942279">best social and academic outcomes</a>, perhaps because they focus on success and aren’t deterred by failure. Parents can help their child <a href="http://www.zerotothree.org/child-development/social-emotional-development/tips-on-helping-your-child-self-confidence.html?referrer=https://www.google.co.uk/">develop positive self-esteem</a> by reacting positively to them and their achievements, and helping them to overcome negative events. </p>
<p>Psychologists think parents can also shape children’s self-worth right from birth: when they provide a positive response to an infant’s actions it provides them with their first experiences of having a positive impact on the world. </p>
<h2>Influences on memory and learning</h2>
<p>Regardless of how children feel about themselves, adding an “idea of me” to their cognitive architecture changes the way they process information. For example, as adults, we <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-cant-we-remember-our-early-childhood-62325">remember very few</a> childhood events. One intuitive explanation for this “childhood amnesia” is that until memories can be related to our sense of self, they are very difficult to store and retrieve. </p>
<p>Once a child’s sense of self is established, they are more likely to remember information that is related to themselves. This is known as the “self-reference effect” on memory and emerges early on. From at least three-years-old children are more likely to remember objects linked with themselves than those linked with another person. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjdp.12005/full">in one experiment</a>, children between four and six-years-old were asked to sort pictures of shopping items into their own basket, and a shopping basket owned by another person. After the items were sorted, the children were shown a wider selection of shopping items and asked which ones they recognised from the previous game. Children accurately remembered more of the items that they “owned”, than items that had been sorted into the other person’s basket. </p>
<p>The self-reference effect occurs because items linked with the self – such as “my apple” – attract additional attention and memory support within the brain, ensuring that information of potential use to the self is not lost.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139282/original/image-20160926-31862-1g2dfps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139282/original/image-20160926-31862-1g2dfps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139282/original/image-20160926-31862-1g2dfps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139282/original/image-20160926-31862-1g2dfps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139282/original/image-20160926-31862-1g2dfps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139282/original/image-20160926-31862-1g2dfps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139282/original/image-20160926-31862-1g2dfps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Solving educational exercises in the first-person helps children learn.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-218966014/stock-photo-closeup-portrait-of-cute-little-african-boy-with-small-globe-in-hands-preparing-to-geography-lesson-back-to-school-concept.html?src=qWPtUa4pD0Z_wYMWtbJqsg-5-45">Anna Omelchenko/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>The self reference effect can be used to help children process and learn information, especially as it emerges early in life. So asking children to think about themselves while generating sentences to practice their spelling – such as sentences beginning with the word “I” – can significantly improve their <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959475215300220">subsequent spelling performance</a>. Putting maths problems in the first-person – for example: “you have four apples more than Tom” – also improves both the <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/edu/89/3/562/">speed and accuracy</a> of children’s responses. </p>
<p>In summary, selfhood starts at birth, but children don’t start expressing an “idea of me” until toddlerhood. Children then start to gather information about themselves and store autobiographical material, starting a life narrative that guides their responses to the world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56118/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Children start to demonstrate self-awareness as they approach their second birthday – and it helps them to learn.Josephine Ross, Lecturer in Developmental Psychology, University of DundeeDouglas Martin, Senior lecturer, School of Psychology, University of AberdeenSheila Cunningham, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Abertay UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/563852016-04-06T10:03:43Z2016-04-06T10:03:43ZWe are feeding our toddlers a risky diet – here’s what we should do about it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117314/original/image-20160404-27115-1o37glx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">That's enough, mum.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&search_tracking_id=aZnfweVNGLLJaYssYw54rQ&searchterm=overweight%20toddlers&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=214238029">www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The food and drink young children in the UK are consuming could be putting their health at risk. In a new study, published in the <a href="http://journals.cambridge.org/bjn/syrad">British Journal of Nutrition</a>, we report that toddlers are consuming too much protein and too many calories for their age, putting them at risk of obesity in later life. We also found that they’re consuming too much salt and not enough fibre, vitamin D or iron.</p>
<p>Our study analysed data from one of the largest dietary datasets for toddlers in the UK, collected in 2008-9 from 2,336 children from the <a href="http://www.geministudy.co.uk/default.asp">Gemini twin birth cohort</a>. The daily calorie intake of toddlers (21 months old) was 7% higher than recommended by <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/339317/SACN_Dietary_Reference_Values_for_Energy.pdf">public health nutrition guidelines</a>. And protein intake was approximately three times higher than recommended, with almost all toddlers exceeding the recommendation set by the Department of Health. </p>
<h2>Not a sure start</h2>
<p>The first two years of life are important for developing healthy eating habits. Children begin to develop dietary preferences that shape their eating behaviour and have a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19597430">lasting impact on health</a>. Our research suggests that there is cause for concern.</p>
<p>The average daily energy intake for toddlers at 21 months was 1,035 calories; higher than the 968 recommended for children aged two years by the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/339317/SACN_Dietary_Reference_Values_for_Energy.pdf">Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition</a>. In all, 63% of children exceeded this recommendation. On average, 40g of protein was consumed per day, but just 15g is recommended by the Department of Health for children aged one to three years.</p>
<p>We know that eating too many calories – not matching the energy consumed with the energy expended – leads to weight gain. But finding out how children consume their calories is important. Increased protein in early life is a risk factor for obesity in early life, and obesity often continues into adulthood. Both the high caloric intakes and the higher than recommended protein intakes found in our study suggest that toddlers today may be at increased risk of obesity and associated health problems such as heart disease and diabetes.</p>
<h2>The protein source</h2>
<p>A previous study in <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/early/2015/12/29/ajcn.115.118612.full.pdf+html">Gemini</a> found that children who ate higher amounts of protein at 21 months of age, gained more weight up to <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/early/2015/12/29/ajcn.115.118612">five years of age</a>. It’s important to identify the sources of protein that may be linked to this risk of weight gain. </p>
<p>In Gemini, almost a quarter of children’s calorie intake was <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/early/2013/09/18/ajcn.113.065250">consumed in milk</a> and many of the children (13%) were still drinking formula milk at <a href="http://adc.bmj.com/content/early/2015/04/02/archdischild-2014-307683">21 months of age</a>. This suggests that one of the main dietary sources through which children might be obtaining excess protein, is milk. In fact, within Gemini it was protein consumed from dairy (rather than other animal-based protein or plant-based protein) that was driving increases in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276379433_Dairy_protein_in_the_post-weaning_phase_is_positively_associated_with_BMI_and_weight_up_to_five_years_of_age">weight gain up to age five</a>.</p>
<p>At 21 months of age, the transition from a primarily milk-based diet to family food should have occurred, but it appears that a number of children continue to drink large quantities of milk, high in calories and protein. It’s important that, as children begin to consume family food, milk intake is decreased and replaced with water rather than high-calorie, sugary drinks.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117313/original/image-20160404-27150-9y390b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117313/original/image-20160404-27150-9y390b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117313/original/image-20160404-27150-9y390b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117313/original/image-20160404-27150-9y390b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117313/original/image-20160404-27150-9y390b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117313/original/image-20160404-27150-9y390b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117313/original/image-20160404-27150-9y390b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Try water instead.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/dl2_lim.mhtml?src=u5znc-kqNYS8Jc-CebSpkg-1-89&clicksrc=download_btn_inline&id=282952133&size=medium_jpg&submit_jpg=">www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>As well as getting too much protein, toddlers were also consuming too much salt. Sodium intake was on average 1,148mg a day, almost three times higher than the 500mg recommended. This is a concern because it may set taste preferences for the future, increasing the risk of raised blood pressure in later life. Most salt in the diet <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/338782/SACN_Salt_and_Health_report.pdf">comes from processed foods</a> making it more difficult for people to reduce their salt intake. Parents need to be made aware that many processed foods contain high levels of salt and they may need more guidance on checking food labels, choosing lower salt options and limiting the intake of high-salt foods such as ham and cheese.</p>
<p>Fibre intake among many young children was also low, at just half the recommended amount (8g versus 15g per day). Given that <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-3010.2008.00705.x/abstract">high fibre diets</a> have been associated with reduced risks of cancers, coronary heart disease and obesity, it is important for children to consume sufficient amounts. </p>
<p>Iron and vitamin D intakes were also low. Almost 70% of children did not meet the recommended 6.9 micrograms of iron. And average vitamin D intake was 2.3 micrograms a day, falling far short of the 7 micrograms set by the Department of Health. Less than 7% of children met the recommended vitamin D level, and insufficient intake of vitamin D has been <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/447402/Draft_SACN_Vitamin_D_and_Health_Report.pdf">associated with poor health</a>, including rickets.</p>
<p>Many toddler foods are now fortified with vitamin D and iron, but children are still not getting enough. Supplements were taken by a small proportion (7%) of children and, although intakes of vitamin D and iron were increased through supplements, most children were still not meeting the recommendations for vitamin D. This underlines the importance of the government recommendations that all children aged six months to five years should take a daily supplement of vitamin D.</p>
<p>Parents need more guidance on the appropriate type, amount and variety of foods and drinks, together with appropriate supplements, in order to reduce obesity and other health problems that may affect their children in later life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56385/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hayley Syrad receives funding from The Medical Research Council and Nutricia Ltd. </span></em></p>British toddlers are heading for health problems, unless we change their diet now.Hayley Syrad, PhD candidate, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/496602015-10-26T19:15:48Z2015-10-26T19:15:48ZJamming with your toddler: how music trumps reading for childhood development<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99435/original/image-20151023-27607-5sy6qx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If you want to fast-track your child's development, forget CDs, books that beep, and toys that whirr. Play music with them, with the emphasis being on "play". </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Forget the Mozart Effect and Baby Einstein, take it easy on acquisitions for your two-year-old’s private library, and don’t fret if your three-year-old hasn’t started violin lessons just yet. </p>
<p>The key to unlocking a child’s potential intelligence and happiness may indeed lie in music, but succumbing to the commercial juggernaut that is the baby-genius-making industry may not be in either your child or your wallet’s best interest.</p>
<p>Instead, try making up songs with your toddler. A <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200615000058">new study</a> suggests that regular informal music-making with very young children may even have benefits above and beyond those of reading. </p>
<p>But there’s an important, interesting, and somewhat beautiful catch – for best results, make it shared music-making in your home.</p>
<p>In an analysis of data generated from a study involving more than 3,000 children, a University of Queensland team investigated the associations between informal home music education for very young children and later cognitive and social-emotional outcomes.</p>
<p>The team found that informal music-making in the home from around the ages of two and three can lead to better literacy, numeracy, social skills, and attention and emotion regulation by the age of five.</p>
<p>By measuring the impact of music and reading both separately and in combined samples, the researchers were able to identify benefits from informal music activity over and above shared book reading, most strongly in relation to positive social behaviour, attention regulation and to a lesser but still significant extent, numeracy.</p>
<p>Part of an Australian Research Council funded study titled <a href="http://researchers.uq.edu.au/research-project/15057">Being and becoming musical: towards a cultural ecological model of early musical development</a>, the study aims to provide a comprehensive account of how Australian families use music in their parenting practices and make recommendations for policy and practice in childcare and early learning and development. </p>
<p>Last month, <a href="http://researchers.uq.edu.au/researcher/2030">the team</a> was awarded the inaugural <a href="http://musictrust.com.au/">Music Trust</a> Award for Research into the Benefits of Music Education.</p>
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<p>Music and its relationship to mental and social development has long captured the attention of parents, researchers, even philosophers. </p>
<p>Science has shown that music’s effect on the brain is particularly strong, with <a href="http://pss.sagepub.com/content/15/8/511.short">studies</a> demonstrating an improvement in IQ among students who receive music lessons. Advantages in the classroom have been <a href="http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/05/110511170931.htm">identified</a> for students who study musical instruments, and the effects of ageing on cognition may even be <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/neu-25-3-378.pdf">mitigated</a> through lifelong musical activity.</p>
<p>So how is this study different, apart from its focus on early childhood?</p>
<p>Crucially, its findings are based on situations where the child’s musical activities were informal and shared, typically with a parent – essentially a playful social experience.</p>
<p>Simple and fun musical activities can have enormous power in developing numeracy and literacy: try improvising a counting song, or making up new rhymes to familiar tunes. </p>
<p>But the true power of musical play lies in the unique blend of creativity, sound and face-to-face interaction; the learning is strengthened by its basis in a positive, empathic emotional relationship.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99437/original/image-20151023-27625-1isp6rh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99437/original/image-20151023-27625-1isp6rh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99437/original/image-20151023-27625-1isp6rh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99437/original/image-20151023-27625-1isp6rh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99437/original/image-20151023-27625-1isp6rh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99437/original/image-20151023-27625-1isp6rh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99437/original/image-20151023-27625-1isp6rh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99437/original/image-20151023-27625-1isp6rh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Forget CDs and toys that beep, playing music should be a shared experience.</span>
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<p>Parents are increasingly enrolling very young children in specialist music classes - undoubtedly a positive development. Reading, however, is rarely “outsourced” in this way, and this study suggests that parents should feel encouraged and empowered in tapping their own inner musician before looking outside the home.</p>
<p>As with most aspects of parenting (in my personal non-scientific experience), there is no substitute for a parent’s personal involvement, even if it involves long-forgotten modes of behaviour such as taking simple pleasure in making sounds. </p>
<p>Being playful with sound is something we’re all born with – indeed, toddlers are humanity’s greatest virtuosos in that regard - yet too many are silenced over the years by the “better seen than heard” brigade.</p>
<p>It’s no accident that we talk about “playing” a musical instrument; a turn of phrase that too easily becomes sadly ironic if formal music lesson structures calcify into strictures.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99438/original/image-20151023-27615-1ge1vu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99438/original/image-20151023-27615-1ge1vu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99438/original/image-20151023-27615-1ge1vu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99438/original/image-20151023-27615-1ge1vu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99438/original/image-20151023-27615-1ge1vu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99438/original/image-20151023-27615-1ge1vu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99438/original/image-20151023-27615-1ge1vu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99438/original/image-20151023-27615-1ge1vu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Jam sessions with your toddler can be an enormous developmental asset.</span>
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<p>So recapturing a sense of play (if you’re an adult) is crucial to the process of shared music-making, and this research invites parents to focus on the element of “playing” music with toddlers, using any tools at hand.</p>
<p>The human voice is a great place to start, and the kitchen cabinet contains a wealth of percussion instruments. Whistles and bells could be the next step, followed by a toy piano for more ambitious stage parents.</p>
<p>Long before conventional music lessons start, jam sessions with your toddler (not of the messy sticky preserved fruit variety) can be an enormous developmental asset.</p>
<p>You might even find it a two-way street – if children can teach adults anything, it’s how to play. So take the time, play with your child, and “play” music together. </p>
<p>Along with the newly-confirmed bonus benefits for baby, you’ll both be connected to music: a fundamental component of a happy and healthy life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/49660/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liam Viney lectures at the University of Queensland School of Music, where Professor Margaret Barrett, one of the study's leaders, is also Head of School. Dr. Viney was not involved with any part of this study or its parent project.</span></em></p>New research shows shared music-making with toddlers may have benefits above and beyond those of reading.Liam Viney, Piano Performance Fellow , The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.