tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/trees-1977/articlesTrees – The Conversation2024-03-25T10:06:51Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2259532024-03-25T10:06:51Z2024-03-25T10:06:51ZFighting every wildfire ensures the big fires are more extreme, and may harm forests’ ability to adapt to climate change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583558/original/file-20240321-26-8oqr15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C13%2C2982%2C1980&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Extreme fires leave forests struggling to recover in a warming world.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.markkreiderphoto.com/portfolio/wilderness-fire">Mark Kreider</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the U.S., wildland firefighters are able to stop about <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/detailfull/r5/home/?cid=FSEPRD1064021">98% of all wildfires</a> before the fires have burned even 100 acres. That may seem comforting, but decades of quickly suppressing fires has had unintended consequences.</p>
<p>Fires are a natural part of many landscapes globally. When forests aren’t allowed to burn, they <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-years-of-fighting-every-wildfire-helped-fuel-the-western-megafires-of-today-163165">become more dense</a>, and dead <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.177.4044.139">branches, leaves and other biomass</a> accumulate, leaving more fuel for the next fire. This buildup leads to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-years-of-fighting-every-wildfire-helped-fuel-the-western-megafires-of-today-163165">more extreme fires that are even harder to put out</a>. That’s why land managers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2433">set controlled burns</a> and thin forests to clear out the undergrowth.</p>
<p>However, fuel accumulation isn’t the only consequence of fire suppression.</p>
<p>Fire suppression also disproportionately reduces certain types of fire. In a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46702-0">new study</a>, my colleagues <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=7G6Y7GsAAAAJ&hl=en">and I</a> show how this effect, known as the suppression bias, compounds the impacts of fuel accumulation and climate change.</p>
<h2>What happened to all the low-intensity fires?</h2>
<p>Most wildfires are low-intensity. They ignite when conditions aren’t too dry or windy, and they can often be quickly extinguished.</p>
<p>The 2% of fires that escape suppression are those that are more extreme and much harder to fight. They <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jof/103.4.179">account for about 98% of the burned area</a> in a typical year.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/z_4CueBBYJs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The author and colleagues discuss changing wildfire in Montana and Idaho’s Bitterroot Mountains. By Mark Kreider.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In other words, trying to put out all wildfires doesn’t reduce the total amount of fire equally – instead, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40663-015-0033-8">it limits low-intensity fires while extreme fires still burn</a>. This effect is worsened by climate change.</p>
<h2>Too much suppression makes fires more severe</h2>
<p>In our study, we used a fire modeling simulation to explore the effects of the fire suppression bias and see how they compared to the effects of global warming and fuel accumulation alone.</p>
<p>Fuel accumulation and global warming both <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/23/climate/climate-change-un-wildfire-report.html">inherently make fires more severe</a>. But over thousands of simulated fires, we found that allowing forests to burn only under the very worst conditions increased fire severity by the same amount as more than a century’s worth of fuel accumulation or 21st-century climate change.</p>
<p>The suppression bias also changes the way plants and animals interact with fire.</p>
<p>By removing low-intensity fires, humans may be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102320-095612">changing the course of evolution</a>. Without exposure to low-intensity fires, species can lose traits crucial for surviving and recovering from such events.</p>
<p>After extreme fires, landscapes have fewer seed sources and less shade. New seedlings have a <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-wests-iconic-forests-are-increasingly-struggling-to-recover-from-wildfires-altering-how-fires-burn-could-boost-their-chances-200668">harder time becoming established</a>, and for those that do, the hotter and drier conditions <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-wests-iconic-forests-are-increasingly-struggling-to-recover-from-wildfires-altering-how-fires-burn-could-boost-their-chances-200668">reduce their chance of survival</a>. </p>
<p>In contrast, low-intensity fires free up space and resources for new growth, while still retaining living trees and other biological legacies that support seedlings in their vulnerable initial years.</p>
<p>By quickly putting out low-intensity fires and allowing only extreme fires to burn, conventional suppression reduces the opportunities for climate-adapted plants to establish and help ecosystems adjust to changes like global warming.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583472/original/file-20240321-28-2olvh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583472/original/file-20240321-28-2olvh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583472/original/file-20240321-28-2olvh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583472/original/file-20240321-28-2olvh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583472/original/file-20240321-28-2olvh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583472/original/file-20240321-28-2olvh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583472/original/file-20240321-28-2olvh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Firefighters keep watch for smoke from a fire tower in the Coeur d'Alene National Forest, Idaho, in 1932.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usforestservice/30162883617/in/album-72157669003030369/">Forest Service photo by K. D. Swan</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Suppression makes burned area increase faster</h2>
<p>As the climate becomes hotter and drier, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2020RG000726">more area is burning in wildfires</a>. If suppression removes fire, it should help slow this increase, right?</p>
<p>In fact, we found it does just the opposite.</p>
<p>We found that while conventional suppression led to less total area burning, the yearly burned area increased more than three times faster under conventional suppression than under less aggressive suppression efforts. The amount of area burned doubled every 14 years with conventional fire suppression under simulated climate change, instead of every 44 years when low- and moderate-intensity fires were allowed to burn. That raises concerns for how quickly people and ecosystems will have to adapt to extreme fires in the future.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583255/original/file-20240320-28-pobf8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two charts show fire area increasing faster in a warming climate climate under conventional fire suppression." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583255/original/file-20240320-28-pobf8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583255/original/file-20240320-28-pobf8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583255/original/file-20240320-28-pobf8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583255/original/file-20240320-28-pobf8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583255/original/file-20240320-28-pobf8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583255/original/file-20240320-28-pobf8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583255/original/file-20240320-28-pobf8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">With conventional fire suppression, the average fire size will increase faster as the planet warms than it would under a less aggressive approach.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark Kreider</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The fact that the amount of area burned is increasing is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2020RG000726">undoubtedly driven by climate change</a>. But our study shows that the rate of this increase may also be a result of conventional fire management.</p>
<p>The near total suppression of fires over the last century means that even a little additional fire in a more fire-prone future can create big changes. As climate change continues to <a href="https://theconversation.com/rocky-mountain-forests-burning-more-now-than-any-time-in-the-past-2-000-years-162383">fuel more fires</a>, the relative increase in area burned will be much bigger.</p>
<p>This puts more stress on communities as they adapt to increased extreme wildfires, from dealing with <a href="https://theconversation.com/north-americas-summer-of-wildfire-smoke-2023-was-only-the-beginning-210246">more wildfire smoke</a> to even <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-fastest-population-growth-in-the-wests-wildland-urban-interface-is-in-areas-most-vulnerable-to-wildfires-173410">changing where people can live</a>. </p>
<h2>A way forward</h2>
<p>To address the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/managing-land/wildfire-crisis">wildfire crisis</a>, fire managers can be less aggressive in suppressing low- and moderate-intensity fires when it is safe to do so. They can also increase the use of <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/managing-land/prescribed-fire">prescribed fire</a> and <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/climate/news/rethinking-wildfire">cultural burning</a> to clear away brush and other fuel for fires.</p>
<p>These low-intensity fires will not only reduce the risk of future extreme fires, but they also will create conditions that favor the establishment of species better suited to the changing climate, thereby helping ecosystems adapt to global warming.</p>
<p>Coexisting with wildfire requires developing technologies and approaches that enable the safe management of wildfires under moderate burning conditions. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46702-0">Our study</a> shows that this may be just as necessary as other interventions, such as reducing the number of fires <a href="https://theconversation.com/humans-ignite-almost-every-wildfire-that-threatens-homes-145997">unintentionally started by human activities</a> and mitigating climate change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225953/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Kreider receives funding from the National Science Foundation and the USDA Forest Service. </span></em></p>A new study offers a rare window into the hidden effects of aggressive fire suppression that go beyond fuel accumulation. The practice may even change the course of forest evolution.Mark Kreider, Ph.D. Candidate in Forest and Conservation Science, University of MontanaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243352024-03-20T19:03:42Z2024-03-20T19:03:42ZTasmania’s tall eucalypt forests will be wiped out by heatwaves unless we step in to help them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582418/original/file-20240318-26-dug8wt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C0%2C4898%2C3253&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nicolas Rakotopare</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Tasmania’s tall eucalypt forests are globally significant. They <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S037811270900872X">accumulate carbon faster</a> than any other natural forest ecosystem in the world. </p>
<p>But climate change is making it harder for these forests to remove carbon from the atmosphere and store it in wood. During heatwaves, they <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-06674-x">stop removing carbon</a> altogether and release it instead.</p>
<p>What will happen as <a href="https://climatefutures.org.au/extreme-events-technical-report/">heatwaves occur more frequently</a>? Tasmania’s tall eucalypt forests will become carbon sources more and more of the time. As temperatures continue to rise, the forests will reach a “<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.aay1052">tipping point</a>”. When this happens the forests will no longer be able to store carbon and mass tree deaths will occur. </p>
<p>My <a href="https://bit.ly/Giants-Under-Threat_Report-2024">new report</a> released today makes recommendations about preparing for this. There are serious implications for greenhouse gas emissions, conservation and wood production. We cannot ignore the risks of a warming climate. There is a lot we can do now to prepare and make future forests more resilient. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-heatwave-conditions-tasmanias-tall-eucalypt-forests-no-longer-absorb-carbon-176979">In heatwave conditions, Tasmania’s tall eucalypt forests no longer absorb carbon</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Forests of immense value</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/181/">Tasmania Wilderness World Heritage Area</a> is <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/2344">ranked number one</a> of all UNESCO sites globally for taking carbon out of the atmosphere and storing it. That’s because western Tasmania’s <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/geb.12171">high rainfall and cool temperatures are ideal for forest growth</a>.</p>
<p>These tall eucalypt forests contribute greatly to Tasmania’s claim to net-zero emissions in its <a href="https://recfit.tas.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/440592/Tasmanian_Greenhouse_Gas_Emissions_Report_2023.pdf">greenhouse gas accounts</a>.</p>
<p>The forests have produced most of the high-quality sawlogs supplying Tasmania’s sawmilling industry for more than a century.</p>
<p>They also provide unique and long-lasting habitat for wildlife. Large logs support diverse communities of insects and fungi.</p>
<p>The forest supports unique <a href="https://tahuneadventures.com.au/">tourism experiences</a> and an emerging opportunity for “<a href="https://www.bigtreestate.com/">big tree tourism</a>”.</p>
<p>Tall eucalypt forests are dominated by one or two or three species of <em>Eucalyptus</em>: </p>
<ul>
<li><em>E. obliqua</em> (messmate or stringy bark)</li>
<li><em>E. regnans</em> (swamp gum or mountain ash) </li>
<li><em>E. delegatensis</em> (alpine ash or gum-top stringybark). </li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582466/original/file-20240318-24-2fq2cg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582466/original/file-20240318-24-2fq2cg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582466/original/file-20240318-24-2fq2cg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=831&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582466/original/file-20240318-24-2fq2cg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=831&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582466/original/file-20240318-24-2fq2cg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=831&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582466/original/file-20240318-24-2fq2cg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582466/original/file-20240318-24-2fq2cg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582466/original/file-20240318-24-2fq2cg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stringybark flowers <em>(Eucalyptus obliqua)</em></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tim Wardlaw</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Preparing for tipping points</h2>
<p>As temperatures continue to rise, many ecosystems are predicted to reach a <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.aay1052">tipping point</a>. This is the point at which the ecosystem can no longer function and is eventually replaced by a different ecosystem.</p>
<p>Many plant-based ecosystems, mostly in the tropics, are expected to reach a tipping point within three decades. Tasmania’s tall eucalypt forests may be among them because they share <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0084378">similarities with tropical rainforest</a>. </p>
<p>World Heritage values would be jeopardised, huge amounts of stored carbon would be released, and biodiversity dependent on the tall trees would be threatened. So there is an urgent need to begin preparing now for a future tipping point in these forests. </p>
<p>The main ambition of the measures outlined in my <a href="https://bit.ly/Giants-Under-Threat_Report-2024">report released today</a> is to restore forested areas after the original forest is lost – or damaged irreversibly. The new forests would be grown from the same species of eucalypts but the seed sown would regenerate forests better suited to the new climate than the original forest.</p>
<p>To achieve this ambition, we need to decide what features of tall eucalypt forests we want to retain in future forests. Capacity for rapid growth after disturbance would be high on the list of those features. </p>
<p>We also need to know what features need to change to make the forests better suited to a new climate. Increasing the optimum temperature for carbon uptake is the top priority. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582465/original/file-20240318-16-1k5k0h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Peering inside the forest, looking through ferns and sedges at ground level and trees of various heights beneath the canopy" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582465/original/file-20240318-16-1k5k0h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582465/original/file-20240318-16-1k5k0h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582465/original/file-20240318-16-1k5k0h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582465/original/file-20240318-16-1k5k0h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582465/original/file-20240318-16-1k5k0h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582465/original/file-20240318-16-1k5k0h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582465/original/file-20240318-16-1k5k0h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Beneath the canopy of the tallest trees there is a mid-layer of trees and a lower layer of ferns and sedges.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tim Wardlaw</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Producing climate-ready seed for sowing</h2>
<p>In new research, soon to be published, I reviewed several studies that compared the features of Tasmanian tall eucalypt forests with other forests on the Australian mainland. </p>
<p>I wanted to understand why Tasmania’s forests were so sensitive to heatwaves and what, if anything, could be done to lessen their impact. I found the poor response to heatwaves had more to do with the local conditions than anything else. The forests are accustomed to high rainfall and a narrow temperature range. </p>
<p>Could we speed up natural selection to help Tasmania’s tall eucalypt forests adapt to a new, warmer climate? </p>
<p>Previous research has shown forests can be managed to speed up natural selection and <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ecm.1333">produce seed better suited to new climates</a>. But this is only feasible in forests managed for wood production. </p>
<p>We need to find out whether natural selection can increase the optimum temperature for carbon uptake by the forest, and if so, by how much. </p>
<p>We need to ensure the right policy settings are in place. A policy to end logging of native forests, for example, would rule out speeding up natural selection.</p>
<p>And we need to think and plan what to do if tall eucalypt forests in reserves are lost or irreparably damaged. Should we try to restore new generations of tall eucalypt forests, and if so, how?</p>
<p>Finally, community support is required. People need to understand what we are trying to achieve. They can also bring new ideas about how to make tall eucalypt forests more resilient. </p>
<p>Timely, accurate, trusted, and accessible information will be crucial. Ongoing <a href="https://www.tern.org.au/tern-ecosystem-processes/warra-tall-eucalypt-supersite/">monitoring</a> of the tall eucalypt forest in the upper reaches of Tasmania’s Huon Valley can provide much of this information.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582464/original/file-20240318-18-dzlsif.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Aerial view of the Warra landscape looking looking south from the Warra flux tower above the canopy" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582464/original/file-20240318-18-dzlsif.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582464/original/file-20240318-18-dzlsif.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582464/original/file-20240318-18-dzlsif.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582464/original/file-20240318-18-dzlsif.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582464/original/file-20240318-18-dzlsif.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582464/original/file-20240318-18-dzlsif.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582464/original/file-20240318-18-dzlsif.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Warra Supersite in the upper reaches of the Huon Valley is one of 16 intensive ecosystem monitoring field stations in Australia’s Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Brown, ComStar Systems</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Future forests</h2>
<p>Clearly, humanity must cut greenhouse gas emissions and limit global warming. But some climate impacts are now unavoidable and we need to be prepared.</p>
<p>As heatwaves intensify, Tasmania’s tall eucalypt forests will reach a tipping point. Trees will die. The forest we know today will be lost forever. </p>
<p>But if we are prepared, we can ensure another forest takes its place. With our help, future generations of tall eucalypt forests can still exist – forests better suited to Tasmania’s new climate.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hard-to-kill-heres-why-eucalypts-are-survival-experts-222743">Hard to kill: here's why eucalypts are survival experts</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224335/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>I receive funding from the Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network.</span></em></p>Our tallest trees are world champions when it comes to capturing and storing carbon, but they don’t like the heat. Climate change will trigger mass tree deaths in Tasmania. Here’s what can be done.Tim Wardlaw, Research Associate, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2239222024-03-19T13:10:57Z2024-03-19T13:10:57ZNigeria’s forests are fast disappearing – urgent steps are needed to protect their benefits to the economy and environment<p><em>Nigeria’s forest cover has been dwindling fast for decades. With one of the <a href="https://earth.org/challenges-facing-policies-against-deforestation-in-nigeria/">highest rates of deforestation</a> in the world, there are concerns about the survival of its forest resources. We asked forest management and biodiversity conservation expert Amusa Tajudeen to explain why the country’s forests are disappearing and what to do about it.</em></p>
<hr>
<h2>Which parts of Nigeria are covered by forest?</h2>
<p>Nigeria has a rain forest zone in the south. Forest cover decreases in density towards the north, where the savannah belt is characterised by grasses and sparse tree cover. The rain forest ecosystem <a href="https://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:1726/unuinrapolicybriefvol2_4.pdf">lies</a> between latitudes 4⁰N and 9⁰N and extends from the coast to about 250km inland.</p>
<h2>What is the current status of Nigeria’s forest cover?</h2>
<p>Nigeria’s forest cover is diminishing in extent and quality. But reliable data is scarce. For instance, one record indicates that <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas-Omali/publication/344238412_Prospects_of_satellite-Enhanced_Forest_Monitoring_for_Nigeria/links/5f5f7158299bf1d43c0223ce/Prospects-of-satellite-Enhanced-Forest-Monitoring-for-Nigeria.pdf#page=4">Nigeria’s land mass is 910,770km²</a> and forest occupies 110,890km², or 12.8% of the total land mass. Another shows that Nigeria’s land mass is 997,936km² and only <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/jasr/article/view/112511">10% is under forest reserve</a>.</p>
<p>At independence in 1960, it was <a href="https://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:1726/unuinrapolicybriefvol2_4.pdf">reported</a> that the colonial government had set aside 97,000km² (9.72%) of the country as forest reserves. </p>
<p>Historical accounts also indicate that the country’s rain forest, which was over 600,000km² in 1897 (60% of land mass), had <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/international-forestry-review/volume-8/issue-3/ifor.8.3.372/Status-of-Tropical-Forest-Management-2005-Summary-Report/10.1505/ifor.8.3.372.full?casa_token=ZTKPa_OhRG8AAAAA:iVodlrGMgTr3eYlu4CZ-IWR1KCxrg_0q6lnmCpc6zTfHRaBj2_kFYQETnMpHndwm6KRzxdefZXQ">reduced</a> by about half in 1960 to 30% of land mass. </p>
<p>Nigeria’s forests <a href="https://www.netjournals.org/pdf/NJAS/2015/1/15-011.pdf#page=1">covered</a> an estimated 175,000km² in 1990 and 135,000km² in 2000. Between 2000 and 2004, the country was said to have lost 55.7% of its primary forests – that is, 75,195km² of native and original forests that have never been logged and have developed under natural processes. </p>
<p>A report by the United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (UN-REDD) <a href="https://www.un-redd.org/partner-countries/africa/nigeria">shows</a> that the decline rate of forest cover in Nigeria ranged from 3.5% to 3.7% per annum over the period 2000 to 2010. This translates to a loss of 350,000–400,000 hectares of forest land yearly.</p>
<p>Unless something decisive is done, and urgently, the country will lose all its forest areas by the year 2052, if the prevailing rate of deforestation at 3.5% annually is anything to go by.</p>
<h2>Why is forest cover important?</h2>
<p>Forests are very important for the economic development of every nation. They also have environmental, ecological, socio-cultural, scientific and research service functions. </p>
<p>Forests provide numerous goods and services. Some are needed as raw materials – for example wood for building materials, fuel and paper. </p>
<p>Forests also offer natural foods and non-timber products like oilseeds, latexes, gums, resins, rattan, vanilla and game. Forest-based industries such as sawmills, paper mills and furniture industries provide employment and income. </p>
<p>Forest ecosystems offer physical, biological and chemical benefits. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>conserving soil, controlling the timing and volume of water flows, protecting water quality and maintaining aquatic habitats </p></li>
<li><p>preventing disasters like floods and landslides, and moderating winds </p></li>
<li><p>conserving biodiversity </p></li>
<li><p>storing carbon, which mitigates climate change. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>The socio-cultural service functions of forests cover nature-based tourism and ecotourism activities. Ecotourism provides a means for people to use the forest without extracting its resources or degrading the environment. Wildlife attracts many visitors and foreign exchange earnings.</p>
<p>In addition, forests help to deepen our understanding of the natural world. Through research, we learn new things about species, habitats and ecosystems. Forest resources are particularly important in medicine, including immunology and other studies of diseases. </p>
<h2>Why is Nigeria’s forest cover being depleted?</h2>
<p>Before the 1950s, the forestry and agriculture sectors <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul-Owombo-2/publication/311869826_Contributions_of_Forestry_Sub-sector_to_the_Nigerian_Economy_A_Co-integration_Approach/links/5c3ef31692851c22a3789e6a/Contributions-of-Forestry-Sub-sector-to-the-Nigerian-Economy-A-Co-integration-Approach.pdf">contributed</a> over 80% of Nigeria’s gross domestic product. This changed after the discovery of oil in the 1950s and early 1960s.</p>
<p>Today, the laws and policies associated with forest administration are obsolete. In addition, supervision, monitoring and surveillance of forest areas is poor. Staffing and provision of basic infrastructure are grossly inadequate. </p>
<p>The principle of sustained yield forestry, when products removed from the forest are replaced by growth, has been abandoned in most forest reserves. Inventory records of resources are insufficient. Local people don’t participate enough in decision-making related to forests. The forestry sector is also affected by corruption, such as misappropriation of funds and <a href="http://repository.ui.edu.ng/handle/123456789/1405">illegal activities</a>.</p>
<p>In Nigeria, primary forests are <a href="http://repository.ui.edu.ng/handle/123456789/1405">cleared</a> extensively. The various state forestry departments have been unable to adequately protect the forest estate. Most forest reserves that were once managed for timber production have become deforested and fragmented. Many have been converted for other land uses. </p>
<p>Large scale agriculture has consumed a significant portion of forested areas. Similarly, <a href="https://digitalscholarship.tsu.edu/ajcjs/vol9/iss1/10/">unlawful and indiscriminate logging activities</a> take place in naturally occurring forests. </p>
<p>Urbanisation, which comes with roads, buildings and other infrastructure, is often carried out without proper planning. </p>
<h2>How can this depletion be tackled?</h2>
<p>Based on our <a href="http://80.240.30.238/bitstream/123456789/1405/1/%2816%29%20ui_inpro_amusa_forest_2017.pdf">studies</a> of the Nigerian forests over the years and <a href="https://www.rufford.org/projects/tajudeen-okekunle-amusa/strengthening-monitoring-systems-for-adaptive-management-and-protection-of-forest-elephants-in-omo-forest-reserve-southwestern-nigeria/">lessons</a> from numerous projects carried out, I have the following recommendations:</p>
<p>Most countries have a forestry law. Unfortunately Nigeria’s forest policy is not backed by a code or act. A national Forestry Act could reverse the decline in forest cover. It could give adequate protection and ensure sustainable management of the country’s forest estate.</p>
<p>There is an urgent need to plant and replant trees across the country. The various state governments can collaborate with non-governmental organisations to achieve this. </p>
<p>Reforestation involves replanting trees in areas where forests have been destroyed. Afforestation involves creating new forests on previously non-forested land. These campaigns should plant a diverse range of native tree species. </p>
<p>It’s also crucial to promote sustainable forestry practices. The government should enforce strict regulations against illegal logging and unsustainable timber harvesting. Enforcement can be done using technology such as remote sensors, drones and satellite imagery. It is essential to work with local communities, traditional leaders and NGOs to raise awareness about the importance of forest conservation.</p>
<p>Finally, there should be proper staffing. Adequately trained forest professionals and well equipped guards should be hired to safeguard the forests. Education and training programmes should teach local communities, forest workers and farmers about sustainable forestry methods and the importance of preserving biodiversity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223922/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tajudeen Amusa does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Nigeria’s forest resources have dwindled and are in danger of disappearing in a few decades if nothing is done to save them.Tajudeen Amusa, Associate Professor, Forest Resources Management, University of IlorinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2252762024-03-14T05:29:04Z2024-03-14T05:29:04ZLarge old trees are vital for Australian birds. Their long branches and hollows can’t be replaced by saplings<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581848/original/file-20240314-16-eeqr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C21%2C3596%2C2374&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When we make roads, houses or farmland, we often find large old trees in the way. Our response is often to lop off offending branches or even <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/western-australia/perth-council-axes-policy-to-protect-its-urban-forest-over-safety-concerns-20240226-p5f7zc.html">cut the tree down</a>. </p>
<p>This is a bad idea. The more we learn about large old trees, the more we realise their fundamental importance to birds, mammals, insects, plants and other inhabitants. <a href="https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Tree_Hollows_and_Wildlife_Conservation_i/hF2sMDVZztIC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PR7&printsec=frontcover">More than 300 species</a> of Australian birds and mammals need large old trees to live.</p>
<p>Why focus on mature trees? It’s because they have <a href="https://theconversation.com/large-trees-are-essential-for-healthy-cities-183017">many features</a> that younger trees simply don’t have: cracks, hollows, dead branches, peeling bark and large quantities of nectar and seeds. The limbs and leaves that fall on the ground make excellent homes for many small creatures.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320724000685">new research</a> sheds light on the importance of such grand old trees for birds. We used lidar (scanning using lasers) to map small, medium and large tree crowns in unprecedented detail. On average, we found large old trees had 383 metres of the horizontal or dead branches preferred by birds, while medium trees had very little and young trees none. Some old trees had almost 2 kilometres of branches. </p>
<h2>Why are branches so important?</h2>
<p>If we think of long, overhanging branches, chances are we may think “threat”. Some large trees can drop limbs without warning, although some arborists have pointed out the <a href="https://www.rememberthewild.org.au/eucalypt-mythbusting-a-comprehensive-guide/#sub-head-2">threat is overstated</a>. To reduce the risk, councils and land managers may remove the limbs of large old trees.</p>
<p>But if you cut down a 300-year-old river red gum, you can’t simply replace it with a sapling of the same species. It <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/3010/">will take centuries</a> for the sapling to take up the same ecological role as its predecessor.</p>
<p>In our research, we mapped more than 100,000 branches from many millions of laser samples and recorded how birds use branches through years of field observations.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-illegal-killing-of-265-trees-on-sydneys-north-shore-is-not-just-vandalism-its-theft-on-a-grand-scale-212844">The illegal killing of 265 trees on Sydney's North Shore is not just vandalism. It's theft on a grand scale</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>When we spot a bird using a branch, we can safely infer the bird has chosen it for a reason, whether resting, socialising, feeding, hunting or nesting.</p>
<p>What our data shows is that not all branches are equal. Birds find it easier to perch on horizontal or slightly inclined branches. Branches with few or no leaves offer clear vantage points for birds to land, hunt or see predators. You may have noticed crows and currawongs choosing dead branches for these reasons. </p>
<p>As trees mature, their branches begin to grow horizontally. Some branches may die due to lightning strikes, fire, wind damage, or attacks by insects or fungi, while the rest of the tree continues living. These long-term patterns of growth, decay and random events are necessary to produce the horizontal and dead branches prized by birds. For a large eucalypt, that process can take up to 200 years.</p>
<h2>Mapping the canopy with lasers</h2>
<p>Until recently, it’s been hard to map the tree canopy. Traditional methods rely on researchers visually assessing this vital habitat. But we know eye observations don’t do well at capturing parts of trees <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsfs.2017.0048">such as branches</a>. </p>
<p>That’s where lidar comes in. Lidar sends out laser pulses, which bounce back when they hit objects. By recording the time taken for the light to return, we can build very detailed three-dimensional models. It’s a little like echolocation, but using light rather than sound. </p>
<p>This laser-scanning technology has been used in the jungles of Central America to <a href="https://www.livescience.com/lidar-maya-civilization-guatemala">find the ruins</a> of lost Mayan cities. But it can do much more.</p>
<p>In forests, lidar is now increasingly used to estimate how dense the tree cover is, and how variable. This useful data feeds into how we assess a forest’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-forests-can-store-almost-as-much-carbon-as-tropical-rainforests-98885">ability to store carbon</a>, how much timber is present, and the current fire risk. We can even use it to spot animal pathways. </p>
<p>To get the canopy detail we wanted, we used lidar on the ground rather than from the air, and processed the data with algorithms that can recognise and describe about 90% of branches in even the largest trees. </p>
<p>We mapped trees in an area near Canberra. We chose this area because it represents the plight of <a href="https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/65871/2/01_Rawlings_A_Guide_to_Managing_Box_Gum_2010.pdf">temperate eucalypt woodlands</a>, which have <a href="https://www.nespthreatenedspecies.edu.au/projects/conservation-of-box-gum-grassy-woodlands-and-the-threatened-species-within-them">shrunk by up to 99%</a> since European colonisation. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/an-act-of-god-or-just-bad-management-why-trees-fall-and-how-to-prevent-it-162754">An act of God, or just bad management? Why trees fall and how to prevent it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What should we do?</h2>
<p>The very things that make branches good real estate for birds can make them seem dangerous or aesthetically displeasing to us. We tend to cut dead or long, horizontal branches and leave the living or more upright ones. But for birds, this is a disaster as many <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715300616">cannot live</a> without such branches. </p>
<p>Young trees are no substitutes for their older counterparts. Planting saplings or installing nest boxes cannot replicate the ecological value of large, mature trees.</p>
<p>We can live alongside large old trees. To reduce the chance of injury or worse from falling limbs, we could use <a href="https://www.foreground.com.au/agriculture-environment/what-good-is-a-dead-tree/">exclusion zones</a>, add artificial supports for branches, and install devices to catch or redirect falling limbs. We can also look at emergency solutions such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-owls-are-losing-their-homes-so-were-3d-printing-them-new-ones-133626">prosthetic hollows</a> on younger trees or even <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097588">artificial replicas</a> of old trees. </p>
<p>We should <a href="https://theconversation.com/smart-city-planning-can-preserve-old-trees-and-the-wildlife-that-needs-them-98632">preserve these trees</a> wherever we can and aim to keep them intact with their complex crowns and dead branches. We should also make sure there is a pipeline of young and medium trees to make sure there will be old trees in the future. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/an-act-of-god-or-just-bad-management-why-trees-fall-and-how-to-prevent-it-162754">An act of God, or just bad management? Why trees fall and how to prevent it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225276/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex Holland has received relevant funding from the Australian Research Council and the ACT Parks and Conservation Service.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Thompson receives funding from The Australian Research Council and National Health and Medical Research Association. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip Gibbons receives funding from the Environment, Planning and Sustainable Development Directorate of the ACT Government, the Natural Resources Commission, NSW Government and Riverview Projects Pty Ltd.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stanislav Roudavski has received relevant funding from the Australian Research Council and the ACT Parks and Conservation. </span></em></p>We scanned the tree canopy with lasers and found birds much prefer the branches of big old trees.Alex Holland, Researcher at Deep Design Lab and PhD Candidate at Melbourne School of Design, The University of MelbourneJason Thompson, Associate Professor, Faculty of Medicine and Melbourne School of Design, The University of MelbournePhilip Gibbons, Professor, Australian National UniversityStanislav Roudavski, Founder of Deep Design Lab and Senior Lecturer in Digital Architectural Design, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2253472024-03-13T12:38:06Z2024-03-13T12:38:06ZClimate-friendly beef? Argentina’s new ‘carbon-neutral’ certification could help reduce livestock emissions – if it’s done right<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580769/original/file-20240308-17800-vh4rq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=134%2C0%2C5856%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cattle are major producers of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ArgentinaFarmersStrike/32b525a49646407fb02737682544e817/photo">AP Photo/Victor R. Caivano</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In Argentina, where beef is a <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210522-argentina-s-beloved-beef-becomes-bone-of-contention-as-prices-soar">symbol of national pride</a>, a government-led partnership has started <a href="https://www.lanacion.com.ar/economia/campo/cambio-climatico-certificaron-en-la-argentina-la-primera-produccion-de-carne-vacuna-carbono-negativo-nid12022024/">certifying certain livestock</a> as carbon neutral. It’s a big step that shouldn’t be underestimated, but getting the certification process right is crucial. </p>
<p>The world’s livestock sector is a key driver of climate change, contributing around <a href="https://foodandagricultureorganization.shinyapps.io/GLEAMV3_Public/">12% of global greenhouse gas emissions</a>. <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cb1922en/cb1922en.pdf">Two-thirds</a> of agriculture’s annual greenhouse gas emissions come from livestock, with raising cattle for meat typically being the <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food">most emissions-intensive</a> activity. While shifting diets to plant-based foods and <a href="https://gfi.org/initiatives/climate/">alternative proteins</a> can help reduce emissions, global <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cb5332en/Meat.pdf">meat consumption</a> is growing with an expanding population and rising prosperity.</p>
<p>There are ways that livestock producers can reduce those emissions. However, beyond social pressure, ranchers have few incentives to do so. Unless those steps to reduce emissions also increase productivity, they typically become costs with little immediate benefit in return.</p>
<p>With formal certification, farmers can earn a higher price. This has been the case with certified organic or fair-trade products. If livestock could be raised in ways that produce fewer emissions and certified as climate-friendly, the resulting higher prices they could fetch might give producers an incentive to invest in reducing their herds’ emissions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A cow photographed through a tree canopy." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Argentina’s new ‘carbon-neutral’ certification hinges on the grazing landscape sequestering carbon in trees and in the soil to offset methane produced by the cattle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cattle_-_Eldorado,_Misiones_(31449238075).jpg">Papa Pic, Eldorado, Argentina</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Argentina’s certification approach <a href="https://www.lanacion.com.ar/economia/campo/cambio-climatico-certificaron-en-la-argentina-la-primera-produccion-de-carne-vacuna-carbono-negativo-nid12022024/">relies on a silvopastoral system</a>, which integrates tree growth with grazing or production of grasses or grains for fodder. Livestock are raised in forest interspersed with native natural grasslands and cultivated pastures. The pasture and grazing are managed to return nutrients and organic matter to the soil. </p>
<p>The trees and soil regeneration methods both store carbon, leading to the certification’s claim that the cattle, despite the greenhouse gases they produce, are carbon neutral. </p>
<p>The certification, approved in early 2024, is a collaboration between Argentina’s National Agricultural Technology Institute and National Industrial Technology Institute and the Argentinian private sector, <a href="https://epd.inti.gob.ar/assets/uploads/libreria/S-P-07361-Eng.pdf">with certification</a> from the <a href="https://www.environdec.com/about-us/the-international-epd-system-about-the-system">International Environmental Product Declaration System</a>, one of the first and longest operating third-party verification systems of environmental claims.</p>
<p>This silvopastoral system may be hard to replicate elsewhere, but it’s only one way to reduce livestock emissions. I’m an <a href="https://keough.nd.edu/people/paul-winters/">agricultural and resource economist</a> and executive director for the <a href="https://innovationcommission.uchicago.edu/">Innovation Commission for Climate Change, Food Security and Agriculture</a>, led by Nobel Laureate Michael Kremer. Here are some other emerging innovations that could lead to livestock certifications that reduce emissions:</p>
<h2>1. Feed additives</h2>
<p>Innovative feed additives, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247820">such as red seaweed</a>, could reduce livestock methane emissions by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/AN20295">26% to 98%</a>, depending on the type of additive and how it is administered.</p>
<p>Methane is a potent greenhouse gas with many times the warming potential of carbon dioxide. About 12% of ruminants’ gross energy intake goes into digestive processes that generate methane, which the cows belch into the air. So reducing methane emissions via feed additives could also <a href="https://theconversation.com/feeding-cows-a-few-ounces-of-seaweed-daily-could-sharply-reduce-their-contribution-to-climate-change-157192">increase productivity</a> while <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/climate/news/can-seaweed-cut-methane-emissions-on-dairy-farms">maintaining milk quality</a>. If cattle can conserve energy in the digestive process, they can redirect it toward animal growth and milk production.</p>
<p>Startup companies, such as <a href="https://blueoceanbarns.com/">Blue Ocean Barns</a> and <a href="https://www.future-feed.com/">FutureFeed</a>, have started to produce feed additives to reduce methane. However, products like these aren’t widely used yet, largely because cattle producers have no incentive to invest in changing their practices.</p>
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<h2>2. Gene editing</h2>
<p>Research underway into gene editing – intentionally altering the genetic code of a living organism – <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/food/news/can-crispr-cut-methane-emissions-cow-guts">may also have the potential</a> to change the microbes that produce methane in livestock’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-021-01014-7">gut microbiomes</a>. That could substantially reduce livestock emissions.</p>
<p>This type of innovation <a href="https://vcresearch.berkeley.edu/news/igis-audacious-new-frontier-crispr-editing-microbiomes-climate-and-health">might benefit farmers</a> who let their livestock graze in fields rather than provide them with feed. Compared to additives like seaweed, gene editing is meant to be a long-term solution, which would make it more cost-effective over time. But like feed additives, currently there is limited incentive for breeders and producers to consider this direction.</p>
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<h2>3. Advanced farm-management practices</h2>
<p>Advanced farm-management practices, such as improved feeding software, could also help reduce methane emissions intensity. These practices tend to be more affordable than other options.</p>
<p>For example, dairy production in sub-Saharan Africa is much more <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/CA2929EN/ca2929en.pdf">emissions intensive</a> per gallon of milk than production in North America or Europe, and cows in the region are only 5%-7% as productive. This is due to a host of management limitation in low-income settings.</p>
<p>Existing technologies for animal management can be adapted to <a href="https://www.athian.ai/knowledge-hub/post/dfa-purchases-first-verified-carbon-credits-in-livestock-inset-marketplace">increase production efficiency</a> and <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/ab129327-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/ab129327-en#section-d1e24585">reduce overall emissions</a>. Methods of providing better nutrition and animal care for livestock that limit excess methane production are already <a href="https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-16576">widely used in higher-income countries</a>. These methods could also be adapted for producers in low- and middle-income regions, with support and the right incentives.</p>
<h2>Certification as a path forward</h2>
<p>Certification can give livestock producers incentive to use these methods, but certification systems must be carefully designed. </p>
<p>Claims like Argentina’s should be <a href="https://www.environdec.com/home">reliably verified</a> to ensure that the certification is credible. Argentina took an important step by including a proven third-party verification system, going beyond similar “climate-friendly” national programs <a href="https://www.climateactive.org.au/sites/default/files/2023-09/NAPCo%20Public%20Disclosure%20Statement_CY2022_Final.pdf">initiated in Australia</a> and <a href="https://modernfarmer.com/2021/12/low-carbon-beef-certification/">the United States</a>.</p>
<p>The organizations that verify certificates should play a role in establishing the rules, but so should governments. For example, feed additives alone are unlikely to reach “carbon-neutral,” but organizations are exploring whether <a href="https://www.athian.ai/knowledge-hub/post/dfa-purchases-first-verified-carbon-credits-in-livestock-inset-marketplace">lesser reductions</a> could be sufficient for livestock to be certified as “climate friendly” and earn a higher price for producers. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Cattle cross a dirt road with trees and rangeland in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cattle graze in Argentina.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ArgentinaElectionsFarmers/c017cec73c3d425a91263832aca47bd3/photo">AP Photo/Natacha Pisarenko</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Finally, certification will only work if consumers are willing to pay a higher price for carbon-neutral, or even just climate-friendly, meat and dairy products.</p>
<p>Higher payments can come directly from consumers buying certified products or through government regulations requiring all meat and dairy products be certified. For example, under its <a href="https://food.ec.europa.eu/horizontal-topics/farm-fork-strategy_en">Farm to Fork Strategy</a>, the European Commission encourages food systems that can mitigate climate change. If the commission were to only accept meat and dairy products certified as climate-friendly, that would create an incentive to pursue certification to enter the large European market.</p>
<p>Some environmental groups have complained that climate certification for beef and <a href="https://www.athian.ai/knowledge-hub/post/dfa-purchases-first-verified-carbon-credits-in-livestock-inset-marketplace">related carbon credits</a> result <a href="https://newrepublic.com/article/175337/bs-behind-usdas-new-climate-friendly-beef-label">in greenwashing</a>, allowing companies and the industry to burnish their reputations while continuing to release emissions. But certification can also encourage livestock producers to take steps they otherwise wouldn’t to reduce overall emissions for a better planet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225347/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Winters does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cattle are major producers of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. But there are methods that can reduce their climate impact – if ranchers have incentive to use them.Paul Winters, Professor of Global Affairs, University of Notre DameLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2254752024-03-13T06:19:20Z2024-03-13T06:19:20ZRedwood trees are growing almost as fast in the UK as their Californian cousins – new study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581046/original/file-20240311-22-169fj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C23%2C3870%2C2560&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sequoias-73346425">Galyna Andrushko/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What can <a href="https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/sequoiadendron-giganteum/">live for over 3,000 years</a>, weigh over 150 tonnes and could be sitting almost unnoticed in your <a href="https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/visiting-woods/woods/havering-county-park/">local park</a>? Giant sequoias (known as giant redwoods in the UK) are among the tallest and <a href="https://www.nps.gov/redw/planyourvisit/upload/ThreeTrees-2014-508.pdf">heaviest</a> organisms that have ever lived on Earth, not to mention they have the potential to <a href="https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/shirley/sec11.htm#:%7E:text=Sierra%20Redwood%E2%80%94the%20world's%20oldest,oldest%20living%20things%20in%20existence">live longer</a> than other species.</p>
<p>My team’s <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.230603">new study</a>
is the first to look at the growth of giant sequoias in the UK – and they seem to be doing remarkably well. Trees at two of the three sites we studied matched the <a href="https://arboretum.ucdavis.edu/sites/g/files/dgvnsk1546/files/inline-files/redwood_exhibits_0.pdf">average growth rates</a> of their counterparts in the US, where they come from. These remarkable trees are being planted in an effort to help absorb carbon, but perhaps more importantly they are becoming a striking and much-admired part of the UK landscape.</p>
<p>To live so long, giant sequoias have evolved to be extraordinarily resilient. In their <a href="https://www.visitsequoia.com/explore/spring-summer-fall-activities/redwoods-and-sequoias">native northern California</a>, they occupy an ecological niche in mountainous terrain 1400 – 2100 metres above sea level. </p>
<p>Their <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/x94-092">thick spongy bark</a> insulates against fire and disease and they can survive severe winters and arid summers. Despite these challenges these trees <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GB005546">absorb and store</a> CO₂ faster and in greater quantities than almost any other in the world, storing up to five times more carbon per hectare than even tropical rainforests. However, the changing climate means Californian giant sequoias <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/giant-sequoias-face-new-threats.htm">are under threat</a> from more frequent and extreme droughts and fires. More than 10% of the remaining population of around 80,000 wild trees were killed <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jun/02/sequoias-destroyed-california-castle-fire">in a single fire</a> in 2020 alone.</p>
<h2>Tree giants from the US</h2>
<p>What is much less well-known is that there are an estimated <a href="https://www.forestryengland.uk/news/over-half-million-natures-giants-the-nations-forests#:%7E:text=With%20now%20over%20half%20a,species'%20long%2Dterm%20survival.">half a million sequoias</a> (wild and planted) in England, dotted across the landscape. So how well are the UK giant sequoias doing? To try and answer this, my team used a technique called <a href="https://info.vercator.com/blog/3-types-of-terrestrial-laser-scanners">terrestrial laser scanning</a> to measure the size and volume of giant sequoias. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman carrying baby stands next to base of giant trees" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sequoia national park in California, USA.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mother-infant-visit-sequoia-national-park-1175764084">My Good Images/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The laser sends out half a million pulses a second and if a pulse hits a tree, the 3D location of each “hit” is recorded precisely. This gives us a map of tree structure in unprecedented detail, which we can use to estimate volume and mass, effectively allowing us to estimate the tree’s weight. If we know how old the trees are, we can estimate how fast they are growing and accumulating carbon.</p>
<p>As part of a Master’s project with former student Ross Holland, and along with colleagues at Kew Royal Botanical Gardens, we measured giant sequoias across three sites - <a href="https://www.rbge.org.uk/visit/benmore-botanic-garden/">Benmore botanical gardens</a> in Scotland, <a href="https://www.kew.org/wakehurst">Kew Wakehurst</a> in Sussex and <a href="https://www.havering.gov.uk/info/20037/parks/723/havering_country_park">Havering Country Park</a> in Essex. These sites span the wettest (Benmore) and driest (Havering) climates in the UK, enabling us to assess how rainfall affects growth. </p>
<p>The fastest-growing trees we measured are growing almost as fast as they do in California, adding 70cm of height and storing 160kg of carbon per year, about twice that of a <a href="https://onetreeplanted.org/blogs/stories/how-much-co2-does-tree-absorb">native UK oak</a>. The trees at Benmore are already among the tallest trees in the UK at 55 metres, the current record-holder being a <a href="https://www.outdoorlook.co.uk/blog/post/record-breaking-tall-trees-in-the-uk">66 metre Douglas Fir</a> in Scotland. The redwoods, being faster growing, are likely to take that title in the next decade or two. And these trees are “only” around 170 years old. No native tree in the UK is taller than about 47 metres. We also found significant differences in growth rates across the UK. They grow fastest in the north where the climate is wetter.</p>
<p>So how did these trees get here? <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jhc/article/35/2/347/6651665">Exotic plant collecting</a> was big business in the 18th and 19th centuries, in large part as a display of wealth and taste. Giant sequoias were first introduced in 1853 by Scottish grain merchant and keen amateur collector <a href="https://www.giant-sequoia.com/gallery/scotland/">Patrick Matthew</a>, who gave them to friends. Later that same year commercial nurseryman <a href="https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/discover/nature/trees-plants/how-the-giant-sequoia-came-to-england">William Lobb</a> brought many more from California, along with accounts of the giant trees from which they came. </p>
<p>Giant sequoias quickly became a sensation and were planted to create imposing avenues, at the entrances of grand houses and estates, in churchyards, parks and botanic gardens. The letters about these trees helps us to accurately age planted trees, enabling us to calculate their growth rates. </p>
<p>Normally, you need to take samples <a href="https://www.nature.scot/sites/default/files/2018-09/Publication%202018%20-%20SNH%20Research%20Report%20789%20-%20A%20review%20of%20the%20theory%20and%20practice%20of%20tree%20coring%20on%20live%20ancient%20and%20veteran%20trees.pdf">from a tree’s core</a> to get an accurate age estimate but that can damage the tree. </p>
<h2>Imagine their potential</h2>
<p>UK sequoias are unlikely to grow as tall as their Californian counterparts, which tend to grow in forests, due to lightning strikes and high winds – always a risk when you’re the tallest thing in the landscape rather than one among many. More recently, there has been a <a href="https://press.royalsociety.org/Uploads/RSOS230603_Proof.pdf">resurgence in planting</a> giant sequoias in the UK, particularly <a href="https://news.hackney.gov.uk/hackney-plants-70-trees-to-commemorate-70th-day-of-the-70th-year-of-the-queens-reign/#:%7E:text=Hackney%20has%20planted%2070%20sequoia,the%20borough's%20Platinum%20Jubilee%20celebrations.">in urban settings</a>. This is because of their carbon storage potential and perhaps because people seem to <a href="https://press.royalsociety.org/Uploads/RSOS230603_Proof.pdf">really like them</a>. </p>
<p>We urgently need to understand how UK trees will fare in the face of <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-67845671">much hotter, drier summers</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/storm-ciaran-is-breaking-records-and-research-suggests-more-severe-weather-in-future-216842">stormier winters</a> and with <a href="https://nationalemergenciestrust.org.uk/wildfires-growing-risk/">increased risks of fire</a>. Global trade is also increasing <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-021-00639-z#:%7E:text=The%20economic%20and%20environmental%20threats,in%20recent%20years96%2C97.">the spread of disease</a> among plantlife. More work is needed to consider the impact of planting non-native species like giant sequoias on native habitats and biodiversity but our work has shown that they are apparently very happy with our climate, so far. </p>
<p>More importantly, we have to remember that trees are more than just stores of carbon. If we value trees only as carbon sticks we will end up with thousands of hectares of monoculture, which isn’t good for nature. </p>
<p>But these giant sequoias are here to stay and are becoming a beautiful and resilient part of our landscape. </p>
<hr>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mathias Disney receives funding from UKRI via NERC, the National Centre for Earth Observation (NCEO), European Space Agency, NASA and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute.</span></em></p>Their incredible resilience means they are becoming part of the UK landscape.Mathias Disney, Reader in Remote Sensing, Department of Geography, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2229722024-03-11T12:25:42Z2024-03-11T12:25:42ZWhy do trees need sunlight? An environmental scientist explains photosynthesis<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578432/original/file-20240227-20-s7p24d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2048%2C1364&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The reason trees need sunlight is the same reason their leaves are green.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/scottb211/10108377914/"> Scottb211/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
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<p><strong>Why do trees need sunlight? – Tillman, age 9, Asheville, North Carolina</strong></p>
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<p>Trees need sunlight for the same reason you need food. The energy from the Sun’s rays is a crucial ingredient in how plants make their own food that helps them power all their cells. Since trees don’t harvest or hunt food, they have to produce their own. The way they make their food is a unique and important chemical process called photosynthesis.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574698/original/file-20240209-30-3fr5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="honey-comb pattern of rings each containing many small green spheres" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574698/original/file-20240209-30-3fr5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574698/original/file-20240209-30-3fr5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574698/original/file-20240209-30-3fr5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574698/original/file-20240209-30-3fr5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574698/original/file-20240209-30-3fr5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574698/original/file-20240209-30-3fr5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574698/original/file-20240209-30-3fr5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Chlorophyll is what makes leaves green.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg">Kristian Peters-Fabelfroh/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<h2>What is photosynthesis?</h2>
<p>The cells in plants and all other living things have microscopic components called <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Organelle">organelles</a>. One type of organelle in plant cells is the chloroplast, and it contains the <a href="https://www.kidzone.ws/science/lessons/pigments.html">pigment</a> chlorophyll, which is what makes leaves green. When chlorophyll receives sunlight, it starts the <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> reaction.</p>
<p>The name photosynthesis comes from the ancient Greek words “photo,” which means light, and “synthesis,” which means to make. During this food-making process, plants take carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground, and with the energy from sunlight, make glucose. Glucose is a very simple type of sugar. Because it is a simple compound, it is simple to make.</p>
<p>Most of the time, photosynthesis occurs in leaves, and leaves take in sunlight to make food. There are some special plants, though, that actually absorb sunlight on their stems. Some of these include cactuses like the balloon-shaped <a href="https://www.gardenia.net/plant/echinocactus-grusonii-golden-barrel-cactus">golden barrel cactus</a>, the spiky <a href="https://huntington.org/educators/learning-resources/spotlight/cylindropuntia-munzii">Munz’s Cholla</a> and the paddle-shaped <a href="https://huntington.org/educators/learning-resources/spotlight/opuntia-ficus-indica">prickly pear</a>. Some plants even have roots that can photosynthesize, like the rare palm <em><a href="https://huntington.org/educators/learning-resources/spotlight/cryosophila-albida">Cryosophila albida</a></em>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579708/original/file-20240304-28-wxa438.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graphic diagram of a plant showing sun, soil, roots, leaves and a flower" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579708/original/file-20240304-28-wxa438.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579708/original/file-20240304-28-wxa438.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=601&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579708/original/file-20240304-28-wxa438.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=601&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579708/original/file-20240304-28-wxa438.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=601&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579708/original/file-20240304-28-wxa438.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579708/original/file-20240304-28-wxa438.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579708/original/file-20240304-28-wxa438.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Sunlight gives plants the energy to turn water and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates – the food their cells need to live and grow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Photosynthesis_en.svg">At09kg/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<h2>Photosynthesis is billions of years old</h2>
<p>Photosynthesis evolved more than <a href="https://doi.org/10.1104%2Fpp.110.161687">3.5 billion years ago</a>. Initially, only single-celled organisms, kind of like today’s algae, could make sugar this way. Oxygen is a waste product from the photosynthesis process, and over time, these single-celled organisms released enough oxygen to change the Earth’s atmosphere. Ultimately, we and all other animals needed this to happen to be able to live and breathe. </p>
<p>Over time, aquatic plants developed, and gradually plants <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat3642">moved to land</a> around 500 million years ago to better access their most vital resource: sunlight. Plants eventually got taller by around <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aar2986">350 million years ago</a>. This is when the first tree evolved, which grew up to 150 feet tall. These trees looked like the evergreen trees we see today – sort of like pines, firs and spruce. And about 125 million years ago, trees that looked like the maples, oaks and beech trees we see today shared the landscape when <a href="https://new.nsf.gov/news/dinosaur-age-fossils-provide-new-insights-origin">dinosaurs ruled the Earth</a>.</p>
<h2>Not just good for plants</h2>
<p>The Sun provides energy for the Earth. However, we humans are not capable of taking in the sun directly and using it to power our bodies. So how do we make use of the Sun’s energy? Plants do it for us.</p>
<p>Plants take in that energy and make food for us and other animals to eat and oxygen for us to breathe. We wouldn’t exist without plants and photosynthesis.</p>
<p>Like the ancient tiny single-celled organisms from 3.5 billion years ago, some microorganisms today use photosynthesis. Specifically, the algae that you might see living on top of lakes and the ocean do. Chlorophyll is why algae is green. </p>
<p>There are <a href="https://news.asu.edu/20191114-asu-study-shows-some-aquatic-plants-depend-landscape-photosynthesis">aquatic plants</a> that use sunlight to grow. They typically make use of less sunlight because sunlight does not travel well through water.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578425/original/file-20240227-30-2rnnkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="yellowish green grass-like plants underwater" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578425/original/file-20240227-30-2rnnkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578425/original/file-20240227-30-2rnnkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578425/original/file-20240227-30-2rnnkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578425/original/file-20240227-30-2rnnkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578425/original/file-20240227-30-2rnnkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578425/original/file-20240227-30-2rnnkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578425/original/file-20240227-30-2rnnkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Some plants can do photosynthesis underwater, where there is less sunlight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/chesbayprogram/32446887586/">Chesapeake Bay Program/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
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<p>In addition, there are a very few animals that can photosynthesize. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.11214">pea aphid</a> uses pigment to harvest sunlight to make energy. The <a href="https://phys.org/news/2011-01-physicists-outer-shell-hornet-harvest.html">Oriental hornet</a> uses a pigment in its exoskeleton to make energy from sunlight. The <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/solar-powered-photosynthetic-sea-slugs-in-decline-news">emerald-green sea slug</a> eats algae and then incorporates chlorophyll from the algae into its body to photosynthesize. Because of this strategy, the sea slug can go nine months without eating. </p>
<p>So the answer to this question – why do trees need sunlight – is to make their food. And thanks to trees and other plants turning sunlight into their food, most of the rest of the living things on Earth get to eat, too!</p>
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<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222972/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebekah Stein does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Trees – and all plants – harvest sunlight to gain the energy they need to live and grow.Rebekah Stein, Assistant Professor of Environmental Science, Quinnipiac UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2210852024-02-22T20:50:27Z2024-02-22T20:50:27ZHow advanced genetic testing can be used to combat the illegal timber trade<p>According to <a href="https://www.interpol.int/Crimes/Environmental-crime/Forestry-crime">Interpol</a>, the organization dedicated to facilitating international police co-operation, between 15 per cent and 30 per cent of the world’s traded timber comes from illegal sources. This is an estimated annual value of US$51-152 billion dollars. </p>
<p>Illegal logging has serious consequences for the environment, the climate and the local livelihoods of the people who depend upon the affected forests. In turn, local governments are faced with losses in revenue, rising corruption and decreasing timber prices. These make it even more difficult for the legal forestry sector to remain competitive. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/illegal-logging-in-africa-is-a-threat-to-security-202291">Illegal logging in Africa is a threat to security</a>
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<p>Even in Canada, customers are unwittingly supporting this theft by buying timber with false declarations. In the face of such issues, Canadian researchers are currently developing a <a href="https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.891853/publication.html">traceability system</a> employing genomic identification technologies to help tackle the trade in illegal timber. </p>
<h2>Stemming the flow</h2>
<p>To help address poaching, the United States expanded the pre-existing <a href="https://www.fws.gov/law/lacey-act">Lacey Act in 2008</a>. Originally designed to control the illegal trade of <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/lacey-acts-effectiveness">wildlife</a>, it was adapted to help tackle the trade in illegally harvested wood. The 2008 amendments to the Lacey Act decreased the importation of illegally harvested wood into the U.S. by approximately 32 to 44 per cent. </p>
<p>In Canada, similar regulations have been put in place to avoid the exploitation of species at risk including the <a href="https://www.laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/W-8.5/index.html">Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act</a>. But how do we know if the declarations of a wood product are accurate or correctly reported? </p>
<p>In general, identification methods can be categorized into three groups: anatomical, analytical or molecular biological techniques — each with its <a href="https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.21518.79689">own set of advantages and limitations</a>. </p>
<p>Identification methods which use the aid of <a href="https://doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.21.00067">microscope technology</a> look for distinct characteristics of the wood anatomy including tissues and cells. It is also the group of methods most commonly used.</p>
<p>However, this method requires trained specialists, the appropriate equipment and can typically only provide meaningful conclusions at the <a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/genus">genus level</a>. In addition, wood anatomy cannot tell us where a piece of wood comes from. </p>
<h2>Looking to genetics</h2>
<p>This is where genomics come into play. To determine the species identity and the geographic origin of a logged tree, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/35016000">researchers take advantage of evolution</a>. </p>
<p>A few key factors make genetic identification possible. </p>
<p>Firstly, there are clear genetic differences between distinct <em><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2771874/#:%7E:text=We%20define%20a%20genetic%20species,from%20the%20Biological%20Species%20Concept.">species</a></em>. Secondly, the closer the relationship between individuals — in this case trees — the more genetically similar they are, while the more removed the individuals are the less genetic information is shared.</p>
<p>Therefore, it is possible to assign an individual to a “local population” based on its genetic fingerprint, sharing parts of its genetic makeup with that population and, consequently, <a href="https://pubs.cif-ifc.org/doi/abs/10.5558/tfc2018-010">also the specific region where it originates from</a>. This method is called population genetics. </p>
<p>The power of population genetics lies in its ability to identify groups of individuals that share a certain amount of genetic information that can be used to assign individuals to a species or a geographic region. The same methods can be used for humans to find unknown relatives or trace back the ethnic origin of your ancestors. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/weakening-australias-illegal-logging-laws-would-undermine-the-global-push-to-halt-forest-loss-172770">Weakening Australia's illegal logging laws would undermine the global push to halt forest loss</a>
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<p>To reliably assign individuals, a variety of genetic markers is needed, varying between species and local populations. </p>
<p>In Canada, the first successful use of genetic material to conduct forensic testing on trees was pioneered by geneticist Eleanor White who succeeded in <a href="https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/pubwarehouse/pdfs/5177.pdf">tracing a wood log directly to the specific stump of an 800-year-old cedar tree in Western Canada</a> left behind after its illegal felling.</p>
<p>White’s success demonstrates the power of genomic identification in regulating the timber trade.</p>
<h2>Developing new systems</h2>
<p>Genomic sequencing in combination with genetic data analyses gained public traction during the COVID-19 pandemic, as these were used to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18314-x">identify an outbreak of a new virus variant and trace its origin</a>.</p>
<p>Current research in wood forensics is using similar tools to assign an individual to a source population with high accuracy. Since genetic analyses can be costly, genetic databases of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10297">previously studied species</a> are compiled and used as test data to determine the best and most reliable analytical method.</p>
<p>The aim is to create a simple traceability system for timber products that border officials can implement quickly and easily. This should help stop the sale of illegally harvested timber and hold those responsible to account. </p>
<p>The long-term goal is to make it more difficult to sell illegally harvested timber in Canada and thus contribute to the protection of valuable forests. In addition, traceability can certify areas in Canada which are sustainably managed, making it easier for consumers to support sustainable forest management practices.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221085/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melanie Zacharias receives funding from Génome Québec. </span></em></p>Effective use of genomic identification could revolutionize the control of the illegal timber trade.Melanie Zacharias, Postdoctoral researcher in forest genetics, Université LavalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2240932024-02-22T19:00:50Z2024-02-22T19:00:50ZSide-effects of expanding forests could limit their potential to tackle climate change – new study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577038/original/file-20240221-18-mbvixi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The complex effects of planting more trees need to be taken into consideration. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-shot-above-forest-spring-season-1720654045">Mikai/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Tackling climate change by planting trees has an intuitive appeal. They absorb the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide from the atmosphere without using expensive technology. </p>
<p>The suggestion that you can plant trees to offset your carbon emissions is <a href="https://onetreeplanted.org/blogs/stories/planting-trees-offsets-carbon">widespread</a>. Many businesses, from those selling <a href="https://eu.etnies.com/pages/buy-a-shoe-plant-a-tree">shoes</a> to <a href="https://saplingspirits.com/pages/climate-positive">booze</a>, now offer to plant a tree with each purchase, and more than 60 countries have signed up to the <a href="https://www.bonnchallenge.org">Bonn Challenge</a>, which aims to restore degraded and deforested landscapes. </p>
<p>However, expanding tree cover could affect the climate in complex ways. Using models of the Earth’s atmosphere, land and oceans, we have simulated widescale future forestation. Our <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adg6196">new study</a> shows that this increases atmospheric carbon dioxide removal, beneficial for tackling climate change. But side-effects, including changes to other greenhouse gases and the reflectivity of the land surface, may partially oppose this.</p>
<p>Our findings suggest that while forestation – the restoration and expansion of forests – can play a role in tackling climate change, its potential may be smaller than previously thought.</p>
<p>When forestation occurs alongside other climate change mitigation strategies, such as reducing emissions of greenhouse gases, the negative side-effects have a smaller impact. So, forestation will be more effective as part of wider efforts to pursue sustainable development. Trees can help fight climate change, but relying on them alone won’t be enough.</p>
<h2>What does the future hold?</h2>
<p>Future climate projections suggest that to keep warming below the Paris Agreement 2°C target, greenhouse gas emissions must reach <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-what-the-new-ipcc-report-says-about-how-to-limit-warming-to-1-5c-or-2c/">net-zero by the mid-to-late 21st century</a>, and become net negative thereafter. As some industries, such as aviation and shipping, will be exceedingly difficult to decarbonise fully, carbon removal will be needed. </p>
<p>Forestation is a <a href="https://unfccc.int/news/un-scales-up-climate-action-to-protect-forests">widely proposed strategy</a> for carbon removal. If deployed sustainably – by planting mixtures of native trees rather than monocultures, for instance – forestation can provide other benefits including <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-019-0405-0">protecting biodiversity</a>, reducing soil erosion, and improving flood protection.</p>
<p>We considered an “extensive forestation” strategy which expands existing forests over the course of the 21st century in line with current proposals, adding trees where they are expected to thrive while avoiding croplands. </p>
<p>In our models, we paired this strategy with two future climate scenarios – a “minimal effort” scenario with average global warming exceeding 4°C, and a “Paris-compatible” scenario with extensive climate mitigation efforts. We could then compare the extensive forestation outcome to simulations with the same climate but where levels of forestation followed more expected trends: the minimal effort scenario sees forest cover drop as agriculture expands, and the Paris-compatible scenario features modest increases in global forest cover. </p>
<h2>Up in the air</h2>
<p>The Earth’s energy balance depends on the energy coming in from the Sun and the energy escaping back out to space. Increasing forest cover changes the Earth’s overall energy balance. Generally, changes that <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/90/3/2008bams2634_1.xml">decrease outgoing radiation cause warming</a>. The greenhouse effect works this way, as outgoing radiation is trapped by gases in the atmosphere. </p>
<p>Forestation’s ability to lower atmospheric CO₂, and therefore increase the radiation escaping to space, has been <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1710465114">well studied</a>. However, the amount of carbon that could feasibly be removed remains a <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaz0111?intcmp=trendmd-sci">subject of debate</a>. </p>
<p>Forestation generally reduces land surface reflectivity (<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.abm9684?casa_token=g8hQeCQFj38AAAAA%3A-w0gwkq7kRepSJwCuW_2iqiFqh7ACXwgb4s-9kA35UgF950MUxAiwmnhbInVZWkJg_YEye1IM47ibPo">albedo</a>) as darker trees replace lighter grassland. Decreases in albedo levels oppose the beneficial reduction of atmospheric CO₂, as less radiation escapes back to space. This is particularly important <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/35041545">at higher latitudes</a>, where trees cover land that would otherwise be covered with snow. Our scenario features forest expansion primarily in temperate and tropical regions. </p>
<p>Forests emit large quantities of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), with these emissions increasing with rising temperatures. VOCs react chemically in the atmosphere, affecting the <a href="https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/21/1105/2021/">concentrations of methane and ozone</a>, which are also greenhouse gases. We find the enhanced VOC emissions from greater forest cover and temperatures increase levels of methane and, typically, ozone. This reduces the amount of radiation escaping to space, further opposing the removal of carbon.</p>
<p>However, the reaction products of VOCs can <a href="https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/14/447/2014/">contribute to aerosols</a>, which reflect incoming solar radiation and help form clouds. Increases in these aerosols with rising VOC emissions from greater forest cover result in more radiation escaping to space.</p>
<p>We find the net effect of changes to albedo, ozone, methane and aerosol is to reduce the amount of radiation escaping to space, cancelling out part of the benefit of reducing atmospheric CO₂. In a future where climate mitigation is not a priority, up to 30% of the benefit is cancelled out, while in a Paris-compatible future, this drops to 15%. </p>
<h2>Cooler solutions</h2>
<p>Tackling climate change requires efforts from all sectors. While forestation will play a role, our work shows that its benefits may not be as great as previously thought. However, these negative side-effects aren’t as impactful if we pursue other strategies, especially reducing our greenhouse gas emissions, alongside forestation.</p>
<p>This study hasn’t considered local temperature changes from forestation as a result of evaporative cooling, or the impact of changes to atmospheric composition caused by changes in the frequencies and severities of wildfires. Further work in these areas will complement our research. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, our study suggests that forestation alone is unlikely to fix our warming planet. We need to rapidly reduce our emissions while enhancing the ability of the natural world to store carbon. It is important to stress-test climate mitigation strategies in detail, because so many complex systems are at play. </p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Weber receives funding from UK Research and Innovation (UKRI).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James A. King sits on an advisory panel for Ecologi. He receives funding from UK Research and Innovation (UKRI). </span></em></p>Planting trees to remove carbon from the atmosphere will only be effective alongside other strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.James Weber, Lecturer in Atmospheric Radiation, Composition and Climate, University of ReadingJames A. King, Research Associate in Climate Change Mitigation, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2232242024-02-21T13:04:38Z2024-02-21T13:04:38ZGut bacteria may explain why grey squirrels outcompete reds – new research<p>Across large parts of the UK, the native red squirrel has been replaced by the grey squirrel, a North American species. As well as endangering reds, grey squirrels pose a threat to our woodlands because of the damage they cause to trees. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/jmm/10.1099/jmm.0.001793">New research</a> from my colleagues and I compared the gut bacteria of red and grey squirrels. We found that differences between the two may explain their competition and red squirrel decline, as well as why grey squirrels are so destructive to woodland.</p>
<p>Grey squirrels were introduced to the UK between 1876 and 1929 and have displaced reds in most areas of the UK. Greys carry a virus called “squirrelpox”, which doesn’t affect them but leads to sickness and often death in red squirrels.</p>
<p>Grey squirrels are bigger than red squirrels and compete with them <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2023.1083008/full">for food and habitat</a>.
Acorns, a widespread food source, contain tannins, which are hard for red squirrels to digest. But greys can digest acorns easily, giving them an extra edge in competing for resources. </p>
<p>Grey squirrels frequently strip the bark from deciduous trees. In commercial plantations, the damage can lead to fungal infection and result in the tree producing low quality timber. The annual cost is an <a href="https://rfs.org.uk/insights-publications/rfs-reports/report-overview-the-cost-of-grey-squirrel-damage-to-woodland-in-england-and-wales/">estimated £37 million.</a> with sycamore, oak, birch and beech frequently targeted. </p>
<p>The grey squirrels select the strongest growing trees as these have bark containing the largest volume of sap. Intriguingly, grey squirrels do not select trees with the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230344319_Bark-stripping_by_Grey_squirrels_Sciurus_carolinensis">highest sugar content</a>. This observation has led scientists to posit that the squirrels consume bark to obtain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716300421?via%3Dihub">certain micro-nutrients</a>. </p>
<h2>Gut bacteria</h2>
<p>All mammals have microorganisms living in their intestines. For example, the typical human colon is host to at least <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5847071/">160 bacterial species</a>, while in birds, research has found thousands of different bacterial species in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33868800/">chicken intestines.</a></p>
<p>The bacteria break down foods and help synthesise vitamins, complementing the enzymes secreted by the body. The diversity of these microorganisms, known as the “microbiota”, can reflect the level of health and also the diet of an individual. But we don’t know enough about the microbiota living in squirrel intestines. </p>
<p>The types of microbes present vary between species, yet the extent to which they differ between grey and red squirrels is unclear. We explored this and investigated the potential for any differences to affect competition between the two squirrel species. We also examined whether gut bacteria might be playing a role in bark stripping behaviour.</p>
<p>We sampled bacterial DNA from red and grey squirrel intestinal contents and performed gene sequencing to identify the range of bacteria present in the samples. The results were analysed to compare any important differences between the two.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A cute red squirrels with a large bushy tail stands on the branch of a tree." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576545/original/file-20240219-20-ivfdqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576545/original/file-20240219-20-ivfdqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576545/original/file-20240219-20-ivfdqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576545/original/file-20240219-20-ivfdqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576545/original/file-20240219-20-ivfdqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576545/original/file-20240219-20-ivfdqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576545/original/file-20240219-20-ivfdqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Ynys Môn off the north Wales coast is one of the few places in the UK where greys have been eradicated in favour of red squirrels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/red-squirrel-views-around-north-wales-2232607907">Gail Johnson/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Calcium</h2>
<p>Calcium is an important nutrient in the body and is required for healthy bones, muscles and nerves. It is especially needed by lactating animals and ones that are young and growing.</p>
<p>We found that grey squirrels may have the capacity to obtain the calcium that exists in tree bark thanks to the presence of a bacteria called “oxalobacter” in their gut. The calcium in tree bark comes in an insoluble form and is hard for an animal to digest. But oxalobacter would be able to change this into a form that could be more digestible. </p>
<p>Calcium levels <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716300421?via%3Dihub">increase in trees</a> as active growth resumes after winter dormancy. This happens immediately before the main squirrel bark-stripping season of May to July. Our research may therefore help to explain the destructive behaviour of grey squirrels and why red squirrels appear to strip bark much less frequently.</p>
<p>Our research also identified a significantly higher diversity of bacteria in the intestines of grey squirrels compared to red squirrels. This could hold the key to further understanding why grey squirrels outcompete red squirrels in the UK. </p>
<p>A more diverse range of bacteria being sustained in the gut means that grey squirrels potentially may be able to access a broader range of resources than red squirrels in addition to acorns.</p>
<h2>Adenovirus</h2>
<p>The grey squirrel harbours not just the squirrelpox virus, but also another potential threat – adenovirus. While this virus causes severe intestinal lesions in some red squirrels, curiously, grey squirrels never exhibit the same symptoms.</p>
<p>This discrepancy underscores the fascinating and complex potential role of gut microbiota. Research increasingly reveals their influence on everything from digestion to immune response, and even susceptibility to disease.</p>
<p>In the context of red squirrels, understanding how variations in their gut bacteria might predispose them to adenovirus becomes crucial. This is especially pertinent for captive breeding programs, where adenovirus infections pose a hurdle to successful reintroductions of red squirrels into the wild.</p>
<p>Given we only sampled red and grey squirrels from north Wales, we hope that future studies will map the gut microbiota of other European populations too. Such future research will continue to improve our knowledge of the competition between red and grey squirrels.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223224/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Craig Shuttleworth does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research suggests the gut bacteria of red and grey squirrels differ significantly, potentially explaining the decline of the native red and the success of its grey counterpart.Craig Shuttleworth, Honorary Visiting Research Fellow, Bangor UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2174302024-02-20T13:20:50Z2024-02-20T13:20:50ZCarbon offsets bring new investment to Appalachia’s coal fields, but most Appalachians aren’t benefiting<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571772/original/file-20240128-15-bsgb8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C0%2C1305%2C840&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">For decades, railroad tracks carried coal from eastern Tennessee to power plants in the eastern U.S.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/appvoices/6853913378/in/album-72157629262715216/">Appalachian Voices</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Central Appalachia is home to the <a href="https://ww3.arb.ca.gov/cc/capandtrade/offsets/overview.pdf">third-largest concentration of forest carbon offsets</a> traded on the California carbon market. But while these projects bring new investments to Appalachia, most people in <a href="https://doi-org.utk.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/03066150.2022.2078710">Appalachia are not benefiting</a>.</p>
<p>The effect of this new economic activity is evident in the <a href="https://storymaps.com/stories/2f4984877e0d42cdbc424d107eefc3ba">Clearfork Valley</a>, a forested region of steep hills and meandering creeks on the Kentucky-Tennessee border. </p>
<p>Rural communities here once relied on coal mining jobs. As the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2021.100990">mines shut down</a>, with the last closing <a href="https://opensourcecoal.org/df_coal_production.php">in 2022</a>, the valley was left with thousands of acres of forests and strip-mined land but fewer ways to make a good living.</p>
<p><iframe id="AacNw" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/AacNw/7/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Today, corporate landowners and investment funds have placed most of that forest land into carbon offset projects – valuing the trees for their ability to absorb carbon dioxide emissions to help protect the climate. </p>
<p>These <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/wall-street-firm-makes-a-1-8-billion-bet-on-forest-carbon-offset-11667390624">carbon offset projects can be lucrative</a> for the landowner, with proceeds that can run into the millions of dollars. Companies subject to California’s carbon emissions rules are willing to pay projects like these to essentially <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/our-work/programs/compliance-offset-program">cancel out, or offset</a>, the companies’ carbon emissions. However, my research shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2022.2078710">few local residents</a> are benefiting. </p>
<p>The projects are part of <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/2021-04/losing-ground-final-4-15-21.pdf">a wider</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.12210">growing trend</a> of investor-owners of rural land making money but providing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2017.1328305">little local employment, local investment or community involvement</a> in return.</p>
<h2>Few local jobs, little economic benefit</h2>
<p>The rise of carbon forest offset projects in Appalachia has coincided with the historic decline of the coal economy. </p>
<p>Central Appalachia lost 70% of its coal jobs from 2011 to 2023 as its <a href="https://opensourcecoal.org/df_coal_production.php">coal production fell by 75%</a> in that same period. As corporate landowners looked for new revenue streams, they found a burgeoning forest carbon offset market after California instituted a <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/our-work/programs/cap-and-trade-program/about">forest carbon offset protocol</a> in 2011.</p>
<p>Much of the Clearfork Valley was originally owned by the American Association, a British coal corporation that <a href="https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p009853">accumulated the land in the 1880s</a>. That property passed between other coal companies before NatureVest, a <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/who-we-are/how-we-work/finance-investing/naturevest/">climate change-driven investment firm</a> owned by The Nature Conservancy, created an investment fund to purchase the land in 2019. </p>
<p>The previous owner, a forestland investment company, had established carbon offsets on that land in 2015, making <a href="https://ww3.arb.ca.gov/cc/capandtrade/protocols/usforest/forestprotocol2015.pdf">a 125-year commitment</a> to retain or grow the forest carbon stock. When NatureVest purchased the land in 2019, it generated <a href="https://www.environmental-finance.com/content/awards/sustainable-investment-awards-2020/winners/impact-fund-of-the-year-the-nature-conservancys-sustainable-forestry-fund.html">at least US$20 million in proceeds</a> from the sale of additional offsets. The details of <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/our-work/programs/cap-and-trade-program/program-data/summary-market-transfers-report">such transactions are typically private</a>, but offset sales can be structured in a number of ways. They might be one-time payments for existing credits, for example, or futures contracts for the potential of additional credits.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map shows large areas of forest in several states that are on the carbon market." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571770/original/file-20240128-25-lydydm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571770/original/file-20240128-25-lydydm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571770/original/file-20240128-25-lydydm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571770/original/file-20240128-25-lydydm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571770/original/file-20240128-25-lydydm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571770/original/file-20240128-25-lydydm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571770/original/file-20240128-25-lydydm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Forest carbon offset projects in Central Appalachia that are on the California carbon market. The Clearfork Valley is on the Kentucky-Tennessee border in the lower left.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://webmaps.arb.ca.gov/ARBOCIssuanceMap/">California Air Resources Board, ESRI</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The investment fund is attempting to demonstrate that <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/united-states/kentucky/stories-in-kentucky/cumberland-forest">managing land to help protect the climate</a> can also generate revenue for investors. </p>
<p>In Appalachia, offset projects largely involve “improved forestry management.” These offsets <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16380">pay landowners to sequester</a> carbon in trees – additional to what they would have pulled in without the offset payment – while still allowing them to produce timber for sale. In practice, this often means letting trees stand for <a href="https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/VA-Carbon-Sequestration-Infographic.pdf%22%22">longer rotations before cutting for timber</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-023-00984-2">Recent research</a>, however, indicates that the carbon storage of improved forestry management projects may be getting <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15943">overcounted on the California market</a>, the largest compliance offset market in the Americas. <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/insider-4-reasons-why-jurisdictional-approach-redd-crediting-superior-project-based">Other approaches to carbon offsets</a> could produce better outcomes for people and the climate.</p>
<p>And while the landowners and investors profit, my research, including dozens of interviews with residents, has also found that former mining <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2022.2078710">communities in this valley have seen little return</a>. </p>
<p>The Nature Conservancy has offered <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/priority-landscapes/appalachians/stories/cumberland-forest-community-fund/">support to local communities</a>. But while the organization operates <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/priority-landscapes/appalachians/stories/cumberland-forest-community-fund/">a small grant program</a> from coal mining and gas drilling royalties it receives from the land, the investment in the local economy has been relatively small – <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/priority-landscapes/appalachians/stories/cumberland-forest-community-fund/">roughly $377,000</a> in the three states since 2019. Furthermore, while <a href="https://mtassociation.org/energy/middlesboro-community-center-adds-solar/">some communities have benefited</a>, these investments <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/priority-landscapes/appalachians/stories/cumberland-forest-community-fund/">have largely bypassed</a> struggling former coal communities in the Clearfork Valley in Tennessee. </p>
<p>Looking for other revenue sources on these lands, by 2022, The Nature Conservancy had also leased access to nearly <a href="https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/Cumberland_Forest_2022_Impact_Report.pdf">150,000 acres of its Cumberland Forest Project</a>, including parts of the Clearfork Valley, to state agencies and outdoor recreation groups. As a result, permits and fees are often now required to enter much of the forestland.</p>
<p>As one interviewee told my co-author for our forthcoming book, “For three generations my family has been able to walk and use that land, but now I could be arrested for entering it without a permit.” </p>
<h2>The rise of TIMOs and climate ‘rentierism’</h2>
<p>While a century ago many of the landowners in Appalachia were coal companies and timber companies, today <a href="https://wvpolicy.org/who-owns-west-virginia-in-the-21st-century-2/">they are predominantly</a> <a href="https://doi-org.utk.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/0896920510378764">financialized timber investment management organizations, or TIMOs</a>. TIMOs are financial institutions that manage timberlands to generate returns for institutions, such as endowments and pension funds, and private investors. While NatureVest is more diversified than a TIMO, its timberland investments operate in a similar fashion.</p>
<p>The financial ownership of timberlands is part of the much wider trend of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/SER/mwi008">financialization of the United States economy</a>. Wall Street-based investors have become major owners of all sectors of the U.S. economy since the 1970s, from <a href="https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9781501750083/fields-of-gold/">agriculture</a> and <a href="https://www.scielo.br/j/gp/a/JdQdqWNHdn67pNLCJvkmnFr/?lang=en">manufacturing</a> to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ruso.12210">natural resources</a>.</p>
<p>Financial profits, however, often do not entail job creation or investments in infrastructure in the surrounding communities. Yet the investor-owned timberlands in Central Appalachia do generate <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/wall-street-firm-makes-a-1-8-billion-bet-on-forest-carbon-offset-11667390624">millions of dollars in revenue for their investors</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The hills above a home have been strip mined, where forests once stood." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571771/original/file-20240128-29-8ffil5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571771/original/file-20240128-29-8ffil5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571771/original/file-20240128-29-8ffil5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571771/original/file-20240128-29-8ffil5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571771/original/file-20240128-29-8ffil5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571771/original/file-20240128-29-8ffil5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571771/original/file-20240128-29-8ffil5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Homes below a coal strip mine in Campbell County, Tennessee, home to part of the Clearfork Valley.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/appvoices/7000037829/in/album-72157629262715216/">Appalachian Voices via Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Political economists have diagnosed the trend of falling employment that accompanies increasing economic activity as partially the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/705396">result of growing rentierism</a>.</p>
<p>Rentierism is a term for <a href="https://doi-org.utk.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/0308518X19873007">generating income predominantly from rents</a> as opposed to income from production that employs people. Rural communities have acutely felt the effects of <a href="https://www.versobooks.com/products/871-rentier-capitalism">increasing rentierism in various sectors since the 1970s</a>.</p>
<p>Researchers have noted <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920510378764">growing trends of rentierism in forestland management</a>. Many TIMOs seek new revenue streams from timberlands outside of wood products and timbering, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2017.1328305">such as in conservation easements</a>. As firms such as <a href="https://c3newsmag.com/private-capital-is-funding-conservation-across-the-country/">NatureVest seek to generate income from controlling carbon stocks or conservation resources</a>, there is now a growing climate rentierism.</p>
<h2>Rural resentment and a crisis of democracy</h2>
<p>A robust body of research in <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691191669/the-left-behind">sociology</a> and <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=759xDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT8&ots=yOy_PiDU9P&sig=u67Pv8JrCjPN2c3DaHORhJgVXi4#v=onepage&q&f=false">political science</a> shows how the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2019.10.045">hollowing out of rural North American economies</a> has fed into a kind of <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo22879533.html">rural resentment</a>. Trust in government and democracy is particularly low in rural North America, and not only because of economic woes. As <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300215359/for-profit-democracy/">sociologist Loka Ashwood documents</a>, it is also because many rural residents believe that the government helps corporations profit at the expense of people.</p>
<p>Carbon offsets in Appalachia, unfortunately, fit within these troubling trends. Government regulation in California generates sizable revenue for corporate landowners, while the rural communities see themselves locked out of the economy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217430/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gabe Schwartzman received funding from the National Science Foundation. He is a board member of the Southern Connected Communities Project (SCCP), a non-profit based in East Tennessee, and former board member of Statewide Organizing for Community eMpowerment (SOCM). </span></em></p>Large parts of Appalachia’s forests, once owned by coal companies, now make money for investors by storing carbon. But the results bring few jobs or sizable investments for residents.Gabe Schwartzman, Assistant Professor of Geography and Sustainability, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2221072024-02-13T15:04:44Z2024-02-13T15:04:44Z17 million South Africans live on communal land – new study of a rural valley offers insights on how to manage it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572398/original/file-20240131-19-f7h2o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tyhume Valley in Eastern Cape, South Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wonga Masiza</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Tyhume River, flowing from the forested Amathole Mountains in South Africa’s Eastern Cape province, gives its name to a valley of 20 villages on communal land. Much of the land is being used to keep livestock, as crop production has declined over the years. This land is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264837712001998?via%3Dihub">under the custodianship of traditional leaders</a>.</p>
<p>The valley is typical of South Africa’s communal land: affected by <a href="https://doi.org/10.2989/10220119.2022.2138973">soil erosion</a>, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00207233.2021.1886557">bush encroachment</a> and <a href="http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0301-603X2022000200005">water scarcity</a>. </p>
<p>About one third (over 17 million) of <a href="https://www.parliament.gov.za/storage/app/media/Pages/2017/october/High_Level_Panel/Commissioned_Report_land/Commisioned_Report_on_Tenure_Reform_LARC.pdf">South Africa’s population lives on communal land</a>, which makes up around <a href="https://sarpn.org/documents/d0002695/index.php">13%</a> of all land in the country. The <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201707/40965gen510.pdf">Communal Land Tenure Bill, 2017</a> defines communal land as “owned, occupied or used by members of a community subject to shared rules or norms and customs”. It can also be owned by the state.</p>
<p>This land can benefit rural communities by providing ecosystem goods and services, such as shelter, water, fuelwood, food and cultural amenities. But natural processes and human activity can transform the land. </p>
<p>Unmonitored and poorly managed land changes can trigger soil erosion, overgrazing, loss of biodiversity and water scarcity. In South Africa, communal land is considered to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10260">more degraded than privately owned land</a>. This can negatively affect the livelihoods of people who derive ecosystem services from it.</p>
<p>Common indicators and causes of land degradation are generally understood. But less is known about how people living in communal lands interpret land changes and their impact. It’s unclear what they perceive as land degradation or which kinds of land changes matter most to them. This helps explain the lack of sound policies and practical strategies to rehabilitate land.</p>
<p>Our team of geoinformation scientists at South Africa’s Agricultural Research Council and the University of the Free State carried out <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2023.1205750/full">a study</a> which mapped land use and land cover change in the Tyhume Valley over 30 years. </p>
<p>To understand the extent, causes and impact of communal land change, we analysed a series of historical satellite images from 1989 to 2019 and conducted interviews with locals. Instead of interviewing experts and leaders, the study measured the most common perceptions among community members.</p>
<p>As far as we know, this study is one of the first in South Africa to combine satellite data and local perceptions. This offered a more complete view of communal land change, and valuable insights on its impacts. </p>
<p>We suggested some ways in which this land could be managed better to provide ecosystem services and livelihoods. </p>
<h2>Satellite imagery and community perceptions</h2>
<p>Our study set out to discover whether satellite-measured trends of land use and land cover corresponded with those perceived by the community. We also explored the causes, rate and impact of these trends.</p>
<p>Satellite imagery from 1989 to 2019 revealed increases of the sweet thorn tree (<em>Vachellia karroo</em>) by 25% and the residential area (2.5%). It showed declines of grazing land (18%), cropland (9.6%) and dams (1.1%). </p>
<p>Assisted by 102 long-standing residents, most above 50 years of age, we asked about the causes and impacts of the observed changes. </p>
<p>Most respondents (over 80%) noted the encroachment of the sweet thorn tree on grazing land and abandoned cropland. They said contributing factors were a decrease in fuelwood harvesting due to increased reliance on electricity, the abandonment of cropland (providing habitat for the sweet thorn) and seed dispersal caused by unrestricted movement of animals. Many saw the tree as beneficial because goats like to eat it and it makes good fuel. Others were concerned that this tree was invading productive agricultural land and causing a loss of biodiversity. They mentioned increased scarcity and disappearance of medicinal and culturally significant plants.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/smallholder-crop-farming-is-on-the-decline-in-south-africa-why-it-matters-119333">Smallholder crop farming is on the decline in South Africa. Why it matters</a>
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<p>Most respondents noted a decrease in grazing land, cropland and surface water. As reasons, they cited lack of access control (poor management, allowing bush encroachment), lack of farmer support and equipment, and poor rainfall.</p>
<p>New houses had been erected on grazing land. This was seen as a result of population increase and inward migration. Livestock farmers saw this as a problem because they had to buy fodder or trek their cattle long distances to graze. The population increase also put strain on water resources.</p>
<p>Every village in the area had at least one communal dam that had dried up. Despite 14 years of below-average rainfall and a negative rainfall trend between 1989 and 2019, the trend was not statistically significant. The community perceived that water resources had declined because of overuse and poor maintenance of dams. They said the government no longer desilted community dams, and that the community had abandoned traditional practices such as the maintenance of surface water channels and homestead ponds. </p>
<p>They gave water scarcity as one of the main reasons that croplands had been abandoned.</p>
<p>Most said the communal lands were healthier and offered more resources when areas were fenced off and people had to get permits to use land. Local residents had <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10745-006-9062-9">cut fences</a> to give their animals unlimited access to grazing and water.</p>
<p>Overall, the changes to the Tyhume Valley environment were not positive. The respondents said the decline in agricultural activity had resulted in increased unemployment and consumption of unhealthy food.</p>
<p>Similar changes have been reported on <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057070.2014.943525">many other communal lands</a>.</p>
<h2>Better land management</h2>
<p>The land can be better managed through interventions by village committees, tribal authorities and extension services, and by following spatial planning and land use guidelines.</p>
<p>The sweet thorn can be controlled by stocking more browsing animals. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2989/10220119.2016.1178172">Studies</a> have demonstrated that this plant has a high nutritive value.</p>
<p>The community, with help from the government, needs to reinstate water harvesting practices and the regular desilting of dams. Other communal <a href="https://www.drdar.gov.za/restoreddamsreducelivestockmortality/">dam restoration projects</a> in the Eastern Cape have succeeded by dredging and augmentation of stock dams.</p>
<p>This study shows that the combination of <a href="https://theconversation.com/technique-developed-in-kenya-offers-a-refined-way-to-map-tree-cover-76709">satellite imagery</a> and local perceptions provides valuable insights about the extent, causes and impacts of land change in communal areas.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222107/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wonga Masiza receives funding from Agricultural Research Council.</span></em></p>Satellite images and community perceptions combine to give a fuller picture of land use changes.Wonga Masiza, Researcher, Agricultural Research CouncilLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2220302024-02-07T17:30:31Z2024-02-07T17:30:31ZTrees can make farms more sustainable – here’s how to help farmers plant more<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574054/original/file-20240207-16-9k2z5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5760%2C3837&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tree-field-565422556">Allgord/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine making one change to a farm field so that as well as producing food, it also generated building materials, fuel and fodder. At the same time, this change would nourish the health of the soil, regulate the micro-climate and support pest-controlling wildlife. In fact, it could even produce a whole other crop.</p>
<p>All these things could be possible by simply planting trees amid crops – and not just trees, but also shrubs, palms and bamboo. </p>
<p>This approach to farming is known as agroforestry, and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-023-01810-5">experts believe</a> it could improve the sustainability of agriculture worldwide. On a large scale, it could help mitigate climate change by <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-023-01810-5">storing more carbon</a> in land that can still serve other purposes. Countries can even <a href="https://cgspace.cgiar.org/items/11af0804-3829-417c-9735-b72fdf45c89b">count trees planted on farmland</a> towards their reforestation commitments. </p>
<p>There is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378022001297">a lot of scope</a> for planting trees on farms in south Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. But a lot of these plots <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/11/12/124010/meta">are small</a> – on average, less than 2 hectares (or two football fields). Any use of space has to really earn it.</p>
<p>So, how do we ensure trees work for farmers and the planet? India, where the last two decades have seen phenomenal changes in agroforestry, offers some insight. </p>
<h2>India’s agroforestry experiment</h2>
<p>India’s first effort to get more trees on farms started in 1999 with the Lok Vaniki scheme in Madhya Pradesh, a state in central India. The state government started the scheme to help farmers with degraded land secure additional income from timber and provided them with saplings of teak.</p>
<p>The scheme had a troubled start. The Indian supreme court had banned all tree felling except that permitted under the forest working plan three years earlier. Before farmers could sell the timber they grew, their request to fell the tree would need to be approved by the government. </p>
<p>Farmers were apprehensive about planting something they may not get permission to harvest, and teak trees take 20 years to yield timber. A cumbersome process for obtaining permits and high transport costs for small and marginal farmers scuppered the scheme. </p>
<p>The state responded by exempting certain trees from felling regulations. By 2014, India had a national agroforestry policy that offered farmers saplings and simpler procedures for harvesting and transporting trees. Still, the tree cover on farms didn’t budge. In fact, the last decade has seen <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/373888557_Severe_decline_in_large_agroforestry_trees_in_India_over_the_past_decade">a severe decline</a> in trees on farms in India, according to a study I contributed to. </p>
<p>The decline was pronounced among mature trees. Once these gnarled veterans had shaded open wells on farms and kept water from evaporating in the sun’s glare. Now deeper bore wells could be dug, rendering such trees obsolete. </p>
<p>The expansion of mechanised farming put a premium on treeless fields where tractors and farm vehicles could easily manoeuvre. Attacks by fungal parasites claimed other trees. </p>
<p>Some farmers were unsentimental. In interviews, many said they saw few benefits from trees, which could prevent sunlight from reaching crops. But the decline of native trees on farms like neem, mahua and jamun, once prized for their medicinal oils and nutritious fruit, <a href="https://www.cell.com/one-earth/pdf/S2590-3322(22)00581-4.pdf">threatened rural diets</a>, particularly in the poorest regions. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A farm field with scattered trees." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574044/original/file-20240207-18-g80oer.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574044/original/file-20240207-18-g80oer.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574044/original/file-20240207-18-g80oer.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574044/original/file-20240207-18-g80oer.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574044/original/file-20240207-18-g80oer.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574044/original/file-20240207-18-g80oer.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574044/original/file-20240207-18-g80oer.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Native trees can be useful sources of medicine and food.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sandip Chowdhury</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Trees on farms, not tree farms</h2>
<p>While farmland trees dwindled across India, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-00904-w">block plantations expanded</a>. These are essentially farms growing <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-00904-w">nothing but trees</a>. </p>
<p>These plantations largely comprise exotic and fast-growing trees like eucalyptus, poplar and casuarina, which are all exempt from felling regulations. Enticed by the prospect of generating carbon credits on the international carbon market, and by demand for pulpwood for making paper, farmers with some of the smallest plots in India tried switching their crops to block plantations.</p>
<p>When the price of carbon credits dropped with the <a href="https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/collapse-clean-development-mechanism-scheme-under-kyoto-protocol-and-its-spillover">collapse</a> of the UN’s clean development mechanism in 2012, these small farmers were left with little to show for it. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837719317272#bib0185">A study</a> later confirmed that many would have been better off keeping their land for agriculture. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Rows of spindly trees with white bark." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574045/original/file-20240207-16-r6tsf8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574045/original/file-20240207-16-r6tsf8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574045/original/file-20240207-16-r6tsf8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574045/original/file-20240207-16-r6tsf8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574045/original/file-20240207-16-r6tsf8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574045/original/file-20240207-16-r6tsf8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574045/original/file-20240207-16-r6tsf8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A plantation of eucalyptus trees.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sandip Chowdhury</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although there is <a href="https://teaknet.org/download/IndiaTimber%2520Supply%2520and%2520Demand%25202010%25E2%2580%25932030.pdf">increasing demand</a> for pulpwood and timber in India, it is likely to favour farmers who can plant in large areas, cover harvest and transit costs, and wait for returns from plantations – a situation small and marginal farmers can ill afford. </p>
<p>These exotic plantations are <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Getachew-Kassa-4/publication/340663658_ECOLOGICAL_AND_SOCIAL_IMPACTS_OF_EUCALYPTUS_TREE_PLANTATION_ON_THE_ENVIRONMENT/links/5e97f8214585150839e02fa8/ECOLOGICAL-AND-SOCIAL-IMPACTS-OF-EUCALYPTUS-TREE-PLANTATION-ON-THE-ENVIRONMENT.pdf">no boon for the environment</a> either. For instance, eucalyptus consumes a lot of water and soil nutrients, leaving the land less fertile for future cultivation. Its leaves and flowers are less useful to birds than many native trees. </p>
<p>There is a rush globally to plant more trees on farms without considering what farmers will do with the tree in 20 years, or how it may interfere with crop production. This problem is not unique to India and has been noted elsewhere, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989421000640">including Kenya</a>. </p>
<p>Trees should still be encouraged on farms; preferably native trees that are beneficial for local diets and medicine. So far, though, the trend in India and elsewhere has been towards block plantations of exotic trees – a phenomenon largely driven by the lure of carbon credits.</p>
<p>The focus should be on supporting small and marginal farmers to grow native trees sustainably. Scattered trees of many species on small farms have bigger benefits for farmers and the environment than single-species plantations. </p>
<p>For that to happen, though, there has to be some way of financing this process. If carbon credit mechanisms can recognise this model of agroforestry and help small farmers add trees to their cropland, it would be a big shift in the right direction.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dhanapal Govindarajulu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Incentives have so far benefited large landowners and created lifeless plantations.Dhanapal Govindarajulu, Postgraduate Researcher, Global Development Institute, University of ManchesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2207712024-01-19T13:40:44Z2024-01-19T13:40:44ZOld forests are critically important for slowing climate change and merit immediate protection from logging<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570228/original/file-20240118-23-ojgpd7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C13%2C2323%2C1893&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An old-growth forest of noble fir trees at Marys Peak in Oregon's Coast Range.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Beverly Law</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Forests are an essential part of Earth’s operating system. They reduce the buildup of heat-trapping carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from fossil fuel combustion, deforestation and land degradation <a href="https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/15/5301/2023">by 30% each year</a>. This slows global temperature increases and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-4811-2022">resulting changes to the climate</a>. In the U.S., forests take up <a href="https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2023-04/US-GHG-Inventory-2023-Main-Text.pdf">12% of the nation’s greenhouse gas emissions annually</a> and store the carbon long term in trees and soils.</p>
<p>Mature and old-growth forests, with larger trees than younger forests, play an outsized role in accumulating carbon and <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/mature-and-old-growth-forests-tech.pdf">keeping it out of the atmosphere</a>. These forests are especially <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/mature-and-old-growth-forests-tech.pdf">resistant to wildfires and other natural disturbances</a> as the climate warms.</p>
<p>Most forests in the continental U.S. have been harvested multiple times. Today, just 3.9% of timberlands across the U.S., in public and private hands, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2737/WO-GTR-97">are over 100 years old</a>, and most of these areas hold relatively little carbon compared with their potential. </p>
<p>The Biden administration is moving to <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2022/04/27/2022-09138/strengthening-the-nations-forests-communities-and-local-economies">improve protection for old-growth and mature forests</a> on federal land, which we see as a welcome step. But this involves regulatory changes that will likely take several years to complete. Meanwhile, existing forest management plans that allow logging of these important old, large trees remain in place.</p>
<p>As scientists who have spent decades studying <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=J2KWqAoAAAAJ&hl=en">forest ecosystems</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/William-Moomaw">the effects of climate change</a>, we believe that it is essential to start protecting carbon storage in these forests. In our view, there is ample scientific evidence to justify an immediate moratorium on logging mature and old-growth forests on federal lands. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Remote sensing data from space is a new tool for estimating forest growth and density.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Federal action to protect mature and old-growth forests</h2>
<p>A week after his inauguration in 2021, President Joe Biden issued an executive order that set a goal of <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/01/27/executive-order-on-tackling-the-climate-crisis-at-home-and-abroad/">conserving at least 30%</a> of U.S. lands and waters by 2030 to address what the order called “a profound climate crisis.” In 2022, Biden recognized the climate importance of mature and old-growth forests for a healthy climate and <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2022/04/27/2022-09138/strengthening-the-nations-forests-communities-and-local-economies">called for conserving them</a> on federal lands.</p>
<p>Most recently, in December 2023, the U.S. Forest Service announced that it was <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/12/20/2023-27875/land-management-plan-direction-for-old-growth-forest-conditions-across-the-national-forest-system">evaluating the effects</a> of amending management plans for 128 U.S. national forests to better protect mature and old-growth stands – the first time any administration has taken this kind of action. </p>
<p>These actions seek to make existing old-growth forests more resilient; preserve ecological benefits that they provide, such as habitat for threatened and endangered species; establish new areas where <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/mature-and-old-growth-forests-tech.pdf">old-growth conditions</a> can develop; and monitor the forests’ condition over time. The amended national forest management plans also would prohibit logging old-growth trees for mainly economic purposes – that is, producing timber. Harvesting trees would be permitted for other reasons, such as thinning to reduce fire severity in hot, dry regions where fires occur more frequently. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570231/original/file-20240118-24-xa1x8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman rests her hand on the trunk of an enormous tree, looking up toward its crown." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570231/original/file-20240118-24-xa1x8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570231/original/file-20240118-24-xa1x8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570231/original/file-20240118-24-xa1x8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570231/original/file-20240118-24-xa1x8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570231/original/file-20240118-24-xa1x8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570231/original/file-20240118-24-xa1x8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570231/original/file-20240118-24-xa1x8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Forest biologist Beverly Law with an old-growth Douglas fir in Corvallis, Oregon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Beverly Law</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Remarkably, however, logging is hardly considered in the Forest Service’s <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/mature-and-old-growth-forests-tech.pdf">initial analysis</a>, although studies show that it causes greater carbon losses than wildfires and pest infestations. </p>
<p>In one analysis across 11 western U.S. states, researchers calculated total aboveground tree carbon loss from logging, beetle infestations and fire between 2003 and 2012 and found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-021-00326-0">logging accounted for half of it</a>. Across the states of California, Oregon and Washington, harvest-related carbon emissions between 2001 and 2016 averaged <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab28bb">five times the emissions</a> from wildfires.</p>
<p>A 2016 study found that nationwide, between 2006 and 2010, total carbon emissions from logging were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13021-016-0066-5">comparable to emissions from all U.S. coal plants</a>, or to direct emissions from the entire building sector. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569933/original/file-20240117-19-wsd8su.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up of a furry animal with small rounded ears" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569933/original/file-20240117-19-wsd8su.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569933/original/file-20240117-19-wsd8su.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569933/original/file-20240117-19-wsd8su.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569933/original/file-20240117-19-wsd8su.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569933/original/file-20240117-19-wsd8su.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569933/original/file-20240117-19-wsd8su.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569933/original/file-20240117-19-wsd8su.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Pacific fishers (<em>Pekania pennanti</em>) are small carnivores related to minks and otters. They live in forests with large, mixed-tree canopy covers, mainly on federal land on the West Coast. A subpopulation in the southern Sierra Nevada is listed as endangered.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/9PufBo">Pacific Southwest Forest Service, USDA/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<h2>Logging pressure</h2>
<p>Federal lands are used for multiple purposes, including biodiversity and water quality protection, recreation, mining, grazing and timber production. Sometimes, these uses can conflict with one another – for example, <a href="https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R43429">conservation and logging.</a>.</p>
<p>Legal mandates to manage land for multiple uses do not explicitly consider climate change, and federal agencies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.3286">have not consistently factored climate change science</a> into their plans. Early in 2023, however, the White House <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/ceq/">Council on Environmental Quality</a> directed federal agencies to consider the effects of climate change when they <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/01/09/2023-00158/national-environmental-policy-act-guidance-on-consideration-of-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-climate">propose major federal actions</a> that significantly affect the environment. </p>
<p>Multiple large logging projects on public land clearly qualify as major federal actions, but many thousands of acres have been <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/36/220.6">legally exempted</a> from such analysis. </p>
<p>Across the western U.S., <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-021-00326-0">just 20% of relatively high-carbon forests</a>, mostly on federal lands, are protected from logging and mining. A study in the lower 48 states found that 76% of mature and old-growth forests on federal lands <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2022.979528">are vulnerable to logging</a>. Harvesting these forests would release about <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/land11050721">half of their aboveground tree carbon</a> into the atmosphere within one or two decades. </p>
<p>An analysis of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2023AV000965">152 national forests</a> across North America found that five forests in the Pacific Northwest had the highest carbon densities, but just 10% to 20% of these lands were protected at the highest levels. The majority of national forest area that is mature and old growth is not protected from logging, and <a href="https://www.climate-forests.org/worth-more-standing">current management plans</a> include logging of some of the largest trees still standing. </p>
<h2>Letting old trees grow</h2>
<p>Conserving forests is one of the most effective and lowest-cost options for managing atmospheric carbon dioxide, and mature and old-growth forests do this job most effectively. Protecting and expanding them does not require expensive or complex energy-consuming technologies, unlike some other <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-oil-industrys-pivot-to-carbon-capture-and-storage-while-it-keeps-on-drilling-isnt-a-climate-change-solution-171791">proposed climate solutions</a>.</p>
<p>Allowing mature and old-growth forests to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2019.00027">continue growing</a> will remove from the air and store the largest amount of atmospheric carbon in the critical decades ahead. The sooner logging of these forests ceases, the more climate protection they can provide.</p>
<p><em><a href="https://www.woodwellclimate.org/staff/richard-birdsey/">Richard Birdsey</a>, a former U.S. Forest Service carbon and climate scientist and current senior scientist at the Woodwell Climate Research Center, contributed to this article.</em></p>
<p><em>This is an update of <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-biden-administration-has-called-for-protecting-mature-us-forests-to-slow-climate-change-but-its-still-allowing-them-to-be-logged-199845">an article</a> originally published on March 2, 2023.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220771/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Beverly Law receives funding from the Conservation Biology Institute. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Moomaw receives funding from the Rockefeller Brothers Fund.
</span></em></p>President Biden has called for protecting large, old trees from logging, but many of them could be cut while the regulatory process grinds forward.Beverly Law, Professor Emeritus of Global Change Biology and Terrestrial Systems Science, Oregon State UniversityWilliam Moomaw, Professor Emeritus of International Environmental Policy, Tufts UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2189012024-01-03T13:43:07Z2024-01-03T13:43:07ZCoast redwood trees are enduring, adaptable marvels in a warming world<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566348/original/file-20231218-29-3j3gwj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5000%2C3742&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Looking up toward redwoods' crowns in Redwood Regional Park, Oakland, Calif.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/view-up-the-trunks-of-large-redwood-trees-in-a-grove-at-news-photo/1368056629">Gado/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Coast redwoods – enormous, spectacular trees, some reaching nearly 400 feet, the tallest plants on the planet – thrive mostly in a narrow strip of land in the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/coast-redwood.htm">Pacific Northwest of the United States</a>. Most of them grow from southern Oregon down into northern California, snugged up against the rugged Pacific coast. </p>
<p>They have grown by slowly responding to moisture and rich alluvial soil over millennia, combined with a genetic payload that pushes them to the upper limits of tree height. They are at risk – down to perhaps 70,000 individuals, falling from at least a half-million trees before humans arrived – but that’s not a new story, for we are all at risk. </p>
<p>Redwoods, like all trees, are engineered marvels. People don’t tend to think of natural things as “structures,” leaving that term to stand in for buildings, bridges and dams. But although trees were not built by humans, they didn’t just happen. They have come into their own through the inexorably turning wheels of natural selection and evolution, responding to environmental pressures, genetic drift and mutation. </p>
<p>They even have <a href="https://theconversation.com/redwood-trees-have-two-types-of-leaves-scientists-find-a-trait-that-could-help-them-survive-in-a-changing-climate-179812">two kinds of leaves</a> that help the trees adapt to both wet and dry conditions. They are born to change, just as humans are born to change.</p>
<p>Evolution is usually a very slow process, although sometimes it’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.15583">surprisingly quick</a>. New, intense pressures of a warming and changing climate are speeding things up. </p>
<p>I teach environmental humanities and history courses at Caltech and work as a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=gXSGq_4AAAAJ&hl=en">senior curator</a> at <a href="https://huntington.org">The Huntington</a> – a research institution in nearby San Marino. It includes one of the world’s most renowned botanical gardens, comprising more than 130 acres and visited by over a million people annually. </p>
<p>Researchers and horticulturists at the botanical gardens are thinking about trees, and how to integrate them into larger landscapes, in new ways. Our approach to climate change resilience, our increased reliance on technologies like geographic information systems, and our new engagements with local communities all continue to shape our attitudes about trees. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The nonprofit Archangel Tree Archive in Michigan is cloning iconic old-growth tree species, including redwoods and giant sequoias, to create a genetic archive and provide new trees for planting.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Redwood communities</h2>
<p>There are differences as well as similarities between human-made edifices and trees. A structure or building typically is a sort of island unto itself, separate from its neighbors; in contrast, the coast redwood is an ecosystem with enormously broad consequences for other life forms.</p>
<p>Life is folded in and among the redwoods, below and within and about them. The trees are integrators, bringing together many life forms. Some of these life forms rely on the tree; others on occupants in and around the tree. </p>
<p>The coast redwood hosts so many different ecological interactions that it’s faintly ridiculous. Consider <a href="https://californiaherps.com/salamanders/pages/a.vagrans.html"><em>Aneides vagrans</em>, the wandering salamander</a>, which usually spends its entire life high in the canopy, but sometimes must jump out to escape predators. Without wings or gliding, it falls for as long as two full minutes, only to land perfectly unharmed on the ground.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tbLFbyjVLYY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">High-speed video shows that ground-dwelling salamanders seem helpless during freefall in a vertical wind tunnel, while arboreal salamanders maneuver confidently. This suggests that the tree-dwellers have adapted to routine falls, and perhaps use falling as a way to quickly move around in tree canopies.</span></figcaption>
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<p>It took scientists dropping these creatures into a wind tunnel and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.04.033">filming them with high-speed cameras</a> to understand why they didn’t end up as a wet splat on the forest floor. As it turns out, the salamander’s body shape does the work, with a torso that’s just sufficiently flattened, and large feet with long toes, that create just enough drag and balance for a soft landing.</p>
<p>Redwoods are so large that one reportedly was found to house a <a href="https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag_654/volume_1/picea/sitchensis.htm">Sitka spruce (<em>Picea sitchensis</em>)</a>, 8 feet tall, <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/02/14/climbing-the-redwoods">growing far off the ground</a> within the larger tree. Redwoods also have served for millennia as nesting habitat for huge <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/California_Condor/overview#">California condors (<em>Gymnogyps californianus</em>)</a>, whose wingspan is nearly 10 feet. A big bird needs a big home. </p>
<p>There’s also a place for the tiny, living side by side with all of the largeness tucked in the complex, secret interstices of these trees. Nestled into extensive <a href="https://www.savetheredwoods.org/blog/fern-mats-create-entire-ecosystems-high-in-the-redwood-canopy/">mats of ferns</a> that grow high up in redwood canopies, researchers find <a href="https://www.savetheredwoods.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf_camann.pdf">aquatic crustaceans called copepods</a> that normally would live in larger bodies of water. No one knows how they got into the trees, but the fern mats trap enormous quantities of moisture from rain and fog, creating wetlands in the sky. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CHJCb4xjSHM/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Enduring but not static</h2>
<p>Even species as enduring as coast redwoods are <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/coast-redwoods-v-climate-change.htm">affected by climate change</a>. Diminished moisture stresses the trees, making them grow with less vigor. New fire dangers put them at risk, and more frequent floods erode the big trees’ footing. But redwoods also are adapting.</p>
<p>A 2018 survey of nine large redwood trees found a total of 137 species of lichen growing on the trees, including several that were new to science. One was <a href="https://doi.org/10.3897/mycokeys.30.22271"><em>Xylopsora canopeorum</em></a>, whose specific name celebrates the canopy where it was discovered. </p>
<p>This lichen seems to be unique to the warmer and drier forests in California’s Sonoma and Santa Cruz counties, in the southern part of coast redwoods’ range. This is an exciting finding, for it provides evidence that new forms of life – ecosystem partners – may be evolving in sync with trees that are also evolving in the face of climate change. </p>
<p>Scientists are finding more new organic redwood partners every year. Since these trees are so networked and interconnected, the sum is greater than its parts and isn’t easy to quantify. </p>
<p>As I write in my forthcoming book, “<a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Twelve-Trees/Daniel-Lewis/9781982164058">Twelve Trees: The Deep Roots of Our Future</a>,” there’s something congregational about the redwoods in their groves, like “a group of worshippers, petitioners standing solemnly, upright before an even higher power than themselves: the calculus of wind, rain, sun, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and time.” Experiencing them stimulates one’s senses with scent, sight and sound, along with a tincture of the most essential ingredient of all – memory. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566355/original/file-20231218-29-c631u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A dirt trail runs past redwoods toward a fogged-in vista." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566355/original/file-20231218-29-c631u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566355/original/file-20231218-29-c631u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566355/original/file-20231218-29-c631u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566355/original/file-20231218-29-c631u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566355/original/file-20231218-29-c631u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566355/original/file-20231218-29-c631u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566355/original/file-20231218-29-c631u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Fog moves into the Purisima Creek Redwoods Open Space Preserve south of San Francisco. Redwoods obtain a large share of their water supply from fog.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/UbmKk4">Justin Dolske/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<h2>New territory</h2>
<p>A pair of redwoods grow just outside my office at the Huntington, which is some 700 miles south of the coast redwood’s usual range. I’ve resisted giving names to this duo, although many giant redwoods have monikers like Adventure, Brutus, Nugget, Paradox and Atlas – most named by the scientists who first quantified their extreme heights.</p>
<p>The redwoods outside my window are perhaps 100 feet tall – puny by comparison to their northern brethren. But they are healthy, and will continue to be shaped by their immediate environments. They’ve traveled far to get to here, planted more than a half-century ago by an earlier generation of horticulturalists, and they’re thriving in their new home. We should all be so lucky.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218901/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Lewis does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Redwoods grow in networks that house unique communities of plants and animals high in the air. They offer life lessons about adapting over time.Daniel Lewis, Lecturer in History, California Institute of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2169762023-12-18T13:22:49Z2023-12-18T13:22:49ZMore vulnerable people live in Philadelphia neighborhoods that are less green and get hotter<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565904/original/file-20231214-19-w5rupe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C5192%2C3448&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Philadelphia's neighborhoods are green and not so green.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/neighborhoods-in-philadelphia-pennsylvania-news-photo/1465662088">Marli Miller/UCG/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The ways an urban neighborhood is built and the characteristics of the people who live there are both related to how hot it gets. That is the result of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13041040">our study</a>, published by the Journal of Buildings.</p>
<p>If you have ever noticed that some parts of a city feel significantly hotter than others, you have experienced a phenomenon known as the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/heatislands/learn-about-heat-islands">urban heat island effect</a>. This effect is most noticeable at night and when comparing rural and suburban surroundings with urban ones.</p>
<h2>How we did our work</h2>
<p>Our interdisciplinary group of researchers studied two Philadelphia census tracts and found a clear link between outdoor temperature and specific urban characteristics. We then asked whether these urban characteristics can be related to the social vulnerability of the residents.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/placeandhealth/svi/index.html">Social vulnerability</a> is a concept that goes beyond the residents’ income to include housing conditions and characteristics of the people – such as their age, education, disability and race. Our social vulnerability index data was created using 16 U.S. census variables. </p>
<p>The design elements of cities, from the materials used for streets and sidewalks to the size and placement of buildings, significantly affect urban heat. To gain a deeper understanding of these impacts, we conducted computer simulations of outdoor air temperature and comfort levels in two Philadelphia census tracts with distinct indices for social vulnerability, one in Roxborough and the other in South Philadelphia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565897/original/file-20231214-25-er8a2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C25%2C1030%2C1359&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two photos are inset on a map of Philadelphia. On the top left is a green neighbor with a wide street with parked cars. The lower photo shows brick townhouses set on a narrower street." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565897/original/file-20231214-25-er8a2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C25%2C1030%2C1359&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565897/original/file-20231214-25-er8a2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565897/original/file-20231214-25-er8a2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565897/original/file-20231214-25-er8a2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565897/original/file-20231214-25-er8a2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=987&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565897/original/file-20231214-25-er8a2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=987&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565897/original/file-20231214-25-er8a2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=987&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The two tracts studied included one, top left, with a low vulnerability index and another with a high vulnerability index. The census tract boundaries are shown in red.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<p>The social vulnerability index shows a number from 0 to 1, with higher numbers meaning more vulnerable. Our neighborhood in Roxborough had a number of 0.25. In South Philadelphia, the number was 0.98.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566090/original/file-20231215-29-8i1ek9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Farzad Hashemi" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566090/original/file-20231215-29-8i1ek9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566090/original/file-20231215-29-8i1ek9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566090/original/file-20231215-29-8i1ek9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566090/original/file-20231215-29-8i1ek9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566090/original/file-20231215-29-8i1ek9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566090/original/file-20231215-29-8i1ek9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566090/original/file-20231215-29-8i1ek9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The social vulnerability of different Philadelphia neighborhoods.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Using the open-source <a href="https://www.esri.com/en-us/what-is-gis/overview">geographic information system</a>, or GIS, that analyzes maps, along with a microclimate simulation tool, we found that the South Philadelphia neighborhood had more absorbing surfaces such as concrete. Greenery, including trees and grass, was notably lacking in this neighborhood compared with Roxborough. The characteristics contributed to elevated levels of heat and consequently higher reported levels of discomfort in this neighborhood.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-05/documents/reducing_urban_heat_islands_ch_2.pdf">Trees are superheroes</a> for cooling down urban areas. Tree crowns block the Sun’s rays and provide shade. In addition, they <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/evapotranspiration-and-water-cycle">release moisture through evapotranspiration</a> – cooling the surroundings even more. </p>
<p>Our study found that during hot and extremely hot conditions, areas with more trees had up to 1.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 degrees Fahrenheit) lower outdoor air temperatures compared with less green areas. Therefore, fewer trees and more paved surfaces, associated with the high social vulnerability neighborhood, meant higher heat exposure and less outdoor comfort for residents.</p>
<p>Similar results were found in 2021 by <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041706">researchers at Guangxi University</a> in China who investigated solar radiation reduction using favorable design factors on an urban block in the city of Nanning.</p>
<p>In addition to material surfaces and vegetation, our study delved into other urban characteristics that can affect heat. One such aspect is the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1350482704001288">sky view factor</a>, which measures the amount of sky visible from the ground. In areas with more sky exposure, we observed increased heat. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0088(199907)19:9%3C1011::AID-JOC411%3E3.0.CO;2-U">ratio between the building height and street width</a> also plays a critical role. This ratio determines how much shade is provided by buildings, with taller buildings and narrower streets offering more shade and cooler temperatures. However, the two Philadelphia neighborhoods were influenced by unique street layouts and architectural designs regardless of their socioeconomic status. The census tract we studied in South Philadelphia features low-rise brick townhouses common in the city. In Roxborough, the neighborhood is more suburban, with detached single-family houses with pitched roofs and front lawns.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Our findings from Philadelphia show that urban design, material choices and tree coverage significantly affect how warm or cool an area feels. </p>
<p>This suggests that thoughtful planning and incorporating more greenery can make urban areas more livable and equitable. Architects can help by using lighter-colored materials and green walls and roofs.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216976/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Guangqing Chi receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa D. Iulo receives funding from U.S. Department of Energy. <a href="https://ess.science.energy.gov/urban-ifls/bsec-uifl/">https://ess.science.energy.gov/urban-ifls/bsec-uifl/</a>
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Farzad Hashemi and Ute Poerschke do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An interdisciplinary group of researchers at Penn State ran computer models on two Philadelphia census tracts. The neighborhood with more vulnerable residents was also hotter.Farzad Hashemi, Assistant Professor in Architecture, The University of Texas at San AntonioGuangqing Chi, Professor of Rural Sociology and Demography, Penn StateLisa D. Iulo, Associate Professor of Architecture, Director of the Hamer Center for Community Design, Penn StateUte Poerschke, Professor of Architecture, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2173512023-12-17T13:41:42Z2023-12-17T13:41:42ZIf a tree burns in Canada’s unmanaged forest, does anyone count the carbon?<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/if-a-tree-burns-in-canadas-unmanaged-forest-does-anyone-count-the-carbon" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Earlier this fall, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-01005-y">a commentary</a> in the journal <em>Nature Communications, Earth & Environment</em> argued for a change to the implementation of the Paris Agreement’s reporting mechanisms. The authors called for all countries to report carbon emissions and removals taking place across their <em>entire</em> territories, not just <a href="https://natural-resources.canada.ca/climate-change-adapting-impacts-and-reducing-emissions/climate-change-impacts-forests/carbon-accounting/inventory-and-land-use-change/13111">within so-called “managed” lands</a> (as is presently the case).</p>
<p>However, this poses a challenge here in Canada, as there is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2013-0041">deep uncertainty about the total carbon flux (balance of emissions and captures) in Canada’s “unmanaged” land</a>. </p>
<p>I echo calls for the Government of Canada to scale up and improve its greenhouse gas (GHG) monitoring <a href="https://gml.noaa.gov/annualconference/abs.php?refnum=50-230424-C">and modelling across Canada’s <em>entire</em> territory</a>, and to report these findings in a much more open and transparent manner as part of its annual National GHG Inventory. </p>
<h2>Differentiating between managed and unmanaged land</h2>
<p>Under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, member countries are expected to <a href="https://unfccc.int/topics/land-use/workstreams/land-use--land-use-change-and-forestry-lulucf/reporting-of-the-lulucf-sector-by-parties-included-in-annex-i-to-the-convention">report GHG emissions and removals</a> taking place as a result of human activities. However, within the LULUCF (or Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry) sector, it is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0283-x">not always clear what constitutes an <em>anthropogenic</em> influence</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/GPG_LULUCF_FULLEN.pdf">guidance provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> has been to delineate between “managed” and “unmanaged” lands, and to focus GHG reporting on the former since these are areas under substantive human influence. While a number of countries make use of this distinction, the portion of land in Canada that is unmanaged is truly significant — <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13021-018-0095-3">equivalent to about 69 per cent of the country’s total land area</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.506002/publication.html">Canada’s National GHG Inventory</a> does contain information about the carbon flux within managed lands, or lands comprised mostly of managed forest. There is currently around 232 million hectares of managed forest in Canada, however, this leaves roughly 715 million hectares of land in Canada which is technically unmanaged — all of which are unaccounted for in the National GHG Inventory.</p>
<p>What’s more, while Canada does track emissions from natural disturbances (such as in a forest fire) occurring in managed areas, it does not actually report these disturbances to the UN as part of its LULUCF emissions, <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/land-based-greenhouse-gas-emissions-removals.html">based on the claim that these are not anthropogenic</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/quebecs-hardwood-trees-could-move-north-heres-how-that-could-affect-the-boreal-forest-landscape-218397">Québec's hardwood trees could move north. Here's how that could affect the boreal forest landscape</a>
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<p>While there is a logic to separating these out, there is a substantial difference to Canada’s total LULUCF emissions, depending on whether or not they are included. For instance, if natural disturbances are included in the tally, Canada’s managed land is typically a net <em>source</em> of carbon, while if they are not included, Canada’s managed land is <a href="https://natural-resources.canada.ca/our-natural-resources/forests/state-canadas-forests-report/16496">typically a net carbon sink</a>.</p>
<p>The underlying problem, however, is the lack of clear and transparent information about GHG emissions and removals in Canada’s unmanaged lands. </p>
<h2>Estimates vary widely</h2>
<p>Earlier this summer, during Canada’s <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/climate/wildfire-season-2023-wrap-1.6999005">unprecedented wildfire season</a>, I asked the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources of Canada (NRCAN) for historical information about the net Carbon flux in unmanaged lands. I was surprised to learn that NRCAN does not yet have this data. </p>
<p>What NRCAN does have is a <a href="https://natural-resources.canada.ca/climate-change/climate-change-impacts-forests/carbon-accounting/carbon-budget-model/13107">very robust carbon budget modelling tool</a>, and thanks to this, some preliminary (unverified) estimates of wildfire emissions in unmanaged forests.</p>
<p>Wildfire emissions estimates for unmanaged forests are indeed a step in the right direction (as wildfires account for the bulk of emissions from natural disturbances), but there still remains a majority of unmanaged land which is not forested — including, for instance, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145212">vast peatlands which are also subject to wildfires</a>. </p>
<p>No GHG emissions of any type occurring in unmanaged lands are currently being tracked or reported within the National GHG Inventory process.</p>
<p>There have been various efforts to quantify these emissions, yet estimates vary considerably, with some data sets limited to forest lands, and others looking at the full national territory. </p>
<p><a href="https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/15/1093/2023/essd-15-1093-2023.pdf">One recent estimate</a> used 16 different “Dynamic Global Vegetation Models,” and found that over the 20-year period from 2000-2020 unmanaged forests sequestered on average about 189 Megaton CO2 per year. </p>
<p>However, the <a href="https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/14/4811/2022/">Global Carbon Project’s estimates of “atmospheric inversions”</a> suggests there may be orders of magnitude more carbon removal in Canada’s unmanaged land.</p>
<p>The size of the discrepancy between these estimates is puzzling. While one obvious explanation comes down to the former model using intact forests as a proxy for unmanaged land, and the latter model including all of Canada’s unmanaged land area, <a href="https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/15/963/2023/">scientists believe there may be more to this discrepancy</a>.</p>
<h2>A need for further research and better reporting</h2>
<p>It is unfortunate that Canada has no publicly stated estimate of the country’s total carbon flux. This is important information to help track whether Canada’s landmass is sequestering enough CO2 to offset natural disturbances, or whether the latter are outweighing the former. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/carbon-removal-is-needed-to-achieve-net-zero-but-has-its-own-climate-risks-217355">Carbon removal is needed to achieve net zero but has its own climate risks</a>
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<p>It is essential that the Government of Canada enhance its <a href="https://gml.noaa.gov/annualconference/abs.php?refnum=50-230424-C">current efforts in land-based carbon flux analysis</a>, and that such data and analysis is reported to the public in a more clear and transparent way.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217351/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan M. Katz-Rosene does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Current greenhouse gas inventories in Canada only consider “managed” lands. This must change before we can truly understand the scale of Canada’s carbon emissions.Ryan M. Katz-Rosene, Associate Professor, School of Political Studies, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2173552023-12-06T21:59:33Z2023-12-06T21:59:33ZCarbon removal is needed to achieve net zero but has its own climate risks<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/carbon-removal-is-needed-to-achieve-net-zero-but-has-its-own-climate-risks" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>As delegates gather in Dubai <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/conferences/un-climate-change-conference-united-arab-emirates-nov/dec-2023/about-cop-28#:%7E:text=COP%2028%20is%20an%20opportunity,is%20already%20happening%20and%20ultimately">at the COP28 climate conference</a> — with the aim to ratchet up ambition towards meeting the goals of the <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement">Paris Agreement</a> — a key component of these efforts are <a href="https://zerotracker.net/">countries’ pledges</a> to achieve net-zero emissions around mid-century. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_AnnexVII.pdf">Net-zero carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions</a> refers to a balance between CO₂ emissions into the atmosphere and CO₂ removals from the atmosphere, such that the net effect on CO₂ levels in the atmosphere is zero. It is often assumed that if such a balance is achieved, the net effect on climate would also be zero. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cop28-climate-summit-just-approved-a-loss-and-damage-fund-what-does-this-mean-218999">COP28 climate summit just approved a 'loss and damage' fund. What does this mean?</a>
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<p>However, in a recent <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-023-01862-7">paper in <em>Nature Climate Change</em></a>, we show that unless we consider a number of other factors — such as permanence of carbon stored in vegetation and soils, changes in the reflectivity of landscapes and the full suite of greenhouse gases emitted — balancing CO₂ emissions with removals will not achieve the intended climate goal.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_AnnexVII.pdf">Carbon dioxide removal</a> (CDR) refers to human activities that deliberately remove carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere. CDR can leverage either natural or technological systems, though in either case, it must be additional to the CO₂ removal that is driven by passive <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/carbon-sources-and-sinks/">carbon sinks</a> already at work, such as existing forests. </p>
<p><a href="https://cdrprimer.org/read/chapter-2">Examples of CDR</a> include planting trees on previously deforested or unforested lands, producing bio-energy and capturing and storing the emitted carbon, fertilizing the ocean to stimulate biological production and capturing CO₂ directly from the air through chemical and technological means.</p>
<h2>What are the potential problems?</h2>
<p>For CDR to balance the climate effects of CO₂ emissions from fossil fuel burning, it needs to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-41242-5">result in permanent carbon storage</a>, meaning that the carbon must remain undisturbed for centuries to millennia. However, carbon stored in trees is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz7005">vulnerable to natural disturbances</a> such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-41854-x">droughts</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27225-4">wildfires</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06777">insect outbreaks</a> and other <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12558">biotic disturbances</a> and could be re-released much sooner. </p>
<p>Carbon sequestered and stored in <a href="https://ecoevocommunity.nature.com/posts/31382-marine-heat-wave-impacts-world-s-largest-seagrass-carbon-stores">seagrass meadows</a> or mangrove forests, for example, is re-released following marine heat waves. Any reversals in land-use and management decisions can also affect the permanence of carbon stored by CDR. </p>
<p>Several CDR approaches, when deployed at a large-scale, affect fluxes of energy and water at the Earth’s surface, resulting in so-called <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ffgc.2022.756115/full?mc_cid=84ae26d1c7&mc_eid=8249944246">“biogeophysical” effects</a> on climate that are in addition to the effects of CO₂ sequestration. </p>
<p>For example, large-scale planting of trees in agricultural areas or grasslands results in a reduction of how well the land surface is able to reflect sunlight, and therefore leading to a <a href="https://esd.copernicus.org/articles/14/629/2023/">warming effect</a>. This effect is particularly strong in regions with seasonal snow cover, where the darker colour of trees reduces the high reflectivity of snow. </p>
<p>Deployment of a range of CDR methods can also result in increased emissions of nitrous oxide and methane, two powerful greenhouse gases. For instance, bio-energy with carbon capture and storage and reforestation require the use of nitrogen fertilizers, which <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2018.11.033">enhances nitrous oxide emissions</a>. </p>
<p>Restoration of coastal ecosystems, such as seagrass meadows or mangrove forests, can also result in an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-64094-1">increase in methane and nitrous oxide emissions</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/geoengineering-sounds-like-a-quick-climate-fix-but-without-more-research-and-guardrails-its-a-costly-gamble-with-potentially-harmful-results-211705">Geoengineering sounds like a quick climate fix, but without more research and guardrails, it's a costly gamble − with potentially harmful results</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Because of the potential impermanence of carbon stored by CDR, and biogeophysical and other greenhouse gas effects, balancing emissions of CO₂ with CDR might not always result in the intended climate outcome. </p>
<p>For example, balancing fossil-fuel emissions with CO₂ removal through large-scale reforestation can result in a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-023-01862-7">higher global warming</a> compared to a case where the fossil fuel emissions are eliminated. This asymmetry could lead to exceeding temperature limits set by the Paris Agreement.</p>
<h2>What to do about it?</h2>
<p>For the reasons above, greenhouse gas accounting, and policies designed to offset greenhouse gas emissions, need to consider the full suite of climate effects of the proposed CDR to ensure intended climate goals are not compromised.</p>
<p>CDR approaches with short carbon storage time scales, or at high risk of natural and/or anthropogenic disturbance (like in fire-prone regions), should not be used to balance fossil-fuel CO₂ emissions. </p>
<p>For carbon removal that targets carbon stores at lower risks of disturbance, it is crucial that net-zero protocols also require an excess amount of CDR as an insurance in the event of carbon losses. </p>
<p>Similarly, CDR approaches that result in biogeophysical effects or release gases such as methane and nitrous oxide upon deployment risk fully negating the climate benefit of carbon sequestration and should be excluded as a means of balancing fossil-fuel CO₂ emissions. </p>
<p>In cases where biogeophysical effects or the release of GHGs partly counter the climate benefit of carbon sequestration, an additional amount of CDR is also required to compensate these effects. The measures used to establish equivalency between CO₂ emissions and removals, and biogeophysical and GHG effects, need to be rigorous and grounded in science. </p>
<h2>Emissions reductions remain primary</h2>
<p>Nature-based climate solutions that are not suitable for balancing fossil-fuel emissions because of a high risk of carbon losses — and/or large biophysical or GHG effects — may still be appropriate to deploy <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rstb.2019.0120">because of benefits</a> other than climate change mitigation. That includes preserving or restoring biodiversity and increasing the resilience of landscapes. </p>
<p>If deployed in addition rather than as an alternative to fossil-fuel emission reductions, these <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00391-z">solutions can still have climate benefits, even if relatively temporary</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cop28-how-7-policies-could-help-save-a-billion-lives-by-2100-212953">COP28: How 7 policies could help save a billion lives by 2100</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Carbon dioxide removal <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/">will be needed</a> to balance emissions that are difficult to eliminate and increase the odds of meeting the Paris Agreement climate goal. </p>
<p>However, while CDR can play a crucial role in climate change mitigation, the current uncertainty around its full effects underscores the need to prioritize reducing emissions as rapidly and as much as possible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217355/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kirsten Zickfeld receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), Environment and Climate Change Canada's Climate Action and Awareness Fund and Microsoft.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pep Canadell receives funding from the Australian National Environmental Science Program.</span></em></p>Carbon capture and sequestration can play a role in limiting warming but the nuances of its application are far more complicated than just planting trees. Getting it wrong could make warming worse.Kirsten Zickfeld, Distinguished Professor of Climate Science, Simon Fraser UniversityPep Canadell, Chief Research Scientist, CSIRO Environment; Executive Director, Global Carbon Project, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2190822023-12-05T13:19:35Z2023-12-05T13:19:35ZReal or artificial? A forestry scientist explains how to choose the most sustainable Christmas tree, no matter what it’s made of<p>Every year, Americans buy somewhere between <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/209249/purchase-figures-for-real-and-fake-christmas-trees-in-the-us/">35 million and 50 million Christmas trees</a>, and many more pull an artificial tree out of storage for the season. In all, about three-quarters of U.S. households typically have some kind of Christmas tree, <a href="https://today.yougov.com/society/articles/26802-christmas-tree-poll-survey-artificial-real-survey">surveys show</a>.</p>
<p>People often ask which is more sustainable – a real tree or an artificial one? It’s a big debate, and the answer depends on who you ask and which factors you consider.</p>
<p>A more useful question is: How do I find the most sustainable tree of the kind I want to get?</p>
<p>I’m a <a href="https://extension.msstate.edu/central-ms-research-ext-center/dr-curtis-l-vanderschaaf">forestry professor</a> who works on issues of sustainability. There are advantages and disadvantages to both cut trees and artificial trees. Here are some tips to consider for each.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man carries a live Christmas tree on his shoulder through a doorway. A little girl runs ahead of him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cut Christmas trees require water and maintenance – and careful thought about disposal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mid-adult-man-in-santa-hat-carefully-carrying-royalty-free-image/1390111010">10'000 Hours/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>If you’re buying a live Christmas tree</h2>
<p>When Christmas trees are alive and growing, they pull carbon dioxide from the air and use it as the building blocks of their wood. That keeps the greenhouse gas out of the atmosphere, where too much carbon dioxide contributes to global warming.</p>
<p>This process stops once the tree is harvested. And at some point, the cut tree begins to decompose and releases that carbon again.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Christmas tree farms like this one in Greencastle, Ind., can be found in almost every state.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/conservation-basics/conservation-by-state/indiana/news/retirees-pursue-passion-on-christmas-tree">USDA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On the positive side, the tree’s root systems will continue to store carbon for some time, and <a href="https://realchristmastrees.org/education/quick-tree-facts/">new trees are typically planted to continue the cycle</a>.</p>
<p>So, how do you find the most sustainable live tree?</p>
<h2>Think about the tree’s origin</h2>
<p>If you live in Mississippi, like I do, buying a noble fir (<em>Abies procera</em>) means your tree probably came from the Pacific Northwest. That’s a long drive, and transportation is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. However, in a truck with several hundred trees, each individual tree’s transportation emissions are pretty minor.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of Douglas-fir locations, primarily in the Pacific Northwest and intermountain West" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Douglas-firs grow primarily in the Western U.S.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/fs_media/fs_document/Forest-Atlas-of-the-United-States.pdf">USDA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The most common Christmas tree varies by region: Douglas-fir is also common throughout the Mountain West. Scotch pine and balsam fir are regularly grown in the Great Lakes states. Fraser fir is also popular there but dominant in North Carolina. Leyland cypress and Virginia pine are common in the Southeast.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Maps showing balsam fir growing areas." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Balsam firs, also popular for Christmas trees, grow in the Great Lakes region, New England and Canada.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/fs_media/fs_document/Forest-Atlas-of-the-United-States.pdf">USDA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are many other wonderful species grown locally. Of course, the lowest-impact cut tree is the one you cut from your own yard.</p>
<p>Also, look for local nurseries that <a href="https://christmastrees.ces.ncsu.edu/christmastrees-christmas-tree-fertility/">protect their soils from erosion</a> and minimize harm to surface and groundwater from runoff that can include fertilizers or pesticides.</p>
<h2>Disposing of your live tree</h2>
<p>What you do with your tree <a href="https://www.angi.com/articles/how-dispose-christmas-tree.htm">after the holidays</a> also <a href="https://www.texasdisposal.com/blog/real-vs-fake-christmas-trees/">matters</a>.</p>
<p>Recycling is far better than leaving the wood to decompose in a landfill. Because of the nature of most landfills, anaerobic conditions will ultimately exist, and decomposition will result in the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/lmop/basic-information-about-landfill-gas">release of methane gas</a>, which is many times more potent than carbon dioxide at warming the atmosphere.</p>
<p>Look for a <a href="https://pickyourownchristmastree.org/MississippiTreeRecyclingDisposal.php">community</a> or <a href="https://www.homedepot.com/c/ai/christmas-tree-recycling/9ba683603be9fa5395fab90c0b422bc">retailer</a> that offers to chip the tree or shred it to create mulch or for use in animal stalls. This keeps it out of landfills and serves a purpose.</p>
<p><a href="https://blog.davey.com/is-a-christmas-tree-good-for-mulch-or-the-compost-pile/">Composting is another option</a>. Trees can be used as an <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/articles/2020-01-09/states-recycle-christmas-trees-for-fish-habitats">erosion barrier for sand or soil</a> or as <a href="https://www.trackerboats.com/learning-center/christmas-tree-recycling.html">fish habitat in lakes</a>. They can even be donated whole <a href="https://tigerworld.us/recycle-your-christmas-tree/">to zoos</a>, where the trees provide entertainment for animals while eventually <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dJvWWOutseI">decaying outside of a landfill</a>, or they can be tossed into a bio-burner to <a href="https://www.vox.com/2015/1/14/7547015/old-christmas-trees-zoo">provide heating for buildings</a>. Some people even <a href="https://www.timbercreekfarmer.com/can-goats-eat-christmas-trees">feed trees to goats</a>.</p>
<p>Alternatively, consider cutting the tree into smaller pieces and letting it rot in the open, placing it in an out-of-the-way place in your yard. It will provide a <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-help-insects-make-them-welcome-in-your-garden-heres-how-153609">temporary home for many insects, birds and wildlife</a>.</p>
<h2>Artificial trees have different pros and cons</h2>
<p>Artificial trees also have advantages – they can last for years and require almost no maintenance. However, they are mostly a petroleum-based product, and when you throw one out, it can take hundreds of years to decompose.</p>
<p>If you plan to buy an artificial Christmas tree – maybe you have allergies like I do, or you’re concerned about cost – here are some suggestions to reduce your carbon footprint.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A girl puts together an artificial tree that's missing its top." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Artificial trees can last decades.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/little-girl-makes-an-artificial-christmas-tree-royalty-free-image/1427522691">Sinenkiy/iStock/Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reuse, reuse, reuse</h2>
<p>The No. 1 way to reduce emissions with an artificial tree is to reuse it for years. Reuse <a href="https://treescapes.com/real-vs-artificial-christmas-trees/">avoids the carbon impact</a> of producing, packaging and shipping a new one. The break-even point – when your artificial tree’s emissions match the emissions of buying a live tree each year – varies from <a href="https://www.christmastreeassociation.org/2018-acta-life-cycle-assessment">as little as four years</a> to <a href="https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/21221949">as many as 20 years</a>, depending on the factors considered.</p>
<p>Many artificial trees are <a href="https://oncortrees.com/?fbclid=IwAR3mY_fdBpUSDxfQi2piZru2QlzJgI-i6KiUYUQQU9V3t7vvZXnQX4VWbXA">built to last 30 years or more</a>. My family has had one for 25 years. To lengthen its life span, take care when putting it up and storing it. If the tree gets damaged, see if you can find replacement parts rather than replacing the entire tree.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Old artificial trees can be repurposed into garlands and other holiday crafts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Curtis VanderSchaaf</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Pay attention to the source</h2>
<p><a href="https://news.vt.edu/articles/2022/12/Christmas_tree.html">About 80%</a> of artificial Christmas trees are manufactured in China. <a href="https://www.cbo.gov/publication/58861">Shipping is pretty efficient</a>, but the tree still needs to get to and from the ports. You can also look for one manufactured nearby instead.</p>
<p>Some manufacturers are making trees out of recycled materials, <a href="https://www.ikea.com/us/en/p/vinterfint-artificial-christmas-tree-indoor-outdoor-green-30556093/">at least in part</a>, which helps reduce the tree’s carbon footprint. Shorter artificial trees, or designs with less foliage, also use less plastic.</p>
<p>The type of plastic used also affects the amount of petroleum used. Some <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2020.11.173">research has suggested</a> that plastic foliage made from polyethylene plastic molds may have a lower impact than traditional <a href="https://premiumpatio.com/needles-and-realism-artificial-christmas-trees/">foliage made out of polyvinyl chloride, or PVC</a>.</p>
<h2>Give the fake tree a second life</h2>
<p>If you no longer like your artificial tree – maybe it’s too big for a new home – try reselling the tree or donating it to a <a href="https://www.dumpsters.com/blog/christmas-tree-disposal">charity, thrift store or nursing home</a> so that others can continue to use it.</p>
<p>You can also get creative and repurpose the old tree limbs into decorative wreaths, garlands or toy trees for a hobby train set.</p>
<h2>Lighting also matters</h2>
<p>With any holiday tree, be judicious <a href="https://christmastrees.ces.ncsu.edu/2016/11/care-for-your-north-carolina-fraser-fir/">about turning off lights</a> when no one is around and at night. Consider using fewer lights. LED lights are <a href="https://www.chesterenergyandpolicy.com/blog/powering-holiday-symbols-emissions">more energy efficient</a> than incandescent lights.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An elf ornament and Christmas light." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">LED lights reduce energy demand.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/98640399@N08/9375455047">Barta IV via Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the grand scheme of the holidays, with people traveling and buying and returning gifts through the mail, the carbon footprint of your Christmas tree is a lesser concern. A <a href="https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Carbonoffset/Pages/default.aspx">round-trip flight</a> from Los Angeles to Boston can produce more than 30 times the lifetime emissions of a typical artificial Christmas tree. Still, it’s fairly easy to make more sustainable choices and reduce your carbon footprint when you can.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219082/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Curtis VanderSchaaf is a forestry extension specialist at Mississippi State University..
</span></em></p>How many years you reuse a fake holiday tree matters. So does what happens to a live tree when you’ve packed up the ornaments.Curtis VanderSchaaf, Assistant Professor of Forestry, Mississippi State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2180642023-12-04T16:06:16Z2023-12-04T16:06:16ZWhy iconic trees are so important to us – and how replacing those that fall is often complicated<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561325/original/file-20231123-19-9afxip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=601%2C633%2C4092%2C2330&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Sycamore Gap tree on Hadrian's Wall, UK.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sycamore-gap-on-hadrians-wall-511892797">Mark Godden/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>An ancient kola tree has been <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-67383733">cut down</a> in southern Ghana. Local tradition held that the tree had grown on the spot where spiritual leader Komfo Anokye had spat a kola nut onto the ground three centuries previously. </p>
<p>Anokye was a fetish priest – a person believed to act as a mediator between the living and the spirit world – and the tree that took his name was reputedly able to cure ailments and lift curses. </p>
<p>These legends, and its location on a major road, turned the Komfo Anokye tree into a tourist attraction and a symbol of ancestral roots. Its loss is historically, culturally and ecologically significant.</p>
<p>The felling of the iconic tree prompted an <a href="https://bnn.network/world/ghana/ghanas-300-year-old-kola-tree-felled-a-cultural-tragedy-ignites-public-outrage/">outpouring of anger and grief</a>, and a desire to repair the damage done. But what is it about the loss of a tree that provokes such an emotional response? Why is it that single trees are so important to us? And why might our instinct to repair the damage by planting a new tree prove unexpectedly complicated?</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1722587241308885468"}"></div></p>
<h2>Tree felling as an emotive issue</h2>
<p>The felled tree, and the outpouring of emotion that followed, is one of several such high-profile instances. In late October 2023, the decision was made to cut down the 550-year-old <a href="https://geographical.co.uk/news/darwins-oak-to-be-felled-to-make-way-for-shrewsbury-bypass">Darwin’s Oak</a> in Shrewsbury. The Woodland Trust described the felling as a “<a href="https://www.nationalworld.com/news/environment/charles-darwin-oak-council-approves-felling-550-year-old-tree-linked-famed-naturalist-new-bypass-4397029">death sentence</a>”. </p>
<p>The felling of the <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/sycamore-gap-tree-arrests-police-b2439649.html">Sycamore Gap</a> tree in September 2023, which was located next to Hadrian’s Wall in Northumberland, was described in similarly emotional <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-tyne-66949986">language</a>.</p>
<p>The deliberate cutting down of trees is highly emotive because they are central to how we perceive ourselves within our environment. Trees are living archives, recording the past of our planet and our own <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-tyne-66949986">personal histories</a>. </p>
<p>Individual trees are steeped in storytelling and symbolism. Some cultures believe that the spirits of the ancients and family members reside within Africa’s climate-vulnerable <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05411-7">baobab</a>. And the Ankerwycke yew at Runnymede in Surrey is <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/countryside/11878616/Tree-of-the-Year-2015-last-surviving-witness-to-Magna-Carta-on-shortlist.html">described</a> as the last surviving witness to the sealing of the Magna Carta in 1215. </p>
<p>The Sycamore Gap tree was also an <a href="https://theconversation.com/it-wasnt-just-a-tree-why-it-feels-so-bad-to-lose-the-iconic-sycamore-gap-tree-and-others-like-it-214841">iconic image</a>. Its fall prompted local and global reaction on such a scale that we might be forgiven for concluding that felling one tree elicits a more visceral reaction than the destruction of entire rainforests.</p>
<p>While Sycamore Gap was grabbing the headlines, the latest <a href="https://stateofnature.org.uk/">state of nature report</a> showed the UK to be one of the most nature-depleted countries in the world. This juxtaposition exemplifies the different ways in which people ascribe value to nature.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320721001786">Our research</a> from 2021 explored the different ways that people prioritise their relationships with nature. Some protect nature for human benefit and others seek to protect nature for its own sake. At the same time, some people prioritise the conservation of species and ecosystems, while others focus on the wellbeing of individual specimens. </p>
<p>Iconic trees are a prime example of this contrast. The action we take to protect iconic trees, or to replace those that fall, may satisfy the moral imperative to “do something”. But it is often energised by a greater concern for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320721001786">individual organisms</a> than for the need to protect the wider environment. </p>
<h2>Replacing iconic trees</h2>
<p>Tree planting has political capital as a way to tackle climate change. But rushing to replace lost nature on our own terms and without <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10311-023-01598-y">effective management</a> can lead to <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/phantom-forests-tree-planting-climate-change">poor outcomes</a>. </p>
<p>Neither a single sapling, nor many, will directly replace the unique ecosystem of a 300-year-old tree – at least not for another 300 years. If we treat nature as easily replaceable, we embrace the “quick fix” and ignore the impact of human actions on <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2745.13132">ecological succession</a> and the vast complexity of the ecological system. </p>
<p>Ecological succession is the natural and never ending process of change in an ecosystem. It is what allows a healthy woodland to regenerate itself, for example, after forest fires. </p>
<p>Human intervention can <a href="https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/forests_changing_in_unpredictable_ways_due_to_human_intervention">disturb this process</a>. The planting of <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2321178-tree-plantations-with-diverse-species-grow-better-than-monocultures/">single species</a> or non-native trees can undermine the ecosystem, accelerate soil erosion and increase vulnerability to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-57425311">pests and disease</a>. </p>
<p>The felled tree at Sycamore Gap was <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-tyne-67087497#:%7E:text=The%20Sycamore%20Gap%20tree%20being,it%20weighed%203%2D4%20tonnes.">removed</a> and stored pending a decision on what to do with it. But, similar acts of removal elsewhere in the wild can disrupt ecosystems too. Dead trees are a <a href="https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-and-wildlife/habitats/deadwood/#:%7E:text=It%20may%20not%20look%20like,hosts%20spectacular%20collections%20of%20fungi.">vital component of any woodland</a> as they recycle nutrients, support the growth of fungi, and provide a home for a diverse array of birds, insects and mammals. </p>
<p>The tree at Sycamore Gap stood in isolation, but the loss of a single tree is still not without consequence. The complexities inherent in replacing the ecological value of lost trees must not blind us to their wider and equally important cultural significance. In the words of the British-American poet, W.H. Auden: “The trees encountered on a country stroll, reveal a lot about a country’s soul.”</p>
<p>Conservation debates should be about more than economic or functional human benefits. They should integrate history, culture and values into our relationship with the natural world.</p>
<hr>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The felling of iconic trees is a highly emotive issue – but the damage needs to be repaired with care.Helen Parish, Visiting Professor of History, University of Reading / Worcester College Oxford, University of ReadingEwan Macdonald, Senior Research Fellow in Conservation Geopolitics, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2148202023-12-01T13:41:00Z2023-12-01T13:41:00ZA First Amendment battle looms in Georgia, where the state is framing opposition to a police training complex as a criminal conspiracy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560536/original/file-20231120-23-322rcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C7%2C5216%2C3469&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bulldozed land at the planned site of a controversial police training facility, with Atlanta in the distance.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/section-of-bulldozed-land-is-seen-at-the-planned-site-of-a-news-photo/1246850758">Cheney Orr/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When does lawful protest become criminal activity? That question is at issue in Atlanta, where 57 people have been <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/dozens-indicted-on-georgia-racketeering-charges-related-to-stop-cop-city-movement-appear-in-court">indicted and arraigned on racketeering charges</a> for actions related to their protest against a planned police and firefighter training center that critics call “Cop City.” </p>
<p>Racketeering charges typically are reserved for people accused of <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/09/21/1200898062/rico-case-against-cop-city-protesters-in-atlanta-stirs-concerns-about-free-speec">conspiring toward a criminal goal</a>, such as members of organized crime networks or financiers engaged in insider trading. Georgia Attorney General Christopher Carr is attempting to build an argument that seeking to stop construction of the police training facility – through <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/sep/05/cop-city-protesters-racketeering-charges-georgia">actions that include</a> organizing protests, occupying the construction site and vandalizing police cars and construction equipment – constitutes a “<a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/09/21/1200898062/rico-case-against-cop-city-protesters-in-atlanta-stirs-concerns-about-free-speec">corrupt agreement” or shared criminal goal</a>. </p>
<p>The indictment’s justification is rooted in <a href="https://immigrationhistory.org/item/1903-anti-anarchist-legislation/">long-standing anti-anarchist sentiments within the U.S. government</a>. However, some civil rights organizations <a href="https://www.aclu.org/news/free-speech/rico-and-domestic-terrorism-charges-against-cop-city-activists-send-a-chilling-message">call this combination of charges unprecedented</a>. </p>
<p>As scholars who study <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=pWgCJMMAAAAJ&hl=en">environmental change</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David-Pellow-2">social justice</a>, we believe the charges seek to suppress typical acts of civil disobedience. They also target grassroots community organizing models and ideas rooted in the practice of mutual aid – people <a href="https://www.kqed.org/news/11909218/in-2020-mutual-aid-was-in-the-spotlight-how-are-organizers-holding-up-in-2022">organizing collective networks</a> in order to meet each other’s basic needs.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/3MekiLV51Rs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The RICO indictment against ‘Cop City’ protesters describes the accused protesters as ‘militant anarchists.’</span></figcaption>
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<h2>The ‘Stop Cop City’ movement</h2>
<p>“Cop City,” officially known as the Atlanta Public Safety Training Center, was <a href="https://atlanta.capitalbnews.org/cop-city-timeline/">first proposed in 2017</a>. The facility is expected to <a href="https://www.atlantaga.gov/Home/Components/News/News/14700/672">cost US$90 million</a> and is located on 85 acres of public land in the Weelaunee Forest, once home to the Indigenous Muscogee Creek peoples. The site is owned by the city of Atlanta but sits on <a href="https://decaturish.com/2022/09/cop-city-explained-a-look-at-the-ongoing-controversy-surrounding-police-training-center/">unincorporated land in DeKalb County</a>, just outside the city.</p>
<p>The opposition campaign has garnered support from activists and environmentalists who are concerned about <a href="https://theconversation.com/militarization-has-fostered-a-policing-culture-that-sets-up-protesters-as-the-enemy-139727">militarization of police forces</a> and potential threats to <a href="https://stopcop.city">the Black community</a>, as well as to <a href="https://defendtheatlantaforest.org">climate resilience</a> in Atlanta. </p>
<p>Members of <a href="https://defendtheatlantaforest.org/">Defend the Atlanta Forest</a>, a decentralized movement of grassroots groups and individuals, argue that the threatened forest provides essential ecological services – filtering rainwater, preventing flooding, providing habitat for wildlife and cooling the city in a time of climate change. </p>
<p>Activists have led protest marches, written letters to elected officials and <a href="https://www.copcityvote.com/updates">organized a referendum</a> for the public to decide the future of the property. Some have camped out in the Welaunee Forest – a method that radical environmental defense groups like <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Earth-First">Earth First!</a> have used to <a href="https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/total-liberation">delay or prevent logging</a>. In one instance, activists reportedly <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/atlanta-protests-cop-city-georgia-state-of-emergency-forest-defenders/">set construction equipment on fire</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CyeS2xhvy_r/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link\u0026igshid=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Authorities have responded with force. </p>
<p>In January 2023, police <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/03/13/1163272958/cop-city-protester-autopsy-manuel-paez-teran">fatally shot activist Manuel “Tortuguita” Terán</a>, who had been camping on the Cop City site for months. Authorities assert that Terán had shot and wounded a state trooper, while Terán’s family contends that they were <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/no-charges-troopers-killing-cop-city-activist-manuel-paez-teran-georgia/">protesting peacefully</a>. </p>
<p>An independent autopsy concluded that Teran <a href="https://theintercept.com/2023/04/20/atlanta-cop-city-protester-autopsy/">was shot 57 times</a> while <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/03/11/1162843992/cop-city-atlanta-activist-autopsy">sitting with hands raised</a>. A prosecutor opted <a href="https://apnews.com/article/cop-city-atlanta-activist-shot-no-charges-421f6fe392a9202523ea154b2ddabb7d">not to file charges</a> against state troopers involved in the shootout, calling their use of deadly force “objectively reasonable.” </p>
<p>Attorney General Carr <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/05/us/cop-city-atlanta-indictment.html">indicted 61 activists</a> on Sept. 5, 2023, under <a href="https://law.justia.com/codes/georgia/2021/title-16/chapter-14/">Georgia’s Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act</a>, which is a <a href="https://www.ajc.com/politics/what-to-know-about-georgias-rico-law/3Y2PBKLHWFDMLKYFEURTHLBVZY/">broader version</a> of the <a href="https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/rico-racketeer-influenced-and-corrupt-organizations-act-statute">1970 federal RICO law</a>. Three defendants have been charged with money laundering for <a href="https://www.ajc.com/news/crime/breaking-more-than-60-training-center-activists-named-in-rico-indictment/DQ6B6GHTAJAJRH4SLGIIBAMXR4/">transferring money to protesters</a> occupying the forest around the construction site, and five are charged with <a href="https://www.ajc.com/news/crime/breaking-more-than-60-training-center-activists-named-in-rico-indictment/DQ6B6GHTAJAJRH4SLGIIBAMXR4/">domestic terrorism and arson</a>. Some of the accused face up to 20 years in prison.</p>
<p>Clashes between protesters and police have continued. Protesters organized a march for Nov. 13 and were met by <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/nov/16/atlanta-police-cop-city-protest-grenades-snipers-terrorism">heavily armed police officers in riot gear</a>. When activists attempted to push past the officers, the police used <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/nbcblk/police-protesters-atlanta-clash-cop-city-rcna124956">tear gas and flash-bang grenades</a>. </p>
<h2>How does RICO apply?</h2>
<p>Georgia’s <a href="https://content.govdelivery.com/attachments/GAOAG/2023/09/05/file_attachments/2604508/23SC189192%20-%20CRIMINAL%20INDICTMENT.pdf">109-page indictment</a> of “Cop City” protesters paints a broad – and, in our view, troubling – picture of the actions and beliefs that allegedly contributed to what it describes as a corrupt agreement.</p>
<p>The indictment cites the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/george-floyd-investigation.html">2020 killing of George Floyd</a> by Minneapolis Police as the event that sparked the “conspiracy.” It refers to the Atlanta-based movement as the Defend the Atlanta Forest “Enterprise” and <a href="https://content.govdelivery.com/attachments/GAOAG/2023/09/05/file_attachments/2604508/23SC189192%20-%20CRIMINAL%20INDICTMENT.pdf">describes participants</a> as engaging with “anarchist” ideas and practices such as “collectivism, mutualism/mutual aid, and social solidarity.”</p>
<p>Protesters use these practices, the indictment asserts, to advance their goal of stopping construction of the training center. As evidence, it <a href="https://content.govdelivery.com/attachments/GAOAG/2023/09/05/file_attachments/2604508/23SC189192%20-%20CRIMINAL%20INDICTMENT.pdf">cites examples</a>, including posting calls to action on online blogs, reimbursement for printed documents and transferring money to activists for materials such as camping gear, food, communications equipment and, in two instances, ammunition. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560542/original/file-20231120-22-tq91hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in a business suit speaking at a microphone" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560542/original/file-20231120-22-tq91hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560542/original/file-20231120-22-tq91hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560542/original/file-20231120-22-tq91hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560542/original/file-20231120-22-tq91hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560542/original/file-20231120-22-tq91hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560542/original/file-20231120-22-tq91hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560542/original/file-20231120-22-tq91hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Georgia Attorney General Christopher Carr has filed a sweeping RICO indictment against dozens of activists protesting the planned police training site.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Election2022Georgia-AttorneyGeneral/09a8169fb9aa43f8b2c5bbd6d424a13e/photo">AP Photo/John Amis, File</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Threatening First Amendment rights</h2>
<p>As we see it, these activists are being criminalized for their political beliefs and for engaging in activities protected by the First Amendment, such as exercising free speech. Throughout the indictment, the Georgia attorney general uses the term “anarchist,” we believe, as a synonym for “criminal.” </p>
<p>Such language echoes the Immigration Act of 1903, also known as the <a href="https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/total-liberation">Anarchist Exclusion Act</a>. This law targeted anarchists for exclusion from the U.S. solely based on their political beliefs. Section 2 of the law states that “anarchists, or persons who believe in or advocate the overthrow by force or violence of the government of the United States or of all governments or all forms of law, shall be <a href="https://immigrationhistory.org/item/1903-anti-anarchist-legislation/">excluded from admission into the United States</a>.” </p>
<p>This wording reflects a widespread view of anarchy as a state of violent disorder. In fact, however, many anarchist thinkers actually proposed to organize society on the basis of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/anarchism">voluntary cooperation</a>, without political institutions or hierarchical government. </p>
<p>Another, broader view of anarchy is that it is an ideology and practice of <a href="https://www.akpress.org/featured-products/black-dawn.html">organizing communities and society</a> in ways that confront any and all forms of oppression, including <a href="https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/total-liberation">oppression by government</a>. </p>
<p>Why would such a philosophy be deemed threatening? Consider recent U.S. history.</p>
<h2>The Black Panthers</h2>
<p>In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the federal government sought to repress and criminalize the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-a-shootout-between-black-panthers-and-law-enforcement-50-years-ago-matters-today-153632">Black Panther Party for Self Defense</a> as part of a covert and illegal <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/COINTELPRO">counterintelligence program, known as COINTELPRO</a>. </p>
<p>The Black Panther Party created extensive <a href="https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/body-and-soul">community survival and mutual aid programs</a> for Black communities at a time of ongoing government neglect. Offerings included free access to medical and dental clinics, ambulance service and buses to visit friends and relatives in prison. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tCGA4TLaq8g?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Black Panther Party organized dozens of social programs to directly meet local needs in underserved areas like New York’s South Bronx.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Black Panthers’ <a href="https://www.history.com/news/free-school-breakfast-black-panther-party">free breakfast for children program</a> fed thousands of children across the country. In Chicago, local police destroyed food the night before the program was set to begin operations. A memo by an FBI special agent called the program an attempt to “create an image of civility” and “assume community control,” thus <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00045600802683767">threatening the centralized authority</a> of the U.S. government. </p>
<p>Federal agencies relied mainly on covert tactics to surveil, infiltrate and discredit the Black Panther Party. Like the Cop City protesters, the Black Panthers also engaged in <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-a-shootout-between-black-panthers-and-law-enforcement-50-years-ago-matters-today-153632">direct confrontations with police</a>.</p>
<p>However, we see the current use of RICO charges to address political activism and protest activities as a new tactic. </p>
<h2>Future implications</h2>
<p>In our research, we have explored how mutual aid groups establish networks of care and survival in the face of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/env.2022.0104">climate change</a>. We expect mutual aid to become even more important for Black and Indigenous people of color as environmental disasters <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12986">become more frequent</a>.</p>
<p>From our perspective, efforts to stop Cop City demonstrate the interconnection between two critical issues: overpolicing of communities of color and climate change. We see Georgia’s RICO indictment as an attempt to repress social movement activity, using the state’s tools of legal interpretation and enforcement. </p>
<p>Criminalizing collectivism, mutual aid and social solidarity is particularly concerning for historically marginalized populations, who often rely on these tactics for survival. </p>
<p>Seeking to use the state’s political processes, organizers recently collected over 116,000 signatures supporting a <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2023-10-04/-cop-city-referendum-aims-to-repeal-planned-atlanta-police-training-center">ballot referendum</a> that, if approved, would cancel the lease of the city-owned site for the training center.</p>
<p>However, Atlanta officials have <a href="https://apnews.com/article/atlanta-cop-city-referendum-signatures-4b617a220807b6701c9f46745e4762c4">refused to verify those signatures</a> as they await a federal court ruling on whether the organizers missed a key deadline. Meanwhile, Atlanta is <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2023-10-04/-cop-city-referendum-aims-to-repeal-planned-atlanta-police-training-center?sref=Hjm5biAW">already clearing land</a> for construction at the training site.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214820/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>This isn’t the first time that US authorities have criminalized civil disobedience or framed grassroots organizing as a conspiracy.Rachel McKane, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Brandeis UniversityDavid Pellow, Department Chair and Professor of Environmental Studies and Director, Global Environmental Justice Project, University of California, Santa BarbaraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2164882023-11-30T12:20:37Z2023-11-30T12:20:37ZGhana’s shea industry is not taking care of the women behind its growth<p>Ghana’s shea industry has a rich history. Shea – <em>nkuto</em>, <em>karite</em>, <em>galam</em> in some west African languages – is deeply embedded in the culture and tradition of the country’s northern regions. It is often considered a woman’s crop – women pick the fruit and extract its “butter” – and has acquired the name “woman’s gold” because rural women earn income from its sale. </p>
<p>The crop is not just locally important, though. Shea butter, derived from the nuts of the shea tree, has become a global commodity. It is used widely as an ingredient in the confectionery, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.futuremarketinsights.com/reports/shea-butter-market">report</a> by Future Markets Insights values the global shea butter market at US$2.75 billion. It’s expected to reach US$5.58 billion in 2033. In Ghana, shea is one of the <a href="https://www.gepaghana.org/export-statistic/non-traditional-export-statistics-2022/">top</a> export commodities. According to the Ghana Export Promotion Authority, the export of shea butter was <a href="https://www.gepaghana.org/export-statistic/non-traditional-export-statistics-2022/">estimated</a> to be worth US$92.6 million (38,792 tonnes) in 2022 and kernels US$20 million (36,162 tonnes) in 2021. </p>
<p>In spite of shea’s global prominence, primary actors in this sector aren’t reaping the benefits from these exports. Rural women, who are the primary producers, are also the <a href="https://sun.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma998897791203436&context=L&vid=27US_INST:27US_V1&lang=en&search_scope=Combined&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,shea%20butter&offset=0">lowest earners</a> in the shea value chain, with an annual income of about US$234 per capita.</p>
<p>The reasons behind this were the subject of my <a href="https://sun.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma998897791203436&context=L&vid=27US_INST:27US_V1&lang=en&search_scope=Combined&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,shea%20butter&offset=0">PhD dissertation</a>. I discovered that the shea environment was poorly regulated and “empowerment” policies had actually enabled poverty. </p>
<h2>Importance of shea</h2>
<p>Economically, shea has gained international prominence stemming from its properties and value. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Specifications-of-whole-and-processed-shea-butters_tbl1_272022836">Stearin</a>, a creamy fat, is used industrially as a cocoa butter equivalent in chocolate production and confectionery. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Specifications-of-whole-and-processed-shea-butters_tbl1_272022836">Olein</a> is used to make cosmetics.</p>
<p>Socially, activities in the shea industry confer on women a level of respect and power that they do not possess in other economic sectors. It’s also an area where women pass on indigenous knowledge from one generation to another by observing and participating in shea activities.</p>
<p>Shea trees also <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/12/12/1740">provide</a> carbon sinks and storage, improve soil fertility and promote better yields in agroforestry systems. </p>
<p>The shea industry is potentially a vehicle for economic development, environmental sustainability, gender empowerment and social progress.</p>
<h2>Shea policies</h2>
<p>These benefits are not all being realised, however.</p>
<p>Structural adjustment reforms were implemented in Ghana in the late 1980s and early 1990s to address economic woes. The shea export policy devised within that framework has been <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-modern-african-studies/article/abs/market-reforms-and-the-state-the-case-of-shea-in-ghana/E0584FCC3B95AF6A2026A14F7840C4F8">identified</a> as a watershed moment for the problems inherent in the industry. The state’s involvement in the economy was reduced, and this created the conditions for continued gender inequality and exploitation. The plight of women in the shea industry was not helped, either, by long-held gender norms and cultural underpinnings in northern Ghana.</p>
<p>Successive governments and institutions over the years have sought to revamp the industry through regulatory policies and interventions. A chapter of my <a href="https://sun.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma998897791203436&context=L&vid=27US_INST:27US_V1&lang=en&search_scope=Combined&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,shea%20butter&offset=0">PhD thesis</a> conducted in 2017 analysing the yearly budget statements from 2002 to 2017 noted the government’s knowledge of the persistent challenges of rural women. </p>
<p>These challenges relate to quality control and standardisation. Others are the lack of fair-trade practices, limited access to direct markets and resources, and challenges in land tenure and resource management. </p>
<p>Liberalising the shea market was expected to promote economic growth through reducing trade barriers and encouraging foreign investment. However, a downside was the breakdown of social contracts, leading to a “gold rush” mentality that prevails when there are no structures and regulations.</p>
<p>The 2008 <a href="http://gis4agricgh.net/POLICIES/GHANA'S%20TREE%20CROPS%20POLICY.pdf">Tree Crops Policy</a> was supposed to support agricultural growth, rural development and food security. A <a href="https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/business/COCOBOD-opens-Shea-office-amale-676131">Shea Unit</a> under the <a href="https://cocobod.gh/">Ghana Cocoa Board</a> was formed in 2011 to develop strategy for the sector. This unit was expected to become a Shea Development Board, responsible for introducing effective production, post-production and marketing initiatives. But it remains under the cocoa board. </p>
<p>The shea industry over time has been a niche where middlemen and women buy shea from rural women at low prices. Price negotiations are done on behalf of rural women on a mostly informal contractual basis. A chapter of my <a href="https://sun.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma998897791203436&context=L&vid=27US_INST:27US_V1&lang=en&search_scope=Combined&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,shea%20butter&offset=0">PhD thesis</a> analysing the cost structure and assigning a value to the unpaid labour of rural women reported the profit margin of a shea nut picker as Gh₵ 8.82 (66 US cents) while a middleman earned Gh₵ 49.5 (US$4) on a 100kg bag of shea nuts. Similarly, a shea butter extractor earned Gh₵ 1.92 (8 cents) while a middleman earned Gh₵ 63.42 (US$6) on a 25kg box of shea butter.</p>
<p>This is aptly captured in an interview:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We are always here and we see people troop in for them (shea butter). Because
we don’t understand the English language they always request for Madam. She
directs us to sell to them at a certain amount. We don’t know the buyers. They
are those bringing them, we will just be sitting, and they will tell you that they are to buy shea, there is a buyer in, we will not even see the person. She is going to negotiate with the buyer till they finish buying.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Shea business model</h2>
<p>Even with the best of intentions, desired policy objectives can’t always be reached. It’s necessary to analyse why.</p>
<p>Empowering rural women shea actors to make choices and to transform those choices to desired outcomes must start by recognising them as knowledge producers and involve them as knowledge contributors in policies. Ghana needs to bring all the players in the shea industry together to develop a business model. Primary producers, middlemen, sourcing companies and government should collaborate. </p>
<p>Drawing from <a href="https://www.scirp.org/%28S%28351jmbntvnsjt1aadkposzje%29%29/reference/referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=2591801">lessons</a> on the marketing of cocoa in Ghana, this model should focus on:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>regulation of ceiling and floor prices of shea nuts and butter</p></li>
<li><p>promoting community-based rural producer groups</p></li>
<li><p>capacity building</p></li>
<li><p>quality improvement</p></li>
<li><p>preserving the shea landscape. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>There is also a need for a government instituted shea body to enforce a regulatory framework on the licensing and registration of activities and the promotion of partnerships between actors in the shea supply chain. It’s very important for the various stakeholders to keep working together to minimise undesirable effects of proposed interventions.</p>
<p>Shea is indeed golden. But there are real people living with the impact of weak institutional structures and policy frameworks. The most affected are rural women.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216488/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Abiba Yayah was previously funded by the Trans-disciplinary Training for Resource Efficiency and Climate Change Adaptation in Africa II INTRA-ACP (TRECCAFRICA II). She is currently being funded for a Postdoctoral Fellowship by The Mark Grosjean Post-doctoral Fellow in Political Science at the University of Calgary.</span></em></p>Shea is a key economic crop for poor women in the northern parts of Ghana.Abiba Yayah, Postdoctoral Associate, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2169332023-11-13T21:21:44Z2023-11-13T21:21:44ZQuébec’s summer 2023 wildfires were the most devastating in 50 years. Is the worst yet to come?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557286/original/file-20231027-23-ya6je6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C6%2C2032%2C1066&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Forest fires were mostly started by lightning. Their spread was then exacerbated by a lack of precipitation and abnormally high temperatures.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Victor Danneyrolles)</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>After a summer of exceptional wildfires, the return of cooler temperatures and snowy conditions will provide Québec’s forests a brief respite. </p>
<p>But how long will it last? Are events like these <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/climate/quebec-climate-change-wildfires-research-1.6943502">destined to become more frequent?</a></p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>This article is part of <em>La Conversation Canada’s</em> series <a href="https://theconversation.com/ca-fr/topics/foret-boreale-138017">The boreal forest: A thousand secrets, a thousand dangers</a></strong></p>
<p><br><em>La Conversation Canada invites you to take a virtual walk in the heart of the boreal forest. In this series, our experts focus on management and sustainable development issues, natural disturbances, the ecology of terrestrial wildlife and aquatic ecosystems, northern agriculture and the cultural and economic importance of the boreal forest for Indigenous peoples. We hope you have a pleasant — and informative — walk through the forest!</em></p>
<hr>
<p>As experts in disturbance dynamics occurring in the boreal environment, we are assessing the fires that occurred in Québec in 2023 to provide insights into their causes and consequences.</p>
<h2>Millions of hectares affected</h2>
<p>According to Québec’s <a href="https://sopfeu.qc.ca/en/">Société de protection des forêts contre le feu</a> (Society for the protection of forests against fire, SOPFEU), nearly 700 fires have burned approximately 5.1 million hectares (equivalent to the territory size of Costa Rica), both north and south of the northern forest limit designated by the province — or the boundary that separates northern Québec forests from the southern forests, where logging is conducted.</p>
<p>At the beginning of October, fifteen of the fires that had started in the summer were still active in western Québec. Three of them, although contained, had burned a total of almost 700,000 hectares within the <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/canadian-province-of-quebec-looks-for-international-support-to-fight-over-160-wildfires">intensive protection zone</a>, where the SOPFEU systematically fights all fires. </p>
<p>In the <a href="https://sopfeu.qc.ca/lintervention-de-la-sopfeu-dans-les-differentes-zones-de-protection/">northern zone</a>, twelve fires were still under surveillance, some not exceeding 20 hectares, others covering more than a million hectares. Out of the total area burned in 2023 in Québec, three-quarters (3.8 million hectares) were in the northern zone. South of the 50th parallel, within the intensive protection zone, approximately 1.4 million hectares burned, which is more than 80 times the annual average of the past ten years.</p>
<p>When we compare the 2023 fire season to <a href="https://www.donneesquebec.ca/recherche/dataset/feux-de-foret">datasets available since the 1970s</a>, it becomes quite clear that this year was unusual compared to recent decades. Yet, although these fires are impressive and difficult to contain, they are still within the range of “natural variability” observed in previous centuries.</p>
<p>Several <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/WF22090">studies</a> have shown that particularly intense fire cycles were common in Québec during the period from 1910-1920. These were even more common in the 18th and 19th centuries when warm and dry climatic conditions were particularly conducive to forest fires.</p>
<h2>Exceptional weather conditions</h2>
<p>Like historic forest fires, fire outbreaks in Québec in 2023 were fuelled by <a href="https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/climate-change-more-than-doubled-the-likelihood-of-extreme-fire-weather-conditions-in-eastern-canada/">intense weather conditions</a>. Starting in June, after an already dry month of May, a significant increase in fires was observed in the intensive protection zone. The northern zone was affected throughout the three summer months.</p>
<p>These fires were mainly started by lightning. Their spread was then exacerbated by low precipitation and abnormally high temperatures. <a href="https://www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/climat/faits-saillants/2023/juin.htm">Temperatures exceeded the 1981-2010 average for the month of June by 2.3°C</a>, setting a record for the warmest June recorded in Québec in at least a hundred years.</p>
<p>These exceptional weather conditions were partly influenced by the El Niño phenomenon, a cyclical warming of the Pacific Ocean known for its impact on terrestrial weather conditions. The trend continued into July, which witnessed exceptionally high average temperatures, well above normal (+2.7°C).</p>
<h2>Multiple consequences</h2>
<p>The simultaneous outbreak of numerous fires and their rapid spread have had multiple effects on wildlife, forests, the climate, and human populations.</p>
<p>The fires have altered the structure and composition of vegetation, causing disruption to wildlife habitats as well as <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-wildfires-destabilize-quebec-wildlife-1.6867744">displacement and mortality among animals</a>. As a result, the hunting, fishing and harvesting territories of Indigenous communities have been affected.</p>
<p>In addition to representing a direct threat to public safety, the smoke from the fires caused respiratory problems, leading to <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9791853/quebec-wildfires-more-evacuations-ordered/">the evacuation of thousands of people in several regions of Québec</a>. The deterioration in air quality was felt not only across Canada and the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-65828469">United States</a>, but also as far as <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/nasa-quebec-fire-smoke-europe-1.6890108">Europe</a>. Fortunately, evacuations were carried out in time, and casualties were avoided. However, there was some material damage.</p>
<p>In terms of their impact on the climate, large fires released several megatons of carbon dioxide stored in trees and soils, <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/er-2013-0062">contributing to an increase in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases</a> (CO<sub>2</sub>, CH<sub>4</sub>).</p>
<p>While the fires have had significant consequences, <a href="https://theconversation.com/forest-fires-north-americas-boreal-forests-are-burning-a-lot-but-less-than-150-years-ago-201365">they can sometimes be beneficial for certain organisms</a>. We can consider tree species like jack pine, which depend on fires for regeneration, and numerous animal species that thrive in burned forests.</p>
<h2>What can we expect in the future?</h2>
<p>Québec’s forests have been burning and regenerating cyclically for millennia. However, it is imperative to recognize that these cycles can evolve over time.</p>
<p>The 2023 fire season highlights the urgency of preparing for significant changes in disturbance dynamics, including the possibility of such events recurring more frequently.</p>
<p>As climate change progresses, periods of drought could become more frequent if precipitation fails to compensate for rising temperatures, as observed in the 20th century.</p>
<p>This combination of factors increases the likelihood of an increase in the number, size, and intensity of wildfires.</p>
<p>Such changes threaten the natural regeneration of forests and could lead to the formation of treeless areas, victims of too frequent fires <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2024872118">for vegetation to have time to regenerate</a>.</p>
<p>These conditions could also be exacerbated by the continued expansion of logging. <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-as-canadas-boreal-forests-burn-again-and-again-they-wont-grow-back-the/">Preliminary analyses</a> have shown that more than 300,000 hectares of forests burned in 2023 may not regenerate, mainly due to the effects of logging in recent decades.</p>
<p>The consequences of major forest fires highlight the climate challenges we face. They demonstrate the need to develop mitigation and adaptation measures aimed at protecting vulnerable forest ecosystems and their inhabitants.</p>
<p>It is therefore imperative to learn lessons from the 2023 fire season to strengthen the resilience of forests and communities to climate change and limit damages caused by fires. This involves reducing risk, protecting the most vulnerable areas, and raising awareness among local populations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216933/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yves Bergeron received funding from FRQNT, NSERC and MNRF.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dorian M. Gaboriau, Jonathan Lesven et Victor Danneyrolles ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur poste universitaire.</span></em></p>The forest fires of the summer of 2023 in Québec were devastating. It was the worst year in 50 years. But with climate change, the worst may be yet to come.Dorian M. Gaboriau, Postdoctorant en paléoécologie, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT)Jonathan Lesven, Doctorant en paléoécologie, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT)Victor Danneyrolles, Professeur-chercheur en écologie forestière, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Yves Bergeron, Professeur écologie et aménagement forestier, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2113142023-11-03T12:44:47Z2023-11-03T12:44:47ZThe world’s boreal forests may be shrinking as climate change pushes them northward<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556952/original/file-20231031-29-4j1sin.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C0%2C3854%2C2585&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A brown bear in a Siberian boreal forest.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Logan Berner</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Earth’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/taiga">boreal forests</a> circle our planet’s far northern reaches, just south of the Arctic’s treeless tundra. If the planet wears an Arctic ice cap, then the boreal forests are a loose-knit headband wrapped around its ears, covering large portions of Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia and Siberia. </p>
<p>The boreal region’s soils have long buffered the planet against warming by storing huge quantities of carbon and keeping it out of the atmosphere. Its remoteness has historically protected its forests and wetlands <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.03.019">from extensive human impact</a>. </p>
<p>These two traits rank boreal forests <a href="https://unece.org/sites/default/files/2021-07/Why%20Boreal%20Forests%20Matter.pdf">among the most important ecosystems</a> on Earth. In addition, numerous species of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71065-5_17-1">mammals, fish, plants, insects and birds</a> make these forests home.</p>
<p>For <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13109">over two centuries</a>, scientists have recognized that climate plays a key role in determining the geographic zones of plant communities. Because boreal forests and soils face subzero winters and short summers, these forests and the animals that live in them <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-15988-6_30">are shifting northward as temperatures rise</a>.</p>
<p>However, boreal forests’ northward advance has been spotty and slower than expected. Meanwhile, their southern retreat has been faster than scientists predicted. As scholars who study <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=BQmOlMsAAAAJ&hl=en">northern</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=RBKFcQQAAAAJ&hl=en">ecosystems</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=SX1wuUIAAAAJ&hl=en">forests</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=0kHNcjQAAAAJ&hl=en">wetlands</a>, we see concerning evidence that as the world warms, its largest forest wilderness appears to be shrinking.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/OUmHWrF8MnY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The boreal forest biome, often known by its original Russian name, the taiga, stretches from coast to coast in Earth’s far north.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The largest wilderness on Earth</h2>
<p>Boreal forests contain billions of trees. Most are needleleaf, <a href="https://www.rbg.ca/evergreens-vs-conifers/">cone-bearing conifers</a>, but there also are patches of broadleaf species, including <a href="http://www.ramp-alberta.org/river/boreal/alberta/trees.aspx">birch, aspen and poplar</a>. They support millions of migratory birds and iconic mammals like brown bears, moose and lynx.</p>
<p>These trees and the soils around their roots help regulate Earth’s climate, in part by pulling carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, where it would otherwise act as a greenhouse gas. The trees use this carbon to grow roots, trunks and leaves, which eventually turn into carbon-rich soil once the tree dies. Significant changes to the forests will translate to changes in global climate. </p>
<p>These forests are warming at rates <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00498-3">well above the global average</a>. Rising temperatures directly affect the growth and survival of trees and, in turn, their ability to store carbon.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557135/original/file-20231101-19-jffqm6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic showing carbon storage by forest type." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557135/original/file-20231101-19-jffqm6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557135/original/file-20231101-19-jffqm6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557135/original/file-20231101-19-jffqm6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557135/original/file-20231101-19-jffqm6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557135/original/file-20231101-19-jffqm6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557135/original/file-20231101-19-jffqm6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557135/original/file-20231101-19-jffqm6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Different forest types around the world store varying amounts of carbon. Warm tropical regions tend to store much more carbon in plants, while cool boreal forests have enormous carbon stores in soil.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/topics/global-carbon">U.S. Forest Service</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Forests on the move</h2>
<p>As atmospheric warming frees trees from the icy grip of cold temperatures, adult trees can respond by growing faster. Milder temperatures also allow young seedling trees in the most northern boreal forests to gain a foothold where previous conditions were too harsh for them to become established.</p>
<p>In the warmer, southern boreal forests, the situation is quite different. Here, conditions have become too warm for cold-adapted boreal trees, slowing their growth and even leading to their death. With warming comes dryness, and water stress leaves trees more susceptible to insect infestation and <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-frequent-fires-could-dramatically-alter-boreal-forests-and-emit-more-carbon-122355">fires</a>, as <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/2024-wildfire-season-el-nino-1.6978559">Canada has experienced in 2023</a> and Siberia in <a href="https://www.vox.com/2019/8/1/20750200/siberia-wildfire-russia-fire-smoke-trump-putin">2019</a> and <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2020/07/photos-show-scale-of-massive-fires-tearing-through-siberian-forests/">2020</a>. </p>
<p>If this happens at a larger scale, southern boreal forest boundaries will thin and degrade, thereby retreating farther north, where temperatures are still suitable.</p>
<p>If boreal forests expand northward and retreat in the south at the same rates, they could slowly follow warming temperatures. However, our combined research using satellite and field data shows that the story is more complex. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557275/original/file-20231102-23-r2kfff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Flames and smoke rise above a stretch of conifers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557275/original/file-20231102-23-r2kfff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557275/original/file-20231102-23-r2kfff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557275/original/file-20231102-23-r2kfff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557275/original/file-20231102-23-r2kfff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557275/original/file-20231102-23-r2kfff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557275/original/file-20231102-23-r2kfff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557275/original/file-20231102-23-r2kfff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flames from the Donnie Creek wildfire burn along a ridgetop north of Fort St. John, British Columbia, Canada, on July 2, 2023. Fire is part of the ecology of boreal forests, but climate change is drying out trees and making them more fire-prone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CanadaWildfiresPhotoGallery/0920472b516345429a090820278d423b/photo">AP Photo/Noah Berger</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Tracking forests from space</h2>
<p>Satellites are invaluable for tracking how boreal forests have changed in recent decades and whether these changes are consistent with an overall northward shift. Researchers can use satellites to monitor year-to-year changes in forest characteristics, such as annual tree growth and tree cover.</p>
<p>Our recent studies using satellite data showed that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16121">tree growth</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-39092-2">tree cover</a> increased from 2000 to 2019 throughout much of the boreal forest. These changes occurred mainly in the coldest northern areas. However, there was limited evidence to indicate that forests were expanding past current tree lines.</p>
<p>Our studies also revealed that tree growth and tree cover often decreased from 2000 to 2019 in warmer southern areas of the boreal forests. In these regions, hotter and drier conditions frequently reduced tree growth or killed individual trees, while wildfires and logging contributed to tree cover loss.</p>
<p>Satellite data makes it clear that climate change is affecting both the northern and southern margins of the boreal forest. However, if tree cover loss in the south occurs more rapidly than gains in the north, then the boreal forest will likely contract, rather than simply shifting northward. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557133/original/file-20231101-25-nw5diu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Satellite map showing gains and losses in North American boreal forest tree cover" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557133/original/file-20231101-25-nw5diu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557133/original/file-20231101-25-nw5diu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557133/original/file-20231101-25-nw5diu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557133/original/file-20231101-25-nw5diu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557133/original/file-20231101-25-nw5diu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557133/original/file-20231101-25-nw5diu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557133/original/file-20231101-25-nw5diu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Satellite measurements show that plant growth widely increased along the cold northern margins of the boreal forest in recent decades, but it often decreased along the warm southern margins − potential early indicators that the boreal forest is beginning to migrate northward.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16121">Logan Berner, based on results from Berner and Goetz 2022.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Zooming in to understand forest change</h2>
<p>Forests advance when individual tree seeds germinate and grow, but boreal trees grow slowly and require decades to reach a size that’s visible from space. Finding young trees whose presence would signal tree-line movement requires data from the ground.</p>
<p>In the late 1970s, one of us (David Cooper) documented that young spruce trees were growing at altitudes hundreds of yards higher and locations miles north of the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40510488">highest-elevation cone-bearing trees</a> in Alaska’s Brooks Range. Returning in 2021, we found those little trees had grown to be several yards tall and were producing cones. More importantly, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05093-2">10 times</a> the number of young spruces now grow above and beyond the tree line than during our first field forays. </p>
<p>Crisscrossing the boundary between Alaska’s boreal forest and its Arctic tundra on foot, we have found thousands of young boreal trees growing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05093-2">up to 25 miles north of established tree lines</a>. Most grow where deeper snows fall, due to an Arctic Ocean version of the “<a href="https://www.weather.gov/safety/winter-lake-effect-snow">lake effect</a>”: Cold air moves across open water, picking up warmth and moisture, which then falls as snow downwind.</p>
<p>Retreating sea ice leaves more open water. This generates stronger winds that propel tree seeds farther and more snowfall that insulates seedlings from harsh winter conditions. The result is that trees in Alaska’s Brooks Range are <a href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-022-05093-2/MediaObjects/41586_2022_5093_MOESM5_ESM.gif">rapidly moving into the treeless tundra</a>. However, these rapid expansions are localized and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15113">do not yet happen everywhere along the northern tree line</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557270/original/file-20231102-25-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557270/original/file-20231102-25-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557270/original/file-20231102-25-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557270/original/file-20231102-25-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557270/original/file-20231102-25-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557270/original/file-20231102-25-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557270/original/file-20231102-25-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557270/original/file-20231102-25-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A young white spruce colonist on the Alaskan tundra, with the Brooks Range mountains in the background.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Roman Dial</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The future face of boreal forests</h2>
<p>Our combined research shows that boreal forests are, in fact, responding to rising temperatures. But rapid rates of climatic change mean that trees likely can’t move northward at a pace that keeps up with their loss in the south. </p>
<p>Will trees in the far north ever catch up with climate and prevent forest contraction? At this point, scientists simply don’t know. Perhaps the newly established trees in the Brooks Range herald such an expansion. It’s also unclear whether the northern parts of boreal forests can accumulate enough carbon through increased growth to compensate for carbon losses in the south.</p>
<p>If boreal forests are indeed on the verge of contracting, they will eventually disappear from their current southern edge. This would harm many native and migratory animals, especially birds, by reducing their boreal habitat. The forests also are culturally important to several million people who call them home, such as <a href="https://natural-resources.canada.ca/our-natural-resources/forests/sustainable-forest-management/boreal-forest/8-facts-about-canadas-boreal-forest/17394">Canada’s aboriginal communities</a>.</p>
<p>Monitoring boreal forests around the world more closely, using both satellite data and on-the-ground measurements, will help fill out this picture. Only then can researchers hope to glimpse the future of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07183-6">one of the Earth’s last wildernesses</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211314/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ronny Rotbarth receives funding from the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David J. Cooper receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the US National Park Service, and National Forest Service.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Logan Berner receives funding from the National Science Foundation and National Aeronautics and Space Administration.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Roman Dial receives funding from the US National Science Foundation and NASA Alaska Space Grant. </span></em></p>How will Earth’s vast boreal forests look in a warmer world? Combining satellite-based research with fieldwork shows that the planet’s largest wilderness may be changing in unexpected ways.Ronny Rotbarth, Ph.D. Candidate of Arctic and Sub-Arctic Ecology, Wageningen UniversityDavid J. Cooper, Senior Research Scientist Emeritus, Colorado State UniversityLogan Berner, Assistant Research Professor of Global Change Ecology, Northern Arizona UniversityRoman Dial, Professor of Biology and Mathematics, Alaska Pacific UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2148992023-10-29T14:00:46Z2023-10-29T14:00:46Z‘Killing’ trees: How true environmental protection requires a revolution in how we talk about, and with, our forests<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/killing-trees-how-true-environmental-protection-requires-a-revolution-in-how-we-talk-about-and-with-our-forests" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Which came first, the acorn or the oak? A more important question is which came first: our words for trees, or our understandings of what trees are?</p>
<p>Human discourse around trees both shapes and is shaped by our education, beliefs, experience and relationships with trees. Simply put, how we speak about trees matters. </p>
<p>Ten years ago, I appreciated trees alongside concern for the health of our planet, but did not consider the ways we speak about trees or their profound intricacies. Then, through an unexpected turn in <a href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/365a59e2f7c88182e9e6963a7d82c777/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y">my research,</a> I became more aware of trees’ <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800421994954">relationships, sentience, intelligence and interconnections with their environments as home and community.</a></p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cop15-biodiversity-summit-in-montreal-canada-failed-to-meet-its-2020-conservation-targets-will-2030-be-any-better-195347">COP15 biodiversity summit in Montréal: Canada failed to meet its 2020 conservation targets. Will 2030 be any better?</a>
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<p>As we near the anniversary of last year’s UN Convention on Biological Diversity in Montréal, it is apparent that our collective tree discourse needs to fundamentally shift in order to reconnect with the integrity, interconnectivity and protection of all ecosystems called for in the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/article/cop15-final-text-kunming-montreal-gbf-221222">Kunming-Montréal Global Biodiversity Framework.</a></p>
<p>Such a shift and lasting change means we must not talk about trees, but <em>with</em> trees. </p>
<h2>What is tree discourse?</h2>
<p>Behind all discourse are systems of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726700539002">language, behaviour and belief</a>. Contemporary discourse reflects and shapes people’s belief that trees are living community members or inanimate materials to be used for human well-being. </p>
<p>This binary gets complicated when people understand the aliveness of trees and their relations with non-human life while prioritizing human economic value and need of trees.</p>
<p>Western relationships with trees have evolved from <a href="https://sunypress.edu/Books/P/Plants-as-Persons2">knowing trees and plants as persons, kin and divine</a> to viewing the natural world as separate and subject to the will of human desires. During the European Enlightenment, English philosopher John Stuart Mill stated that <a href="https://gapsinthedialogue.wordpress.com/2009/10/26/the-environment-and-the-enlightenment/">following nature “is equally irrational and immoral” because useful human action “improves the spontaneous course of nature” and imitating nature would be vile.</a></p>
<p>This paradigm, which has dominated western, and by extension global, thought for centuries, considers trees and plants as <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/L/bo12300588.html">“just life’s wallpaper”</a> and resources to be exploited.</p>
<h2>Impacts of tree discourse</h2>
<p>English writer John Evelyn’s foundational text <a href="https://www.rct.uk/collection/1057442/silva-or-a-discourse-of-forest-trees-and-the-propagation-of-timber-in-his"><em>Sylva</em></a> was published in 1664 and became one of the most influential books on forestry. </p>
<p>Conceived as a practical guide to sylva culture — the science of growing and harvesting trees for products — the book was written in response to the English Royal Navy’s concerns of timber shortages. As many as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/507166a">2,000 oak trees were needed</a> to construct a single navy ship in the 17th century, and England’s forests were being decimated.</p>
<p>These same wooden ships carried the imperial and colonial expansion which brought untold <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14258">genocide and ecocide to the Americas (Turtle Island)</a> which was extensive enough to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-47063973">result in a global “little ice age”</a>.</p>
<p>The felling of 2,000 oak trees to build a single ship was normalized through the embedded and convenient belief that humans can behave as the dominant species on Earth and exploit trees and other non-humans in the name of progress. Likewise, the continued deforestation we see all around us — loss on the scale of <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/deforestation">10 million hectares per year since 2010</a> alone — is enabled through the same ideological discourse.</p>
<p>Effects of deforestation include <a href="https://www.harvard.com/book/requiem_for_a_species_why_we_resist_the_truth_about_climate_change/">loss of non-human species, reduced ability of trees to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and increases in droughts, fires and heat, all of which inhibit plant and tree growth and contribute to the climate crisis.</a></p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/have-we-reached-the-end-of-nature-our-relationship-with-the-environment-is-in-crisis-206278">Have we reached the end of nature? Our relationship with the environment is in crisis</a>
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<p>Additionally, the loss of <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/w3ct1rlb">old, venerable and ancient trees,</a> in pursuit of good views, new farms or solar panel installations, impacts eco-communities living within them as well as other communities of trees, non-humans and humans.</p>
<p>In many Indigenous and animist ways of knowing, non-humans, including trees, are <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010%5B1327:KEIPOT%5D2.0.CO;2">people and relatives.</a> </p>
<p>Referred to as <a href="https://www.aaanativearts.com/meaning-of-trees">“the Standing People” they are honoured and respected for their unique tangible and intangible qualities.</a> Relationships with trees are recognized through gestures of gratitude and reciprocity such as offerings and prayers. In many Indigenous worldviews, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17547075.2018.1430996">recognizing and respecting the intelligence and equality within living environments is essential to guiding responsible companionship with the world</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423900052677">and to protecting all life.</a></p>
<h2>Celebration and change</h2>
<p>Over the past 10 years or so there has been an increase in western literary and media publications about trees. Trees <a href="https://yalebooks.co.uk/book/9780300228205/the-long-long-life-of-trees/">have served humankind practically and as valuable sources of symbolism and creativity</a>. </p>
<p>Trees <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kyXDjOamDj8">protect urban centres and reduce their expenses</a>, they <a href="https://greystonebooks.com/products/the-hidden-life-of-trees">interact biologically and socially</a> and they live and procreate via <a href="https://www.robertllewellyn.com/BOOKS/Seeing-Trees/1">exquisite, tiny biological parts.</a> </p>
<p>Western tree discourse is increasingly recognizing trees as beings in their own right. Scientific research shows evidence of tree and plant <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.14143">self-awareness,</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsfs.2016.0098">intelligence,</a> <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226264844">perception,</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.4161/psb.2.4.4470">cognition.</a></p>
<p>The ongoing controversy around plant intelligence links to the perception that <a href="https://doi.org/10.31542/muse.v4i1.1247">“intelligence” cannot apply to organisms lacking organs responsible for intelligent functioning,</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/415841a">movement</a>. </p>
<p>Conversely, renowned Italian botanist and scholar Stefano Mancuso argues that it is impossible and evolutionarily unrealistic to consider any form of life as lacking intelligence. This includes <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d42473-021-00451-6">“plants, which being unable to move, must necessarily solve their problems.”</a></p>
<p>Changes in academic thinking over the past few decades toward decentering humans and concern for non-humans, known as <a href="https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/the-nonhuman-turn">the nonhuman turn,</a> and the growing field of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137453693_11">critical plant studies</a> are bringing academic and public attention to non-humans and <a href="https://synergeticpress.com/catalog/the-mind-of-plants/">plants as aware and active in their own lives and worlds.</a> This attention <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/johs.12124">must include recognition that Indigenous relational knowledge with non-human intelligence and personhood existed long before the emergence of western modes of thought.</a> </p>
<p>In 1972, American legal and environmental scholar <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/christopher-stone-dead/2021/05/19/7641dd4a-b816-11eb-a5fe-bb49dc89a248_story.html">Christopher Stone</a> called for the rights and moral standing of trees, stating it is <a href="https://iseethics.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/stone-christopher-d-should-trees-have-standing.pdf">neither inevitable nor wise that beings of nature should have no rights, standing or voice</a> in human society. </p>
<p>Rather than assume and impose that non-humans have no voice, we humans need to recognize the limitations in our capacity to listen. Discourse is not only human.</p>
<h2>Trees matter</h2>
<p>In September 2023, a 300-year-old iconic sycamore tree in England, that had <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/sep/28/boy-16-arrested-in-connection-with-felling-of-famous-sycamore-gap-tree-hadrians-wall-england">become “part of this area’s DNA,” was “literally murdered,” an act that was “like stealing joy.”</a> </p>
<p>This type of discourse reflects <a href="https://theconversation.com/it-wasnt-just-a-tree-why-it-feels-so-bad-to-lose-the-iconic-sycamore-gap-tree-and-others-like-it-214841">the sense of security and identity which people develop over a long period of relations with trees and the natural world</a>. These words reflect respect for trees’ ineffable presence and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12199-008-0068-3">healing qualities</a>, their inherent aliveness, their right to recognition as sentient beings, and the support trees give for all life on Earth. </p>
<p>Hearing people describe trees as “relations” and “murdered” — and understanding <em>why</em> they do so — helps shift understandings and perspectives of trees. People are increasingly aware of the need to interact with trees with respect, mindfulness and care. </p>
<p>Alongside recounting such descriptive words in media stories, journalists can critically widen tree discourse by detailing people’s understandings of trees. Shifting tree discourse imperatively informs action toward ecological integrity.</p>
<p>Collectively, efforts toward embedding trees as relations and persons into western worldviews can help us relearn and reconnect with <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv29sfz3r">the old ways of knowing and being with trees, and all non-humans, in interrelation and kinship to create a vitally different future.</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214899/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Abbott received funding through a Vanier Canada Graduate Scholarship that supported research associated with this article.
</span></em></p>Getting serious about protecting global biodiversity requires not just policy but a revolution in how we talk about, and with, our planet’s forests.Sarah Abbott, Associate Professor, Department of Film, Faculty of Media, Art, and Performance, University of ReginaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.