tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/water-resilience-28400/articlesWater resilience – The Conversation2022-08-31T20:02:42Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1887952022-08-31T20:02:42Z2022-08-31T20:02:42ZThe ‘yuck factor’ pushes a premier towards desalination yet again, but history suggests recycled water’s time has come<p>A battle is brewing in South-East Queensland over water. Despite heavy rains and flooding, the water supply authority, Seqwater, has <a href="https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/politics/queensland/seq-does-not-have-enough-drinking-water-for-booming-population-20210818-p58jqd.html">flagged the need</a> to find more water sources to keep up with urban growth. </p>
<p>Premier Annastacia Palaszczuk has already <a href="https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/plan-for-1bn-desalination-plant-despite-premier-minister-split/news-story/f4a89e40cce7606cd397345dc8f0ac99">expressed a preference</a> for building a desalination plant on the Sunshine Coast instead of using <a href="https://f.hubspotusercontent30.net/hubfs/14568786/Fact%20Sheets/Water_Recycling_Fact_Sheet.pdf">recycled water</a>. Perhaps her government <a href="https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/qld-politics/qld-water-policy-mps-dodge-issue-of-water-recycled-from-sewage/news-story/21ecffc6603fbedf1f861a28c1495961">wants to avoid</a> a repeat of the divisive 2006 <a href="https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1752&context=commpapers">debate over water recycling</a> in Toowoomba – dubbed “<a href="https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/politics/queensland/scare-campaign-over-recycled-water-could-be-worse-than-poowoomba-turnbull-20210824-p58lfd.html">Poowoomba</a>” at the time.</p>
<p>Our new book, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/au/academic/subjects/history/environmental-history/cities-sunburnt-country-water-and-making-urban-australia?format=HB">Cities in a Sunburnt Country</a>, traces the fraught history with recycled water in Australia’s biggest cities. A focus on expanding capacity to extract or produce more potable water has dominated urban water policy in Australia. City residents have come to expect abundant water from sources they perceive as “pure”: dams, aquifers and desalination. </p>
<p>Continuing down this path is not sustainable. Yet once again a state government looks set to pursue the <a href="https://theconversation.com/cities-turn-to-desalination-for-water-security-but-at-what-cost-110972">costly</a>, <a href="https://f.hubspotusercontent30.net/hubfs/14568786/Fact%20Sheets/Desalination_Fact_Sheet.pdf">energy-intensive</a> desalination option.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-water-is-scarce-we-cant-afford-to-neglect-the-alternatives-to-desalination-111249">When water is scarce, we can't afford to neglect the alternatives to desalination</a>
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<h2>A history of being diverted by desalination</h2>
<p>Desalination has been a reassuring project in times of crisis, but has not always proven its value. In response to the impacts on city water supplies of the Millennium Drought (2001–09), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_desalination_plants_in_Australia">desalination plants were built</a> to supply most of the capital cities. </p>
<p>In 2006, Perth residents became the <a href="https://theconversation.com/river-deep-policy-dry-western-australias-perpetual-struggle-for-water-900">first in Australia to drink desalinated seawater</a>. By 2012, desalination plants had been built to supply Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Brisbane.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/city-desalination-plant-is-not-the-solution-poll-20051214-gdmmph.html">2005 poll</a> commissioned by “SCUD” (Sydney Community United against Desalination) found 60% of Sydney residents opposed a desalination plant. The following year a <a href="https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/lcdocs/inquiries/2050/A%20sustainable%20water%20supply%20for%20Sydney.pdf">parliamentary inquiry</a> concluded such a plant would not be needed if the government pursued water recycling and reuse strategies. The plant was still built. </p>
<p>The Victorian government also <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/new-water-minister-open-to-using-desalination-plant-if-victoria-water-supplies-hit-critical-levels-20141217-1299sa.html">faced a backlash</a> when it announced in 2007 a privately financed plant near Wonthaggi on the Bass Coast. Completed in 2012, the plant was mothballed until 2017.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cities-turn-to-desalination-for-water-security-but-at-what-cost-110972">Cities turn to desalination for water security, but at what cost?</a>
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<h2>There are better alternatives</h2>
<p>In 2011 the <a href="https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/urban-water/report/urban-water-overview.pdf">Productivity Commission found</a> only some desalination infrastructure was justified. Other projects could have been deferred, made smaller, or replaced by lower-cost sources, including recycled water.</p>
<p>During the Millennium Drought, the Beattie government built the Brisbane Water Grid connecting all major dams in South East Queensland. By 2008, the 600km network of pipelines was connected to the A$2.9 billion Western Corridor Recycled Water Scheme. The state-owned desalination plant at Tugun on the Gold Coast was completed a year later. </p>
<p>Queensland had opted for a desal quick fix. The government went for the high-cost, high-energy and high-emissions road, instead of more sustainable approaches to potable water supplies and climate change. Today, while South-East Queensland’s population and water use <a href="https://www.seqwater.com.au/sites/default/files/2019-09/FACT_SHEET_-_Water_Security_Program.pdf">continue to grow</a>, the recycled water scheme <a href="https://www.seqwater.com.au/sites/default/files/2021-12/Western%20Corridor%20Recycled%20Water%20Scheme%20%28WCRWS%29%20Recycled%20Water%20Management%20Plan%20%28RWMP%29%20Annual%20Report%202020-21.pdf">only provides water for industry</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sydneys-dams-may-be-almost-full-but-dont-relax-because-drought-will-come-again-170523">Sydney's dams may be almost full – but don't relax, because drought will come again</a>
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<h2>Recycled water is a well-proven approach</h2>
<p>Cities worldwide commonly use recycled wastewater to add to drinking water supplies, including Los Angeles, Singapore and London. Most residents of Australian cities are also <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-of-us-are-drinking-recycled-sewage-water-than-most-people-realise-92420">drinking some treated wastewater</a>. Hinterland towns discharge treated wastewater into rivers that eventually flow into dams such as Warragamba and Wivenhoe (which supply Sydney and Brisbane respectively). </p>
<p>In 2018, the Productivity Commission’s <a href="https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/water-reform#report">National Water Reform Report</a> recommended an integrated approach that included reusing urban wastewater and/or stormwater. Implementation has been slow, however. Only one Australian capital has officially overcome the “yuck factor”. </p>
<p>Perth stores treated wastewater in aquifers beneath the suburbs before returning it to the city’s taps. The state-owned Water Corporation’s 50-year plan, <a href="https://www.watercorporation.com.au/-/media/WaterCorp/Documents/Our-Water/Sustainability-and-Innovation/Securing-Supply/Water-forever-50-year-plan.pdf">Water Forever</a>, includes a 60% increase in wastewater recycling. Even then the state’s main strategy for eliminating the gap between future water demand and supply is desalination, despite <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-03-19/drinking-recycled-water/9546900">strong community support</a> for large-scale recycling. </p>
<p>In Adelaide and Brisbane, wastewater and stormwater are treated and reused only for industry, irrigation and energy production. As the Millennium Drought fades from public memory, state governments have also retreated from attempts to encourage household water tanks.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-of-us-are-drinking-recycled-sewage-water-than-most-people-realise-92420">More of us are drinking recycled sewage water than most people realise</a>
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<p>By 2050 as many as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/nov/22/australias-population-forecast-to-hit-30-million-by-2029">10 million extra people</a> may live in Australia’s capital cities. All of them will expect a reliable supply of clean water inside and outside their homes. </p>
<p>Our book shows how governments have historically favoured development of new water sources or desalination over recycling or demand management. These approaches do little to help us learn to use water more wisely in our cities and suburbs. Recycled water, education campaigns and demand management must play a greater role in securing future water supplies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188795/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Margaret Cook received receives funding from the Australian Research Council (Discovery Project DP180100807) and this article is based on that research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrea Gaynor receives funding from the Australian Research Council (Discovery Project DP180100807). She is affiliated with the Beeliar Group: Professors for Environmental Responsibility. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lionel Frost receives funding from the Australian Research Council (Discovery Project DP180100807). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Spearritt received funding from the Australian Research Council (Discovery Project DP180100807).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ruth Morgan has received funding for this research from the Australian Research Council (DP180100807). She is also funded by the ARC SR200200322.</span></em></p>Australian politicians have a history of opting for high-cost, high-emissions desalination projects. The Queensland government is still wary of using the largely untapped resource of recycled water.Margaret Cook, Lecturer in History, University of the Sunshine CoastAndrea Gaynor, Professor of History, The University of Western AustraliaLionel Frost, Associate Professor of Economics, Monash UniversityPeter Spearritt, Emeritus Professor, School of Historical and Philosophical Inquiry, The University of QueenslandRuth Morgan, Associate Professor of History, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1586332021-04-08T20:10:56Z2021-04-08T20:10:56ZPhone wet and won’t turn on? Here’s how to deal with water damage (hint: soaking it in rice won’t work)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393956/original/file-20210408-15-1wapm8g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=302%2C256%2C4873%2C3189&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve ever gotten your phone wet in the rain, dropped it in water or spilt liquid over it, you’re not alone. One study suggests <a href="http://s3.amazonaws.com/zagg-iMktg/images/pr-media/2014/smartphone-and-tablet-damage-study.pdf">25% of smartphone users</a> have damaged their smartphone with water or some other kind of liquid.</p>
<p>Liquid penetrating a smartphone can affect the device in several ways. It could lead to:</p>
<ul>
<li>blurry photos, if moisture gets trapped in the camera lens</li>
<li>muffled audio, or no audio</li>
<li>liquid droplets under the screen</li>
<li>an inability to charge</li>
<li>the rusting of internal parts, or</li>
<li>a total end to all functionality.</li>
</ul>
<p>While new phones are advertised as “water resistant”, this doesn’t mean they are waterproof, or totally immune to water. Water resistance just implies the device can handle <em>some</em> exposure to water before substantial damage occurs.</p>
<p>Samsung Australia has long-defended itself against <a href="https://www.channelnews.com.au/samsung-still-fighting-claims-they-misled-consumers-about-water-resistance/">claims</a> it misrepresents the water resistance of its smartphones. </p>
<p>In 2019, the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) took Samsung to Federal Court, alleging false and misleading advertisements had led customers to believe their <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/system/files/ACCC%20v%20Samsung%20Electronics%20Australia%20Pty%20Ltd_Concise%20Statement.pdf">Galaxy phones</a> would be suitable for:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>use in, or exposure to, all types of water (including, for example, oceans and swimming pools). </p>
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<p>Samsung Australia subsequently <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/media-release/samsung-in-court-for-misleading-phone-water-resistance-advertisements">denied warranty claims</a> from customers for damage caused to phones by use in, or exposure to, liquid.</p>
<p>Similarly, last year Apple was <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-apple-antitrust/italys-antitrust-fines-apple-10-million-euros-for-misleading-commercial-practices-idUKKBN28A0OH?edition-redirect=uk">fined €10 million</a> (about A$15.5 million) by Italy’s antitrust authority for misleading claims about the water resistance of its phones, and for not covering liquid damage under warranty, despite these claims.</p>
<h2>How resistant is your phone?</h2>
<p>The water resistance of phones is rated by an “Ingress Protection” code, commonly called an IP rating. Simply, an electrical device’s IP rating refers to its effectiveness against intrusions from solids and liquids. </p>
<p>The rating includes two numbers. The first demonstrates protection against solids such as dust, while the second indicates resistance to liquids, specifically water.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393955/original/file-20210408-21-16ip23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393955/original/file-20210408-21-16ip23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1113&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393955/original/file-20210408-21-16ip23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1113&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393955/original/file-20210408-21-16ip23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1113&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393955/original/file-20210408-21-16ip23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1399&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393955/original/file-20210408-21-16ip23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393955/original/file-20210408-21-16ip23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1399&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Here are the various Ingress Protection ratings. The numbering changes based on the level of protection.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Element Materials Technology</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A phone that has a rating of <a href="https://www.cnet.com/how-to/how-waterproof-is-your-android-phone-or-iphone-heres-what-ip68-and-ip67-ratings-mean/">IP68</a> has a solid object protection of 6 (full protection from dust, dirt and sand) and a liquid protection of 8 (protected from immersion in water to a depth of more than one metre). </p>
<p>Although, for the latter, manufacturers are responsible for defining the exact depth and time.</p>
<p>The popular <a href="https://support.apple.com/en-au/HT207043">iPhone 12</a> and <a href="https://www.samsung.com/au/smartphones/galaxy-s21-ultra-5g/models/">Samsung Galaxy S21</a> phones both have a rating of IP68. However, regarding exposure to water, the iPhone 12 has a permissible immersion depth of a maximum of 6m for 30 minutes, whereas the Galaxy 21’s immersion limit is up to 1.5m, also for 30 minutes. </p>
<p>While IP ratings indicate the water-repellent nature of phones, taking most phones for a swim will land you in deep trouble. The salt content in oceans and swimming pools can corrode your device and cost you a hefty replacement. </p>
<p>Moreover, phone manufacturers carry out their IP testing in fresh water and Apple <a href="https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT207043">recommends</a> devices not be submerged in liquids of any kind. </p>
<p>Luckily, water resistant phones are generally able to survive smaller liquid volumes, such as from a glass tipping over.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/screwed-over-how-apple-and-others-are-making-it-impossible-to-get-a-cheap-and-easy-phone-repair-156871">Screwed over: how Apple and others are making it impossible to get a cheap and easy phone repair</a>
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<h2>Checking for liquid damage</h2>
<p>Exposure to water is something manufacturers have in mind when designing phones. Most <a href="https://support.apple.com/en-au/HT204104">Apple</a> and <a href="https://www.samsung.com/us/support/troubleshooting/TSG01001077/">Samsung</a> phones come with a liquid contact/damage indicator strip located inside the SIM card tray. </p>
<p>This is used to check for liquid damage that may be causing a device to malfunction. An indicator strip that comes in contact with liquid loses its usual colour and becomes discoloured and smudgy.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393963/original/file-20210408-22-1lhbmbs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393963/original/file-20210408-22-1lhbmbs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393963/original/file-20210408-22-1lhbmbs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393963/original/file-20210408-22-1lhbmbs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393963/original/file-20210408-22-1lhbmbs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393963/original/file-20210408-22-1lhbmbs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393963/original/file-20210408-22-1lhbmbs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Samsung and Apple phones have Liquid Contact/Damage Indicators.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Samsung/Apple</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A discoloured strip usually renders your phone ineligible for a standard manufacturer warranty.</p>
<p>If you have any of the more recent smartphones from <a href="https://support.apple.com/en-au/HT210424">Apple</a> or <a href="https://www.samsung.com/nz/support/mobile-devices/what-can-i-do-to-remove-the-moisture-detected-notification/">Samsung</a>, then your device will be able to detect liquid or moisture in its charging port and will warn you with an alert. This notification only goes away once the port is dry.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393949/original/file-20210408-13-1fguj00.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393949/original/file-20210408-13-1fguj00.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393949/original/file-20210408-13-1fguj00.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393949/original/file-20210408-13-1fguj00.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393949/original/file-20210408-13-1fguj00.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393949/original/file-20210408-13-1fguj00.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393949/original/file-20210408-13-1fguj00.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">New generation Samsung and Apple phones have a moisture/liquid alert notification.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Samsung/Apple</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But what should you do if this dreadful pop-up presents itself?</p>
<h2>Fixing a water-logged phone</h2>
<p>Firstly, do not put your phone in a container of rice. It’s a <a href="https://smartphones.gadgethacks.com/how-to/myth-debunked-uncooked-rice-isnt-best-way-save-your-water-damaged-phone-0154799/">myth</a> that rice helps in drying out your phone. Instead, follow these steps:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Turn off the device immediately and don’t press any buttons.</p></li>
<li><p>If your phone is water resistant and you’ve spilt or submerged it in a liquid other than water, both <a href="https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT207043">Apple</a> and <a href="https://www.samsung.com/us/support/troubleshooting/TSG01001449/">Samsung</a> recommend rinsing it off by submerging it in still tap water (but not under a running tap, which could cause damage).</p></li>
<li><p>Wipe the phone dry with paper towels or a soft cloth.</p></li>
<li><p>Gently shake the device to remove water from the charging ports,
but avoid vigorous shaking as this could further spread the liquid inside.</p></li>
<li><p>Remove the SIM card.</p></li>
<li><p>Use a compressed aerosol air duster to blow the water out if you have one. Avoid using a hot blow dryer as the heat can wreck the rubber seals and damage the screen.</p></li>
<li><p>Dry out the phone (and especially the ports) in front of a fan.</p></li>
<li><p>Leave your phone in an airtight container full of <a href="https://www.silica-gel.it/en/blog/save-the-phone-from-the-water--n5">silica gel</a> packets (those small packets you get inside new shoes and bags), or another drying agent. These help absorb the moisture.</p></li>
<li><p>Do not charge the phone until you are certain it’s dry. Charging a device with liquid still inside it, or in the ports, can cause further damage. Apple suggests waiting <a href="https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT207043">at least five hours</a> once a phone appears dry before charging it (or until the alert disappears). </p></li>
</ol>
<p>If the above steps don’t help and you’re still stuck with a seemingly dead device, don’t try opening the phone yourself. You’re better off taking it to a professional.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/upgrade-rage-why-you-may-have-to-buy-a-new-device-whether-you-want-to-or-not-153105">Upgrade rage: why you may have to buy a new device whether you want to or not</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158633/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ritesh Chugh does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Avoid using a hot blow dryer too, as these can wreck the rubber seals and damage the screen.Ritesh Chugh, Senior Lecturer – Information Systems and Analysis, CQUniversity AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1526212021-02-21T19:05:41Z2021-02-21T19:05:41ZYou need all 6 pieces of the puzzle to build urban resilience, but too often it’s politics that leaves a gap<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385160/original/file-20210218-22-14d79hx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=734%2C0%2C4553%2C2991&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-panorama-luxury-suburb-on-gold-1330531067">Greg Brave/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With most of the world’s people now living in urban areas, the coronavirus pandemic has highlighted the importance of urban resilience. It’s just as important for adapting to climate change.</p>
<p>Put simply, resilience is the ability of a system, in this case a city, to cope with a disruption. This involves either avoiding, resisting, accommodating or recovering from its impacts.</p>
<p><a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17535069.2020.1846771">Our research</a>, recently published in the journal Urban Research and Practice, examined two coastal Australian cities, the Gold Coast and Sunshine Coast. Our aim was to identify ways to improve urban resilience to coastal climate hazards. We found the political aspect of resilience is often overlooked but is critically important.</p>
<p>Contrary to popular belief, building cities that are resilient to the impacts of climate change is not just about infrastructure. Urban resilience also has ecological, social, economic, institutional and, most importantly, political dimensions.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-lived-through-hurricane-katrina-and-helped-design-the-rebuild-floods-will-always-come-but-we-can-build-better-to-prepare-153452">I lived through Hurricane Katrina and helped design the rebuild – floods will always come, but we can build better to prepare</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="View of Lake Cressbrook which supplies Toowoomba" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Toowoomba residents voted against recycled water at the height of the Millennium Drought, a reminder of the critical role of politics in urban resilience.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/allanhenderson/2351100815/in/photolist-4zL1mX-nQkp38-NyMorG-o7Mtex-fEdSCh-uobZDu-nQj4n6-29iZvnt-uEkpLu-nQigjL-2DCCqp-o5K1aQ-o7JmbY-aDPpEZ-aDPpLV-hVGUAt-o7GcMY-hvcFhN-hvcdT7-hvdEeH-nQiamA-nMBXnf-pYkYa-fEdQK7-o7ESdb">Allan Henderson/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why it is hard to create truly resilient cities</h2>
<p>Urban resilience has recently become a topic for strategic planning and policy. However, many local governments are struggling to implement the necessary changes. The reasons include: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>a precise and universal <a href="http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol21/iss2/art27/">definition of resilience remains elusive</a>, making the idea difficult to implement in policies and plans</p></li>
<li><p>cities are complex systems, with interlinked physical, natural, social, cultural, political and economic dimensions. </p></li>
</ol>
<p>Some definitions interpret resilience as building back exactly what was lost. Others suggest it requires adjusting or even completely transforming urban systems. </p>
<p>Consider what these two approaches mean when planning for urban floods, for example. One way uses a reactive approach to focus on repairing buildings and infrastructure. Or we can proactively transform all elements of urban systems to <a href="https://theconversation.com/design-for-flooding-how-cities-can-make-room-for-water-105844">shift from “fighting water” to “living with water”</a>. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/design-for-flooding-how-cities-can-make-room-for-water-105844">Design for flooding: how cities can make room for water</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We argue this second proactive approach to resilience is better. So how do we achieve this transformation?</p>
<h2>The 6 dimensions of urban resilience</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264275116309088">Transformative resilience</a> requires decision-makers to take an integrative, innovative and long-term view. They need to consider all the elements of urban systems at once. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210670718322935">Previous research</a> identified five main dimensions of urban resilience: infrastructure, ecological, economic, institutional and social. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17535069.2020.1846771">Our research</a> revealed a so-far-neglected but critically important sixth dimension: political resilience. </p>
<p>In all resilience and adaptation efforts, planners and communities should consider these six dimensions at the same time. Failure to do so can mean resources and time are wasted without achieving the necessary results.</p>
<p><strong>Infrastructural resilience</strong> is the capacity of engineering systems such as pipelines, energy networks and power grids to avoid or resist the impacts of disruptions. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09640568.2019.1708709">Our research on adaptation strategies for sea-level rise</a> shows cities globally rely heavily on engineering structures to manage the impacts of coastal flooding and sea-level rise in already developed low-lying areas. The Gold Coast’s seawall is an example.</p>
<p><strong>Ecological resilience</strong> is the ability of a city to use ecological systems to resist and accommodate the impacts of disturbances. Retaining mangroves and green space, for example, can reduce flood risks. Political and economic pressures to develop land and clear mangroves run counter to this approach.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="aerial view of mangrove-lined creek running through suburbs" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cities that preserve areas of mangroves can reduce their flood risks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/redcliffe-queensland-australia-cabbage-tree-creek-1418250752">Ecopix/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Economic resilience</strong> includes strategies that allow individuals and communities to recover from the loss and damage caused by a disruption. Climate-related disasters have big financial impacts due to damage to homes, businesses, community facilities and infrastructure. Increasing resilience is expensive, however, and financial institutions’ investment and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/feb/20/townsville-homes-may-become-uninsurable-due-to-flooding-from-climate-change">insurance decisions</a> are critical in determining the patterns of development.</p>
<p><strong>Institutional resilience</strong> focuses on the capacity of government and non-government organisations to support preparation, response and recovery efforts. Unfortunately, at least in the Australian context, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118451694.ch13">our research</a> shows state and national institutions and policies have not provided a clear and consistent direction for local governments.</p>
<p><strong>Social resilience</strong> is the ability of the community and its networks to accommodate and recover from disturbances. This depends on effective, meaningful and timely community engagement. Residents are then empowered to build their own resilience. An informed and active community can also drive political change, which is a crucial element of transformation.</p>
<p><strong>Political resilience</strong> deals with the capacity of the political system, and the commitment of key policymakers, to drive transformational change. A positive example is the leadership of the Lockyer Valley Regional Council in relocating and <a href="https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/grantham-reborn-meet-the-little-queensland-town-that-moved-20200227-p5450g.html">rebuilding the town of Grantham</a> after the 2011 floods. A negative example is the decision by the Queensland Newman government (2012-15) to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-12-09/seeney-removes-climate-change-references-from-council-plan/5954914">stop local councils</a> taking sea-level rise into account in their local plans.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Soldier crouches among the rubble of a house destroyed by flooding" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">After the devastating floods of 2011, the town of Grantham was rebuilt on higher ground.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/aus_defence_force/5353937696/in/photolist-8Hs6pr-9a7k9C-9a4ikF-9aNsHd-9aNt21-9aNtwh-9a4brB-9a7k6y-9a7jVS-9a7kcy-9a4bhZ-9a4bkP-9a7k3j">Australian Department of Defence/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/you-cant-talk-about-disaster-risk-reduction-without-talking-about-inequality-153189">You can't talk about disaster risk reduction without talking about inequality</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The politics can be the biggest challenge</h2>
<p>Of all the six dimensions of urban resilience, the political one often proves to be the most problematic when trying to develop and implement climate change policies or plans. A good example is Toowoomba residents’ <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/toowoomba-says-no-to-recycled-water-20060731-gdo2hm.html">rejection of recycled water</a> during the Millennium Drought. It is not enough to have the best technical and economic responses; you need to be able to navigate the hazards of highly partisan and often irrational politics. </p>
<p>A bipartisan approach to climate change adaptation would go some way to overcoming the major reversals that we have seen in both <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14693062.2020.1819766">adaptation</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/carbon-tax-repealed-experts-respond-29154">mitigation</a> policies. Is this asking too much of our political leaders? The united response to the coronavirus pandemic, with co-operation bridging party-political divides and federal-state rivalries, suggests it is not completely beyond the realms of possibility. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article is part of a series The Conversation is running on the nexus between disaster, disadvantage and resilience. It is supported by a philanthropic grant from the Paul Ramsay foundation. You can read the rest of the series <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/disaster-and-resilience-series-97537">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152621/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aysin Dedekorkut-Howes previously received funding from Queensland Centre for Social Science Innovation, Queensland Urban Utilities, and Griffith University. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Howes has received funding from the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, the Commonwealth government, the Queensland government, Queensland Urban Utilities, and Griffith University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elnaz Torabi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Infrastructure is often seen as the main way to reduce the impacts of climate-related disasters like floods and drought. But cities are complex systems with many factors affecting their resilience.Aysin Dedekorkut-Howes, Senior Lecturer, School of Environment and Science, Griffith UniversityElnaz Torabi, Adjunct Research Fellow at the Cities Research Institute, Griffith UniversityMichael Howes, Associate Professor, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1167342019-06-06T04:06:52Z2019-06-06T04:06:52ZWhat next after 100 Resilient Cities funding ends?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278077/original/file-20190605-40727-1kgcyj1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">One of the successful outcomes of being part of 100 Resilient Cities is Living Melbourne: our metropolitan urban forest, a newly released strategy to increase vegetation cover in the city.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cityscape-skyline-view-melbourne-australia-402472060?src=JQfGgTw2KIrotGIkL16q3Q-1-7&studio=1">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It was no April fool’s joke when the <a href="https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/">Rockefeller Foundation</a> announced it will phase out funding for the <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/">100 Resilient Cities</a> network. The foundation’s <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/update-from-100rc/">message</a> was a <a href="https://www.citylab.com/environment/2019/04/rockefeller-100-resilient-cities-climate-philanthropy-end/586522/">surprise for many participating cities</a>, including Melbourne and Sydney, and for its partnering non-governmental organisations, businesses and academics.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fk6B8PJAB4M">100 Resilient Cities</a> is a global network designed to increase urban resilience, <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org/resources/">defined</a> as:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>the capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses, and systems within a city to survive, adapt, and grow no matter what kinds of chronic stresses and acute shocks they experience.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pacific-island-cities-call-for-a-rethink-of-climate-resilience-for-the-most-vulnerable-113473">Pacific island cities call for a rethink of climate resilience for the most vulnerable</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Since 2013, the Rockefeller Foundation has invested more than US$150 million in 100 Resilient Cities to support cities in tackling environmental, social and economic challenges.</p>
<p>Each city receives funding for a <a href="http://100resilientcities.org/what-a-chief-resilience-officer-does/">chief resilience officer</a>, a position located in councils to lead the city’s resilience efforts, and for drafting a <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/strategies/">resilience strategy</a>. Member cities also gain access to knowledge and expertise through a network of <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org/partners/">partners</a> from private, public and non-governmental sectors.</p>
<h2>Where are these resilient cities?</h2>
<p><a href="https://resilient.chicago.gov/assets/img/rc/cities-world-rings-names.jpg">The network</a> has grown to <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/">97 cities</a>, including cities from the <a href="https://www.citylab.com/environment/2019/04/rockefeller-100-resilient-cities-climate-philanthropy-end/586522/">Global North and South</a>. Prominent members include <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/new-york-city/">New York City</a>, <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/rio-de-janeiro/">Rio de Janeiro</a>, <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/singapore/">Singapore</a> and <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/london/">London</a>. In Australia, <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/melbourne/">Melbourne</a> and <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/sydney/">Sydney</a> were among the first two groups of cities that joined in 2013 and 2014 respectively.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The 100 Resilient Cities network.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://resilient.chicago.gov/urban-resilience">Resilient Chicago</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even though the growing number of member cities is a success, representatives of 100 Resilient Cities made clear that the “<a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/update-from-100rc/">task is far from complete</a>”. Almost half (47) of the 97 cities are still developing their <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/strategies/">resilience strategies</a>.</p>
<p>When the program stops in July, it is unclear what will happen to the knowledge gained through city strategy processes, the many positions created in local governments to support the program, and thousands of resilience actions started by cities under this banner.</p>
<h2>How has Melbourne benefited?</h2>
<p>Melbourne joined on the agreement that it would include all 32 of its metropolitan councils to challenge the divide between inner and outer urban areas. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/rapid-growth-is-widening-melbournes-social-and-economic-divide-117244">Rapid growth is widening Melbourne's social and economic divide</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In 2016, <a href="https://resilientmelbourne.com.au/">Resilient Melbourne</a> released Australia’s first <a href="https://resilientmelbourne.com.au/strategy/">resilience strategy</a>. It identified shocks and stresses, and outlined <a href="https://resilientmelbourne.com.au/resilience-in-action/">strategies</a> in fields such as urban greening, emergency management, transport, housing, social inequality and energy.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shocks and stresses acknowledged in the Resilient Melbourne Strategy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sebastian Fastenrath</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of these is <a href="https://resilientmelbourne.com.au/living-melbourne/">Living Melbourne: our metropolitan urban forest</a>, a newly released strategy to increase vegetation cover in the city. This action links and extends existing urban greening initiatives. The core goals are: increased biodiversity; better air, soil and water quality; heat reduction; and improved physical and mental health. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-melbournes-west-was-greened-84700">How Melbourne's west was greened</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.natureaustralia.org.au/what-we-do/our-priorities/build-healthy-cities/cities-stories/australia--china-or-usa---which-is-more-urbanised-/">The Nature Conservancy</a>, a non-profit environmental organisation and partner of 100 Resilient Cities, helps to develop this action, particularly with technical expertise.</p>
<p>Living Melbourne showcases how to bring together stakeholders from all levels of government, business, civil society and academia. Our <a href="https://sustainable.unimelb.edu.au/research/research-projects/urban-resilience-in-action">research project</a> found many stakeholders see Resilient Melbourne as a new platform for knowledge exchange and urban innovation.</p>
<p>These findings resonate with an <a href="https://www.urban.org">Urban Institute</a> <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/100RC-2018-Urban-Institute-Midterm-Report.pdf">study</a> on the early achievements of 100 Resilient Cities. The study found many cities, after joining the network, show a stronger interest in collaboration across government agencies and between public and private sectors. </p>
<p>It also found ongoing challenges, including a lack of transparency and community participation. These aspects need closer attention in future resilience-building initiatives and city networks.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/has-the-100-resilient-cities-challenge-benefited-melbourne-60307">Has the 100 Resilient Cities Challenge benefited Melbourne?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What now?</h2>
<p>Actions such as Living Melbourne are the result of collaboration and learning processes within and between cities. It shows that <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/3/693/htm">resilience actions must be implemented as ongoing and inclusive experiments</a> that test new ways of urban development.</p>
<p>However, it is too early to review the success of the initiative in total. This applies particularly to the impacts of actions aimed at driving institutional and social change that might only become visible in 10 or 20 years.</p>
<p>The immediate value of these networked efforts, as Resilient Melbourne has proven, is to connect local experiences to international agendas, learn from other cities’ experiences, and access technical and financial inputs. They also support new conversations that involve “communities of practice” across the whole city, linking citizens, resilience practitioners, experts and businesses.</p>
<p>Yet the change of heart at Rockefeller and the relatively sudden shift in support illustrates a very tangible risk of privately funded philanthropic support for international initiatives on cities.</p>
<p>One solution is to diversify the funding mixes at the heart of these networks. Another global city network, <a href="https://www.c40.org/partners">C40 Cities</a>, has pursued this in recent years. </p>
<p>Another solution is to allocate greater responsibility for cooperation across national, state and local governments. This should help with longevity, transparency and policy learning in city networks. The Swedish national <a href="http://viablecities.com/en/home/">Viable Cities program</a> provides a model of this. </p>
<p>In the wake of these experiences, a more open and strategic conversation on the role of philanthropy in advancing urban resilience agendas should take place urgently.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116734/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Professor Lars Coenen receives funding from the City of Melbourne. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michele Acuto has received research funding from the ICLEI, C40, UCLG and WHO Healthy Cities. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sebastian Fastenrath and Svenja Keele do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Melbourne and Sydney are members of 100 Resilient CIties, which the Rockefeller Foundation has said it will no longer fund. So what has the global network achieved? And what can we learn from this?Sebastian Fastenrath, Research Fellow in Resilient Cities, The University of MelbourneLars Coenen, City of Melbourne Chair in Resilient Cities, The University of MelbourneMichele Acuto, Professor of Global Urban Politics and Director, Connected Cities Lab, The University of MelbourneSvenja Keele, Postdoctoral Fellow in Resilient Cities, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1058442018-12-04T18:52:24Z2018-12-04T18:52:24ZDesign for flooding: how cities can make room for water<p>Science is clearly showing that the world is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/dec/03/david-attenborough-collapse-civilisation-on-horizon-un-climate-summit">shifting towards a more unstable climate</a>. Weather events like the <a href="http://floodlist.com/australia/australia-flash-floods-sydney-november-2018">flash floods in Sydney</a> last week will be more frequent and extreme, while the intervals between them will become shorter. With rising sea levels and frequent floods, water landscapes will become part of our urban routine. </p>
<p>Most Australian cities are already located along coastlines or within river catchments. Whether or not we are able to <a href="https://theconversation.com/keeping-global-warming-to-1-5c-not-2c-will-make-a-crucial-difference-to-australia-report-says-64287">keep global warming below 1.5°C</a>, the majority of the Australian population will soon live in a <a href="https://d28rz98at9flks.cloudfront.net/69538/69538.pdf">flood zone</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/trust-me-im-an-expert-australias-extreme-weather-103903">Trust Me, I'm An Expert: Australia's extreme weather</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This means we will have to start planning and designing our cities for a new normal. We will become used to redesigned parks and gardens, for instance, that help us co-exist with water.</p>
<h2>Change of perspective: rainwater is a resource, not waste</h2>
<p>Understanding the water cycle is an opportunity to generate a positive relationship between natural processes, plants and people. We can learn to look at flooding as a regenerative element to improve life in urban areas.</p>
<p>For a long time, however, urban design has overlooked the opportunity rainwater provides within the urban system. A conceptual leap forward is needed to shift the common perception of rain as waste to be disposed of. It can instead be seen as a non-renewable resource to be protected and reused. </p>
<p>This change is already visible in front-line urban experimentation. Cities like <a href="https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/orr/pdf/NYC_Climate_Resiliency_Design_Guidelines_v2-0.pdf">New York</a>, <a href="http://gnoinc.org/wp-content/uploads/GNOH2O_Pamphlet_Trimmed_FINAL.pdf">New Orleans</a> and <a href="https://en.klimatilpasning.dk/media/568851/copenhagen_adaption_plan.pdf">Copenhagen</a> are reorganising themselves following <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/24/us/new-orleans-flood-walls-hurricanes.html">catastrophic</a> <a href="http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/stormwater/flooding_index.shtml">floods</a> in <a href="http://cphpost.dk/news/flooding-in-denmark-becoming-the-norm.html">recent years</a>. Here, urban design is changing radically the ways to use, experience and perceive cities’ space. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Enghaveparken, a park in the Danish capital Copenhagen, before and after rain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.tredjenatur.dk/en/portfolio/enghaveparken-now/">Courtesy of Tredjenatur, Copenhagen</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Innovative strategies understand <a href="https://www.ruimtevoorderivier.nl/english/">flood as a natural process</a> to work with, rather than resist. Non-structural, soft and nature-based solutions to flood adaptation are replacing centralised and engineered technologies. </p>
<p>These projects use climate change positively to provide multiple added benefits. The benefits include spaces for recreation, ecological functions, environmental recovery, increased urban biodiversity and economic regeneration.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-in-resilience-what-city-planners-can-learn-from-hobarts-floods-96529">Lessons in resilience: what city planners can learn from Hobart's floods</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Make room for the water</h2>
<p>The idea to work with water through flood-mitigation measures based on natural processes has been explored in different ways. These can be summarised in four main strategies.</p>
<p><strong>Sponge spaces and safe failure:</strong> a network of small-to-medium-sized green areas absorbs and stores excess water. Almost every urban open space, including rooftops, can be part of a decentralised off-grid system. </p>
<p>In Copenhagen, the <a href="https://policytransfer.metropolis.org/case-studies/copenhagen-climate-resilient-neighbourhood-strategy">Climate-Resilient Neighbourhood program</a> aims to transform at least 20% of public ground to work as a sponge to reduce flash flooding in dense inner-urban areas. When needed, controlled flooding of one part of the system will avoid problems elsewhere – such as roads. These “safe to fail” spaces can have multiple functions and be used for public recreation when they are not flooded.</p>
<p><strong>Design for variability:</strong> as water processes are seasonal, design should reflect variability and periodic flood change. A more comprehensive understanding of nature’s processes in cities is emerging as a source of design inspiration, leading to a new spatial expression, besides ecological benefits. </p>
<p>This is an interesting advancement in urban design, with evolving layouts replacing fixed forms. A focused selection of plant varieties and soil substrata supports spatial variability. A good example is Billancourt Park in France, where water defines the constantly changing spaces of the gardens.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The renatured Billancourt Park in Paris is designed to manage dramatic changes in water levels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.landezine.com/index.php/2017/06/nature-at-mooring-boulogne-park-by-agence-ter/">Courtesy of Agence Ter, Paris</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=240&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=240&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=240&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Parc de Billancourt, water levels diagram:
1) Permanent water, 2) Normal rain, 3) Important rain, 4) Annual flood, 5) 10 years flood, 6) 50 years flood.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://agenceter.com/en/projets/parc-du-billancourt/#">Courtesy of AgenceTer, Paris</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Don’t let it go:</strong> rainwater is a precious resource and should be retained and used on the spot. Impermeable ground and roof surfaces should be harnessed to capture rainwater, harvest it and store it for further uses, such as irrigation, washing and flushing toilets. The process is particularly simple and does not require specific technology, especially for rooftop water, which is clean enough to be reused as it falls.</p>
<p><strong>Let it seep through:</strong> paving should let water infiltrate to the underground and feed the aquifers. Permeable grounds restore the natural water cycle, allowing humidity exchange between air and the soil. An additional benefit is that this cools urban spaces, reducing heat in summer and creating a more comfortable habitat.</p>
<p>To limit the number of impervious surfaces, roads and parking should be reduced, with grass or porous tiles replacing asphalt. When paving is necessary, it should be designed to provide a moderate filtering function to reduce rain impurities.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The climate tile project in Nørrebro, Copenhagen.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.tredjenatur.dk/en/portfolio/climatetile/">Courtesy of Tredjenatur, Copenhagen</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-your-garden-could-help-stop-your-city-flooding-42473">How your garden could help stop your city flooding</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A broad, collective effort is needed</h2>
<p>Broad implementation of the strategies needed to reduce flooding across public and private domains is complex. It calls for a collective effort.</p>
<p>Research on urban climate adaptation suggests that planning for flood management is often a top-down process. Post-flood recovery programs have rarely been opportunities for central governments to consider the needs of local communities. </p>
<p>Shared decisions on water management are needed to develop resilient communities and help them adapt to rapidly changing climate. New challenges can become opportunities if environmental goals can be twinned with sustainability and social equity objectives. </p>
<p>Moreover, the implementation of flood adaptation measures is still too sporadic. It’s often limited to centralised wetlands in large parks and gardens. A capillary-type network is needed, which infiltrates the dense urban fabric with small to medium nature-based measures. </p>
<p>There is no evidence yet, however, that the cumulative benefits from these systems will be effective to avoid massive flash flooding. Therefore, the need to start systematically testing and monitoring these measures at the urban scale is urgent. We need to start asking questions such as: what if every roof had a vegetated surface, if every sidewalk had retaining capacity, if every parking space was a rain garden?</p>
<p>Looking at how cities are designed and performing in Australia, there is plenty to learn from the international experience. We have a lot to do to adjust this knowledge to the local context.</p>
<p>And we urgently need to apply this knowledge, because if we don’t quickly learn how to work with water in cities, water will hit them even harder in the future.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/higher-density-in-a-flood-zone-heres-a-way-to-do-it-and-reduce-the-risks-86608">Higher density in a flood zone? Here's a way to do it and reduce the risks</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/105844/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elisa Palazzo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australia’s coastal settlements are highly exposed to the impacts of climate change. Climate-resilient urban landscapes that can cope with large amounts of water need to become the new normal.Elisa Palazzo, Senior Lecturer in Urban and Landscape Design, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/989962018-07-12T20:17:34Z2018-07-12T20:17:34ZWhat can other cities learn about water shortages from ‘Day Zero’?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227031/original/file-20180710-70060-7n512t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cape Town narrowly avoided "Day Zero," but that doesn't mean the city is resilient to future water shortages.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/en/south-africa-cape-town-2267795/">(Pixabay)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cape Town was set to run dry on <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/02/20/africa/cape-town-day-zero-delayed-intl/index.html">April 12, 2018</a>, leaving its 3.7 million residents without tap water. </p>
<p>“Day Zero” was narrowly averted through drastic cuts in municipal water consumption and last-minute <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/02/05/africa/cape-town-day-zero-intl/index.html">transfers from the agricultural sector</a>. But the process was <a href="https://theconversation.com/bold-steps-are-needed-toward-a-new-normal-that-allocates-water-fairly-in-south-africa-92191">painful and inequitable</a>, spurring much controversy. </p>
<p>The city managed to stave off “Day Zero,” but does that mean Cape Town’s water system is resilient? </p>
<p>We think not. </p>
<p>This may well foreshadow trouble <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/4067957/cape-town-not-run-out-of-water-other-cities-might/">beyond Cape Town</a>. Cities across the Northern Hemisphere, including <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/here-are-the-places-in-canada-yes-canada-vulnerable-to-drought-1.4570333">in Canada</a>, are well into another summer season that has already brought <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/record-setting-heat-scorches-b-c-s-south-coast-1.4662119">record-setting heat</a>, drought and flooding from increased run-off.</p>
<h2>Water crises are not just about scarcity</h2>
<p>Water scarcity crises are <a href="http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/267/hdr06-complete.pdf">most often a result of mismanagement</a> rather than of absolute declines in physical water supplies. </p>
<p>In Cape Town, lower than average rainfall tipped the scales towards a “crisis,” but the situation was worsened by <a href="https://theconversation.com/cape-town-should-serve-as-a-wake-up-call-for-managing-water-in-south-africa-91107">slow and inadequate governance responses</a>. Setting aside debates around whose responsibility it was to act and when, the bigger issue, in our view, was the persistence of outdated ways of thinking about “uncertainty” in the water system.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-a-water-crisis-looms-in-cape-town-could-it-happen-in-canada-90582">As a water crisis looms in Cape Town, could it happen in Canada?</a>
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<p>As the drought worsened in 2016, the City of Cape Town’s water managers remained <a href="https://mymedia.leeds.ac.uk/Mediasite/Showcase/default/Presentation/e282379b1eda4fd983b4233eca4d448c1d">confident in the system’s ability to withstand the drought</a>. High-level engineers and managers viewed Cape Town’s water system as uniquely positioned to handle severe drought in part because of the vaunted success of their ongoing <a href="https://greencape.co.za/assets/Sector-files/water/Water-conservation-and-demand-management-WCDM/CoCT-Long-term-water-conservation-and-water-demand-management-strategy-2007.pdf">Water Demand Management strategies</a>. </p>
<p>They weren’t entirely mistaken — demand management has cut overall daily consumption by <a href="https://thebulletin.org/what-cape-town-learned-its-drought11698">50 per cent since 2016</a>. So what went wrong?</p>
<h2>Limits to demand management</h2>
<p>First, Cape Town’s approach to water management was <a href="https://www.access.ac.za/access-position-on-the-winter-rainfall-in-the-western-cape/">not well-equipped to deal with growing uncertainty</a> in rainfall patterns — a key challenge facing cities worldwide. <a href="https://mymedia.leeds.ac.uk/Mediasite/Showcase/default/Presentation/e282379b1eda4fd983b4233eca4d448c1d">Researchers at the University of Cape Town</a> argued recently that the conventional models long used to forecast supply and demand underestimated the probability of failure in the water system. </p>
<p>Second, Cape Town’s water system neared disaster in part because demand management seemed to have reached its limits. Starting late last year, the city imposed a limit on water consumption of 87 litres per person per day. That ceiling thereafter shrunk to <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/cape-town-graphics-water-1.4577289">50 litres per person per day</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227501/original/file-20180712-27021-1jfivla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227501/original/file-20180712-27021-1jfivla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227501/original/file-20180712-27021-1jfivla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227501/original/file-20180712-27021-1jfivla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227501/original/file-20180712-27021-1jfivla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227501/original/file-20180712-27021-1jfivla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227501/original/file-20180712-27021-1jfivla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Cape Town residents queue to fill containers from a spring water source on Feb. 2, 2018.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Bram Janssen)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Despite these efforts, Cape Town consistently failed to cut demand below the 500-million-litre-per-day citywide target needed to ensure that the system would function into the next rainy season.</p>
<p>The mayor accused the city’s residents of wasting water, but her <a href="http://www.capetown.gov.za/Media-and-news/Day%20Zero%20now%20likely%20to%20happen%20%E2%80%93%20new%20emergency%20measures">reprimanding rhetoric</a> should not be seen as a sign that the citizens were non-compliant. The continuously shrinking water targets were an untenable long-term management strategy. </p>
<h2>Buffers are key to water resilience</h2>
<p>In the end, “Day Zero” was avoided primarily by relying on unexpected buffers, including <a href="https://www.thesouthafrican.com/grabouw-dam-cape-town-water/">temporary agricultural transfers</a> and the private installation of <a href="https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2018/04/avoiding-water-crisis-whats-cape-town-beyond/">small-scale, residential grey-water systems and boreholes</a> in the city’s wealthier neighbourhoods. The former increased water supply and the latter lowered demand from the municipal system. These buffers are unlikely to be available next year, however, as the <a href="https://www.westerncape.gov.za/110green/files/atoms/files/Water%20Outlook%202018%20%28Rev%2024%29%2017%20April%202018_0.pdf">water allocations for the agricultural sector</a> will not be renewed and there is uncertainty in the long-term sustainability of groundwater withdrawals.</p>
<p>For more than a decade, Cape Town has levelled demand, reduced leaks and implemented pressure management and water restrictions. This made Cape Town’s water system <a href="http://edges.sites.olt.ubc.ca/files/2017/06/The-Future-of-Drought-Management-for-Cape-Town-Summary-for-Policy-Makers.pdf">highly efficient and therefore less resilient</a> because there were fewer reserves to draw from in times of unusual scarcity.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002318/231823E.pdf">UN Water 2015 </a> report found that most cities are not very resilient to water risks. As water managers continue to wait for climate change models to become more certain or more specific, they defer action, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.02.010">paralyzing decision-makers</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/damage-from-flooding-doesnt-have-to-be-inevitable-95847">Damage from flooding doesn't have to be inevitable</a>
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<p>If we really want our cities to be water-resilient, we must collectively change long-held ideas about water supply and demand. This will require technological and institutional innovation, as well as behavioural change, to create new and more flexible buffers — for example, through water recycling, green infrastructure and other novel measures. </p>
<p>Although Cape Town avoided disaster this year, that does not make it water-resilient. Despite the arrival of the rainy season, Cape Town is still <a href="https://www.thesouthafrican.com/day-zero-experts-highly-likely-cape-town-2019/">likely to face Day Zero</a> at some point in the future. </p>
<p>There’s a good chance that the city is not alone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98996/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lucy Rodina receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kieran M. Findlater receives funding from Genome Canada and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.</span></em></p>Cape Town faced down “Day Zero” earlier this year, but that doesn’t mean its water system is resilient. Other cities should also take note.Lucy Rodina, PhD Candidate, University of British ColumbiaKieran M. Findlater, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/984942018-06-20T13:53:27Z2018-06-20T13:53:27ZIndia’s colonial legacy almost caused Bangalore to run out of water<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224026/original/file-20180620-137708-1a8yqwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Well, well, well.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bangalore-bengalurus-skyline-dusk-sunset-mahadevpura-1097570915?src=EZdNEN39TvWz8bM1Opahew-1-38">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On hot summer days in Bangalore, India, it is common to see public water taps on roadsides hissing and spurting as water struggles to come out. People crowd around the tap with pots of brightly coloured plastic, burnished brass or steel, waiting for their turn. Many of these people have come from homes without such luxuries as indoor plumbing and will return carrying enough water to last several days. More privileged citizens have water piped to their houses in larger quantities – and more frequently. But even for them, interrupted water supply and rationing have always been a fact of daily life.</p>
<p>Bangalore is perhaps one of India’s most globally visible cities, owing to its reputation as India’s Silicon Valley. Corporate buildings and malls with shimmering glass facades vie for space with residential high rises and villas, bolstering the city’s popular image as a vibrant and booming metropolis with an entrepreneurial young population. But informal settlements and slums coexist alongside this image of prosperity, and residents – poor and affluent alike – face the trials of living in a city starved of water: a legacy of colonial policies that relied on vast technological solutions to solve local problems.</p>
<p>Bangalore is not alone in its water woes – cities across the globe struggle to meet water requirements every day. Although Cape Town’s water crisis <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-06-19/cape-town-scraps-desalination-barge-plan-as-water-crisis-eases">has eased</a>, residents are <a href="http://www.capetown.gov.za/Family%20and%20home/residential-utility-services/residential-water-and-sanitation-services/Residential-water-restrictions-explained">still limited</a> to using 50 litres of water each, per day. Other settlements <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/02/cape-town-running-out-of-water-drought-taps-shutoff-other-cities/">are also affected</a>. In Mexico City, water supply is frequently interrupted while, in Brazil, São Paulo’s main water reserves were below 15% as of 2017. Indonesia’s capital Jakarta, meanwhile, is facing severe groundwater depletion. Droughts are shaped by each city’s development over time – and these recent shortages have shown just how shaky the infrastructure which supplies their water has become. </p>
<h2>A history of water</h2>
<p>Take <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-cities-were-natures-haven-a-tale-from-bangalore-85411">Bangalore</a>, for example – the city tends to be naturally arid, because of its location in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats hill range. Records from the 6th century onwards <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12685-017-0199-9">show that</a> successive rulers of the city invested in creating an interconnected, community-managed system of tanks and open wells. The shallow aquifers of the wells were recharged by the tanks, across an elevation gradient that harvested rainwater. </p>
<p>Since around 1799, different authorities took control of the tanks – first the colonial state, and later on the independent Indian government. These tanks were the main water supply infrastructure for almost a century, though they faltered during periods of drought and famine. To meet the rising demand, the Municipal and Public Works Departments considered deepening reservoirs or building new ones. By 1885, the city’s water supply was running low, and the colonial government responded by setting up piped infrastructure, bringing water from <a href="http://www.environmentandsociety.org/arcadia/lost-lakes-bangalore">sources 30km away</a> including the Hesarghatta and then the TG Halli reservoirs. But none of these fixes could meet demand for very long. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, given the new dependency on piped water infrastructure, the old tanks and wells <a href="http://www.environmentandsociety.org/arcadia/pulley-pipe-decline-wells-bangalore">became disused</a>, polluted or built over. After India <a href="https://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelpregion/asia/india/indianindependence/transfer/index.html">gained independence</a> in 1947, the Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB) was established. In response to the city’s water supply issues, the board floated the idea of pumping in water from the river Cauvery – more than 100km upstream from Bangalore. The project started in 1974 and continues to this day, reaching its fifth stage in 2018. </p>
<p>With the threat that <a href="http://www.sawasjournal.org/download/369/">water would run out</a> still looming large, authorities have since explored other possibilities. In 2016, the state government proposed to divert water from the <a href="https://thewire.in/environment/yettinahole-karnataka-bengaluru-chikkaballapur">Yettinahole river</a>, 300kms from Bangalore. Scientists also explored the feasibility of <a href="http://ojs.udspub.com/index.php/jsupp/article/view/429">constructing a reservoir</a> under the Arabian Sea, to impound that water for supply. The central government of India went a step further and considered <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/centre-plans-to-transfer-surplus-godavari-water-to-cauvery-nitin-gadkari/articleshow/61770355.cms">transferring surplus water</a> from the north flowing river Godavari into the southern Cauvery. </p>
<p>The estimated costs of these large-scale proposals <a href="https://thewire.in/environment/yettinahole-karnataka-bengaluru-chikkaballapur">were massive</a> –– <a href="https://thediplomat.com/2016/07/the-cost-of-interlinking-indias-rivers/">billions of dollars</a> could be spent without delivering guaranteed water security. Instead, the authorities seek to reallocate limited supplies of water – though even that is done unfairly and unevenly. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224032/original/file-20180620-137725-1m8v2vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224032/original/file-20180620-137725-1m8v2vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224032/original/file-20180620-137725-1m8v2vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224032/original/file-20180620-137725-1m8v2vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224032/original/file-20180620-137725-1m8v2vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224032/original/file-20180620-137725-1m8v2vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224032/original/file-20180620-137725-1m8v2vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A tanker delivers water in Bangalore.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bangalore-india-july-15-water-tanker-82300918?src=mo_CUryeWEE4_zTPRvVnWA-1-1">Ajay Bhaskar/Shutterstock.</a></span>
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<p>Piped water supply systems cater only to central Bangalore, while the outskirts rely on alternatives including domestic bore wells or private water tankers, tapping into and depleting deep groundwater aquifers. These services are typically used by the urban poor, but operated on a for-profit basis, which means they actually <a href="https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/9277/Art7-1-6.pdf?sequence=1">come at higher costs</a> than the heavily subsidised centralised water supply system. </p>
<h2>An alternative approach</h2>
<p>While governments have floundered, Bangalore has seen a resurgence of <a href="https://www.thenatureofcities.com/2012/10/07/a-tale-of-two-lakes-collective-action-in-cities/">citizen-led collectives</a> working to protect and rejuvenate the old tanks and open wells – and open them up to poor and disadvantaged citizens. These collectives have also innovated, exploring how treated sewage can contribute to the supply. In <a href="http://biometrust.blogspot.com/2015/04/jakkur-lake-ecosystem-and-its-challenges.html">Jakkur Lake</a>, for instance, treated sewage is filtered through a human-made wetland and into the lake itself, fostering a healthy ecosystem as well as helping to recharge groundwater. </p>
<p>Initiatives have blossomed online, too: the Facebook page <a href="https://www.facebook.com/groups/654818214611691/">Open wells of India and the world</a> is a place where members can upload photographs of any open wells they encounter, along with their location. By documenting many little known open wells which survive across the city and beyond, it provides a fascinating glimpse into the potential such options hold for harnessing and storing rain water. One particularly poignant image was shared by local man Vishwanath Srikantaiah: a massive open well, recharged by the Jakkur lake. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224023/original/file-20180620-137720-nlkd4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224023/original/file-20180620-137720-nlkd4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224023/original/file-20180620-137720-nlkd4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224023/original/file-20180620-137720-nlkd4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224023/original/file-20180620-137720-nlkd4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224023/original/file-20180620-137720-nlkd4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224023/original/file-20180620-137720-nlkd4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224023/original/file-20180620-137720-nlkd4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An open well near Jakkur lake, replenished.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.facebook.com/zenrainman/media_set?set=a.10152984175097555.1073741873.564692554&amp%3Btype=3">S. Vishwanath/Facebook</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>The efforts of <a href="http://www.biome-solutions.com/">Biome</a>, <a href="http://icfn.in/">India Cares Foundation</a> and <a href="http://bengaluru.citizenmatters.in/bangalore-lake-revival-solutions-part-2-21106">Friends of Lakes</a> – combined with the local expertise of traditional well diggers – have restored <a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/this-summer-rejuvenated-wells-and-ponds-will-keep-cubbon-park-green/articleshow/63167096.cms">seven public wells</a> within the city’s well-known Cubbon Park. Thanks to an approach that combines local knowledge and innovative problem solving, the wells now produce about 65,000 litres of water per day and help to meet the water demands of the park. </p>
<p>Grand technological visions have proved incapable of meeting Bangalore’s needs since colonial times. But local, community-led measures to manage and replenish water have a good chance of creating a <a href="https://www.thenatureofcities.com/2015/07/02/open-wells-and-urban-resilience/">water-secure, resilient city</a>: an object lesson for those planning cities for the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98494/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hita Unnikrishnan receives funding from a Newton International Fellowship granted to her by the British Academy and hosted by the Urban Institute, The University of Sheffield. She is also a visiting faculty at the Azim Premji University, Bengaluru, India. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Harini Nagendra receives research funding from the Centre for Urban Ecological Sustainability, Azim Premji University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vanesa Castán Broto receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Funding, the British Academy and the Leverhulme Trust. She is a member of the Board of Directors of the Landscape Research Group Ltd.</span></em></p>Bangalore’s forgotten water wells are being revived, to help the city overcome centuries-old supply issues.Hita Unnikrishnan, Newton International Fellow, University of SheffieldHarini Nagendra, Professor of Sustainability, Azim Premji UniversityVanesa Castán Broto, Professorial Fellow, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/917242018-02-20T14:37:28Z2018-02-20T14:37:28ZWhy your tourist toilet habits are bad for locals – and the environment<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206809/original/file-20180216-50550-1yppnws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>While many prospective holidaymakers actively seek a change in cuisine or climate when choosing their destination, standardised sanitation usually remains a must.</p>
<p>You might think that the preference for a porcelain pew is harmless, but in reality it can put a serious strain on both the local population and the environment. In fact, many of the most pervasive problems associated with tourism can be seen through the toilet bowl.</p>
<p>Research suggests that in some locations <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261517711000793">up to 40% of water is consumed by tourists</a>. Tourists tend to splash out <a href="https://www.tourismconcern.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Unit2-Resource-A-1.pdf">far more per day on average</a> than local residents, who are often <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160738312000047">outcompeted</a> by industry for water access. Using limited freshwater supplies to flush tourists’ toilets means less for residents’ drinking, cleaning and cooking needs.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207106/original/file-20180220-116360-1g3sdxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207106/original/file-20180220-116360-1g3sdxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207106/original/file-20180220-116360-1g3sdxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207106/original/file-20180220-116360-1g3sdxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207106/original/file-20180220-116360-1g3sdxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207106/original/file-20180220-116360-1g3sdxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207106/original/file-20180220-116360-1g3sdxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Don’t be scared.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/old-style-japan-toilet-415484425?src=dQP67N10AKsBsw_E8TjrIg-1-3">Heemsuhree/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Environmentally, the sheer volume of incoming tourists can come at a high price. Local sewage facilities often struggle to cope with the influx of human waste. Many small islands with limited infrastructure, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michelle_Mycoo/publication/249023794_Sustainable_Tourism_Using_Regulations_Market_Mechanisms_and_Green_Certification_A_Case_Study_of_Barbados/links/5591255108aed6ec4bf69627.pdf">such as Barbados</a>, have no choice but to pump raw sewage straight into the sea, putting vast swathes of the Caribbean’s coral reefs at risk.</p>
<p>This defecatory deluge also depletes limited water reserves. In Cape Town, hotels are having to <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/cape-town-drought-water-shortage-luxury-five-star-hotels-day-zero-laundry-showers-toilet-flush-pool-a8191966.html">abruptly limit guests’ water usage</a> as the city suffers drought. In Bali, fast-growing tourism demand is linked to <a href="http://www.idepfoundation.org/en/bwp/summary">rapid depletion of the island’s water resources</a>.</p>
<h2>Sanitation solutions</h2>
<p>These economic and environmental harms often stem from a misplaced sense of cultural superiority that accompanies us to the bathroom. The internet is awash with travellers’ <a href="https://thetravelmanuel.com/why-malaysia-has-the-worst-toilets-in-the-world/">toilet horror stories</a>, written with apparently little social sensitivity or willingness to compromise.</p>
<p>Those fortunate enough to be able to travel might want to remind themselves of UN estimates for 2017, which suggest that <a href="http://www.unwater.org/new-publication-whounicef-joint-monitoring-programme-2017-report/">61% of the global population</a> – roughly 4.5 billion people – lack access to a toilet or latrine that disposes of waste safely. Westerners tend to judge other cultures harshly, when really they should be judging global inequality, poverty and politics.</p>
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<p>Perhaps some judgement should be reserved for people in rich countries themselves, where bathroom norms aren’t exactly perfect. For example, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/may/18/truth-about-poo-doing-it-wrong-giulia-enders-squatting">squatting</a> rather than sitting is better for the colon. Rather than a sight to be avoided, a glance at one’s waste before flushing can in fact be a <a href="https://www.cnwl.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/Healthy_Bowel-_Patient_Information_leaflet.pdf">quick and easy health check</a>. Embarrassment about bodily functions is inhibiting when holidays are meant to be liberating.</p>
<p>Different sanitation solutions suit different situations. The <a href="http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/11/17/world-toilet-day-2017">World Bank</a> and the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/magazine/issues/fall-2016/articles/sustainable-toilets-and-their-role-in-freshwater-conservation">WWF</a> have both worked to celebrate toilet innovations across the world that challenge preconceptions and improve sustainability. For instance, <a href="http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/11/17/world-toilet-day-2017">urine-diverting privies in Bolivia</a> are an integral link in a chain that converts waste into fertiliser for growing crops. Cranfield University is developing the <a href="http://www.nanomembranetoilet.org/">Nano Membrane Toilet</a>, which converts waste into clean water and energy, without the need for external power or water.</p>
<p>Some Western tourist locations are already rethinking their taste in toilets. Composting toilets introduced in various Scottish nature reserves have proved <a href="https://www.fvl.org.uk/files/2314/5933/7417/Eco-loo_Case_Studies.pdf">highly popular with visitors</a>. Melbourne Zoo and other attractions have implemented <a href="https://www.zoo.org.au/about-us/vision-and-mission/environmental-sustainability/saving-water">water conservation and recycling measures</a> in restrooms, including waterless urinals. The increasing use of such practices by authorities and businesses will only help to challenge harmful expectations when people travel further afield.</p>
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<h2>Potty training</h2>
<p>There are also simple changes that tourists can make when going to the bathroom that will have a positive impact on the environment and local communities, and possibly even lead to more interesting holiday experiences.</p>
<p>Remember that different ecological settings require different bathroom styles. Always avoid flushing wipes and other non-biodegradables. In water stressed areas, be conscious of your water usage. Don’t demand what local people don’t have. The threat of extreme drought has forced Cape Town luxury hotels to ask guests to limit the length of showers, turn off the tap while brushing their teeth, and <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/cape-town-drought-water-shortage-luxury-five-star-hotels-day-zero-laundry-showers-toilet-flush-pool-a8191966.html">let it mellow if its yellow</a>, but actions like these could benefit locals in tourist destinations across the developing world.</p>
<p>Support small businesses. Their toilets may not always be gleaming, but the experience might be more memorable. While luxury tourism in developing countries <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-ethical-to-take-a-luxury-holiday-in-a-developing-country-80984">rarely benefits those in need</a>, going local is one way to contribute. </p>
<p>Lastly, nurture your sense of adventure. If you want to live like a local, you should defecate like one. Pack your hand sanitiser and spare toilet roll, and immerse yourself in local culture. Get ready to try out new facilities, not just whatever commode is à la mode. There are <a href="http://www.traveller.com.au/traveller-10-the-worlds-top-toilets-gzs1l0">toilet attractions</a> dotted all over the globe that are well worth a visit. For example, why not try the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/09/south-korea-toilet-theme-park">Haewoojae Museum</a> in South Korea, solely dedicated to celebrating the lavatory.</p>
<p>We shouldn’t expect all toilets to look the same. Tourism is about challenging expectations, exploring alternatives and expanding horizons. For the sake of the environment and the vulnerable, it is high time that we became more open-minded and adventurous with our toilette when travelling. After all, when in Rome, wipe as the Romans wiped (using a <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2016/01/ancient-roman-toilets-gross/423072/">wet sponge on a stick</a>, apparently).</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91724/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brendan Canavan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If you want to live like a local when on holiday, you should defecate like one.Brendan Canavan, Senior Lecturer in Marketing, University of HuddersfieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/794412017-07-03T14:54:26Z2017-07-03T14:54:26ZCape Town needs a new approach to manage water<p>Cape Town, located in South Africa’s Western Cape, is facing one of its worst droughts <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-40002770">in over a century</a>. The city, and southern Africa more broadly, have been experiencing significant water shortages for the last two years that were <a href="https://theconversation.com/el-nino-threatens-southern-africa-with-yet-another-drought-50491">not entirely unforeseen</a>. </p>
<p>Since 2001, Cape Town has had a <a href="http://greencape.co.za/assets/Sector-files/water/Water-conservation-and-demand-management-WCDM/CoCT-Long-term-water-conservation-and-water-demand-management-strategy-2007.pdf">water conservation and demand management policy</a> to reduce the city’s water demand. These efforts have kept overall water demand relatively stable until 2014, when demand started to rise. Due to a combination of <a href="http://www.dwa.gov.za/Hydrology/Provincial%20Rain/Default.aspx">lower rainfall in the winter of 2016</a> and a relatively slow initial governance response to the drought, the city officially declared a <a href="http://www.iol.co.za/bolander/news/city-of-cape-town-declares-water-crisis-9316276">water crisis</a> this year. </p>
<p>In early April, Cape Town was down to its last <a href="http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/100-days-of-water-left-in-cape-town-dams-restrictions-to-be-tightened-20170403">100 days of water</a>. The water <a href="http://www.capetown.gov.za/Family%20and%20home/residential-utility-services/residential-water-and-sanitation-services/this-weeks-dam-levels">levels</a> in the dams that supply the city had fallen to 20% of their capacity. In response, the city imposed <a href="http://resource.capetown.gov.za/documentcentre/Documents/Procedures%2c%20guidelines%20and%20regulations/Water%20Restrictions%20Guidelines.pdf">level four water restrictions</a>. These include stricter limits on residential water use and strongly recommend a limit of 100 litres per person per day. They also include a ban on irrigation, and a <a href="http://resource.capetown.gov.za/documentcentre/Documents/Procedures%2c%20guidelines%20and%20regulations/Water%20Restrictions%20Guidelines.pdf">350 litres per day cap</a> on the free basic water allocation for impoverished households, regardless of household size. </p>
<p>More recently, the Mayor of Cape Town <a href="https://www.westerncape.gov.za/eadp/news/statement-mayor-de-lille-water-resilience-heightened-approach-avoiding-water-shortages-and">announced</a> the preparation of a new “Water Resilience plan” to address the future of the city’s water. The details of the plan have not yet been publicly announced, however the mayor <a href="http://www.iol.co.za/capetimes/opinion/de-lille-building-climate-resilient-cities-8730287">highlighted</a> that because of climate change, the city should shift towards water sensitive planning. This would involve:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>managing all urban water (stormwater, groundwater, rivers and treated wastewater effluent) in an integrated way.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The city is considering <a href="http://edges.sites.olt.ubc.ca/files/2017/06/The-Future-of-Drought-Management-for-Cape-Town-Summary-for-Policy-Makers.pdf">stormwater harvesting and groundwater storage</a> as potential longer term solutions. They have been shown to address <a href="https://phys.org/news/2015-05-stormwater-cities-dont-flush-rainwater.html">drought risk and improve resilience</a>. </p>
<p>Building resilience in the city’s water sector will also require addressing climate change, drought, and flooding in the winter seasons. Experts at the University of Cape Town have promoted the implementation of a <a href="http://wsud.co.za">Water Sensitive Urban Design</a> that offers ways to build resilience to various risks. This approach involves various interventions at the city scale that use the water that flows through the city more efficiently. This includes focusing on sustainable management and use of stormwater. This approach has been successfully applied in others contexts, such as <a href="https://www.melbournewater.com.au/Planning-and-building/Stormwater-management/WSUD-intro/Pages/default.aspx">Australia</a>. </p>
<p>Given that Cape Town is currently facing significant water shortages and can expect <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169415003789">more frequent droughts</a> in the future, the time is ripe for more carefully planned long term interventions. </p>
<h2>Building a water resilient city</h2>
<p>There is no established way to build resilience in the water sector, but a few ideas have been proposed.</p>
<ol>
<li><p>To build water-related resilience a city needs flexible institutions that can respond quickly and proactively to changes. </p></li>
<li><p>Breaking down the silos that isolate water-related and other government departments, such as spatial planning and disaster risk management, community organisations and civil society, to facilitate more inclusive and informed planning.</p></li>
<li><p>Making use of natural or green infrastructure in the water system which can serve as a natural buffer against water-related risks, such as flooding or drought. </p></li>
</ol>
<p>Cape Town has already started considering <a href="https://theconversation.com/stormwater-harvesting-could-help-south-africa-manage-its-water-shortages-74377?sa=google&sq=stormwater+harvesting&sr=1">stormwater harvesting</a>, which has shown initial success. It involves collecting, treating and storing stormwater for potential reuse. It’s usually used for non-potable purposes or to <a href="http://www.scielo.org.za/">replenish water in aquifers</a>. But it has only been done on a very small scale in South Africa, limited to on site systems used for irrigation at factories or other businesses. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.sajs.co.za/sites/default/files/publications/pdf/SAJS-113-1-2_Carden_ResearchLetter.pdf">Research has shown</a> that if treated stormwater is used for non-potable purposes -– such as irrigation and toilet flushing – it could reduce the total current residential potable water demand by more than 20%. This could be a significant water savings for the city. Of course, there are challenges associated with implementing reused stormwater, including <a href="http://www.sajs.co.za/system/tdf/publications/pdf/SAJS-113-5-6_Knight_Commentary.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=35701&force=">water quality concerns</a> and <a href="http://edges.sites.olt.ubc.ca/files/2017/06/The-Future-of-Drought-Management-for-Cape-Town-Summary-for-Policy-Makers.pdf">limited institutional capacity</a>. </p>
<p>Successful stormwater management involves building or creating space for natural (green) ponds or corridors. These can absorb excess flood water, and prevent or reduce downstream flooding by slowing down the flow of stormwater through the city. They can also help replenish groundwater, either naturally, or through artificial recharge – the process of using stormwater to manually recharge groundwater <a href="http://www.sajs.co.za/sites/default/files/publications/pdf/SAJS-113-1-2_Carden_ResearchLetter.pdf">aquifers</a>. But natural detention ponds may also increase the <a href="https://theconversation.com/resilience-in-south-africas-urban-water-landscape-60461">vulnerability to flooding of informal settlements</a>, if they are not carefully planned. </p>
<p>More importantly, building resilience in the water sector involves more than just technical solutions. It requires institutions that are able to respond proactively to early signs of stress, and to cater to the needs of diverse populations. Cape Town, like other African cities, has <a href="https://theconversation.com/resilience-in-south-africas-urban-water-landscape-60461">unique urbanisation</a> challenges and persistent social justice <a href="https://theconversation.com/fighting-injustice-helps-in-creating-resilient-urban-spaces-68939">issues</a> that need to be considered in the transformation to a more water sensitive city. </p>
<p>Implementation should take into account Cape Town’s ongoing social inequality challenges. Research has already shown that the <a href="http://www.comminit.com/dfid/content/rising-waters-working-together-cape-towns-flooding">impact of disasters are not equally distributed</a>. In dealing with the current water shortages and planning for the future, the city should consider carefully how the costs and benefits of building resilience in the water sector are distributed among different members of society. </p>
<p><em>This article is based on a <a href="http://edges.sites.olt.ubc.ca/files/2017/06/The-Future-of-Drought-Management-for-Cape-Town-Summary-for-Policy-Makers.pdf">policy brief</a>, co-authored with <a href="http://edges.sites.olt.ubc.ca/people/emma-luker/">Emma Luker</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79441/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lucy Rodina receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the University of British Columbia (including the Peter Wall Institute for Advanced Studies and the Liu Institute for Global Issues)</span></em></p>Building resilience in Cape Town’s water sector will require addressing risks like climate change, drought and flooding. Stormwater and groundwater are tipped as potential solutions.Lucy Rodina, PhD Candidate, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/689392017-04-20T15:49:02Z2017-04-20T15:49:02ZFighting injustice helps in creating resilient urban spaces<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164067/original/image-20170405-14626-wo19d1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cape Town offers is an example of one city balancing resilience and justice.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Resilience is a word that’s thrown around a lot these days. It means different things to different people, but generally alludes to the ability of people or systems to <a href="http://www.resalliance.org/resilience">bounce back from shocks</a>, and, increasingly find ways to emerge stronger than before. Shocks might be acute – like floods or cholera outbreaks – or chronic – like stress because of poverty or insecurity. The term, that emerged from ecological literature, is concerned with how systems work. It has grown to be used in many fields including engineering, psychology, development studies and geography.</p>
<p>The popular concept of <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Y5FnAq9kjxgC&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=building+resilience+Berkes&ots=-t9-8ghx1R&sig=IjJ5ZMjjhprRK8JMyaWAJrnzWtg#v=onepage&q=building%20resilience%20Berkes&f=false">building resilience</a> is touted as a positive one. It’s seen as a way to find new opportunities and innovations to help people deal with stresses that affect their lives. But the popular push for resilience can bring its own set of problems.</p>
<p>Resilience is gaining increasing popularity at an international policy level. It’s in the 2015 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Paris <a href="http://unfccc.int/paris_agreement/items/9485.php">Agreement</a>, in the 2015 <a href="http://www.unisdr.org/we/coordinate/sendai-framework">Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction</a>, and most notably, in the new <a href="https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs">Sustainable Development Goals</a>. </p>
<p>In the <a href="http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html">development goals</a> the language of resilience is used in multiple ways, alongside wellbeing and poverty alleviation. Resilience is invoked in five goals.</p>
<p>But pushing a resilience agenda can have unintended consequences. Do efforts to build resilience automatically address injustices and inequality? We argue here, and in a <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0956247816686905">recently published article</a>, that they don’t. A focus on justice is lacking in resilience responses, particularly in the African context, where there’s high inequality, high poverty and significant injustices.</p>
<h2>Resilience on the ground</h2>
<p>There are concrete attempts to translate the global frameworks into actions on the ground. For instance, the <a href="https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/">Rockefeller Foundation</a> has been supporting <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org">cities internationally</a> since 2013 to put the concept of resilience into practice. Seven of Rockefeller’s 100 Resilient Cities are located in Africa. They are Nairobi, Addis Ababa, Accra, Dakar, Lagos, Cape Town and Durban. And many other cities and towns across Africa are involved in <a href="http://www.flowafrica.org">finding ways to increase their resilience</a>.</p>
<p>This seems perfectly logical. African cities have high levels of vulnerability. This is because of rapid in-migration, old infrastructure, limited capacity to manage the city, and high levels of poverty and informality, among other things. African cities are also places where innovation and growth is taking place. </p>
<p>Potentially, the development pathways of urban areas in Africa could be leapfrogged to <a href="http://www.christianaid.org.uk/images/LowCarbonAfrica.pdf">more sustainable pathways</a>. Pushing for resilience in urban Africa is central to helping build liveable and thriving cities.</p>
<p>But balancing resilience and justice is a much trickier proposition.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mzuzu Malawi, is another example of the problems inherent in balancing justice and resilience.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lukasz Lukomski/Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Unintended consequences</h2>
<p>The City of Cape Town offers one of many examples of the challenges in balancing resilience and justice. City officials were aware of the need to manage their water leakage problem and realised that many households with high bills and leakages were relatively poor. </p>
<p>The city developed a programme to fit water management devices in the homes of poor people who have <a href="http://www.capetown.gov.za/Family%20and%20home/residential-utility-services/residential-water-and-sanitation-services/water-management-devices">high water bills.</a> These devices limit household water supply to 350 litres a day (based on households’ free water of 6kl per month plus an extra 4.5kl of free water monthly). When installed, the household debt is written off and the water leaks are fixed. </p>
<p>From the city’s point of view, this programme is increasing resilience through securing water supply and debt management for indigent households. </p>
<p>But residents find these devices <a href="http://www.emg.org.za/images/downloads/water_cl_ch/wdms%20shadow%20side.pdf">punitive and unjust</a>. Many have found that 350 litres are often not enough and leaks often resurface, as outlined in <a href="https://www.springerprofessional.de/en/water-rights-and-poverty-an-environmental-justice-approach-to-an/11806146">a recent paper</a>. Because the meter starts recording water use around 4.30am, the allocated water can be gone by 6am if there are leaks. This is just when the household needs the water. Households often end up asking neighbours for water, and find it hard to meet their economic and household water needs.</p>
<p>Another example of the problems inherent in balancing issues of justice and resilience comes from the city of Mzuzu, in northern Malawi. Here, flooding poses a <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212420916306719">major risk to the city</a>. To reduce the impact of flooding, the city introduced building codes that would make houses more resistant. </p>
<p>But what the city didn’t foresee was that the higher expense of building houses that could meet these codes would push people away from formally planned areas to build in informal, unplanned settlements. Unsurprisingly, the areas where they have settled are the only ones available, precisely because they are most vulnerable to flooding, for example along the steep riverbanks. And so people find themselves pushed by circumstances to build their non-code-compliant housing in the most flood prone areas of the city.</p>
<p>The people driving resilience interventions are often those in powerful positions. And there’s limited room for more marginalised groups to have their voice heard. The City of Cape Town, for example, didn’t consult local communities before putting in the water management devices. They just did it. </p>
<h2>Collaboration is crucial</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.reachingresilience.org/IMG/pdf/resilience_new_utopia_or_new_tyranny.pdf">Resilience approaches tend not to be pro-poor</a>, and issues of justice are often not considered. So, if resilience efforts don’t explicitly consider justice issues, they will end up making those who are the most in need of building resilience the least resilient.</p>
<p>But without justice and poverty, inequality can’t be reduced, nor can wellbeing be improved. And, if people are poor, suffer high inequality, and have low levels of wellbeing, they can’t withstand or respond to shocks and stresses well: the very thing that resilience-building is supposed to address. </p>
<p>There are no easy answers to ensure that resilience approaches don’t undermine justice. Both procedural justice – which looks at who gets a say in decision making – and distributive justice – which looks at who gets what slice of the pie – will need to be a part of the push for resilience. Decision makers and communities will need to work together to discuss these two questions, whenever “resilience-building” efforts are involved: <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02723638.2016.1206395.">resilience of what and for whom?</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68939/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gina Ziervogel receives funding from the University of Cape Town African Climate and Development Initiative Chair Programme and from the National Research Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lorena Pasquini receives funding under the Urban Africa: Risk Knowledge (Urban ARK) research and capacity building programme, funded by the UK's Department for International Development and Economic and Social Research Council. </span></em></p>If resilience efforts don’t consider justice issues, they will end up making those who are the most in need the least resilient.Gina Ziervogel, Associate Professor, Department of Environmental and Geographical Science and African Climate and Development Initiative Research Chair, University of Cape TownLorena Pasquini, Research Coordinator, Lecturer and Senior Researcher, African Climate & Development Initiative, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/604612016-06-14T15:20:54Z2016-06-14T15:20:54ZResilience in South Africa’s urban water landscape<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/126519/original/image-20160614-22416-1qlxgci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some informal settlements in Cape Town are located on or near wetlands.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Resilience is becoming a core concept in water governance. It refers to the ability of communities, cities or regions to withstand the challenges posed by an increased intensity and frequency of floods and droughts. </p>
<p>Resilience often involves adopting diverse, flexible, adaptive and redundant or supplemental systems. This pertains to both physical infrastructures and governance arrangements. Resilience in the urban water sector also focuses on restoring and maintaining water ecosystems, such as wetlands, rivers or streams.</p>
<p>The Stockholm-based <a href="http://www.resalliance.org/">Resilience Alliance</a> and other Euro-American institutions have largely driven the frameworks for resilience. However, they are now increasingly being applied in African cities. For example, Accra, Cape Town, Dakar, Durban, Enugu and Kigali are all participating in the Rockefeller Foundation’s <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org/#/-_/">100 Resilient Cities</a> initiative. Each city appoints a <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org/blog/entry/what-is-a-chief-resilience-officer1#/-_/">chief resilience officer</a> to lead action on addressing its specific resilience challenges. For <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2016/may/25/resilient-cities-addis-yiwa-manchester-washington-in-pictures">Cape Town</a> these include civil unrest, rainfall flooding, infrastructure failure and disease outbreaks.</p>
<p>Another example from southern Africa is the <a href="http://www.africancentreforcities.net/programme/future-resilience-for-african-cities-lands-fractal/">Future Resilience for African Cities and Lands</a> programme. It engages decision-makers and officials in cities like Cape Town, Windhoek, Maputo and Lusaka to develop plans for resilience to climate change.</p>
<p><a href="http://icgc.umn.edu/collaborations/international-partnerships/partnership-university-british-columbia/international">Our research</a> looks at the meaning, application and utility of resilience in urban water governance in African contexts. We focus specifically on Cape Town, in South Africa’s Western Cape province. </p>
<h2>An African focus</h2>
<p>African cities are often sites of rapid or unplanned growth, with poorly coordinated or spotty development. This has important implications for resilience planning in the face of floods and droughts. It requires addressing both formal and informal forms of urban development.</p>
<p>The Western Cape faces additional challenges. The projected impacts of <a href="https://www.capetown.gov.za/en/EnvironmentalResourceManagement/publications/Documents/Framework_for_Adaptation_to_Climate_Change_(FAC4T)_08_2006_38200713832_465.pdf">climate change</a> include increasing mean annual temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns and decreasing winter rainfall in the western parts of the region. More intense storms are also expected. This will likely lead to flooding, which already poses serious concerns in the region. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/126515/original/image-20160614-22418-12dplxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/126515/original/image-20160614-22418-12dplxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/126515/original/image-20160614-22418-12dplxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/126515/original/image-20160614-22418-12dplxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/126515/original/image-20160614-22418-12dplxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/126515/original/image-20160614-22418-12dplxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/126515/original/image-20160614-22418-12dplxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/126515/original/image-20160614-22418-12dplxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flooding in Cape Town’s informal settlements poses a serious risk to people living there.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Addressing urban resilience also requires meaningful engagement with historical patterns of colonial development and apartheid legacies. Cape Town is a stark example of persisting high levels of social, spatial and structural inequalities. This is despite various efforts to address these issues.</p>
<h2>Key dimensions of water resilience</h2>
<p>Our ongoing research focuses on the question: what does resilience mean – or what should it mean – in Cape Town’s urban water sector? </p>
<p>Preliminary literature and policy analyses show a few key factors of water resilience.</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Resilience in <a href="http://poliswaterproject.org/publication/854">water governance</a> comes from a mix of government structures, watershed groups and various stakeholders. Effective coordination, little conflict and working partnerships between government and stakeholders are key drivers of resilience. For Cape Town, this means increased collaboration between government, civil society and other key actors.</p></li>
<li><p>Healthy watersheds and high biodiversity contribute to resilience in the face of climate change. Natural systems like wetlands provide <a href="http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.energy.32.031306.102758">many mitigation services</a>. These include temporary floodwater storage, ground water recharge and storm water purification. This calls for deeper integration of hydrology and ecology in water management policies.</p></li>
<li><p>Resilience often means living and dealing with floods. It requires accepting certain levels of flood risk, preparing for the unexpected and adopting more innovative approaches. These include natural flood retention systems and other soft approaches to flood protection. This requires addressing informal urbanisation, which often happens in sensitive watersheds.</p></li>
<li><p>For disaster response, resilience calls for proactive approaches. This means that cities should focus on building capacity to deal with disasters as opposed to relying on relief when they happen.</p></li>
<li><p>Building community resilience to floods, droughts or other water risks is a crucial aspect. Livelihood diversification, flexible settlement options and greater reliance on community level planning are some of the proposed strategies. This requires capacity building in various areas, including in impoverished and informal settlements. </p></li>
<li><p>Flexibility in governance and infrastructure systems is also necessary to manage different conditions of water availability or water-related risks. This means learning, reflection and experimentation should be built into governance and planning processes.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Embracing African urbanism</h2>
<p>Some of these insights seem rather obvious but it remains unclear how effective they’ll be in the context of the high levels of informality, poverty and inequality. </p>
<p>In terms of flooding, some informal settlements in Cape Town are located on or near wetlands or flood detention ponds. These are designated areas for absorbing excess water to protect against flooding. During floods, these <a href="http://www.acdi.uct.ac.za/news/flooding-cape-town-under-climate-risk-fliccr-project-report">settlements are highly vulnerable</a>. </p>
<p>Flood detention ponds can increase overall urban resilience to floods but they may also increase the vulnerability to flooding of informal settlements located on these sites. Unfortunately impoverished urban residents do not have the capacity or resources to plan where to build their communities. Informal settlements are often built on an ad hoc basis. </p>
<p>Addressing urban inequalities is central to formulating water resilience strategies. Embracing endemic, non-Western or <a href="http://www.africancentreforcities.net/can-transcend-slum-urbanism-africa/">more organic</a> forms of urbanism is crucial. This means working with, rather than against informality. It is also important to build governance capacity to help address these issues. </p>
<p>The complexities of African urbanism and persistent social and environmental concerns should be central in defining and planning for resilience. Resilience in an African urban context should adopt a transformative character. This can be done by building on diverse governance and development processes, including informal ones.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/60461/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lucy Rodina receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council and the University of British Columbia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leila Harris receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for work related to this article. </span></em></p>Many African cities are sites of rapid urbanisation. To ensure that such societies are water resilient, it is necessary to address formal and informal forms of development.Lucy Rodina, PhD Candidate, University of British ColumbiaLeila Harris, Associate Professor, IRES, Institute for Gender, Race, Sexuality and Social Justice, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.