Welcome to Matters of the Mind, a series which examines the clinician’s bible for diagnosing mental disorders, the DSM, and the controversy surrounding the forthcoming fifth edition.
You’re feeling down. But do you have a low mood because you’re dealing with the loss of a loved one, a break-up or divorce, or abusive co-workers? Or are you suffering from a depressive disorder: a recognised mental illness caused by an imbalance in the neurotransmitters in the brain, for which a variety of effective medical treatments are available?
Modern psychiatry no longer views our low moods as misguided reactions to life’s challenges. Instead, negative emotions are seen as biomedical problems which often require a prescription. This fundamental change in psychiatry occurred in the 1980s, when we shifted from the second to the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders of the American Psychiatric Association (the DSM).
DSM-I and II
After World War II, there were two kinds of psychiatrists: some ran large mental hospitals which housed great numbers of individuals with severe and persistent forms of mental illness; others were psychotherapists, supporting relatively well individuals who were facing unusual challenges or who were stuck for one reason or another. Psychiatrists thought the problems of this second group were related to what was happening in their lives — or their misguided, exaggerated, or misinformed reaction to that.
The DSM-I and II addressed the needs of both groups. There was a section on severe forms of mental illness (useful for mental hospital psychiatrists) and a section on the disorders of normal people containing a fair amount of psychodynamic jargon (for the worried well). The DSM was useful for collecting statistics and for standardising approaches. At the time, psychotherapy was considered an art — and diagnosis was only one element of that art.
DSM-III
Everything changed with the third edition of the DSM. The authors felt it was time to clean up the manual: out with psychoanalytic mumbo jumbo, in with scientifically proven diagnostic categories.
Because the cause of most mental illnesses was still shrouded in mystery, the aim was to present neutral descriptions of symptom patterns as the basis for psychiatric diagnosis. (This, by the way, made psychiatric diagnosis different from diagnosis in all other medical specialities, where physicians rely on objective physical findings and medical tests, and not only on the observation of symptoms.)

The categorical view embodied in DSM-III assumed that mental disorders are discrete entities that can be defined by specific sets of symptoms. And that, of course, is still an open question.
In clinical practice, DSM-III led to a “Chinese menu” approach to psychiatric diagnosis: a specific mental illness can be diagnosed if a sufficient number of boxes can be ticked. This is only of limited value in clinical practice.
Blurry boundaries
Psychiatric research indicates that things are more complicated than the manual leads us to believe. In reality, many diagnostic categories overlap. Over the years, many new diagnostic categories have been proposed. As a consequence, many individuals now fit several diagnostic labels. Should their different disorders all be treated separately, or at the same time?
Because every individual patient tends to present a unique constellation of symptoms, many practising psychiatrists use an “escape category” and diagnose their patients with a particular disorder not otherwise specified. This sub-category is unusually popular in clinical practice, indicating that all the other sub-categories do not fit the bill.
Clinical experience indicates that most presentations of mental illness can be located on a spectrum. So a dimensional rather than a categorical approach might be more useful. But unfortunately, it is much more difficult to write a dimensional manual.
Research classifications
One reason to reorganise the psychiatrists’ bible so thoroughly was to facilitate pharmacological research for mental disorders. In 1954, chlorpromazine was introduced for the treatment of schizophrenia. To investigate its effectiveness, it was necessary to standardise diagnostic practices across mental hospitals.
According to psychiatric statistics at the time, the prevalence of schizophrenia was three times higher in the United States than it was in United Kingdom, where patients were diagnosed with manic-depressive illness much more often. Clearly, something was amiss.

DSM-III contained a promise: once reliable diagnostic categories were adopted, fruitful medical research into the nature of mental illness could be conducted. To the proponents of DSM-5 (to be released in May 2013), this promise has been more than fulfilled. A great number of new diagnostic categories have been defined while many others have been refined or discarded.
To the critics, things appear much more problematic. According to them, psychiatric research is tainted because it is paid for by multinational pharmaceutical companies to create a market for their drugs.
Widening the net
The number of individuals who meet the diagnostic criteria of the latest edition of the manual is growing steadily. Biological psychiatrists have increased the number of diagnostic categories that cover behaviours and emotions which, until recently, were considered to be normal. The number of fidgety or dreamy kids on Ritalin and the number of moody adults on antidepressants has never been higher.
Despite its many promises, the biological approach to mental illness has only achieved a limited amount of success. Critics have argued that the symptom-based approach of the current DSM does not take life events into account. It could be that helping individuals to deal with the circumstances of life is more fruitful than medicalising human distress.
This is the first part of our series Matters of the Mind. To read the other instalments, follow the links below:
Part one: Explainer: what is the DSM and how are mental disorders diagnosed?
Part three: Strange or just plain weird? Cultural variation in mental illness
Part four: Don’t pull your hair out over trichotillomania
Part five: When stuff gets in the way of life: hoarding and the DSM-5
Part six: Psychiatric labels and kids: benefits, side-effects and confusion
Part seven: Redefining autism in the DSM-5
Part eight: Depression, drugs and the DSM: a tale of self-interest and public outrage
Part nine: Why prolonged grief should be listed as a mental disorder)
Chris Aitchison
logged in via Twitter
"To the critics, things appear much more problematic."
"Critics have argued that the symptom-based approach of the current DSM does not take life events into account."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style_(words_to_watch)#Unsupported_attributions
Who are the critics? What are their credentials? What are their arguments?
"Despite its many promises, the biological approach to mental illness has only achieved a limited amount of success."
Do you have links to any research…
Read moreMeg Thornton
Dilletante
I suspect at least some of these critics are people who have been labelled "mentally ill" themselves.
I have a long-term, chronic depressive disorder which I suspect is actually medication-resistant. I grew up in a household with two depressed parents, and three out of four of my grandparents were subject to depressive episodes. I've been on at least three different medications to try and clear up my depression, and in each case, it worked for a while and then just stopped working.
I should…
Read moreChris Aitchison
logged in via Twitter
Thanks Meg for sharing your personal story. When you mention the prevalence of depression in your family, it makes me think that depression is something that can sometimes occur regardless of any underlying psychological trauma or issues. Something that is even hereditary. And that makes me think that counselling may help treat depression sometimes, but not in all or even most instances. Sometimes there may be nothing to counsel, but ones mind is just not playing nicely.
The unfortunate fact…
Read moreEmma Anderson
Artist and Science Junkie
Meg Thornton:
" What I DO have, and what I think should count here, is a forty-year working knowledge of what it feels like to be living inside my head. I'm the world expert at that. "
Damn straight you are, well said. I think it should count here and I think as far as working with another individual human being or a small group is concerned, it does.
Unfortunately we have this category called Depression which is not understood yet. How do we tell the difference between Depression…
Read moreEmma Jennings
logged in via Facebook
I disagree, at least from the perspective of psychology - I can't speak much about psychiatry.
The contemporary focus in psychological treatment has moved away from labeling ("if you tick all six of these boxes I'll diagnose you with ADHD") and toward a 'biopsychosocial' assessment - assessing an individual's biological (direct genetic transmission - chemical imbalance impacting upon cognitive, motor skills, etc), social (including indirect effects of parenting behaviour, e.g. failure to learn…
Read moredwwhitfield
logged in via Twitter
I agree with Emma Jennings, as an ex psychiatric nurse, we dispensed with the 'medical model' and concentrated on the 'patient' as an individual.
It was a joint venture of discussing problems and trying to formulate answers whilst attempting to help the individual gain insight into their present condition
Sue Ieraci
Public hospital clinician
Prof Pols - I recognise that your article is written from the point of view of a historian, but perhaps it could have been better-informed on current psychiatric therapies.
You state that "Modern psychiatry no longer views our low moods as misguided reactions to life’s challenges. Instead, negative emotions are seen as biomedical problems which often require a prescription. " But this is incorrect - psychiatry and psychology distinguish clearly between situational stress and psychiatric or mental…
Read moreVanda Hamilton
logged in via Facebook
I am not a medical professional, but as a community lawyer I work with a lot of people with mental health issues. I find the whole system very concerning, not least the issue of medication.
I see that the comments here about the efficacy of psychotropic medication and I don't deny that it can work. But it seems to me that patients in the public system have medication thrown at them almost willy-nilly until the one or the combinations of medications is found that works. I also find it very disturbing…
Read moreRyan Ferguson
Dentist
My partner is a psych reg and she does care. If not for psychiatric help many of your clients probably wouldn't be here at all. Some people have a pretty shit life and my partner works very hard keeping them going. If they are prescribed medicines its with much thought and is evidence based. Without the medicines many patients would not functional all.
As for the article I think it is written as a historical piece since it does not click with the modern psychiatrist at all. Seems poorly informed and I don't believe it helps anyone.
Sue Ieraci
Public hospital clinician
Ms Hamilton - severe psychiatric illness causes disability of the nature of any severe illness - like cnacer of heart disease. In addition sufferers of psychiatric illness often have the added disability of substance addictions and poor social situations - whether primary or secondary to the psychiatric illness.
The medical arm of society can only provide one arm in the support of these people.
You talk of people who "spend their whole life wandering around the streets, overweight and glassy…
Read moreElizabeth Bathory
Knowledge creator...
Sue, I am usually deferential to your considerable knowledge around public health, but I take particular issue with your comment about people "being managed well on medication". The paternalism inherent within this phrase is the real crux of the issue.
The concept of informed choice is an illusion in the context of mental health. I find it concerning - no - abhorrent - that capacity to make decisions is removed from individuals by virtue of the fact that they have had a diagnostic label applied…
Read moreLaurie Willberg
Journalist
Thank you for a well-written piece.
Psychiatry lost it's mind when it jumped on the "chemical imbalance" bandwagon, largely to promote pharmaceutical products that weren't even initially developed for "psychiatric disorders". It's largely gone downhill from there.
Ryan Ferguson
Dentist
Many medicines are used in areas where they were not intended .. Eg Viagra was made for angina but had certain side-effects. The brain is poorly understood but it is run by neurotransmitters (chemicals) so it does not seem such a stretch that a lack or excess might cause a problem.
Eg. Excess dopamine may trigger psychosis.
Julie Roccisano
Counsellor
While chemicals might be useful they can't be the only treatment a person receives. Drugs do not 'fix' the problem, just make it more manageable, hopefully. Unfortunately sometimes drugs are the only treatment people receive. I have noticed that there seems to be a common myth that drugs are all that is needed.
It is healthy to question the role of pharmaceautical companies. That questioning might lead to finding out that they are behaving ethically, but then isn't it better to find out rather than assume?
Julie Roccisano
Counsellor
Thanks Hans for your article.
I think that the DSM is really sub-standard and I'm pleased to see some mental health professionals and agencies moving towards more wholistic assessments and treatment responses.
Congratulations for speaking up to a profession that commands a lot of status.
Shauna Murray
Research Fellow
Thanks Hans for a very interesting article.
I was once the unwitting victim of a 'tick the box and make a diagnosis' psychologist, albeit a highly qualified (PhD) clinical one who also worked at a local hospital, and a huge proponent of CBT type therapies.
Since I consider myself more in the 'worried well' category, I pity her poor victims in the hospital with more severe issues! But honestly, after that appt with her I really did feel much, much worse. Lots of theories, questionaire type surveys and ideas, but sadly lacking in interpersonal skills, and charging $180 an hour to boot.
Charlotte Caruso
logged in via LinkedIn
I think what people are forgetting here is the most poignant part of this article - there are so many children being prescribed Ritalin - why? Is that in itself not a very valid point? Are we not failing our children by not looking for alternatives to such a prescription? I am sure there ARE cases where it is a very valid solution, and I do not attempt to judge those parents or doctors who have gone down that path- but I myself have been on dex - not for ADHD, but for Narcolepsy, and I can tell you…
Read moreJenny Morris
logged in via Facebook
As anyone with any knowledge of the area knows, the public and private systems are very different. And even then, the quality of care and treatment varies depending on the clinician, access to services and so on.
I'm interested in this statement: "low moods as misguided reactions to life’s challenges". Surely low mood is a normal response to a life event such as divorce, being bullied at work or loss of a loved one? What are we - humans or machines?
In my view, medication has its place, when used appropriately and judiciously, in combination with other therapies. To reject one or the other is to deny a patient a useful, helpful approach to their illness. I can't disagree that there is an increasing medicalisation of normal human behaviour - bigpharma for one, is responsible for this.