tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/academic-success-32216/articlesAcademic success – The Conversation2023-08-11T12:37:58Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2107562023-08-11T12:37:58Z2023-08-11T12:37:58ZBuilding relationships is key for first-year college students – here are 5 easy ways to meet new friends and mentors<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540206/original/file-20230731-235681-npzrog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=188%2C107%2C5802%2C3880&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research shows that campus employment and relationships with peers help college students succeed. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/new-friends-walking-on-university-campus-royalty-free-image/874140162?phrase=college+students&adppopup=true">Ariel Skelley/DigitalVision via Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What’s the best advice you can give to a new college student? Connections are everything. </p>
<p>Research <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/How+College+Affects+Students%3A+A+Third+Decade+of+Research%2C+Volume+2-p-9780787910440">for decades</a> has shown that the relationships students cultivate in college – with professors, staff and fellow students – are key to success. Simply put, human connections matter for learning and well-being in college – they also set students up for <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-Good-Life/Robert-Waldinger/9781982166694">professional and personal fulfillment after they graduate</a>.</p>
<p>College students confirmed the importance of connections when we interviewed more than 250 students at three dozen colleges and universities throughout the U.S. for our new book, “<a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/oa_monograph/book/111986">Connections Are Everything: A College Student’s Guide to Relationship-Rich Education</a>.” The book is free to read online.</p>
<p>Although no two had the same story to tell, what they told was surprisingly similar – and reinforced the research on the power of relationships. What can college students do to harness this power to support their academic success and personal well-being? Here are five steps recommended by students and scholars:</p>
<h2>1. Talk to a professor</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2004.0061">quality and frequency of student-faculty interactions</a> play a major role in learning. Approaching a faculty member can feel intimidating. Still, it can be done in <a href="https://www.centerforengagedlearning.org/books/connections-are-everything/resources/small-steps-to-connect-with-your-professor/">simple ways</a>.</p>
<p>Introduce yourself before or after class. Visit during your professor’s in-person or online <a href="https://www.centerforengagedlearning.org/books/connections-are-everything/resources/office-hours-101/">office hours</a>, which is time set aside for students to meet with their instructor.</p>
<p>You don’t need to connect with every professor right away. Start with one in the first week of the term. You can seek help in or guidance about the class, or you can ask the professor about their professional background.</p>
<p>José Robles, a nursing student at Nevada State College, told us about being surprised at the connections he built with a professor in a required science course that he thought would be “as boring as rocks.” This professor’s teaching inspired him to love geology – and to get excited about learning in general. Jose’s experience is not unusual. A national poll of college graduates found that <a href="https://theconversation.com/mentors-play-critical-role-in-quality-of-college-experience-new-poll-suggests-101861">60% met their most influential faculty mentor</a> in college during their first year.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A student meets with their professor in a classroom." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541047/original/file-20230803-29-los2z2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541047/original/file-20230803-29-los2z2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541047/original/file-20230803-29-los2z2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541047/original/file-20230803-29-los2z2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541047/original/file-20230803-29-los2z2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541047/original/file-20230803-29-los2z2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541047/original/file-20230803-29-los2z2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Research shows that the quality of student-professor interactions can help learning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/teenager-student-studying-with-a-teacher-in-the-royalty-free-image/1356577362?phrase=meeting+with+a+professor++college&adppopup=true">FG Trade/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>2. Make a friend in class</h2>
<p>First-year students often feel alone in big introductory courses and in online classes, but those can be <a href="https://theconversation.com/mentors-play-critical-role-in-quality-of-college-experience-new-poll-suggests-101861">opportunities</a> to connect with students who will help you succeed.</p>
<p>Chloe Inskeep, a <a href="https://firstgen.naspa.org/">first-generation student</a> at the University of Iowa, told us about her strategy for making connections even when classes had almost as many students as the population of her hometown: “Lots of students go to class and then they leave or log out as soon as it ends. For me, just staying after a little bit to chat with other people really helps me find people who I have something in common with.”</p>
<p>Research shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07468342.1992.11973486">students who study together</a> tend to do better academically than students who study alone. They also tend to be less stressed by their classes.</p>
<p>A guide from the Learning Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill recommends that students <a href="https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/study-partners/#:%7E:text=Many%20students%20find%20it%20helpful,of%20a%20comprehensive%20study%20plan.">form small groups of committed individuals</a> who meet at least once weekly, whether online or on campus.</p>
<h2>3. Use the resources that are there for you</h2>
<p>Colleges have many programs and offices to support student learning, development and well-being. These range from writing and tutoring programs to student organizations, counseling centers, and resource hubs for students who identify as LGBTQ+, first-generation, students of color, or who have a disability.</p>
<p>Mirella Cisneros Perez met both welcoming peers and a critical mentor, Dean Sylvia Munoz, after a friend introduced her to the Latinx Student Union at Elon University.</p>
<p>“Whenever I would run into them, I knew they believed in me and wanted me to succeed,” Mirella told us. “The connections my peers guided me to helped me find my place at Elon and changed my whole experience in college for the positive.”</p>
<p>Like Mirella, many students we interviewed said a college staff member was their most important first connection on campus. Even one relationship like this can contribute to your success – a first step in building a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315669120">constellation of mentors</a>” that will help you in every dimension of your life.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541051/original/file-20230803-21-idai0c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two students are using a microscope in a laboratory." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541051/original/file-20230803-21-idai0c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541051/original/file-20230803-21-idai0c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541051/original/file-20230803-21-idai0c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541051/original/file-20230803-21-idai0c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541051/original/file-20230803-21-idai0c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541051/original/file-20230803-21-idai0c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541051/original/file-20230803-21-idai0c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Campus jobs and research opportunities can help students combine classroom learning with real-world experiences.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/teenage-student-using-the-microscope-in-the-royalty-free-image/1356638196?phrase=college+research&adppopup=true">FG Trade/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>4. Participate in a ‘relationship accelerator’</h2>
<p>“<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_VQOLXICEuU&t=33s">Relationship accelerators</a>” is the term we use to describe campus experiences that help students integrate classroom learning with real-world experiences in <a href="https://www.aacu.org/trending-topics/high-impact">powerful ways</a>. These experiences include internships, undergraduate research, writing-intensive seminars, study abroad, and even campus employment. </p>
<p>For example, your <a href="https://studentlife.uiowa.edu/initiatives/iowa-grow">campus job supervisor</a> can help you learn valuable new skills and can challenge you to integrate your paid work with your academic learning.</p>
<p>Peta Gaye Dixon, a student at LaGuardia Community College in New York City, told us that her campus job supervisor “sees stuff in me that I don’t see in myself.”</p>
<h2>5. Connect with yourself</h2>
<p>New students often experience a bit of <a href="https://time.com/5312483/how-to-deal-with-impostor-syndrome/">imposter syndrome</a> – feeling like you might not be as smart or qualified as other students. That’s completely normal, and it’s also something that can be overcome. First, don’t lose sight of who you are and the many <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vw_W5_NRivk&t=2s">strengths you bring with you</a> to college.</p>
<p>If a bump in the road has you feeling anxious – like if you don’t do as well as you hoped on that first quiz – talk to a professor, tutor or friend. We met Joshua Rodriguez, a student at Oakton Community College near Chicago who considered dropping his Calculus 2 class until his professor advised him to read up on imposter syndrome instead of doing the homework one night.</p>
<p>That opened Joshua’s eyes: “That interaction bolstered my confidence to realize that I’m not alone in this, that everyone has these feelings,” he said. “I went from contemplating dropping out to getting tutoring help – and then getting an ‘A’ in the course.”</p>
<p>Joshua ultimately earned a bachelor’s degree in nuclear engineering from Purdue University. </p>
<p>Trusting yourself – and challenging yourself – is vital to your success in school and in life. We promise that if you pursue meaningful relationships, you’ll be setting yourself up well to thrive in college.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210756/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leo M. Lambert has previously received funding from The Pew Charitable Trusts, the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education, and the John N. Gardner Institute for Excellence in Undergraduate Education.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Isis Artze-Vega, Oscar Miranda Tapia, and Peter Felten do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Forming study groups and reaching out to professors can greatly improve a first-year student’s chances for success.Leo M. Lambert, President Emeritus and Professor of Education, Elon UniversityIsis Artze-Vega, College Provost & Vice President for Academic Affairs, Valencia CollegeOscar Miranda Tapia, PhD Student, Educational Leadership, Policy, and Human Development, North Carolina State UniversityPeter Felten, Assistant Provost for Teaching and Learning and Executive Director, Center for Engaged Learning, Elon UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1894392022-09-27T17:36:46Z2022-09-27T17:36:46ZPreparing for exam season: 10 practical insights from psychology to help teens get through<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/486027/original/file-20220922-15278-3v2807.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=19%2C46%2C2568%2C1621&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Exam season is fast approaching for many senior students in New Zealand and Australia. At the best of times, adolescents may struggle with ambition and drive, let alone after two-and-a-half years of <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/475547/more-than-two-years-of-disrupted-learning-taking-a-toll-on-ncea-students-principals-say">COVID-induced disruption</a> and uncertainty.</p>
<p>But parents can still nurture their teens’ motivation to do what they need to do. </p>
<p>Behind the scenes, the adolescent period is one of huge developmental change, and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/current-opinion-in-psychology/special-issue/10B866D7VR3">not only physically</a>. Teens are developing their sense of identity and refining their own values. Their autonomy and individuation is emerging while they still remain somewhat dependent on the family system. </p>
<p>Parents may expect their young people to be intrinsically motivated when it comes to exams. The importance of studying is obvious to many adults. But even the most diligent among us can easily identify behaviours we know we should be doing, but aren’t. </p>
<p>Clearly, knowing that something is important may not be enough to generate the desired behaviour. </p>
<h2>Understanding human behaviour</h2>
<p>According to clinical psychologist Susan Michie and her colleagues at University College London, <a href="https://implementationscience.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1748-5908-6-42">three factors interact</a> to produce any human behaviour, whether it’s studying or surfing: capability, opportunity and motivation.</p>
<p>Michie’s team developed the “COM-B” model, which forms the basis for behavioural interventions relating to everything from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0887-9">hand washing</a> to our own efforts to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34948725/">support clinicians</a> to use evidence-based treatments.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-keep-kids-curious-5-questions-answered-189512">How to keep kids curious – 5 questions answered</a>
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<p>Capability (both physical and psychological), opportunity (physical and social) and motivation come together to influence behaviour in an interactive way. </p>
<p>For example, if a young person is very capable (or believes themselves to be very capable) at solving maths equations, those around them are supportive or encouraging (social opportunity), and they have the practical resources they need (physical opportunity), they’re likely to want to do maths homework (be motivated). </p>
<p>Conversely, imagine a young person who starts the school term really motivated to study for two hours online every night, but only has access to the laptop at school (limited physical opportunity), still has fatigue after an illness (limited physical capability), and is surrounded by friends who have other priorities (low social opportunity). Herculean motivation may be required in this situation. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-keep-kids-curious-5-questions-answered-189512">How to keep kids curious – 5 questions answered</a>
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<h2>How parents can support their teen to study</h2>
<p>Put simply, parents should “zoom out”. Motivation can’t be produced magically out of thin air, and attempts to force it can have the opposite effect. But parents can support and encourage their young person’s capability and opportunity to study.</p>
<p><strong>1. Motivation fluctuates</strong></p>
<p>Motivation is not something that is simply present or absent. It fluctuates from hour to hour, day to day. So rather than “how can I make him be motivated today?”, a more useful question is “how can I create an environment where he’ll be a bit more motivated than he was last night?”</p>
<p><strong>2. Good foundations</strong></p>
<p>Remember the basics, for teens and parents alike – sleep, exercise and balanced nutrition. If these are in place, it’ll help both physical and psychological capability.</p>
<p><strong>3. Balanced thinking promotes capability</strong></p>
<p>A sense of mastery or capability is important. Stressed teens can fall into black and white thinking traps. “I’m useless at maths” fuels feeling overwhelmed and a sense of futility.</p>
<p>Instinctively, it’s tempting to reply with “no you’re not, you’re amazing!” But that’ll likely bounce right off. Instead, try to encourage your teen’s balanced thinking. “Stats is hard, but I’m okay at algebra and geometry”.</p>
<p><strong>4. Focusing on what teens can control</strong></p>
<p>Praise <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.33">effort over achievement</a>. Persisting with an hour a day of English revision for six weeks deserves as much acknowledgement as winning the English prize (and unlike the prize, it is within your teen’s control).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A father and teenager putting their foreheads together" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/486029/original/file-20220922-24-2unqug.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/486029/original/file-20220922-24-2unqug.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486029/original/file-20220922-24-2unqug.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486029/original/file-20220922-24-2unqug.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486029/original/file-20220922-24-2unqug.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486029/original/file-20220922-24-2unqug.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486029/original/file-20220922-24-2unqug.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Parents should keep in mind that teenagers’ irritability may be caused by underlying anxieties.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
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<p><strong>5. Reinforcing their worth, no matter what</strong></p>
<p>Likewise, be sure to separate your teen’s attributes (who they are) from their behaviour (what they do). They’re not a “lazy” person, but there are particular behaviours they may need to do more (or do less).</p>
<p><strong>6. Behaviour as communication</strong></p>
<p>If young people are irritable or snappy, try to hold in mind that this anger or irritation is likely to be secondary to other emotions, like anxiety, hopelessness or overwhelm. It’s probably not about you.</p>
<p><strong>7. Worry might have a purpose</strong></p>
<p>Lots of anxiety may be incapacitating, but some anxiety in this season makes sense, and a little bit can actually enhance preparation and performance. Paradoxically, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13284207.2022.2108315">perfectionism isn’t always useful</a>.</p>
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<img alt="Two young women studying, on beds" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/486034/original/file-20220922-15568-3o6hzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/486034/original/file-20220922-15568-3o6hzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486034/original/file-20220922-15568-3o6hzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486034/original/file-20220922-15568-3o6hzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486034/original/file-20220922-15568-3o6hzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486034/original/file-20220922-15568-3o6hzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486034/original/file-20220922-15568-3o6hzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Motivation to study can fluctuate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
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<p><strong>8. Validate what you can</strong></p>
<p>Try to validate the emotion, even if the behaviour can’t be justified. Perhaps reflect that it makes perfect sense that things feel overwhelming, many people would feel that way in that situation, and then pause. </p>
<p>It’s tempting to rush to solve the problem, or rapidly fire questions. But often young people just need to be given permission to feel the feeling, and they can sometimes figure out the solution themselves.</p>
<p><strong>9. Collaborating to solve problems</strong></p>
<p>Similarly, try to avoid doing “to” (or “for”), instead aiming to do “with”. Collaborating to solve problems (if they want input) may develop or enhance future independent problem-solving abilities. It also communicates your belief in their capability to do so.</p>
<p><strong>10. Acknowledge to create habits</strong></p>
<p>Parents might consider using targeted, short-term incentives (we don’t see these as bribes, but recognition of hard work or effort) to create new habits or reinforce emerging behaviours.</p>
<p>Finally, try to hold a longer-term view. One exam, one assessment, won’t make or break things. Families and cultures may hold a range of values around what a successful life looks like, but it usually involves more than just exam success. </p>
<p>Good health, connection with others, and meaning or purpose are fundamental to success in life. Try to keep this in mind over the next few months, even if the going gets tough.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189439/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melanie Woodfield receives funding from the Health Research Council of New Zealand. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jin Russell has previously received funding for research projects from the Starship Foundation, Health Research Council of New Zealand, and The Royal Australasian College of Physicians. She is a board member of the Parenting Place, a not-for-profit organisation in Aotearoa New Zealand.</span></em></p>Secondary school exams are here, with all the stress they bring. But parents can help their teenagers stay engaged by getting the motivational basics right and keeping a sense of perspective.Melanie Woodfield, Clinical Psychologist, Te Whatu Ora | HRC Clinical Research Training Fellow, University of Auckland, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauJin Russell, Community and Developmental Paediatrician, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1866232022-09-06T12:37:48Z2022-09-06T12:37:48ZPurpose and gratitude boost academic engagement<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480130/original/file-20220819-3730-qjuiuo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=50%2C10%2C6659%2C4456&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Students who are career-driven tend to do better academically.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-female-student-studying-in-classroom-royalty-free-image/1339976961?adppopup=true">Morsa Images via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em> </p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>When it comes to academic success for college students, having a sense of purpose and gratitude makes a significant difference. That’s what I found in a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/15210251221100415">peer-reviewed study</a> published in June 2022 in the Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice.</p>
<p>For the study, I analyzed answers provided by 295 undergraduates to questions about whether they did better academically if they had a sense of purpose and gratitude during the COVID-19 pandemic. </p>
<p>I wondered if students were more likely to be academically engaged – and less likely to suffer academic burnout – if they had a strong sense of purpose. I specifically asked about three types of purpose: self-growth, others-growth and career-focused purpose orientations. I also wanted to know if being grateful for positive experiences made a difference.</p>
<p>I defined academic engagement as a motivational mindset that is characterized by students’ enthusiasm for school-related activities. I also looked at three types of academic burnout: devaluation of schoolwork, reduced sense of accomplishment and mental exhaustion. </p>
<p>I found that only one type of purpose was directly relevant to engagement and burnout - career-focused purpose. When undergraduate students connect their life purpose with career aspirations, they tend to be engaged in their academic studies. They are also less likely to devalue their schoolwork or feel unaccomplished in their studies.</p>
<p>I also found that gratitude was just as important. These findings suggest that the more grateful undergraduate students feel, the more they are engaged in their academic work and the more they feel accomplished and value schoolwork. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>This study adds to a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-019-09729-w">growing body</a> of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10775-021-09517-9">research</a> that suggests having a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2018.0045">deep sense</a> of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/15210251221076828">life purpose</a> is important for people’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2022.2116469">well-being</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845320946398">success</a> and ability to cope with challenging life situations. </p>
<p>My study suggests that university advisers and faculty should recognize the role that sense of purpose plays for student success. They should also engage in practices that foster students’ sense of life purpose. For example, faculty members can use assignments to encourage students to reflect on their life purpose and connect it with their future career aspirations.</p>
<p>Fostering gratitude is also important. This is because gratitude is also associated with greater academic engagement and less burnout among undergraduate students. My study also suggests that it benefits students if they are given opportunities to reflect on things in life for which they are grateful. Such opportunities can be incorporated into first-year experience courses or incoming student orientations. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Since this study was conducted when participants had few, if any, opportunities to help others due to COVID19 restrictions, I wonder if others-growth and self-growth types of purpose will be more relevant to academic success once these restrictions are eased.</p>
<p>I also wonder whether classroom activities aimed at connecting life purpose with students’ future careers will lead to higher graduation rates.</p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>As part of <a href="https://www.calstate.edu/csu-system/why-the-csu-matters/graduation-initiative-2025/What-Is-Graduation-Initiative-2025">Graduation Initiative 2025</a> – an initiative is meant to increase graduation rates and close gaps in the rates of graduation between different groups – my colleague <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=MeQjuuzQqhIC&hl=en&oi=ao">Gitima Sharma</a> and I created an undergraduate course, titled “Fostering Sense of Purpose.” Our preliminary data showed that students who took this course in spring of 2022 reported a strengthened sense of life purpose. We plan to continue to examine how effective the course is at fostering sense of purpose in life. We also plan to look at whether the course leads to lasting positive effects for students’ academic and career success, such as higher graduation rates.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186623/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mariya Yukhymenko does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>College students who are focused on career goals and personal growth – and growth for others – tend to fare better academically, new research finds.Mariya Yukhymenko, Associate Professor of Research and Statistics, California State University, FresnoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1786452022-03-14T18:56:59Z2022-03-14T18:56:59ZMen think they’re brighter than they are and women underestimate their IQ. Why?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450861/original/file-20220309-2144-1oix4kf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C21%2C7076%2C4689&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When asked to estimate their own intelligence, most people will say they are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority">above average</a>, even though this is a statistical improbability. This is a normal, healthy cognitive bias and extends to any socially desirable trait such as <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0146167211432763">honesty, driving ability and so on</a>. This pattern is so common that it’s known as “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority">the above-average effect</a>”.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.812483/full">recent study</a>, my colleagues and I explored how consistently men and women estimated their own intelligence or IQ (intelligence quotient). We also assessed measures of general self-esteem and masculine and feminine personality traits. </p>
<p>We found the strongest predictors of overestimating IQ were biological sex and then psychological gender. Being born male and having strong masculine traits (both men and women) were associated with an inflated intellectual self-image. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/you-can-do-it-a-growth-mindset-helps-us-learn-127710">You can do it! A 'growth mindset' helps us learn</a>
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<h2>Male hubris, female humility</h2>
<p>Despite people’s overall tendency to overestimate their own intelligence, individuals vary. Some doubt their intellectual ability while others greatly overestimate their talents. In general, though, when asked to estimate their IQ, men think they’re significantly brighter than they are, while women’s estimates are far more modest. </p>
<p>Our findings are consistent with those of other studies. Psychologist Adrian Furnham has termed this effect the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223906403_Male_hubris_and_female_humility_A_crosscultural_study_of_ratings_of_self_parental_and_sibling_multiple_intelligence_in_America_Britain_and_Japan">male hubris, female humility problem</a>. It’s true of many cultures. </p>
<p>Why do men see themselves as so much brighter, while women consistently underestimate their intelligence?</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/understanding-emotions-is-nearly-as-important-as-iq-for-students-academic-success-131212">Understanding emotions is nearly as important as IQ for students' academic success</a>
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<h2>There are no gender differences in actual IQ</h2>
<p>Psychology and intelligence researchers are unequivocal: men and women do not differ in actual IQ. There is no “smarter sex”. However, it was only with the development of objective measures of assessing intelligence that this notion was invalidated. </p>
<p>Historically, women were believed to be intellectually inferior as they had slightly smaller skulls. By the same logic, an elephant’s intelligence dwarfs ours! Bigger is not necessarily better when it comes to brain size.</p>
<p>In the past century, <a href="https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2019/07/women-equally-more-competent">gender stereotypes have changed greatly</a>. Today, when asked explicitly, most people will agree men and women are equally intelligent. Overt endorsements of gender stereotypes about intelligence are rare in most countries.</p>
<p>But there is quite a difference in implicit beliefs about gender and intellect. Covert and indirect endorsement can still be widely seen. </p>
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<img alt="Old black and white photo of man looking at a women in a superior way" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">In the past, men were openly declared to be the ‘smarter sex’. Even today many people still implicitly accept this stereotype.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>In a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1018772830511">classic social psychology study</a>, researchers asked parents to estimate the intelligence of their children. Sons were rated significantly more intelligent than daughters. This finding has been replicated across the world. </p>
<p>Parental expectations may be particularly important in influencing their children’s intellectual self-image, and are also predictive of later academic achievement.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/youre-the-best-your-belief-in-your-kids-academic-ability-can-actually-improve-their-grades-161881">'You're the best!' Your belief in your kids' academic ability can actually improve their grades</a>
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<p><a href="https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2016/01/self-esteem-gender">Gender differences in self-esteem</a> might also be an important factor, as people with higher self-esteem tend to see all aspects of their life (including intellectual ability) more positively. Girls and women rate their general self-esteem significantly lower than boys and men. This difference emerges early in adolescence. </p>
<h2>What did our study find?</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.812483/full">our study</a>, we asked participants to estimate their IQ after briefing them on how intelligence is scored. The average score is 100 points. We showed participants that two-thirds (66%) of people score in the range between 85 and 115 points to give them a frame of reference for estimates. </p>
<p>Where our study differed is that we told participants they would complete an IQ test after estimating their own IQ. This would help counter false bragging and inflated estimates, and allow us to test the accuracy of the male and female self-estimates. </p>
<p>Participants also completed a measure of general self-esteem, and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Bem-Sex-Role-Inventory">Bem Sex-Role Inventory</a>, which measures masculine and feminine personality traits. We had a hypothesis that psychological gender (specifically masculinity) would be a better predictor of self-estimates than biological sex (male or female at birth). </p>
<p>Our sample reported a mean IQ score of 107.55 points. This was slightly above average, as expected. </p>
<p>First, we examined the accuracy of their judgments, as one possibility might simply be that one gender (males or females) had completely unrealistic estimates of ability. Looking at the lines plotting self-estimated IQ against actual IQ, we can see men and women in our sample were fairly consistent in their accuracy. The difference was that male scores (in blue) were more more often overestimates (above the line) and females scores (in green) were more often underestimates (below the line). </p>
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<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Scatterplot of the relationship between self-estimated and actual IQ, by gender (blue line is men, green is women).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>After statistically controlling for the effects of actual measured IQ, we next examined the strongest predictors of self-estimated intelligence. The results showed biological sex remained the strongest factor: males rated their intelligence as higher than females. However, psychological gender was also a very strong predictor, with highly masculine subjects rating their intelligence higher (importantly, there was no association with femininity). </p>
<p>There was also a strong contribution of general self-esteem to participants’ intellectual self-image. As noted above, males report higher self-esteem than females.</p>
<h2>Why does all this matter?</h2>
<p>Educational psychologists pay attention to intellectual self-image because it’s often a self-fulfilling prophecy: if you think you can’t, you won’t. </p>
<p>When girls undervalue their intelligence in school, they tend to choose less challenging course content – especially in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (the STEM subjects). These decisions limit their education and career choices after school. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/calling-all-parents-australias-future-female-scientists-need-your-support-now-89025">Calling all parents – Australia's future female scientists need your support now</a>
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<p>These gender differences may in part explain the gender gap in wages and bargaining power with employers. </p>
<p>We need to lift girls’ aspirations if they are to go on to solve the complex problems our society faces, while achieving equal pay. It starts early with gendered parental expectations of intelligence, and differences in self-esteem between boys and girls. </p>
<p>Wouldn’t it be nice if, as parents, educators and a society, we could build the confidence of girls and young women to a level where they believe in themselves and are free of those doubts?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178645/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Reilly is a member of the American Psychological Association, and an Associate Member of the Australian Psychological Society. There was no external funding of this study, and no financial interests to declare.</span></em></p>Intellectual self-image matters because it’s often a self-fulfilling prophecy: if you think you can’t, you won’t.David Reilly, Researcher, School of Applied Psychology, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1727482022-02-14T13:21:57Z2022-02-14T13:21:57ZWhat do students’ beliefs about God have to do with grades and going to college?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440875/original/file-20220114-21-1guwi6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C9%2C2092%2C1400&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How do students' religious lives influence their academic ones?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/graduates-throwing-mortarboards-royalty-free-image/88449212?adppopup=true">Image Source via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In America, the demographic circumstances of a child’s birth substantially <a href="https://inequality.stanford.edu/publications/media/details/widening-academic-achievement-gap-between-rich-and-poor-new-evidence-and">shape academic success</a>. Sociologists have spent decades studying how factors beyond students’ control – including the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3832309">race</a>, <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Our-Kids/Robert-D-Putnam/9781476769905">wealth</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/04/29/upshot/money-race-and-success-how-your-school-district-compares.html">ZIP code</a> of their parents – affect their educational <a href="https://www.teachforamerica.org/one-day/top-issues/why-we-say-opportunity-gap-instead-of-achievement-gap">opportunities</a> and <a href="https://www.russellsage.org/publications/whither-opportunity">achievement</a>. </p>
<p>But one often overlooked demographic factor is religion. The U.S. is <a href="https://pewrsr.ch/2LPGypJ">the most devout wealthy Western democracy</a>. Does a religious upbringing influence teens’ academic outcomes?</p>
<p>Over the past 30 years, sociologists and economists have conducted <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13644-020-00433-y">several studies</a> that consistently show a positive relationship between religiosity and academic success. These studies show that more religious students earn <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2007.00108.x">better grades</a> and complete <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12219">more schooling</a> than less religious peers. But researchers debate <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13644-020-00433-y">what these findings really mean</a>, and whether the seeming effect of religiosity on students’ performance is really about religion, or a result of other underlying factors.</p>
<p><a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/god-grades-and-graduation-9780197534144?cc=us&lang=en&#">My latest research</a> underscores that religion has a powerful but mixed impact. Intensely religious teens – who some researchers call “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12001">abiders</a>” – are more likely than average to earn higher GPAs and complete more college education. By religious intensity, I refer to whether people see religion as very important, attend religious services at least once a week, pray at least once a day, and believe in God with absolute certainty. Theological belief on its own is not enough to influence how children behave – they also need to be part of a religious community. Adolescents who see an academic benefit both believe and belong. </p>
<p>On average though, abiders who have excellent grades tend to attend less selective colleges than their less religious peers with similar GPAs and from comparable socioeconomic backgrounds.</p>
<p>The takeaway from these findings is not meant to encourage people to become more religious or to promote religion in schools. Rather, they point to a particular set of mindsets and habits that help abiders succeed – and qualities that schools reward in their students.</p>
<h2>Religious landscape</h2>
<p>People of any religion can demonstrate religious intensity. But the research in my book “<a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/god-grades-and-graduation-9780197534144?cc=us&lang=en&">God, Grades, and Graduation: Religion’s Surprising Impact on Academic Success</a>” centers on Christian denominations because they are the most prevalent in the U.S., with <a href="https://www.pewforum.org/2021/12/14/about-three-in-ten-u-s-adults-are-now-religiously-unaffiliated/">about 63% </a> of Americans identifying as Christian. Also, surveys about religion tend to reflect a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12001">Christian-centric view</a>, such as by emphasizing prayer and faith over other kinds of religious observance. Therefore, Christian respondents are more likely to appear as highly religious, simply based on the wording of the questions. </p>
<p>Based on a <a href="https://www.pewforum.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2020/09/PF_20.09.10_teens.religion.full_.report.pdf">2019 Pew survey</a> and <a href="https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/019518095X.001.0001/acprof-9780195180954">other studies</a>, I estimate that about one-quarter of American teenagers are intensely religious. This number also accounts for people’s tendency <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41288366">to say they attend religious services more than they actually do</a>. </p>
<h2>The abider advantage</h2>
<p>In my book, I examined whether intensely religious teens had different academic outcomes, focusing on three measures: secondary school GPA; likelihood of completing college; and college selectivity.</p>
<p>First, I analyzed survey data collected by the <a href="https://youthandreligion.nd.edu/">National Study of Youth and Religion</a>, which followed 3,290 teens from 2003 to 2012. After grouping participants by religious intensity and analyzing their grades, I found that on average, abiders had about a 10 percentage-point advantage. </p>
<p>For example, among working-class teens, 21% of abiders reported earning A’s, compared with 9% of nonabiders. Abiders were more likely to earn better grades even after accounting for various other background factors, including race, gender, geographic region and family structure.</p>
<p>Then working with survey measurement expert <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=xBU1a9EAAAAJ">Ben Domingue</a> and sociologist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=SRV3VCUAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">Kathleen Mullan Harris</a>, I used data from the <a href="https://addhealth.cpc.unc.edu/">National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health</a> to see how more and less religious children from the same families performed. According to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2020.102426">our analysis</a>, more intensely religious teens earned higher GPAs in high school, on average, even compared with their own siblings.</p>
<h2>But why?</h2>
<p>Scholars like sociologist <a href="https://christiansmith.nd.edu/">Christian Smith</a> have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5906.t01-1-00158">theorized</a> that increased religiosity deters young people from risky behaviors, connects them to more adults and provides them more leadership opportunities. However, I found that including survey measures for these aspects of teens’ lives did not fully explain why abiders were earning better GPAs.</p>
<p>To better understand, I went back to <a href="https://youthandreligion.nd.edu/">the National Study of Youth and Religion</a>, or NSYR, and analyzed 10 years of interviews with over 200 teens, all of whom had been assigned individual IDs to link their survey and interview responses.</p>
<p>Many abiders made comments about constantly working to emulate and please God, which led them to try to be conscientious and cooperative. This aligns with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309352322">previous research</a> showing that religiousness is positively correlated with these traits.</p>
<p>Studies have underscored how habits like conscientiousness and cooperation <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100023">are linked with academic success</a>, in part because teachers value respect. These traits are helpful in a school system that <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674018143">relies on authority figures</a> and rewards people who <a href="https://utorontopress.com/9781442610415/school-rules/">follow the rules</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A teenage boy in a blue shirt works on an assignment in class." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440876/original/file-20220114-19-18frllu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440876/original/file-20220114-19-18frllu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440876/original/file-20220114-19-18frllu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440876/original/file-20220114-19-18frllu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440876/original/file-20220114-19-18frllu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440876/original/file-20220114-19-18frllu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440876/original/file-20220114-19-18frllu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Traits like cooperation can play an important role in students’ success.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/eighth-grade-students-taking-test-royalty-free-image/522900224?adppopup=true">Will & Deni McIntyre/Corbis Documentary via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Post-graduation plans</h2>
<p>Next, I wanted to know more about students’ college outcomes, starting with where they enrolled. I did this by matching the NSYR data to the <a href="https://www.studentclearinghouse.org/">National Student Clearinghouse</a> to get detailed information about how many semesters of college respondents had completed, and where.</p>
<p>On average, abiders were more likely to earn bachelor’s degrees than nonabiders, since success in high school sets them up for success in college – as also shown by my <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2020.102426">analyses of siblings</a>. The bump varies by socioeconomic status, but among working-class and middle-class teens, abiders are more than 1 ½ to 2 times more likely to earn a bachelor’s degree than nonabiders.</p>
<p><iframe id="lflNF" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/lflNF/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Another dimension of academic success is the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.34.040507.134604">quality</a> of the college one graduates from, which is commonly measured by selectivity. The more selective the institutions from which students graduate, the more likely they are to <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Does-Quality-Pay-Benefits-of-Attending-a-High-Cost-Prestigious-College/Zhang/p/book/9780415803366">pursue graduate degrees</a> and to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28705353/">secure high paying jobs</a>.</p>
<p>On average, abiders who earned A’s graduated from slightly less selective colleges: schools whose incoming freshman class had an average SAT score of 1135, compared with 1176 at nonabiders’.</p>
<p>My analysis of the interview data revealed that many abiders, especially girls from middle-upper-class families, were less likely to consider selective colleges. In interviews, religious teens over and over mention life goals of parenthood, altruism and serving God – priorities that I argue make them less intent on attending as highly selective a college as they could. This aligns with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sox053">previous research</a> showing that conservative Protestant women attend colleges that less selective than other women do because they do not tend to view college’s main purpose as career advancement.</p>
<h2>Grades without God</h2>
<p>Being a good rule follower yields better report cards – but so can other dispositions.</p>
<p>My research also shows that teens who say that God does not exist earn grades that are not statistically different from abiders’ grades. Atheist teens make up a very small proportion of the NSYR sample: 3%, similar to the <a href="https://news.gallup.com/poll/193271/americans-believe-god.aspx">low rates</a> of American adults who say they don’t believe in God. </p>
<p>In fact, there is a strong <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F000312240607100203">stigma attached to atheism</a>. The kinds of teens who are willing to go against the grain by taking an unpopular religious view are also the kinds of teens who are curious and self-driven. NSYR interviews revealed that rather than being motivated to please God by being well behaved, atheists tend to be intrinsically motivated to pursue knowledge, think critically and be open to new experiences. These dispositions are also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2019.1572104">linked</a> with better academic performance. And unlike abiders, atheists tend to be <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2015/09/09/there-are-more-atheists-and-agnostics-entering-harvard-than-protestants-and-catholics/">overrepresented</a> in the most elite universities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172748/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ilana Horwitz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Researchers have spent decades studying how demographics affect American students’ opportunities and performance, but many questions remain about religion and school.Ilana Horwitz, Assistant Professor, Fields-Rayant Chair in Contemporary Jewish Life, Tulane UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1714002021-11-14T19:06:53Z2021-11-14T19:06:53ZBeing in a class with high achievers improves students’ test scores. We tried to find out why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431614/original/file-20211112-27-ysw4k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/diverse-group-students-learning-classroom-740361820">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Who you go to school with matters. Almost all of us, as children or parents of children, have felt the influence of good, and bad, classmates at school.</p>
<p>There is a <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-economics-071813-104217">large body of research</a> showing better peers <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128153918000215">can help increase</a> a child’s test scores. But much less is known about how these peer effects actually take place between classmates. This is because the mechanisms through which peers positively influence other students are difficult to pinpoint.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/13938/on-the-mechanisms-of-ability-peer-effects">results of our study</a> get us closer to understanding how peer effects work.</p>
<p>We found parental investment increases when a child is in a classroom with higher performing peers. This could partly explain why test scores increase for students in such classrooms. But we also found while their test scores may go up, little else does. For instance, the amount of time a student spends studying when in a classroom with higher performing peers does not go up. </p>
<p>Our study shows the positive effects of peers seem to occur with no real extra effort from the student.</p>
<h2>Combining rich data and a social experiment</h2>
<p>Our study is the first of its kind to test many of the possible mechanisms underlying the transmission of peer effects. </p>
<p>We tested 19 different ways peers can positively influence their classmates. These fall into three main categories: student behaviour, parental investments and school environment. They cover mechanisms such as students’ study effort and participation in class, aspirations and expectations to go to university, parents’ time, parental support and strictness, and teacher engagement.</p>
<p>We used data from the national <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314260007_Transition_from_School_to_Work_An_Introduction_to_Taiwan_Education_Panel_Survey_and_Its_Follow-up_Project_-_Taiwan_Education_Panel_Survey_and_Beyond">Taiwanese Education Panel Survey</a> of more than 20,000 students, parents, teachers and school administrators. The data includes student characteristics such as how many hours they spend studying per week, parental education and how much time students spend with their parents. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431630/original/file-20211112-17-1vj202r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Girl studying on her bed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431630/original/file-20211112-17-1vj202r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431630/original/file-20211112-17-1vj202r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431630/original/file-20211112-17-1vj202r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431630/original/file-20211112-17-1vj202r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431630/original/file-20211112-17-1vj202r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431630/original/file-20211112-17-1vj202r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431630/original/file-20211112-17-1vj202r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Data included how much time students spend studying.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/teenage-girl-using-laptop-do-homework-488084416">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We analysed this data from middle schools in Taiwan (ages 12 to 14, or years 7 to 9 in Australia) where students are assigned to classrooms by chance. This way, we could compare kids in the same school in classrooms with higher- or lower-achieving peers.</p>
<p>Each student takes a standardised test at the beginning of year 7, and another test at the beginning of year 9. We measured the progress these students made. </p>
<p>We compared kids who had the same test scores at the beginning of year 7, and controlled characteristics we know make a difference for test scores. These include parental education, how much time each student spends studying and teacher motivation. The only difference between the students we compared, in terms of influence on academic results, was the classroom they were assigned to by chance.</p>
<h2>Students in top classrooms had higher grades</h2>
<p>For simplicity, we can explain it like this. There are two students in the same school. One is assigned by chance to a classroom where the standardised test scores are the average in the country. And the other is assigned to a classroom where the test scores are the top in the country. Other than that, the two students are identical.</p>
<p>We examined the scores of both these two kids two years later.</p>
<p>In our study, the student assigned to the top classroom has progressed more than the student in the average classroom.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-study-in-china-found-struggling-students-can-bring-down-the-rest-of-the-class-149917">Our study in China found struggling students can bring down the rest of the class</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In year 7, both students answered 31 questions out of 75 in the standardised test correctly. Two years later, the student in the average test-score classroom still answered 31 questions correctly, while the student in the top test-score classroom answered nearly 32 questions correctly. This equates to 2.4% more correct answers. </p>
<p>While this may seem like a small difference, it is <a href="https://hbr.org/2016/02/a-refresher-on-statistical-significance">statistically significant</a> and similar to what previous studies have found. However, our study goes beyond this.</p>
<h2>What else we found</h2>
<p>We also showed that two years later, the student in the top test-score classroom was 1.6 percentage points more likely to aspire to go university than the student in the average test-score classroom. And the top classroom student was 2 percentage points more confident in their ability to get into and attend university. </p>
<p>A later finding (which is yet to be published) was that students assigned to the top class had not changed the amount of hours they were spending on study.</p>
<p>However, the parents of the child assigned to a classroom with higher-achieving peers had spent more time with their child, and provided them with more general emotional support, two years later, than the parents of the child in the average test score classroom.</p>
<h2>Reasons for peer effects remain a mystery</h2>
<p>By testing more potential mechanisms than before, our study rules out many possible pathways for peer effects hypothesised in previous work. For example, we found no effects of high-achieving peers on students’ initiative in class, cheating, misbehaving and truancy, nor on parents‘ investments in private tutoring and aspirations for their child to go to university. There was also no difference in students’ perceptions of their school environment and teacher engagement.</p>
<p>While our study shows high-achieving peers positively influence student and parent behaviours, these alone don’t explain much of the positive effects on test scores in our data. In other words, the things that do change – aspirations and expectations, and parental investments – don’t fully account for the benefits of high-achieving peers.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/will-sorting-classrooms-by-ability-improve-marks-it-depends-on-the-mix-94172">Will sorting classrooms by ability improve marks? It depends on the mix</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The fact that our study didn’t deliver a clearer overall picture of how peer effects actually work is a testament to their complexity.</p>
<p>We were able to explore mechanisms due to the rich Taiwanese data combined with the unique experiment where students are randomly assigned to classrooms within schools.</p>
<p>But there were still two notable exceptions not measured, such as direct learning from peers and detailed teaching practices. </p>
<p>Collecting data on peer-to-peer interactions, such as discussing and coordinating tasks, is difficult but could be a key to unlocking the mystery of how higher-achieving peers benefit fellow students. </p>
<p>Data on teaching practices, like pairing students for group work and the amount of material covered in lessons, could also provide new insights.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171400/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexandra de Gendre is affiliated with the School of Economics at the University of Sydney, the IZA Institute of Labor Economics and the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Children and Families over the Life Course. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicolás Salamanca receives funding from the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Children and Families over the Life Course. He is affiliated with the Melbourne Institute: Applied Economic & Social Research at The University of Melbourne. </span></em></p>Our study is the first of its kind to test many of the possible mechanisms behind the positive effects peers may have on other students.Alexandra de Gendre, Postdoctoral Research Associate in Economics, University of SydneyNicolás Salamanca, Research Fellow, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1618812021-06-23T20:04:59Z2021-06-23T20:04:59Z‘You’re the best!’ Your belief in your kids’ academic ability can actually improve their grades<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407409/original/file-20210621-35622-4a45ab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mother-helping-daughter-homework-kitchen-141037507">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We have all met the parent who thinks their kid is the next Picasso or Einstein regardless of the evidence. But it’s hard to know if these beliefs are helpful or harmful. </p>
<p>Overly optimistic parents could reduce their kids’ drive to work harder and give them a false idea of the opportunities available to them. Or this same optimism could fill the child with confidence, kindle their self-belief and give them the courage to try harder. </p>
<p>We set out to discover which of these possibilities is most likely. We <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13573">found a mother’s optimism</a> about how good their child is in maths and reading consistently benefited children. </p>
<p>In our study, when a mum’s optimism was higher, their child gained better school results and their interest in school subjects increased. But gender stereotypes could get in the way. Mums were consistently more optimistic about their sons in maths and their daughters in reading.</p>
<p>We know kids from wealthy backgrounds often have better academic results and numerous academic advantages over their peers. We may also think wealthier parents are generally more optimistic about their children’s success.</p>
<p>But we found only modest and generally inconsistent evidence mothers’ optimism was more likely among the wealthy. More importantly, our findings that optimism leads to better school outcomes and more academic interest was the same regardless of a mother’s socioeconomic status.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407835/original/file-20210623-15-m2jo16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Father with son on his shoulders with both flexing their muscles." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407835/original/file-20210623-15-m2jo16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407835/original/file-20210623-15-m2jo16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=725&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407835/original/file-20210623-15-m2jo16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=725&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407835/original/file-20210623-15-m2jo16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=725&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407835/original/file-20210623-15-m2jo16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=912&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407835/original/file-20210623-15-m2jo16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=912&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407835/original/file-20210623-15-m2jo16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=912&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Is it better for a parent to cheer on their kid, or give them hard truths?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/father-son-playing-park-sunset-time-534937255">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What we did</h2>
<p>Grumbling about how every child needs a participation trophy these days is a common refrain. Back in the “good old days”, some might say, kids got hard truths and parents spurred their children to greater heights by grudgingly giving praise and pessimistically assessing their child’s academic performance. </p>
<p>We wanted to find out whether parents could benefit their children most by being a bit more optimistic or by laying down hard truths.</p>
<p>We <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13573">used data</a> from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC). This data comes from 2,602 Australian children and their primary caregiver. </p>
<p>The primary caregiver in the data was almost always a mother, so we focused on them. But we think our results would be true for all parents and guardians.</p>
<p>Included in the longitudinal study was an assessment by mothers about whether their child was below average, average or above average in reading and maths performance. </p>
<p>We then matched the mother’s assessment of their child to the child’s NAPLAN results in the same year.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-quarter-of-australian-11-12-year-olds-dont-have-the-literacy-and-numeracy-skills-they-need-148912">One quarter of Australian 11-12 year olds don't have the literacy and numeracy skills they need</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>This gave us insight into whether children’s grades in maths and reading actually were below average, average or above average. </p>
<p>Where mums judged their child’s maths and reading performance more positively than school results suggested, we called this optimism. We called more negative judgements pessimism. </p>
<p>We used the resulting optimism or pessimism data from one year and showed how this impacted NAPLAN and academic interest two years later. So we’d look at the data for year 3 and how this changed in year 5, for example. </p>
<p>Thus, we were able to show that mothers optimism and pessimism was associated with change in academic outcomes two years later.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407838/original/file-20210623-27-1cie4v4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Mum on her tees fixing her son's school tie. He's wearing uniform and backpack." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407838/original/file-20210623-27-1cie4v4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407838/original/file-20210623-27-1cie4v4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407838/original/file-20210623-27-1cie4v4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407838/original/file-20210623-27-1cie4v4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407838/original/file-20210623-27-1cie4v4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407838/original/file-20210623-27-1cie4v4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407838/original/file-20210623-27-1cie4v4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mums were more optimistic about their child’s ability than their child’s school results suggested.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/single-mother-home-getting-son-wearing-1418263091">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also found, on average, mums were more optimistic about their child’s ability than their child’s school results suggested. We found this not only improved their kid’s later school results but also increased their interest in school. </p>
<p>For example, lets imagine a child who scores in the 50th percentile in their year 5 NAPLAN numeracy test. Let’s also imagine their mother is more optimistic about her child’s ability than usual (specifically one standard deviation more optimistic than she usually is). Our results suggest this child will move up to the 55th percentile in the year 7 NAPLAN numeracy test. </p>
<p>In comparison, if this mother was more pessimistic than usual, the same child could expect to fall to the 45th percentile by year 7.</p>
<h2>Could other factors be responsible for these results?</h2>
<p>A child’s results could appear to be influenced by their mother’s confidence in them, when the influence is actually due to other factors such as the child having changed schools between the first NAPLAN test and the next. We used some relatively new statistical methods to ensure any pre-existing differences between participants (such as socioeconomic status, urban or rural residence, or private or public schools) could not easily provide an alternative explanation for our findings.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/green-space-around-primary-schools-may-improve-students-academic-performance-161673">Green space around primary schools may improve students' academic performance</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<hr>
<p>These methods are not perfect and other alternative explanations for our findings are still possible. This includes differences between participants that develop during the course of the study. But our study provides more confidence than usual studies that find a correlation between two factors. So, we are relatively confident a mother’s optimism was really having the impact we saw.</p>
<h2>Mothers showed some gender stereotyping</h2>
<p>We found optimism sometimes varied depending on the child’s gender. In particular, mothers’ optimism often aligned with gender stereotypes that boys are better at math and girls are better at reading. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407837/original/file-20210623-25-1p3qa7e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Girl reading book on the couch." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407837/original/file-20210623-25-1p3qa7e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407837/original/file-20210623-25-1p3qa7e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407837/original/file-20210623-25-1p3qa7e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407837/original/file-20210623-25-1p3qa7e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407837/original/file-20210623-25-1p3qa7e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407837/original/file-20210623-25-1p3qa7e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407837/original/file-20210623-25-1p3qa7e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On average, mothers thought their daughters were better at reading than their sons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/white-cozy-bed-beautiful-girl-reading-587404685">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Mothers were more optimistic about their sons’ ability in maths than their daughters’ and more optimistic about their daughters’ ability in reading than their sons — even if both performed just as well.</p>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-011-9996-2">Other research</a> shows parents with strong beliefs that girls are bad at maths tend to give homework help that is both intrusive and controlling. This could lead to poorer school results and reduced motivation. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/girls-score-the-same-in-maths-and-science-as-boys-but-higher-in-arts-this-may-be-why-they-are-less-likely-to-pick-stem-careers-131563">Girls score the same in maths and science as boys, but higher in arts – this may be why they are less likely to pick STEM careers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How does optimism help?</h2>
<p>But how does optimism help kids succeed? We think there are a few ways. <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/711347?journalCode=jpe">Other research</a> suggests parents invest more time and resources (such as tutors) in their child’s education if they believe their child can be successful. Likewise, having someone in your corner can be a powerful motivator to try harder in school. </p>
<p>But could unrealistic optimism be damaging? There was some evidence in our study that too much optimism could be neutral or even harmful. But this was only true at very extreme levels, and the evidence was pretty weak. </p>
<p>We think the reason even extreme levels of optimism may not be detrimental because the world will do a pretty good job of keeping kids’ egos in check. </p>
<p>Our results reinforce the powerful role parents can play in the academic success of their children. The findings also contradict some people’s beliefs you must be cruel to be kind or that a parent’s role is to provide their children with a reality check.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/161881/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip D. Parker receives funding from the ARC and the NHMRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jake Anders receives research funding from UKRI Economic and Social Research Council, the Nuffield Foundation, and the Education Endowment Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Taren Sanders receives funding from the ARC and the NSW Department of Education.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rhiannon Parker does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>This study wanted to find whether believing your child is better at school than they actually are was detrimental or beneficial to the child’s academic success. Turns out, it actually helps.Philip D Parker, Professor and Deputy Director, Institute for Positive Psychology and Education, Australian Catholic UniversityJake Anders, Associate Professor of Educational and Social Statistics, UCLRhiannon Parker, Sessional Academic, University of SydneyTaren Sanders, Research Fellow, Institute for Positive Psychology and Education, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1552822021-05-06T14:00:58Z2021-05-06T14:00:58Z5 factors that contribute to students finishing high school<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396444/original/file-20210422-17-1986i7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C188%2C5964%2C3431&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Photos of graduating students are seen on lockers during a graduation ceremony at Magee Secondary School in Vancouver, on June 11, 2020. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>This past year, the COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted learning for more than <a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2020/08/sg_policy_brief_covid-19_and_education_august_2020.pdf">1.6 billion students in over 190 countries</a>. With movement between bricks-and-mortar schools and online learning becoming the “<a href="https://peopleforeducation.ca/our-work/tracking-canadas-education-systems-response-to-covid-19/">new normal</a>,” young people, families, educators and the public are seeking assurance that students are receiving the best education possible. </p>
<p>They are also concerned about <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/education-pandemic-missing-students-1.5971911">students disengaging from school amid these changes</a> and want to know what schools can do to <a href="https://montreal.ctvnews.ca/could-covid-19-s-chaotic-school-year-spark-a-spike-in-dropouts-1.5141813">encourage students to finish high school</a>.</p>
<p>With pivots in how students are learning still possible in <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/news/2021/03/future-vaccine-modificationsthat-respond-to-new-variants-of-covid-19-tobemade-available-quicklyto-canadianswithout-compromising-safety-efficacy-or-.html">the race between COVID-19 vaccines and variants</a>, it’s important <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ontario-online-virtual-school-1.5944407">to look</a> beyond concerns about how <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ontario-online-virtual-school-1.5944407">students attend</a> school to what helps them learn and engage with school. Not surprisingly, success leads to more success. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/high-school-dropouts-cost-countries-a-staggering-amount-of-money-115396">High school dropouts cost countries a staggering amount of money</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our research team in the Werklund School of Education at the University of Calgary <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Writing-Literature-Reviews-A-Guide-for-Students-of-the-Social-and-Behavioral/Galvan-Galvan/p/book/9780415315746">reviewed more than</a> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1s8tdJH3ESB8lEXLyxX-SLOpYnBYSQgHl/view?usp=sharing">130 studies that looked for factors</a> related to student engagement, achievement and eventual school completion. </p>
<p>We searched databases for studies from the past decade that referred to school success, student achievement and high school completion or graduation. We’ve summarized our research into five key ideas. We’ve also used this research to provide questions to help school communities talk about what students need now and in a post-pandemic future — and to consider what matters most, whether students are learning online or in-person.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Students in a class." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396435/original/file-20210422-15-6mibzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C0%2C4180%2C2528&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396435/original/file-20210422-15-6mibzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396435/original/file-20210422-15-6mibzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396435/original/file-20210422-15-6mibzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396435/original/file-20210422-15-6mibzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396435/original/file-20210422-15-6mibzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396435/original/file-20210422-15-6mibzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students in Montréal at Marymount Academy International, November 17, 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Ryan Remiorz</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Explicit inclusivity</h2>
<p>A commitment to inclusivity and diversity helps equip all students to participate equitably in society. Part of supporting diversity means students have a chance to <a href="https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/mje/2014-v49-n1-mje01467/1025776ar">develop identities and relationships that positively promote academic expectations</a> through positive relationships and relevant curriculum. Having school leaders <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085911429084">and teachers who develop the critical capacity to challenge stereotypes</a> is important in policy and practice: education scholar Carl James, for example, has highlighted how stereotypes operate in the social construction of Black males as “at risk” students. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/celebrating-diversity-isnt-enough-schools-need-anti-racist-curriculum-140424">Celebrating diversity isn't enough: Schools need anti-racist curriculum</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>An inclusive school climate is essential for engaging those historically marginalized by mainstream schooling, including <a href="https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/mje/2014-v49-n1-mje01467/1025776ar">Indigenous learners</a>, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0042085911429084">Black</a> and racialized students, LGBTQ+ students and students with disabilities or <a href="http://fcrc.albertahealthservices.ca/health-information/supporting-students-with-special-needs/">behavioural, communication, intellectual, learning or physical challenges</a>.</p>
<p>In an inclusive school climate, schools find ways to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-011-9207-y">allow refugee students to voice their authentic experiences</a>. Schools also give students opportunities to explore socio-political issues that develop critical thinking and thoughtful citizenship, and seamlessly accommodate and support <a href="https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v19i5.694">individual learning needs</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/every-child-matters-what-principals-need-to-effectively-lead-inclusive-schools-114249">Every child matters: What principals need to effectively lead inclusive schools</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>They use resources that authentically represent students from different backgrounds and create classroom experiences that connect students to each other and their communities. They focus on restorative rather than punitive discipline and examine structures and practices for biases.</p>
<h2>Strong relationships</h2>
<p>Students benefit from teachers who <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858418815661">balance high expectations with empathy and flexibility</a>. When <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09650792.2015.1013047">students describe what contributes to finishing school</a>, strong relationships with teachers and other students is at the top of many of their lists. </p>
<p>A study of Indigenous students in Saskatchewan by education scholars Bonnie Stelmach, Margaret Kovach and Larry Steeves showed that what helps students learn is when teachers <a href="https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/ajer/article/view/56085">listen, use humour, foster dialogue and show interest in them</a>. </p>
<p>Peer and community relationships matter. A study of high-achieving Black female students by education scholars Rowena Linton and Lorna McLean found that the students faced racism, including low expectations from teachers at school, and mobilized “<a href="https://doi.org/10.3167/ghs.2017.100106">community resources and support available to them, including peer relations, as an effective strategy to acquire academic success</a>.” </p>
<p>But strong peer and community relationships and students’ own resourcefulness should not be expected to compensate for students facing racism or biases from teachers. Teachers should affirm students’ strengths and understand and respond to obstacles in student learning. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-curb-anti-black-racism-in-canadian-schools-150489">How to curb anti-Black racism in Canadian schools</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Strong relationships do more than make school a nice place to be. Students benefit from <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23255730?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">accepting peers</a> who collaborate in learning and interpersonal problem-solving. Relationships encourage regular attendance and <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-2018-7_5">cycles of connection, participation and success</a>. They build students’ social and civic capacities. Strong relationships that include family and community connections are fundamental to student success.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Students cross the street." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396440/original/file-20210422-17-8ahnpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396440/original/file-20210422-17-8ahnpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396440/original/file-20210422-17-8ahnpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396440/original/file-20210422-17-8ahnpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396440/original/file-20210422-17-8ahnpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396440/original/file-20210422-17-8ahnpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396440/original/file-20210422-17-8ahnpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students cross the street at Tomken Road Middle School in Mississauga, Ont., on April 1, 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Nathan Denette</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Comprehensive learning opportunities</h2>
<p>Instruction that promotes complex thinking over memorization is associated with strong class participation, achievement and students setting hopeful, aspirational goals for their educational futures. </p>
<p><a href="https://journals.nipissingu.ca/index.php/cjar/article/view/371">Collaborative, interdisciplinary</a>, <a href="https://www.cjlt.ca/index.php/cjlt/article/view/26977">active and problem-based learning</a> have been found to improve student attendance, course completion and graduation rates.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/stem-learning-should-engage-students-minds-hands-and-hearts-140008">STEM learning should engage students' minds, hands and hearts</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A comprehensive instructional environment for student success also includes explicit instruction, support for individual needs, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15595692.2019.1652587">culturally affirming tasks</a> and <a href="https://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentId=21756">culturally responsive curriculum materials</a>.</p>
<p>It also includes regular assessment to help guide teachers’ instruction and students’ learning strategies. When teachers regularly assess students, this helps them guide student learning.</p>
<h2>Tracking and transitions</h2>
<p>Student success occurs over time. Some research from the United States suggests there are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670903382970">predictors of whether students are on a path to finishing high school by Grade 6</a>. Achievement in language arts and math are important, but overall teacher-assigned grades and patterns of <a href="https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/regions/northwest/pdf/REL_2015079.pdf">attendance</a> are also key indicators of students’ ultimate success in school. Schools need to monitor attendance and achievement across time and avoid simple responses like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670903382970">holding students back a grade</a>. </p>
<p>When students aren’t learning as well as expected, schools need to create <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029189">integrated approaches of support and intervention</a>. They should should involve families, other professionals and community resources, and monitor the impact of supports on students’ progress.</p>
<p><a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1104172">Transitions</a> between grades, types of learning and schools need special attention as changes in social groups, support systems and new environments and expectations can be challenging for any student.</p>
<h2>Flexible systems</h2>
<p><a href="https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/cjeap/article/view/68066">Having flexibility</a> matters in terms of whether students complete their studies. Systems that allow students to recover credits if they fall behind keeps students moving forward.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2017.1365669">How high schools schedule classes</a> can help align course offerings with student needs and interests. It can also create small interdisciplinary groups working together, and encourages supportive relationships and flexible access to instruction. Investments in technology that promote connections to community and complex forms of learning and communication are more effective than those that ask students to practise and demonstrate isolated skills. </p>
<h2>Questions for parents</h2>
<p>If you think about your child’s school:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>What evidence is there of students feeling recognized and connected, and empathetic responsiveness to students’ qualities and circumstances?</p></li>
<li><p>What makes your school inclusive? How are differences and similarities across economics, race, gender and culture incorporated into learning? How are mental-health concerns and learning difficulties supported?</p></li>
<li><p>How are students’ interests and needs included in the design of their learning? How is complex thinking challenged and supported? How do students access support?</p></li>
<li><p>What preventative and responsive systems are in place for patterns of attendance and achievement? How are students supported during times of transition?</p></li>
<li><p>What decisions and structures might be impeding or enhancing students’ opportunities to learn?</p></li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED603403.pdf">The factors that support opportunities for student engagement are interconnected and reinforcing</a>. Careful collaborative attention and reflection by all members of a school community make them possible and contribute to students completing school.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155282/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Relationships, inclusivity, anti-racism and flexibility matter. So does offering students learning opportunities, and supporting and following their transitions over time.Ronna Mosher, Assistant Professor in Education (Curriculum and Leadership), University of CalgaryAmber Hartwell, Doctor of Education candidate, University of CalgaryBarbara Brown, Associate Dean, Teaching and Learning, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1499172020-11-12T19:49:48Z2020-11-12T19:49:48ZOur study in China found struggling students can bring down the rest of the class<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368983/original/file-20201112-23-qznikw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/group-middle-school-students-studying-classroom-157595600">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Low-achieving 12-13 year old students can significantly bring down the academic achievement of the rest of their class. But this negative effect largely vanishes in the next two years.</p>
<p>These are the findings of our recent study published in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00148-020-00780-8">Journal of Population Economics</a>, in which we examined the influence of low-achieving students on their peers in classrooms in China.</p>
<h2>How we conducted our study</h2>
<p>Social interactions at school are believed to be crucial for student learning. Peer influence among students is an important factor to consider for educators, governments and parents. </p>
<p>We used data from the <a href="https://ceps.ruc.edu.cn/index.php?r=index/index&hl=en">China Education Panel Survey</a> conducted during the 2013-14 academic year. The survey is a large-scale, nationally representative survey of students in China’s middle schools. Middle school in China comes after primary school, from grade 7 to grade 9 (the last year before high school).</p>
<p>The survey aims to explain the links between students’ educational outcomes and multiple contexts of family, school processes, communities and the social structure of the school or classroom.</p>
<p>In each school covered in the survey, two classes were randomly chosen from grade 7 (when students are around 12-13 years old) and the grade 9 (when students are around 14-15). Then all students in the selected classes were surveyed to answer questions related to their learning, as well as some background information. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-blame-the-teacher-student-results-are-mostly-out-of-their-hands-124177">Don't blame the teacher: student results are (mostly) out of their hands</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>We considered students who repeated a grade in primary school as low achievers. These students had a proven track record of academic failure. In our data, about 13% of students repeated a grade in primary school. </p>
<p>We based students’ academic performance on each middle school’s administrative records of mid-term test scores in three compulsory subjects (Chinese, maths and English).</p>
<p>When compared with non-repeaters, repeaters had lower performance in Chinese, maths and English.</p>
<p>To identify a relationship between low-achieving students and the academic outcomes of their classmates, we focused on middle schools that randomly assigned students to classrooms in grade 7 and did not rearrange classes in grades 8 and 9. </p>
<p>With random student assignment, we ruled out the possibility that peers in the classroom were the choice of students, their parents or schools. </p>
<p>We compared the academic performance of regular students (non repeaters) from two classes in the same grade of the same school. These students shared similar characteristics and the same school environment, except for one thing. One class had a relatively higher proportion of repeaters than the other, due to the randomness of classroom assignment.</p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>We found the share of grade repeaters in the classroom reduced the academic performance of regular students in grade 7. This peer influence was largest when it came to Chinese and smallest with maths. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369011/original/file-20201112-13-1cdcivr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Children in middle school in China." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369011/original/file-20201112-13-1cdcivr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369011/original/file-20201112-13-1cdcivr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369011/original/file-20201112-13-1cdcivr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369011/original/file-20201112-13-1cdcivr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369011/original/file-20201112-13-1cdcivr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369011/original/file-20201112-13-1cdcivr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369011/original/file-20201112-13-1cdcivr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Middle-school in China runs from grade 7 to grade 9.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/xingtai-city-china-november-2016-on-525764788">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>The negative effects were larger in big classrooms than in small ones. The lower performing but non-repeating (regular) students in grade 7 were most affected by repeaters. But there was no effect on high-performing students. </p>
<p>Repeaters did not affect their peers’ learning efforts nor the teachers’ pedagogical practices. Instead, they appeared to reduce the results of their peers in grade 7 in two ways.</p>
<p>First, in classes with repeaters, regular students were less likely to make friends with their high-ability and/or diligent classmates. Second, the classroom environments were worse with repeaters present. For example, regular students were less likely to report they regularly participated in class/school activities and that their classmates were friendly if more repeaters were in the class.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/should-you-hold-your-child-back-from-starting-school-research-shows-it-has-little-effect-on-their-maths-and-reading-skills-132874">Should you hold your child back from starting school? Research shows it has little effect on their maths and reading skills</a>
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<p>The story for students in grade 9 was different. We found no evidence the achievement of regular grade 9 students was impaired by their low-achieving classmates. </p>
<p>As classroom composition stayed unchanged from grade 7 to grade 9, our theory is that short-term negative peer effects found in grade 7 can fade out in the longer run. </p>
<p>By grade 9, academic pressure was piling on ahead of high school entrance exams. </p>
<p>We attributed the changes in the peer effects of low achievers from grade 7 to grade 9 to the adjustments students made to their friendship groups, and the change in the class learning environment under an enhanced level of academic stress. </p>
<p>Repeaters no longer seemed to affect their classmates’ propensity to form friendships with top academic performers and hardworking classmates in grade 9. Relative to repeaters in grade 7, repeaters in grade 9 reported improved class learning environment.</p>
<h2>Implications for Australia</h2>
<p>Low-achieving classmates in Australia may have a similar effect on their peers. But unlike in our study for China, the effect may not vanish in the year before high school. Australian students, culturally, generally do not face the same level of stress as in China — where academic success is a priority.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-some-migrant-school-students-do-better-than-their-local-peers-theyre-not-just-smarter-93741">Why some migrant school students do better than their local peers (they're not 'just smarter')</a>
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<p>The most important implication for Australian educators is to provide more support to struggling students, which will likely lift the performance of their peers. Economists call this the “social multiplier” effect.</p>
<p>The benefits for low-achieving students will subsequently affect the performance of their peers, which in turn will affect the achievement of the former, and so on. Academic support such as a special tutoring program targeted towards struggling students can generate considerable educational benefits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/149917/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rong Zhu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our study of students in middle schools across China found low-achieving 12-13 year old students significantly bring down the academic achievement of the rest of their class.Rong Zhu, Senior Lecturer in Economics, Flinders UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1312122020-03-02T19:04:28Z2020-03-02T19:04:28ZUnderstanding emotions is nearly as important as IQ for students’ academic success<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316988/original/file-20200225-24672-1l8znok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/heart-brain-on-scales-balance-love-368866400">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The ability to understand emotions contributes almost as much to students’ grades as their IQ. </p>
<p>Past studies show two personal qualities are important for student academic success – intelligence and conscientiousness. </p>
<p>IQ scores <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/bul-bul0000219.pdf">explain about 15%</a> of the differences between students’ grades. Conscientiousness, such as having the diligence to do enough study, <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2009-02580-011.html">explains about 5%</a>.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/bul-bul0000219.pdf">recent research</a> has found emotional intelligence explains 4% of differences between students’ achievement. But the ability to understand emotions, a component of emotional intelligence, explains about 12% of differences in students’ grades.</p>
<h2>What is emotional intelligence?</h2>
<p>Different researchers use slightly different definitions of emotional intelligence.</p>
<p>Some define emotional intelligence as the ability to perceive, use, understand and manage your own and other people’s emotions. This is called “ability emotional intelligence”. </p>
<p>Others also include character traits such as optimism, impulse control and the ability to motivate yourself. This is called “mixed emotional intelligence” because it is a mix of abilities and character traits.</p>
<p>We examined the findings of more than 150 studies on the link between emotional intelligence and academic performance. These studies included more than 42,000 students and 1,246 different estimations of the size of the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic performance. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/children-benefit-when-taught-social-and-emotional-skills-but-some-methods-are-better-than-others-90984">Children benefit when taught social and emotional skills – but some methods are better than others</a>
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<p>Some of the studies in our analysis used rating scales to assess emotional intelligence. Here, test-takers might rate their emotional abilities with items like “I am aware of the non-verbal messages other people send” or rate their mixed emotional intelligence with items like “I am motivated to succeed”. </p>
<p>Others tested emotional intelligence directly by measuring participants’ emotional abilities with skill-based tasks. For example, test takers might be asked to identify which emotion is expressed in a face.</p>
<p>We found that, overall, emotional intelligence explained about 4% of differences in students’ academic achievement. But some emotional intelligence types were more important than others. </p>
<p>Skill-based emotional intelligence, such as reading people’s faces, explained 6% of differences in academic achievement, but self-ratings of emotional abilities explained 1% of differences. So, emotional skills assessed from the outside are more important for students’ academic performance than students’ self-ratings (or self-beliefs) about their emotional skills.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317008/original/file-20200225-24690-w0qj6h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317008/original/file-20200225-24690-w0qj6h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317008/original/file-20200225-24690-w0qj6h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317008/original/file-20200225-24690-w0qj6h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317008/original/file-20200225-24690-w0qj6h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317008/original/file-20200225-24690-w0qj6h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317008/original/file-20200225-24690-w0qj6h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317008/original/file-20200225-24690-w0qj6h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students who understand emotions also know how to regulate their emotions in a stressful situation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-handsome-female-student-college-519827395">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>But some emotional skills were more important than others. The two most important emotional skills for academic success were <strong>understanding emotions</strong> and <strong>managing emotions</strong>. </p>
<p>Students who can <strong>understand emotions</strong> can accurately label their own and others’ emotions. They know what causes emotions, how emotions change and how they combine. Students who can <strong>manage emotions</strong> know how to regulate their emotions in a stressful situation. They also know what to do to maintain good social relationships with others.</p>
<p><strong>Emotion management</strong> skills accounted for 7% of differences in academic performance . Emotion understanding skills accounted for 12%. That is, understanding emotions is more important for student success than conscientiousness (5%) and almost as important as students’ IQ (15%).</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/understanding-others-feelings-what-is-empathy-and-why-do-we-need-it-68494">Understanding others' feelings: what is empathy and why do we need it?</a>
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<p>Emotionally intelligent students <a href="https://workplaceinsight.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/JosephNewman2010.pdf">tend to be</a> more intelligent as well as more conscientious. But our study found it wasn’t just that emotionally intelligent students were also more likely to be intelligent and conscientious.</p>
<p>We applied a statistical technique called meta-regression to examine what the effect of emotional intelligence would be if everyone had the same level of conscientiousness and intelligence.</p>
<p>For students who had the same levels of conscientiousness and intelligence, emotional intelligence was still linked with higher academic performance. </p>
<p>For students with the same levels of intelligence and conscientiousness: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>self-ratings of mixed emotional intelligence (the one involving both skills and character traits) explained 2.3% of differences in performance</p></li>
<li><p><strong>emotion understanding</strong> skills explained 3.9% of differences in performance</p></li>
<li><p><strong>emotion management</strong> skills explained 3.6% of differences in performance.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Why is emotional intelligence linked to good grades?</h2>
<p>There are at least three reasons why we believe emotional intelligence relates to higher academic performance.</p>
<p>First, students with higher emotional intelligence can regulate their “academic emotions”. Students may feel anxious about tests and performance. They may feel bored when learning required but dull material. And they may feel frustrated or disappointed when they try their hardest but still can’t quite get the hang of a task. </p>
<p>Students who can regulate these tough emotions will achieve more. Anxiety will not impair the test performance. They can push through the boredom and frustration to master dull or difficult material. They can learn from negative feedback or failure rather than be derailed by disappointment.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-what-teachers-look-for-when-kids-start-school-116523">Here's what teachers look for when kids start school</a>
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<p>Second, students with higher emotional intelligence can form better social relationships with their classmates and teachers. They can get help with schoolwork or with social and emotional needs when they need it.</p>
<p>Third, many non-technical academic subjects require an understanding of human emotions and social relations as an inherent part of the subject matter. Analysing universal themes of love and betrayal in Shakespeare plays requires not just verbal skills but emotional knowledge and skill. Analysing the role of charismatic leaders in the rise of fascist regimes likewise requires social knowledge and analysis.</p>
<p>Our results show that teachers, parents and students should focus on student’s emotional skills not just for student’s well-being, but for their ability to succeed academically.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/131212/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carolyn MacCann receives funding from the Australian Research Council. She is on the scientific advisory boards for Revelian and (<a href="http://www.revelian.com">www.revelian.com</a>) RAD Science Solutions (<a href="http://www.radssolution.com">www.radssolution.com</a>)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amirali Minbashian receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kit Double does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Students who can regulate tough emotions will achieve more. Anxiety will not impair their test performance. They can push through the boredom and frustration to master dull or difficult material.Carolyn MacCann, Associate Professor, University of SydneyAmirali Minbashian, Associate Professor, UNSW SydneyKit Double, Research Associate, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1241772019-10-23T19:10:51Z2019-10-23T19:10:51ZDon’t blame the teacher: student results are (mostly) out of their hands<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298234/original/file-20191023-149550-1minwjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We wanted to find out how much classroom factors had to do with why some twins did better than others at school.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Teachers have very little to do with why some kids are better at school than others, our research shows. This contradicts the popular view that <a href="https://www.rand.org/education-and-labor/projects/measuring-teacher-effectiveness/teachers-matter.html">teachers matter most</a> (after genes) when it comes to academic achievement. </p>
<p>Previous research has suggested teacher quality – which includes their qualification level and ability to organise the class – can account for <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=research_conference_2003">up to 30%</a> of the reason some students get better marks than others.</p>
<p>But our study of 4,533 twin pairs, published in the <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2019-60508-001">Journal of Educational Psychology</a>, found classroom factors – which include teacher quality and class size – accounted for only 2-3% of the differences in students’ NAPLAN scores.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/genes-can-have-up-to-80-influence-on-students-academic-performance-58052">Genes can have up to 80% influence on students' academic performance</a>
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<p>Classroom factors differ from school factors, although they overlap. School factors would include the overall socioeconomic makeup of the school and broader administrative policies. </p>
<p>Because our twin pairs generally attended the same school, we were not able to test for school differences. But we can apply our findings to differences between classrooms.</p>
<h2>Nature v nurture</h2>
<p>Most children first learn to read via formal instruction that starts in kindergarten or first grade. But they vary in how well and how quickly they learn across the first and subsequent years of instruction. Similarly, differences in numeracy emerge early in school and continue throughout. </p>
<p>Previous studies show <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4266729/">genes account for most of</a> the individual differences – an estimated 40-75% – in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17539370">numeracy</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885201406000700">literacy</a> development among <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27314402">twins at school</a>. </p>
<p>Around 40% of the variability is then left to be explained by environmental factors. These include twins’ shared environments, such as parents’ educational values and socioeconomic status, and factors that affect each twin differently – known as their unique environment – such as if they learn in different classrooms.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-some-migrant-school-students-do-better-than-their-local-peers-theyre-not-just-smarter-93741">Why some migrant school students do better than their local peers (they're not 'just smarter')</a>
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<p>We wanted to find out how much the classroom environment matters to student achievement. </p>
<p>We used twins because they share either all (identical) or half (non-identical) of their genes, and both types of twins share parts of their environment such as their parents, where they live, and often which schools they attend. </p>
<p>There are also parts of the environment twins sometimes don’t share with each other such as their classrooms and friends. We can use what we know to be similar or different about twins to learn about how genes and environments influence achievement for all students, including non-twins.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298244/original/file-20191023-149585-79fgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298244/original/file-20191023-149585-79fgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298244/original/file-20191023-149585-79fgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298244/original/file-20191023-149585-79fgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298244/original/file-20191023-149585-79fgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298244/original/file-20191023-149585-79fgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298244/original/file-20191023-149585-79fgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298244/original/file-20191023-149585-79fgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Reasons for some students having higher scores than others may lie outside the classroom.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
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<p>We examined classroom-level influences on twins’ literacy skills in kindergarten through to grade 2, and on literacy and numeracy skills in grades 3, 5, 7 and 9. We did this by comparing the similarity of NAPLAN test scores in twins who shared or did not share classrooms with each other. </p>
<p>We found twins in separate classrooms were almost as similar in achievement as those who were placed together. This was true for all NAPLAN tests – numeracy as well as the literacy components – and as true for high-school grades 7 and 9 as for kindergarten through to grade 5. </p>
<p>Aside from the 2-3% classroom effect, our research (generalised across the sample) established a substantial proportion of the variability among students – on average around 60% – comes down to genetic differences.</p>
<p>Of the remaining 30+%, it appears other environmental factors such as broader school-based influences, or other still undetermined factors, play a larger role than the classroom environment.</p>
<h2>The teacher isn’t to blame</h2>
<p>Reasons for individual differences in reading and numeracy development have often been attributed to environmental factors. </p>
<p>Education policies in several countries reflect this. In the United States the <a href="https://www.ed.gov/essa">Every Student Succeeds Act</a>, for instance, assumes variation in teacher quality is a major reason for differences in student success, and that teachers should be held accountable when their students fall behind.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-we-need-to-review-how-we-test-for-teacher-quality-95074">Why we need to review how we test for teacher quality</a>
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<p>Many of us can recall a teacher who had a profound influence on us, for better or worse. But it’s important to remember these are individual experiences – ones that could be just between you and that teacher. Our data cann’t detect these individual experiences, it can only detect the average class influences. </p>
<p>We acknowledge teachers matter. It is because of them all children know more at the end of a year, a week, even a day, than they did before.</p>
<p>But our study suggests teachers are doing an even-handed job of educating our students in the core areas of literacy and numeracy. We don’t have data on the higher grades (10-12) where the syllabus gets more demanding and shortages of fully trained teachers in mathematics, say, may begin to show.</p>
<p>But class factors, such as “teacher quality”, don’t appear to be the driving force for why students differ in their NAPLAN scores. Our results suggest individual differences in how students develop may be based more on environmental influences outside the classroom.</p>
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<p><em>The research was conducted by Katrina Grasby, Callie Little, Brian Byrne, William Coventry, Richard Olson, Stefan Samuelsson and Sally Larsen.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124177/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Callie Little does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Previous research suggests teacher quality accounts for up to 30% of the reason some students get better marks than others. Our research on twin pairs turns that on its head.Callie Little, Postdoctoral research fellow, University of New EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1143722019-04-03T19:13:28Z2019-04-03T19:13:28ZWhat makes a school good? It’s about more than just test results<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267015/original/file-20190402-177193-ir7qso.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A successful school isn't necessarily one that gets high test scores.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of the more elusive goals of education research is answering the question: what makes one school perform better than another? The <a href="https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/">evidence base</a> is <a href="https://evidenceforlearning.org.au/">growing</a>, but so far the answer is: it depends. </p>
<p>School success depends on context. What works for one group of students and teachers might not work for another. Teachers themselves may <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234752793_Value-Added_Modeling_of_Teacher_Effectiveness_An_Exploration_of_Stability_across_Models_and_Contexts">vary in their effectiveness</a> depending on the students they teach.</p>
<p>Some schools improve their performance by attracting more affluent and/or high achieving students. This strategy may lift performance in one school, but risks “<a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-5916-2_27">residualising</a>” neighbouring schools, leaving them to cope with increasing concentrations of disadvantage. </p>
<p>The socio-economic status of students is a <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-5916-2_27">major factor</a> in school performance. It is harder for a school to achieve high academic performance with large numbers of students facing risk factors such as low family income, or parents with limited education who may struggle to provide support for learning. Many disadvantaged schools across Australia <a href="http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/publications/tabledpapers.nsf/displaypaper/3910394c0d3543f86dec936848257bc00023a005/$file/tp-394.pdf">achieve results</a> more than one year behind the national average.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/back-to-school-understanding-challenges-faced-by-indigenous-children-71886">Back to school – understanding challenges faced by Indigenous children</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But just because schools in poorer areas may achieve lower results, it doesn’t mean these schools are “unsuccessful”, and schools in wealthier suburbs with higher average scores are “successful”. Schools in poorer areas can make a significant impact on their students’ lives. And lifting outcomes for disadvantaged students can transform lives and communities, across generations. </p>
<p>There are three key ways that schools in disadvantaged contexts achieve success that other schools can learn from.</p>
<h2>1. Success is more than test scores</h2>
<p>The most effective schools aren’t necessarily the highest academic performers. They are schools that yield better-than-anticipated results, bringing the best out of every student regardless of background. </p>
<p>Measures of school performance, including <a href="https://www.myschool.edu.au/">MySchool</a>, typically take into account the socio-economic profile of the student community for this reason. This draws on established research about schools’ <a href="https://www.voced.edu.au/content/ngv%3A7017">value-add</a> – their success in lifting student outcomes. </p>
<p>A successful school fosters <a href="https://education.nsw.gov.au/our-priorities/innovate-for-the-future/education-for-a-changing-world/research-findings/future-frontiers-analytical-report-key-skills-for-the-21st-century/Key-Skills-for-the-21st-Century-Analytical-Report.pdf">broader dimensions of learning</a> critical to students’ overall success. These include social and emotional development, creativity and innovation, positive attitudes to learning, and citizenship. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/should-we-change-the-way-we-measure-student-progress-in-schools-56422">Should we change the way we measure student progress in schools?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Some Australian governments <a href="http://www.mitchellinstitute.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Educational-opportunity-in-Australia-2015-Who-succeeds-and-who-misses-out-19Nov15.pdf">actually include</a> measures of student well-being and sense of connectedness to school in assessments of school performance. Schools themselves often point to the value of their work in shaping student aspirations, behaviours, and values – not just academic achievement. </p>
<p>Disadvantaged schools may <a href="https://iscy.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/ISCY-Working-Paper-Melbourne-Context.pdf">succeed in these areas</a>, even more highly than schools whose focus is academic achievement.</p>
<h2>2. Students need to learn how to learn</h2>
<p>Effective teaching practice will have little impact if students are not equipped to learn. Students from advantaged backgrounds typically inherit knowledge about how to learn, and why. Students from disadvantaged backgrounds rely more heavily on schools to build their skills for learning, and to help them to see themselves as capable and motivated learners.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266713/original/file-20190401-177171-6fvufo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266713/original/file-20190401-177171-6fvufo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266713/original/file-20190401-177171-6fvufo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266713/original/file-20190401-177171-6fvufo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266713/original/file-20190401-177171-6fvufo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266713/original/file-20190401-177171-6fvufo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266713/original/file-20190401-177171-6fvufo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266713/original/file-20190401-177171-6fvufo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students from more advantaged households typically inherit understanding about how to learn, and why, from their parents.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>High-performing lower socio-economic status schools routinely provide <a href="http://csmp.manukau.ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/89982/effectivestrategiesreportprint.pdf">targeted support</a> for students within and outside the traditional school day. This may include small-group and individual tutoring, self-paced interventions using technology, one-on-one academic advising and coaching, homework support, and additional assessment time.</p>
<p>Evaluations of <a href="https://www.schoolsplus.org.au/for-schools/fair-education-program/">school reforms and intervention programs </a> for schools with high concentrations of disadvantaged students have revealed the importance of establishing a shared understanding around teaching and learning, and school goals. </p>
<p>For example, one school established playgroups and a parent café to work with parents as partners in the learning process. This meant more students came to school motivated and ready to learn, and teachers could do their jobs more effectively. </p>
<h2>3. Extra funding matters and must be put to good use</h2>
<p>Needs-based school funding – as recommended in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/gonski-and-the-pms-education-crusade-experts-respond-9283">first Gonski review</a> – goes some way towards combating the downward pressure student disadvantage places on school performance. Yet the <a href="https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/1996/09/11/02murn.h16.html">effects of school funding</a> on learning outcomes are mixed. </p>
<p>Achieving better outcomes requires changing the way you practise and using the extra money to enact the change. This is because learning outcomes are driven by a complexity of factors, especially in communities experiencing a number of challenges.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/does-more-money-for-schools-improve-educational-outcomes-57656">Does more money for schools improve educational outcomes?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A <a href="https://www.cese.nsw.gov.au/images/stories/PDF/Eval_Rep/Strategy_Evaluation_CESE/LowSES_Strategies_improving_learning.pdf">recent evaluation</a> of the impact of additional school funding shows that a stable teaching and school leadership team is essential to enable schools to make good use of additional funding. One school, which had seen four principals come and go in five years, invested in building the executive leadership team, including mentoring and leadership training. Although gains in test scores remain a work-in-progress, the professional climate and teaching practice have notably improved. </p>
<p>Schools with many disadvantaged students can face other challenges besides a high turnover of staff. Addressing these challenges requires school leaders to examine the many facets of school performance, not only student achievement, to identify where the best opportunities are for improvement. </p>
<p>Additional funding is needed, but continuity, stability, and evidence-based planning are essential for it to have maximum effect. </p>
<h2>Applying knowledge across contexts</h2>
<p>Schools that achieve success for the most disadvantaged students have much to contribute to our knowledge of what makes a good school. They are at the frontline of engagement with the enduring <a href="https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/an-unfair-start-inequality-children-education_37049-RC15-EN-WEB.pdf">equity gap</a> in Australian education, and living proof it can be narrowed. </p>
<p>Their potential contribution is illustrated by the example of a <a href="https://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/school/principals/management/Improving_together.pdf">school partnership</a> in Victoria, involving a highly advantaged and highly disadvantaged school. The partnership was successful because knowledge flowed both ways. </p>
<p>While the advantaged school focused on high achievement, the disadvantaged school helped the more advantaged school understand the influence of home and family context on learning, and adopt tailored strategies so their least advantaged learners would not fall through the cracks. </p>
<p>This kind of understanding not only leads to successful schools: it is the foundation of a successful system.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/114372/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Lamb has received funding from the Australian Research Council. Among the research papers cited are some that were undertaken on behalf of governments and external partners.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jen Jackson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Schools in poorer areas can make a significant impact on their students’ lives. This can matter more, relative speaking, than higher test scores in wealthier suburbs.Jen Jackson, Education Policy Lead, Mitchell Institute, Victoria UniversityStephen Lamb, Research Chair in Education and Director of the Centre for International Research on Education Systems, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/866682017-11-13T23:16:07Z2017-11-13T23:16:07ZScience in the home boosts children’s academic success<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194201/original/file-20171110-29364-495xvn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research shows that when parents engage in simple science projects with their kids at home, it boosts their learning in school. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Did you know that children spend just 14 per cent of their waking time between Kindergarten and the end of Grade 12 in school? </p>
<p>Given this startling statistic, it comes as no surprise that much of children’s learning happens “out there” — in the playground, during extracurricular activities, at a museum, on a walk, via the media, and, perhaps most importantly, at home.</p>
<p>I am the director of the Education Community Outreach Centre at Queen’s University and coordinator of Science Rendezvous Kingston. Science Rendezvous is Canada’s largest pop-up science, technology and engineering and mathematics (STEM) festival. I also develop mathematics content for two educational children’s programs, <em>The Prime Radicals</em> and <em>mathXplosion</em>. I have developed two provincial toolkits for parents about <a href="http://www.ontariodirectors.ca/parent_engagement-math/en/">inspiring children to learn, love</a> and <a href="http://www.mathpathontario.ca">choose math</a> and I am the “math talk” consultant for <em>MathStoryTime</em>.</p>
<p>I have worked for decades to engage parents because I believe that families and schools have much to learn from and share with each other. Schools have formal knowledge of teaching and learning, curriculum, assessment and evaluation. And parents know their children’s motivations, skills and interests.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194200/original/file-20171110-29358-1sjewqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194200/original/file-20171110-29358-1sjewqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194200/original/file-20171110-29358-1sjewqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194200/original/file-20171110-29358-1sjewqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194200/original/file-20171110-29358-1sjewqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194200/original/file-20171110-29358-1sjewqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194200/original/file-20171110-29358-1sjewqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Science at home doesn’t need to be daunting. It can be as simple as planting seeds with a child, or helping them collect leaves and bugs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The research also shows that informal environments including the home — also called out-of-school-time [OST] settings — play an important role in promoting STEM learning. They do this by <a href="http://doi.org/10.1080/01443410903353302">sparking student interest</a> and <a href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12190/learning-science-in-informal-environments-people-places-and-pursuits">providing opportunities to broaden and deepen engagement in STEM content</a>.</p>
<h2>The benefits of science at home</h2>
<p>Empirical evidence clearly suggests that OST experiences <a href="http://doi.org/10.1080/09500690701494084">strengthen and enrich school STEM learning</a> by <a href="http://www.informalscience.org/sites/default/files/MakingScienceMatter.pdf">reinforcing scientific concepts and practices</a> introduced during the school day. These experiences can be in museums, after-school programs, science and technology centres, libraries, aquariums, zoos, botanical gardens and at the kitchen table.</p>
<p>OST experiences also promote an appreciation for, and interest in, the pursuit of STEM in school and in daily life. They help learners understand the daily relevance of science to their lives, the depth and breadth of science as a field of inquiry, and <a href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12614/surrounded-by-science-learning-science-in-informal-environments">what it might be like to choose to do science in the world</a>, either as a professional or a citizen scientist.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194202/original/file-20171110-29374-1ip24oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194202/original/file-20171110-29374-1ip24oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194202/original/file-20171110-29374-1ip24oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194202/original/file-20171110-29374-1ip24oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194202/original/file-20171110-29374-1ip24oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194202/original/file-20171110-29374-1ip24oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194202/original/file-20171110-29374-1ip24oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>It is no surprise then, that informal science education researchers and educators are <a href="http://www.nsta.org/about/positions/parents.aspx">actively reaching out to parents</a>, asking them to <a href="http://www.letstalkscience.ca/About-Us/Research-and-Publications">enthusiastically encourage and support</a> children’s science learning at home, in school, and through their communities.</p>
<h2>Any parent can be a STEM mentor</h2>
<p>Parents are their children’s first and most important teachers. Their values, beliefs and actions have <a href="http://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009048817385">enormous influence on their child’s educational decision-making and achievement</a>. When parents convey an interest and excitement for STEM subjects, children <a href="http://doi.org/10.1177/0042085905274540">benefit attitudinally and academically</a>. </p>
<p>When parents make it clear that they value STEM subjects and believe it is important to study them, they positively influence the way their child views these subjects and <a href="http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615592630">support their child’s academic success in those areas</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194203/original/file-20171110-29328-18urtq5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194203/original/file-20171110-29328-18urtq5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194203/original/file-20171110-29328-18urtq5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194203/original/file-20171110-29328-18urtq5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194203/original/file-20171110-29328-18urtq5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194203/original/file-20171110-29328-18urtq5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194203/original/file-20171110-29328-18urtq5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A mother supporting her daughter at Science Rendezvous Kingston 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Garrett Elliott)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Informal STEM learning at home is about parents and children exploring science in fun, hands-on ways outside of class. Brief, high-quality parent-child interactions about STEM can make a profound difference to how children perceive STEM subjects and succeed in them academically. </p>
<p>One study, for example, showed that when caregivers used a mobile app to bring a little bit of math into the home, <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac7427">their elementary school children showed improved math skills within months</a>. Improvements were most dramatic in families where the caregivers reported themselves to be anxious about math.</p>
<h2>Books and leaves and bugs</h2>
<p>When parents actively participate in kitchen-sink experiments, they become STEM mentors. When parents become partners by contributing specimens to a child’s leaf or bug collection and then go a step farther by helping their child to categorize those treasures with the help of an illustrated website, they are modelling what scientists do. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194205/original/file-20171110-29328-1r52ubx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194205/original/file-20171110-29328-1r52ubx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194205/original/file-20171110-29328-1r52ubx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194205/original/file-20171110-29328-1r52ubx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194205/original/file-20171110-29328-1r52ubx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194205/original/file-20171110-29328-1r52ubx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194205/original/file-20171110-29328-1r52ubx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>When parents curl up with their children to read a science book together, such as <em>The Way Things Work</em> by David Macaulay, and then dig out the can opener to take a closer look, they are modelling learning. </p>
<p>When families watch age-appropriate television together — like <a href="http://pbskids.org/sid/">Sid the Science Kid</a>, <a href="https://projectmc2.mgae.com/">Project Mc²</a> or <a href="http://www.pbs.org/show/nova/">NOVA</a> — parents are encouraging connections among STEM topics, everyday life, career possibilities and scientific literacy through their attitudes and actions.</p>
<p>Here are two very simple experiments that can be done at home, using everyday household items.</p>
<h2><em>Experiment 1: Rolling, Rolling, Rolling</em></h2>
<p><strong>You will need</strong>: An empty soda can, an inflated balloon and one head of hair.</p>
<p><strong>Directions</strong>: Place the can on its side on a flat surface (a table or a smooth floor will do). Then rub the balloon back and forth through your hair. Hold the balloon close to the can without actually touching the can.</p>
<p>You should see the can roll towards the balloon without touching it!</p>
<p><strong>Why does it work?</strong> When you rub the balloon through your hair, tiny, invisible particles called electrons (which have a negative charge) build up on the surface of the balloon, creating static electricity. They electrons have the power to pull very light objects (like the soda can) towards them.</p>
<h2><em>Experiment 2: Blowing up a balloon without blowing</em></h2>
<p><strong>You will need</strong>: A balloon, about 40 ml of water (a cup is about 250 ml so you don’t need much), a soft drink bottle, a drinking straw, the juice from a lemon (or two tablespoons of vinegar) and three teaspoons of baking soda.</p>
<p><strong>Directions</strong>: Stretch out the balloon. Pour 40 ml of water into the soft drink bottle. Add the baking soda, stirring with the straw until it is dissolved. Pour the lemon juice (or vinegar) in and quickly put the stretched balloon over the mouth of the bottle.</p>
<p>If all goes well then your balloon should inflate!</p>
<p><strong>Why does it work?</strong> Adding the lemon juice to the baking soda creates a chemical reaction. The baking soda is a base, while the lemon juice is an acid, when the two combine they create carbon dioxide gas (CO₂). The gas rises and travels up through the neck of soft drink bottle, where it is trapped inside the balloon and blows it up.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86668/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lynda Colgan receives funding from SSHRC, NSERC PromoScience, CODE and Ministry of Education for the Province of Ontario.</span></em></p>From collecting bugs to using math apps, there are many ways parents can engage in STEM activities with their kids to support their learning.Lynda Colgan, Professor of Elementary Mathematics, Queen's University, OntarioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/847172017-10-26T13:16:25Z2017-10-26T13:16:25ZA South African case study: how to transform student support efforts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/190786/original/file-20171018-32361-ob5rlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Getting access to a university doesn't necessarily mean feeling comfortable in that space.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ian Barbour/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>South Africa’s universities have created a number of programmes to address the historic – and still existing – imbalance between black and white students. </p>
<p>Black students are more likely than their white peers to drop out <a href="http://www.justice.gov.za/commissions/FeesHET/docs/2015-HESummit-Annexure05.pdf">without completing their degrees</a>. Many experience deeply rooted <a href="http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20120720135828322">institutional racism</a>. (I use the word “black” here in the South African context to include everybody who was <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Population-Registration-Act">classified</a> as African, Coloured and Indian under apartheid.)</p>
<p>And so each year <a href="http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Full_Report.pdf">about 15%</a> of those students entering higher education do so through equity development programmes. These take several different forms, such as the <a href="https://www.news.uct.ac.za/article/-2015-07-27-academic-development-programme-student-success-not-just-access">academic development programmes</a> and the <a href="http://www.humedu.uct.ac.za/">extended curriculum programmes</a>, which extend regular undergraduate study by one year. </p>
<p>All are designed to help talented but under-prepared students with financial, academic and mentoring support. </p>
<p>These development programmes have made it possible for “<a href="http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Full_Report.pdf">tens of thousands of students</a>” to enter tertiary institutions since 1994. Success rates, especially for extended curriculum programmes, <a href="http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Full_Report.pdf">are high</a>.</p>
<p>But this success comes at a cost. <a href="https://open.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11427/16649/thesis_hum_2015_nomdo_gideon_john.pdf?sequence=1">My</a> <a href="http://www.journals.ac.za/index.php/sajhe/article/view/588/1164">research</a> and experience of working on an <a href="http://www.mmuf.uct.ac.za/">undergraduate fellowship programme</a> at the <a href="http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20121023192747849">“historically white”</a> University of Cape Town has shown how participation in development programmes profoundly affects black students’ sense of identity and their feelings of self-worth.</p>
<p>Students experience intense feelings of discomfort, confusion and even embarrassment at being classified as “different” and an “anomaly” alongside the <a href="https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/366/Jansen%20%282004%29l.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">norm</a> of white academic success. </p>
<h2>Apartheid’s racist legacy</h2>
<p>Development programmes are designed to facilitate students’ non-discriminatory access into higher education. They also aim to promote the “<a href="http://www.adp.uct.ac.za/our-adp-mission">transformation of institutional cultures</a>” at historically white universities. </p>
<p>Students are placed in the programmes based on their final high school grades as well as <a href="https://educonnect.co.za/the-national-benchmark-tests-what-you-need-to-know/">national benchmark tests</a>. These results determine university placement as well as whether extra academic support is needed. </p>
<p>The majority of students who enter these programmes are black – and so they enter historically white universities with the labels “African”, “Coloured”, “Indian” or “previously disadvantaged” stamped on their existence – labels that symbolise “deficit”, serving to distinguish black students from the accepted norms of white academic success.</p>
<p>But this feeling of otherness doesn’t only exist with relation to whiteness. The vexed issue of racial classification takes centre stage. One student said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I thought I would be accepted as a black person… but I found… I was ‘other’ and I was ‘Coloured’ – and that was a revelation and it’s a root of lots of resentment and disillusionment on my part. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Being “black”, then, is not a homogeneous experience. Terms such as “disadvantage”, “transformation” and “black identity” have different meanings for African, Coloured and Indian students. This is a consequence of apartheid’s hierarchy of race categories under which Coloureds and Indians enjoyed better privileges than Africans.</p>
<p>So from the outset it seems impossible that these students can attain a sense of belonging. </p>
<p>But my <a href="http://www.journals.ac.za/index.php/sajhe/article/view/588/1164">research</a> and experience have <a href="https://open.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11427/16649/thesis_hum_2015_nomdo_gideon_john.pdf?sequence=1">shown</a> that this needn’t be the case. If development programmes take on the fact that students are operating in uncomfortable, emotionally charged environments, the programmes can be turned into spaces that are productive and where students can develop a true sense of belonging.</p>
<p>This means actively engaging and encouraging critical discussion about issues of race, class, identity and citizenship in white-dominated spaces. </p>
<p>The undergraduate fellowship programme, on which I based my research, has shown that this is possible.</p>
<h2>A case study of success</h2>
<p>The fellowship programmes is small – only five fellows are selected for the programme each year. </p>
<p>Fellows operate in a close-knit network which facilitates critical debates about race. In this environment students are able to raise and confront tough, uncomfortable questions. The programme acknowledges the varied experiences and perceptions of the world that its fellows bring along. These differences are used as a basis for collaborative peer engagement and for creating a sense of common purpose and belonging. </p>
<p>Another core aspect of programme is mentorship. Each student selects an academic mentor – a specialist in a particular discipline who is responsible for inducting the student into that field. Mentors guide, facilitate and create opportunities for student advancement. </p>
<p>Funding is important too. The fellowship is largely funded by international organisations and is well resourced, allowing students to travel to local and international fellowship conferences, have access to specialised mentoring, research writing retreats and funds to repay some student debt on completing their PhDs. </p>
<p>This approach creates a shift in perception: black identity comes to be viewed in terms of how one feels, in <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2013/entries/heidegger/">the words</a> of German philosopher Martin Heidegger, about one’s existence and sense of “being in the world”. This allows for opportunities to create a more confident, authentic sense of “being” human that allows, as Heidegger puts it “one to feel <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2013/entries/heidegger/">at home</a> within oneself”. </p>
<h2>Lessons</h2>
<p>Of course, there is no single perfect approach for developing equity within higher education. But the lessons from my research show how important it is to create spaces for reflecting on student experiences and perceptions of higher education. </p>
<p>Extended development programmes shouldn’t try to sanitise contentious issues. Instead, they should embrace the discomfort of engaging students about the necessity of the programmes and how they are meant to contribute to transformation agendas. </p>
<p>Taking ownership in this way provides a platform for students to generate their own sense of belonging.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84717/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gideon Nomdo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Students experience intense feelings of discomfort, confusion and even embarrassment at being classified as “different” and an “anomaly” alongside the norm of white academic success.Gideon Nomdo, Course coordinator: Language in Humanities, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/792262017-07-25T18:30:45Z2017-07-25T18:30:45ZHow to succeed in college with a disability<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179637/original/file-20170725-12396-1waslfk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C0%2C2383%2C1321&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Whether you have a physical disability, mental illness or learning challenge, there are strategies to help you earn your degree.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/group-of-graduates-standing-inside-a-room-493436/">Stocksnap</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’re entering college as a student with a disability, the first thing you should know is that you’re not alone. In a study of approximately 11,000 young adults with disabilities, nearly 20 percent were found to have <a href="https://nlts2.sri.com/reports/2011_09_02/">attended a four-year college or university</a> at some point after high school. </p>
<p>And, like all students, you should have a sense of pride in what the college experience can do for you: You’ve demonstrated self-determination in deciding to take classes, meet new friends and have many exciting experiences. What’s more, you and your family are making an important contribution to your future. Many studies show that success in college is an indicator of <a href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ896246.pdf">success in the work world</a>.</p>
<p>As a professor of education and program coordinator for special education, I teach first-year students and advise students throughout their undergraduate careers. Over my 12 years of teaching, I’ve seen some of the challenges that stand in the way of success for college students with special needs – many of which apply to nearly all students.</p>
<p>These challenges can prove daunting, but there are strategies that can help.</p>
<h2>Help your professor understand</h2>
<p>Often disabilities are hidden, but that just means that you can’t see them when you meet someone. Hidden or not, disabilities are real.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179526/original/file-20170724-6656-1y96wbr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179526/original/file-20170724-6656-1y96wbr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179526/original/file-20170724-6656-1y96wbr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179526/original/file-20170724-6656-1y96wbr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179526/original/file-20170724-6656-1y96wbr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179526/original/file-20170724-6656-1y96wbr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179526/original/file-20170724-6656-1y96wbr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179526/original/file-20170724-6656-1y96wbr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Don’t be afraid to talk to your professors and help them understand your disability.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/friends-working-discussion-meeting-sharing-ideas-422451733">Rawpixel/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many professors <a href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ896246.pdf">don’t know very much about disability</a> or may not have had much experience making changes to their classes. Or perhaps it’s been a while since they’ve had a student with special needs in their classroom.</p>
<p>Providing some <a href="https://adata.org/faq/what-definition-disability-under-ada">websites</a> or <a href="http://idea.ed.gov/explore/home.html">simple readings</a> may be helpful. </p>
<p>The important thing is to help your professor understand that you’re not trying to get by with easier work. Instead, you want them to see that your accommodations are there so that you can be successful. Communicate to them that you’re willing to work hard and put in the extra time that’s necessary to master the content. </p>
<p>In my experience, faculty can be very supportive – and your best advocates at college. Know that they’re going to be your mentors and the ones to help you find internships and even jobs. They’re going to be the ones writing your recommendation letters in the future. </p>
<h2>Get the most out of class</h2>
<p>Just like every other college student, you want to get the most out of every class. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179527/original/file-20170724-24759-1l814rn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179527/original/file-20170724-24759-1l814rn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179527/original/file-20170724-24759-1l814rn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179527/original/file-20170724-24759-1l814rn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179527/original/file-20170724-24759-1l814rn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179527/original/file-20170724-24759-1l814rn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179527/original/file-20170724-24759-1l814rn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179527/original/file-20170724-24759-1l814rn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You’ll need to figure out the best study habits for each class.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/disabled-young-man-sitting-wheelchair-using-139937536">Stokkete/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This particular aspect of college may be more difficult if you have a learning disability. According to special education researcher <a href="http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/school-of-education/departments/special-education/faculty/david-j-connor">David J. Conner</a>, some students “face <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2011.590158">greater difficulties than their nondisabled counterparts</a> in: concentrating on the task at hand, determining the saliency of information presented in class, applying test strategies, and managing time.”</p>
<p>Get yourself prepared. Think about how you’re going to deal with the daily, weekly and long-term reading and assignments in your courses.</p>
<p>Remember that each of your classes requires its own set of skills and study habits. Don’t think that the same study habits are going to work for a philosophy course that work for a math course.</p>
<h2>Find academic and social support</h2>
<p>Often freshmen with special needs <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1107472">don’t seek out academic support</a> through their university’s disability services. They see acknowledging disability as a stigma or are sometimes reluctant to accept their disability. Rather than seeing support as something to be ashamed of, understand that it’s a way of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292366922_Requesting_classroom_accommodations_Self-advocacy_and_conflict_resolution_training_for_college_students_with_disabilities">demonstrating that you can succeed</a> – and that you know how to succeed.</p>
<p>Disability services on your campus are there for you. Whether it’s part of the office of student life, a dean’s office or a dedicated office, someone on-campus is charged with meeting accommodations. Make an appointment in your early days on campus, before you get too far into the semester and the support you need isn’t there. Though it’s not always an official practice, ask them if you might be given a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F004005991204400502">senior student mentor</a> who can answer your questions or even act as an advocate.</p>
<p>The other side to this equation is your personal support group. Many college students find that a special “group” gives a sense of belonging on the campus – something that’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2015.0072">especially important</a> if your disability makes you feel like an outsider. Find a group of friends that can help you as you negotiate your early days of being on campus. For all students, this can also be a great way to <a href="https://doi.org/10.14204/ejrep.35.14053">reduce stress</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179530/original/file-20170724-5139-kg5enr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179530/original/file-20170724-5139-kg5enr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179530/original/file-20170724-5139-kg5enr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179530/original/file-20170724-5139-kg5enr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179530/original/file-20170724-5139-kg5enr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179530/original/file-20170724-5139-kg5enr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179530/original/file-20170724-5139-kg5enr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179530/original/file-20170724-5139-kg5enr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Participating in activities (like theatrical productions) can provide you with social support.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/U4SZ9W">UIS Theatre</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most colleges have an organization fair at the beginning of the year; attend that to find out what you might be interested in. You might not have ever had an interest before in that particular area, but consider trying something out of your comfort zone.</p>
<h2>Find and pursue your major</h2>
<p>As you choose and take your classes, remember to be keeping in mind the bigger picture. You don’t have to know what you want to do right away; many of your colleagues who don’t have special needs are undecided on their majors too. But that doesn’t mean you shouldn’t start the process.</p>
<p>Some people make jokes about <a href="http://www.slu.edu/beabilliken/quiz-college-majors">interest</a> <a href="http://www.luc.edu/undergrad/academiclife/whatsmymajorquiz/">surveys</a>, but they can be helpful in directing the thinking process around your future career.</p>
<p>Here are some other helpful questions that any student – special needs or not – can consider: What do I think I could do? What have I had success in before? Are the skills being taught in this course the same types of skills that I have? What do my friends or mentors say I’m good at?</p>
<p>The most important thing to remember is that college is a doorway, and once you go through, you’re going to find a lot of great opportunities. Support is there on the college campus, but you have to do your part to find it. Be patient with yourself, but don’t forget to push yourself, too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79226/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Byrd does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>For many disabled students, college is the first time that they’re put to the test of making their own way. The experience can be challenging, but there are strategies to help ease the way.Stephen Byrd, Associate Professor of Education, Elon UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/798932017-07-25T01:16:33Z2017-07-25T01:16:33ZDo challenges make school seem impossible or worthwhile?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179494/original/file-20170724-11166-djnp45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When school gets tough, do you think it's worthwhile? Or time to give up?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/studying-girl-440842600?src=enkWg7yoM312gbpnGxyhXw-1-50">Pavlin Plamenov Petkov/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Did you get where you intended to in life? Are you as healthy, wealthy and wise as you want to be? If not, perhaps the problem is a lack of motivation.</p>
<p>Some studies suggest that motivation – rather than ability or skill – is the <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/pathways-to-success-through-identity-based-motivation-9780195341461">best predictor of educational and professional attainment</a>.</p>
<p>But what do we actually mean by motivation? It seems that wherever one turns, <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Theory_of_Human_Motivation.html?id=nvnsAgAAQBAJ">experts</a> have <a href="http://gumptionade.com/">new</a> <a href="http://www.hayhouse.com/the-motivation-manifesto-hardcover">advice</a> on <a href="http://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/301674/drive-by-daniel-h-pink/9781594484803">how to be motivated</a>. </p>
<p>As researchers interested in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000055">motivation and educational success</a>, we wondered: Is motivation just one thing, or are there many different kinds of motivation? Is motivation about how people respond to challenges or is it also about how people respond to ease? Understanding these different facets of motivation can help students succeed.</p>
<h2>Why do people need motivation?</h2>
<p>People think of themselves and others as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1229294">having some essence</a> – some fixed or at least stable core. They tend to believe that this sense of “me” defines who they are, who they might become and how they’re likely to act over time.</p>
<p>If people actually had this sort of fixed “essence” (and always acted in ways that fit that essence), the idea of motivation wouldn’t be necessary. People wouldn’t need to be motivated to do something; they would simply do it because it’s part of their identity.</p>
<p>But motivation is necessary. In part, that’s because what people believe to be true of themselves in one situation <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12030">doesn’t necessarily predict</a> what they’ll do in another situation. Wanting to be an “A” student doesn’t mean that you’ll pay attention to the teacher right now instead of passing notes to a friend.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179490/original/file-20170724-28293-4qvxgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179490/original/file-20170724-28293-4qvxgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179490/original/file-20170724-28293-4qvxgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179490/original/file-20170724-28293-4qvxgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179490/original/file-20170724-28293-4qvxgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179490/original/file-20170724-28293-4qvxgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179490/original/file-20170724-28293-4qvxgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179490/original/file-20170724-28293-4qvxgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Even someone who wants to succeed in school may decide it’s more important in the moment to develop friendships than focus in class.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/group-diverse-high-school-students-studying-651891676">Rawpixel/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While this seemingly contradictory behavior might seem to be a human design flaw, it’s actually a feature: Thinking (including thinking about who you are) is sensitively attuned to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2009.06.001">what individual situations have to offer</a>. After all, right now it might be more important to keep up a friendship than to worry about something like next week’s test.</p>
<h2>Too easy to matter? Too hard to bother?</h2>
<p>Everyday life involves experiences that are easy and those that are difficult. How do these challenges (or lack of challenges) impact motivation? Research tells us that what matters is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.02.014">what people think ease and difficulty mean for them</a>.</p>
<p>Both easy and difficult experiences can be demotivating. If homework feels easy, for instance, a student might think: “This is stupid. I’m not going to do this.” When something feels too easy, it can mean that the task is “beneath me” or “just not worth my time.”</p>
<p>On the other hand, if the homework feels difficult that same student could think: “This is too hard for me. I’m just not a math person.” Or “People like me can’t do this.” When something feels too difficult, it can mean that success in that task is unlikely and that “I” or “we” aren’t cut out for it.</p>
<p>Both perspectives are likely to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12030">undermine motivation</a>. Why waste your time on things that are trivial or impossible? Better to quit and move on to something else.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179495/original/file-20170724-6656-1n5opta.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179495/original/file-20170724-6656-1n5opta.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179495/original/file-20170724-6656-1n5opta.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=741&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179495/original/file-20170724-6656-1n5opta.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=741&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179495/original/file-20170724-6656-1n5opta.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=741&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179495/original/file-20170724-6656-1n5opta.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=932&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179495/original/file-20170724-6656-1n5opta.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=932&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179495/original/file-20170724-6656-1n5opta.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=932&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In sports, ‘no pain, no gain’ is a common way to look at adversity. The same is not always true in academics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/man-wearing-white-long-sleeve-shirt-holding-black-nike-ball-488610/">Stocksnap</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the same time, experiencing ease or difficulty while working on a task can also be motivating. When something feels easy, it can mean that success is possible and when something feels difficult, it can mean that success is worthwhile (“no pain, no gain”). In this case, homework that feels easy implies: “I can do this!” Homework that feels difficult implies: “This is valuable!”</p>
<p>Naturally, the demotivating frames of mind can get in the way of success. In our research, we asked over 1,000 adults of various ages, genders and backgrounds their ideas about what ease and difficulty imply. We then asked about 200 of them to perform a complicated cognitive task in which some items were relatively easy to solve and others were quite difficult. We found that the people who <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000055">performed better on the task</a> were the ones who felt that difficult does not mean impossible and that easy does not mean trivial.</p>
<h2>How students interpret difficulty matters</h2>
<p>A growing number of studies show that how students perceive difficulty can significantly influence their performance in school.</p>
<p>In these studies, students are randomly divided into two groups. One group reads sentences implying that difficulty is a sign of importance. The other group reads sentences implying that difficulty is a sign of low odds of success. Students in the first kind of group <a href="http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/soco.2015.33.2.1">solve more problems</a>, <a href="http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/v43/acr_vol43_1019297.pdf">write better essays</a> and <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/assets/sites/782/docs/Aeleni_Lewis_Oyserman_2016.pdf">describe themselves as more</a> <a href="http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/soco.2015.33.2.1">focused on school</a> than students in the second kind of group. </p>
<p>In short, how students interpret their everyday difficulties with school matters.</p>
<h2>Is there a pattern?</h2>
<p>Is there a way to predict how students might interpret difficulty and ease?</p>
<p>In the same 1,000-person set of studies, we asked people to rate how much they agreed or disagreed with four interpretations of what ease and difficulty might imply: easy means trivial, difficult means impossible, easy means possible and difficult means worthwhile. We found that people are more inclined to interpret their experiences in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000055">ways that are motivating rather than demotivating</a>. </p>
<p>However, people who did believe that easy things are trivial were likely to also believe that difficult things are impossible. Though not the majority, they make up a subset of people who, without assistance, may tend to work too little and quit too soon.</p>
<p>Who are these people?</p>
<p>Demographically speaking, in our study, they tended to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000055">men with low income</a>. We found some evidence that among adults (primarily white Americans in our samples), low income was associated with higher agreement that when things get difficult, they may be impossible, and one should turn one’s attention elsewhere. Interpreting ease as triviality is a bit gendered: men are somewhat more likely than women to believe that easy things aren’t worth their time.</p>
<p><iframe id="jxIUZ" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/jxIUZ/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>So what can we do?</h2>
<p>If difficulty (and even ease) can be interpreted in such a demotivating way, is there some way to change this interpretation? </p>
<p>Researchers have designed programs that help students see difficulty with schoolwork as a signal of importance – something of value to be engaged with rather than something impossible to be avoided. One such intervention yielded <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188">improved academic outcomes</a> at least two full school years later.</p>
<p>There are also ways that teachers can (carefully) message that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858416664714">schoolwork is hard because it’s valuable</a>. Though heavy-handedly telling students what to believe <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858416664714">will often result in them rejecting or disbelieving the message</a>, teachers can instead give students the chance to argue the point themselves: If the assumption is that difficulty signals impossibility, ask your students to question that assumption and argue against it.</p>
<p>Teachers can also give students the chance to practice interpreting difficulty as importance. This can be something as simple as solving a puzzle that at first seems impossible. With such practice, this interpretation becomes more accessible when students experience difficulty with higher stakes.</p>
<p>No one starts life knowing how to walk, tie shoelaces or ride a bike. The failures along the way – and even the falls, scrapes and bruises – can reinforce the value of the task at hand.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79893/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daphna Oyserman receives funding from the Department of Education (Institute for Educational Studies, Investing in Innovation). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oliver Fisher does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A high school science test, a Psych 101 course, long job applications: Sometimes it’s hard to be motivated to succeed. As it turns out, how you respond to difficulty and ease can make all the difference.Daphna Oyserman, Professor of Psychology and Education, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and SciencesOliver Fisher, Ph.D. Candidate, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and SciencesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/786602017-06-21T10:31:01Z2017-06-21T10:31:01ZChallenging the status quo in mathematics: Teaching for understanding<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174303/original/file-20170618-28772-1vhqkpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How can we change math instruction to meet the needs of today's kids?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/97aGY8">World Bank Photo Collection / flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Despite decades of <a href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED372969.pdf">reform efforts</a>, mathematics teaching in the U.S. <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/20405948">has changed little</a> in the last century. As a result, it seems, American students have been left behind, now ranking <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2017/2017048.pdf#page=31">40th in the world</a> in math literacy. </p>
<p>Several state and national reform efforts have tried to improve things. The most recent <a href="http://www.corestandards.org/Math/">Common Core standards</a> had a great deal of promise with their focus on how to teach mathematics, but after several years, <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.3102/0013189X17711899">changes in teaching practices</a> have been minimal. </p>
<p><iframe id="Grc6N" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/Grc6N/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>As an education researcher, I’ve observed teachers trying to implement reforms – often with limited success. They sometimes make changes that are more cosmetic than substantive (e.g., more student discussion and group activity), while failing to get at the heart of the matter: What does it truly mean to teach and learn mathematics?</p>
<h2>Traditional mathematics teaching</h2>
<p>Traditional middle or high school mathematics teaching in the U.S. <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/20405948">typically follows this pattern</a>: The teacher demonstrates a set of procedures that can be used to solve a particular kind of problem. A similar problem is then introduced for the class to solve together. Then, the students get a number of exercises to practice on their own.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174300/original/file-20170618-28759-1jyothn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174300/original/file-20170618-28759-1jyothn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=686&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174300/original/file-20170618-28759-1jyothn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=686&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174300/original/file-20170618-28759-1jyothn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=686&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174300/original/file-20170618-28759-1jyothn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=862&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174300/original/file-20170618-28759-1jyothn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=862&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174300/original/file-20170618-28759-1jyothn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=862&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The basics of math instruction have changed little since George Eaton taught at Phillips Academy (1880-1930).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/jKrzFZ">Phillips Academy Archives and Special Collections / flickr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, when students learn about the area of shapes, they’re given a set of formulas. They put numbers into the correct formula and compute a solution. More complex questions might give the students the area and have them work backwards to find a missing dimension. Students will often learn a different set of formulas each day: perhaps squares and rectangles one day, triangles the next. </p>
<p>Students in these kinds of lessons are learning to follow a rote process to arrive at a solution. This kind of instruction is so common that it’s seldom even questioned. After all, within a particular lesson, it makes the math seem easier, and students who are successful at getting the right answers find this kind of teaching to be very satisfying.</p>
<p>But it turns out that teaching mathematics this way can actually <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3696735">hinder learning</a>. Children can become dependent on <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5951/teacchilmath.21.1.0018">tricks and rules</a> that don’t hold true in all situations, making it harder to adapt their knowledge to new situations.</p>
<p>For example, in traditional teaching, children learn that they should distribute a number by multiplying across parentheses and will practice doing so with numerous examples. When they begin learning how to solve equations, they often have trouble realizing that it’s not always needed. To illustrate, take the equation 3(x + 5) = 30. Children are likely to multiply the 3 across the parentheses to make 3x + 15 = 30. They might just as easily have divided both sides by 3 to make x + 5 = 10, but a child who learned the distribution method might have great difficulty recognizing the alternate method – or even that both procedures are equally correct.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174582/original/file-20170619-22075-1mmjc2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174582/original/file-20170619-22075-1mmjc2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174582/original/file-20170619-22075-1mmjc2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174582/original/file-20170619-22075-1mmjc2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174582/original/file-20170619-22075-1mmjc2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174582/original/file-20170619-22075-1mmjc2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174582/original/file-20170619-22075-1mmjc2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students who learn by rote drilling often have trouble realizing that there are equally valid alternative methods for solving a problem.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kaitlyn Chantry</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>More than a right answer</h2>
<p>A key missing ingredient in these traditional lessons is conceptual understanding. </p>
<p>Concepts are ideas, meaning and relationships. It’s not just about knowing the procedure (like how to compute the area of a triangle) but also the significance behind the procedure (like what area means). How concepts and procedures are related is important as well, such as how the area of a triangle can be considered half the area of a rectangle and how that relationship can be seen in their area formulas. </p>
<p>Teaching for conceptual understanding has <a href="http://math.coe.uga.edu/Olive/EMAT3500f08/instrumental-relational.pdf">several benefits</a>. Less information has to be memorized, and students can translate their knowledge to new situations more easily. For example, understanding what area means and how areas of different shapes are related can help students understand the concept of volume better. And learning the relationship between area and volume can help students understand how to interpret what the volume means once it’s been calculated.</p>
<p>In short, building relationships between <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9302-x">how to solve a problem and why it’s solved that way</a> helps students <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.91.1.175">use what they already know</a> to solve new problems that they face. Students with a truly conceptual understanding can see how methods emerged from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.1.175">multiple interconnected ideas</a>; their relationship to the solution goes deeper than rote drilling.</p>
<p>Teaching this way is a critical first step if students are to begin recognizing mathematics as meaningful. Conceptual understanding is a key ingredient to helping people think mathematically and use mathematics outside of a classroom.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174193/original/file-20170616-537-p8ad2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174193/original/file-20170616-537-p8ad2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174193/original/file-20170616-537-p8ad2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174193/original/file-20170616-537-p8ad2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174193/original/file-20170616-537-p8ad2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174193/original/file-20170616-537-p8ad2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174193/original/file-20170616-537-p8ad2j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Procedural learning promotes memorization instead of critical thinking and problem solving.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/math-study-exam-set-book-pencil-250606378">m.jrn/shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The will to change</h2>
<p>Conceptual understanding in mathematics has been recognized as important for <a href="http://www.nctm.org/uploadedFiles/About/President,_Board_and_Committees/Board_Materials/MLarson-SF-NCTM-4-16.pdf">over a century</a> and widely discussed for decades. So why has it not been incorporated into the curriculum, and why does traditional teaching abound? </p>
<p>Learning conceptually can take longer and be more difficult than just presenting formulas. Teaching this way may require additional time commitments both in and outside the classroom. Students may have never been asked to think this way before.</p>
<p>There are systemic obstacles to face as well. A new teacher may face pressure from fellow teachers who teach in traditional ways. The <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/high-stakes-testing-overtesting-in-americas-public-schools-3194591">culture of overtesting</a> in the last two decades means that students face more pressure than ever to get right answers on tests. </p>
<p>The results of these tests are also being <a href="https://tcta.org/node/13251-issues_with_test_based_value_added_models_of_teacher_assessment">tied to teacher evaluation systems</a>. Many teachers feel pressure to teach to the test, drilling students so that they can regurgitate information accurately.</p>
<p>If we really want to improve America’s mathematics education, we need to rethink both our education system and our teaching methods, and perhaps to <a href="http://www.nea.org/home/40991.htm">consider how other countries approach mathematics instruction</a>. Research has provided evidence that teaching conceptually has <a href="http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/feb04/vol61/num05/Improving-Mathematics-Teaching.aspx">benefits</a> not offered by traditional teaching. And students who learn conceptually typically do <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654310374880">as well or better</a> on achievement tests. </p>
<p>Renowned education expert <a href="https://pasisahlberg.com/">Pasi Sahlberg</a> is a former mathematics and physics teacher from Finland, which is renowned for its world-class education. He <a href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/why-are-finlands-schools-successful-49859555/">sums it up</a> well:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We prepare children to learn how to learn, not how to take a test.</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78660/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Rakes receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Math instruction is stuck in the last century. How can we change teaching methods to move past rote memorization and help students develop a more meaningful understanding – and be better at math?Christopher Rakes, Assistant Professor of Mathematics Education, University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/737032017-03-02T14:59:26Z2017-03-02T14:59:26ZHow strong academic support can change university students’ lives<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/158873/original/image-20170301-5492-15hasrs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Black South African students need fewer excuses and more support from universities. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kim Ludbrook/EPA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In South Africa tens of thousands of students <a href="https://mg.co.za/article/2015-05-21-18-of-matrics-register-at-universities-half-drop-out">leave universities</a> each year without completing their degrees. They are largely being pushed out of the system <a href="http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Full_Report.pdf">due to</a> funding issues and a lack of academic support.</p>
<p>Funding is <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/south-african-academics-warn-of-universities-on-the-brink-1.20492">a national problem</a>. But what about the lack of comprehensive academic support for students who really need it? The fault here lies squarely with universities. </p>
<p>Universities blame the country’s <a href="http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Full_Report.pdf">disastrous public schooling system</a> for the fact that many students enter higher education unprepared. </p>
<p>Public schooling is definitely a massive problem. Research suggests that of one million children who enter Grade 1 in South Africa each year, half <a href="https://equaleducation.org.za/2017/01/04/matric-results-an-indicator-of-primary-schooling-in-crisis/">do not go on</a> to complete secondary school. Only <a href="https://chet.org.za/files/resources/Fees%20and%20Sustainable%20funding%20PPT%20Final%2011May16.pdf">100,000 get to university</a> and only 53,000 graduate from university after six years in the tertiary system. </p>
<p>We must stop expecting first-year students - many of whom come from public schools and whose first language isn’t English - to somehow figure out how to cope with the rigorous demands of any university degree without genuine, committed support.</p>
<p>There are some programmes in place to ease the transition. But many students at my own institution have confided in me that these programmes are often inadequate. Most classes to improve second language speakers’ grasp of English are optional, as are workshops on academic preparedness. Some students attend them; others struggle to find time due to packed class schedules.</p>
<p>My institution has a writing centre to support students with essay and assignment writing. The problem is that it’s understaffed and students often have to wait weeks for an appointment.</p>
<p>But there’s a fascinating and troubling contradiction at play: this very same institution offers comprehensive and compulsory programmes to help students who don’t speak English as a first language – as long as they’re international students from outside South Africa. And these programmes work very well, helping students cope with university demands and go on to graduate.</p>
<p>These programmes must be adapted, broadened and rolled out to ensure that South African students who are struggling with English and the demands of university education don’t get left behind.</p>
<p>I’m speaking from experience. Fifteen years ago I barely spoke any English but managed to earn a scholarship to a university in the United States. The support I received there made a world of difference. Similar support can change South African students’ university experience – and their lives, too.</p>
<h2>Comprehensive and dedicated support</h2>
<p>In 2002 I received a scholarship to study at the <a href="https://www.csbsju.edu/">College of St Benedict and St John’s University</a> in Minnesota. I’m from Bosnia and Herzegovina, and English isn’t my first language. I learned a bit of English in primary school. Then <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17212376">the war interrupted</a> my primary school education for two years. After the war, the education system was dysfunctional. </p>
<p>When I got to the US in 2002 I could hardly speak, read or write English.</p>
<p>I spent two months in a school for students learning English as a second language, then headed to university. This helped a bit but I needed so much more.</p>
<p>The first year at university was hell, academically speaking. I struggled to understand what was going on around me. I could hardly express myself or write my assignments. Often, I doubted myself and my choice to accept the scholarship. I doubted my own intelligence.</p>
<p>Over the years in South Africa, I have heard many accounts of similar struggles experienced by South African students whose first language isn’t English. They all speak about the inability to engage in English, to cope, follow lectures. They, too, often think that they are not good enough to be at the university.</p>
<p>The best thing about my first year was the English language class I attended with other international students. Our professor taught us to read, write, speak and present in English. There were three classes a week, but she supported us way beyond those set times.</p>
<p>Without her, I probably would have quit my studies. Instead, my marks improved dramatically and my confidence grew. In 2005 I was persuaded by my American friends to write a book about my wartime experiences. I wrote it in English. It was <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Not-My-Turn-Die-Childhood/dp/0814401651/">published</a> in 2008.</p>
<p>I’ve been in South Africa since 2007, obtaining a Masters and PhD. Today I write, do research, publish, lecture, present at national and international conferences. All in English.</p>
<p>I didn’t accomplish any of this because I was special. The support I received at the start of my university education made all the difference.</p>
<h2>Becoming student-ready institutions</h2>
<p>In South Africa, the lack of comprehensive academic support for all who need it is excused by the lack of capacity and the price tag. But surely investing in programmes that bolster student success makes sense? After all, universities receive government funding <a href="http://www.dhet.gov.za/Financial%20and%20Physical%20Planning/Ministerial%20Statement%20at%20University%20funding;%202015-16%20and%202016-2017,%20November%202014.pdf">partly based on their graduate numbers</a>. And more graduates can <a href="http://www.nationalplanningcommission.org.za/Documents/devplan_ch9_0.pdf">boost the economy</a>.</p>
<p>In 2013, the <a href="http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Full_Report.pdf">Council on Higher Education proposed</a> that university studies and “qualifications should accord with the learning needs of the majority of the student intake”. This, the council argued, would entail extending undergraduate programmes by a year. The first year would become foundational, with students spending a considerable amount of time on compulsory academic preparedness and development. </p>
<p>This has not yet been implemented. </p>
<p>Byron White, vice president for university engagement at Cleveland State University, <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2016/03/21/instead-focusing-college-ready-students-institutions-should-become-more-student">argues</a> that universities need to stop complaining that their first-year students aren’t prepared for academic life. This approach, White says,</p>
<blockquote>
<p>has allowed higher education to deflect accountability. It’s time that we fully embrace the burden of being student-ready institutions … It turns out the problem was not as much about the students as we thought. It was largely us, uninformed about what it takes to help them succeed or unwilling to allocate the resources necessary to put it into practice.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Universities must ditch the excuses and do more. Extensive academic support changes lives. It’s time we got to work.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/73703/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Savo Heleta does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Students from South Africa’s public school system battle to cope with the rigorous demands of any university degree without genuine, committed support.Savo Heleta, Manager, Internationalisation at Home and Research, Nelson Mandela UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/684132016-12-14T11:14:54Z2016-12-14T11:14:54ZHow your college friendships help you – or don’t<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150005/original/image-20161213-1594-6spxiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How do friendship networks work?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/booboobook/6171761028/in/photolist-e3tx9k-mbW4jx-jc5mo-8Mv5jy-95gpPe-czhY7S-5DFnFZ-cMjLNL-qxknbK-fkwx2-amkpoG-qE6kMT-9pRbWY-APHcY-4kRXqu-6zvfWy-4Qpfkg-5vZkDQ-h1GBEH-7LBAnW-bAqiCM-bDFDWL-9EuLPX-5oqgHx-pdsrZ-53g5Ls-f5U7NN-dae2NX-pMh7vJ-aUzuPe-u6hwA-bjCAYA-aJKUvM-qSj2Su-6BKGHB-8sFuc9-8juAH5-cYJr6h-iT5UZa-nunaNC-5sRGwp-ddVTZd-oZ2qzK-aJKUAX-2YDF7g-2n7H9X-apnTwU-aWZcaR-6n7iVP-aq2DMi">Book Lin</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>College students spend a tremendous amount of time with their friends. One estimate suggests that the average college student spends only 15 hours a week in class but <a href="http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo10327226.html">86 hours a week with his or her friends</a>. </p>
<p>But how much do we understand about the role friendships play and how they influence students both academically and socially?</p>
<p>In my recent book <a href="http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo24731955.html">“Connecting in College: How Friendship Networks Matter for Academic and Social Success</a>,” I analyzed friendship networks. My research shows students create friendship networks that influence them in different ways. </p>
<p>Friends can motivate and support students, but friends can also pull them down academically. The important thing is to be aware of the role of these friendship networks – not just of the role of friends, but of their connections with each other as well.</p>
<h2>How networks influence us</h2>
<p>We all know how important social networks can be in our lives – they can impact our health, happiness, wealth, emotions and even weight. Indeed, as social scientists <a href="http://sociology.yale.edu/people/nicholas-christakis">Nicholas A. Christakis</a> and <a href="https://polisci.ucsd.edu/about-our-people/faculty/faculty-directory/currently-active-faculty/fowler-profile.html">James H. Fowler</a> describe in their recent book, <a href="https://www.hachettebookgroup.com/titles/nicholas-a-christakis-md-phd/connected/9780316036139/">“Connected,”</a> social networks play a role in everything that people “feel, think, and do.” </p>
<p>One important part of social networks is the connections. We can be tied to people in many ways, including family, friends, coworkers or less intense connections.</p>
<p>For example, some four decades ago, <a href="https://sociology.stanford.edu/people/mark-granovetter">sociologist Mark Granovetter</a>
<a href="http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/225469">showed the importance of “weak ties”</a> – that is, connections with people we do not even know well, who are mere acquaintances – in finding a job. His work was important in showing that it’s not just having someone in your network but the type of tie that matters. </p>
<p>So, we know that social networks can be beneficial and that not all people gain these benefits. Rather than focusing on the vast connections among friends’ friends’ friends, like Christakis and Fowler, I took a more in-depth look at a smaller number of connections. </p>
<p>I focused on a person’s friends and the connections between friends. In doing so, I found three network types, each of which came with particular benefits and potential costs. </p>
<h2>Mapping college networks</h2>
<p>I started a study about college networks because I felt that friendships are one of the most overlooked and crucial aspects influencing students’ success. In 2004, I interviewed 82 students at “MU,” a pseudonym for a large public four-year university in the midwestern United States, about their friendships. </p>
<p>This was a diverse group of students – white, black, and Latina/o men and women of different class backgrounds, who were involved in a range of campus organizations (including some who were not in any organizations). Each of these students named between three and 60 friends.</p>
<p>I collected information about each friend and the connections between each friend – thus mapping the network of friendships. </p>
<p>I categorized each student into one of three network types: tight-knitters, compartmentalizers and samplers. As shown in the figures, the tight-knitter’s network resembles a ball of yarn, the compartmentalizer’s network a bow tie and the sampler’s network a daisy.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147068/original/image-20161122-11000-1gdphdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147068/original/image-20161122-11000-1gdphdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=326&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147068/original/image-20161122-11000-1gdphdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=326&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147068/original/image-20161122-11000-1gdphdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=326&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147068/original/image-20161122-11000-1gdphdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147068/original/image-20161122-11000-1gdphdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147068/original/image-20161122-11000-1gdphdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Alberto’s tight-knit network.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Janice M. McCabe</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So what are these networks and how do they work? </p>
<h2>A tight-knit network</h2>
<p>Let’s first look at “tight-knitters.”</p>
<p>The tight-knitters have one densely woven friendship group, where nearly all of their friends know each other. One tight-knitter I met was Alberto, a Latino man whose friendship group included hometown friends and the new friends he made at MU. He referred to them as a “family.”</p>
<p>His friends helped him cope with some racist incidents on campus. Alberto talked with his friends about these incidents, for example, discussing times that professors and peers made what Alberto called “derogatory” and “offensive” comments about Latinos.</p>
<p>In Alberto’s case, his tight-knit group of friends provided both academic and social support: they studied together, provided emotional support around academics and engaged in stimulating intellectual conversations. </p>
<p>However, not all tight-knit networks provide similar support. Some could also distract students. I found that for half of tight-knitters, friends were more of a distraction than a helping hand. For example, they distracted each other from attending class and from studying. As Latasha explained, she could be trying to study, but seeing a friend sleeping makes her tired, and she ends up sleeping instead. </p>
<p>Behavior was most contagious in tight-knit networks – both the academically helpful behaviors of Alberto’s friends and the distracting behaviors of Latasha’s friends spread easily. I found tight-knit networks had the potential to have the most powerful impact on academic and social outcomes. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147069/original/image-20161122-10959-1nto0tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147069/original/image-20161122-10959-1nto0tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147069/original/image-20161122-10959-1nto0tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147069/original/image-20161122-10959-1nto0tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147069/original/image-20161122-10959-1nto0tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147069/original/image-20161122-10959-1nto0tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147069/original/image-20161122-10959-1nto0tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mary’s compartmentalized network.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Janice M. McCabe</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A network of clusters</h2>
<p>A second group that I called “compartmentalizers” had networks divided into two to four clusters, where friends knew each other within clusters but rarely across them.</p>
<p>For example, Mary, a white middle-class student “compartmentalized” her friends into two clusters – friends from home and friends from MU – who provided different types of support.</p>
<p>Mary felt supported socially by her hometown friends, but the friends in her sorority also provided some emotional support regarding academics. Her main source of academic support, however, came from acquaintances, not friends, who met in class, shared notes and quizzed each other before exams. Unlike tight-knitters who only had one group of friends providing multiple types of support, compartmentalizers had multiple groups with each providing different types of support.</p>
<p>In general, compartmentalizers came from more advantaged backgrounds, experienced greater ease on campus and succeeded in college with less support from friends as compared to those with other network types. </p>
<p>One challenge of this network type was keeping up with each cluster. For example, Jim told me, “I’m worried that if I don’t hang out with my friends enough, they’re gonna stray away from me.” He felt that he’d already “lost contact” with his hometown friends, and he was struggling to keep up with his schoolwork along with his two clusters of MU friends. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147070/original/image-20161122-11012-1dusuxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147070/original/image-20161122-11012-1dusuxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=326&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147070/original/image-20161122-11012-1dusuxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=326&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147070/original/image-20161122-11012-1dusuxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=326&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147070/original/image-20161122-11012-1dusuxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147070/original/image-20161122-11012-1dusuxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147070/original/image-20161122-11012-1dusuxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Steve’s sampler network.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Janice McCabe</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Individual friendships</h2>
<p>A third network category, “samplers” collected friends one by one from a variety of places, such as campus organizations, classes and workplaces, resulting in friends that were less connected to one another. </p>
<p>While many tight-knitters and compartmentalizers found friends helping them thrive academically and socially, samplers achieved academic success independently. </p>
<p>One sampler I met was Steve, a black man from a working-class background. Steve formed individual friendships at events, food courts and other campus locations. Like many students of color I interviewed, Steve described experiencing race-based isolation on campus.</p>
<p>However, like other samplers, Steve rarely discussed these isolating experiences with friends and remained isolated. Steve also felt lonesome in his academic pursuits. Despite having many friends and being involved on campus through a range of student organizations, Steve felt alone socially and academically at MU. </p>
<p>Samplers’ friends did not distract them from their academic study, although a question I had was: Could they have been more successful with help from friends?</p>
<h2>After college</h2>
<p>What happens to these friendship networks once students leave college?</p>
<p>Five years later, I interviewed the same students again to find out what happened to them and their friendship networks once they left college. By the time I spoke with them, most participants had been out of college for one to four years and were 23-27 years old. I was curious about how many friendships remained over this five-year period and whether the network types remained as well.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150003/original/image-20161213-1592-1iyp9i3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150003/original/image-20161213-1592-1iyp9i3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150003/original/image-20161213-1592-1iyp9i3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150003/original/image-20161213-1592-1iyp9i3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150003/original/image-20161213-1592-1iyp9i3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150003/original/image-20161213-1592-1iyp9i3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150003/original/image-20161213-1592-1iyp9i3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What happens after college?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/tigerlillies/6026773692/in/photolist-abyMRf-5k9aAQ-dTVa14-fEqFNB-2hnVCN-7pXo5e-7pV8om-fFMSW2-8Q8UJd-T6aM9-jHAsvm-2MJTPp-8TZ8iK-nZBqvh-2psdh5-2w1xJf-bzpmvF-8VAkvm-4chEX6-mKbUxb-ot8pXX-psELwH-2w1xHG-ex8Gax-aDXeoh-6MngUA-fnLgne-bzpmfz-8jPYRM-4YP9ng-nn3cJs-kCxxXF-njXjTG-4cZE9c-noLkJe-pZvN79-nn37Aw-cpGoi-971Dfg-ecj2S9-njXovw-bWchDN-5cq9rs-nn3eeS-4VHYX8-pYwefw-95juoQ-pt4cFr-qE6mL6-bmutGf">silent silk</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Friendship networks during college mattered for both of these aspects – whether specific friendships and network types lasted after college. </p>
<p>In terms of network types, generally, compartmentalizers remained compartmentalizers, and tight-knitters remained tight-knitters. Only one sampler, however, remained a sampler after college – which suggests that a mismatch with MU rather than some constant personality trait or friendship preference that distinguish samplers from the other network types. </p>
<p>Paralleling these general trends, Alberto remained a tight-knitter, Mary remained a compartmentalizer and Steve became a tight-knitter. With a tight-knit network, Steve felt socially supported and no longer on his own after college. </p>
<p>There was much turnover in friends, with only about 25 percent remaining friends over this five-year period. In other words, if someone named 20 friends in college, only five of those remained in their after-college network.</p>
<p>Tight-knitters kept the most friends over this five-year period (30 percent remained in their network, compared to 23 percent for compartmentalizers and samplers). The cohesive ties tight-knitters crafted during college generally resulted in less change in their networks. Not surprisingly, tight-knit ties were more likely to be ties that last.</p>
<h2>So, what does it mean?</h2>
<p>Friends matter for students’ academic and social success. As the examples of Alberto, Mary and Steve show, each network type comes with particular benefits as well as drawbacks during college and beyond.</p>
<p>Students need to be aware of their networks and how that is helping or hindering them.</p>
<p>For example, tight-knitters should be particularly conscious of whether their friends pull them up rather than push them down academically. Compartmentalizers should be mindful of the number of clusters in their network; they should consciously prioritize which ones should get the bulk of their time, so that important friendships and academics do not suffer. Samplers should understand that friends can be valuable sources of help, and they might be able to actively create a supportive community of friends.</p>
<p>Other than this, students should also remember that it’s not just their friends, but how their friends are connected to each other, that also matters.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68413/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Janice M. McCabe has received funding from the National Science Foundation, the Association for the Study of Higher Education and the Lumina Foundation.</span></em></p>College is a time for friendships. But how can students best leverage the power of those friendships? First, by learning how those networks work.Janice M. McCabe, Associate Professor of Sociology, Dartmouth CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/663592016-10-13T01:27:21Z2016-10-13T01:27:21ZShould I grade-skip my gifted child?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/141500/original/image-20161012-16242-6lwruw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When should you let your gifted child skip grades?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-141206683/stock-photo-pupils-in-class-using-digital-tablet.html?src=QwXiFSL6QZhsJ1cIS5mL9w-1-13">Children image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The American school system puts students in grades based on age. However, for a large number of students, being with same-age peers in the classroom does not work.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://education.jhu.edu/edpolicy/commentary/PerformAboveGradeLevel">recent report</a> from Johns Hopkins University shows that about two out of every seven children are ready for a higher-grade curriculum. These children are not learning something new each day, and are likely bored in class. </p>
<p>This has serious implications: Research has shown that <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/files/attachments/56143/the-concept-educational-dose.pdf">greater intellectual stimulation</a> is important for helping talented kids achieve their full potential.</p>
<p>One effective way to help talented students remain intellectually challenged and engaged in school is to have them skip a grade. <a href="http://www.accelerationinstitute.org/research/grade_acceleration_wells_lohman_marron.pdf">Research shows</a> that about 1 percent of students grade-skip. Students can skip grades at any level, and they can even skip multiple grades. </p>
<p>Grade-skipping has led to many concerns. In particular, <a href="http://sengifted.org/archives/articles/should-gifted-students-be-grade-advanced">concerns have been raised</a> related to students’ social adjustment and emotional health.</p>
<p>We are scholars of gifted education. Our research – <a href="http://www.accelerationinstitute.org/nation_empowered/">A Nation Empowered</a> – shows many advantages to grade-skipping for talented students. However, students skipping grades need to be socially and emotionally ready for it.</p>
<h2>What studies show</h2>
<p>A <a href="http://www.accelerationinstitute.org/nation_empowered/">synthesis of many studies</a> by a professor of gifted education, <a href="https://www.stthomas.edu/celc/aboutthecollege/facultyandstaff/karen-b-rogers-phd.html">Karen B. Rogers</a>, on the impact of grade-skipping showed uniformly positive effects across a range of academic outcomes.</p>
<p>These outcomes included higher grade point average, school satisfaction, honors received, success on exams, number of university credits awarded, education level attained, income as an adult and innovations made.</p>
<p>When gifted students who grade-skipped were compared to similarly gifted students who did not grade-skip, the grade-skipped students came out ahead in all academic categories.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/141495/original/image-20161012-16248-1qojr05.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/141495/original/image-20161012-16248-1qojr05.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141495/original/image-20161012-16248-1qojr05.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141495/original/image-20161012-16248-1qojr05.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141495/original/image-20161012-16248-1qojr05.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141495/original/image-20161012-16248-1qojr05.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141495/original/image-20161012-16248-1qojr05.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Grade-skippers have been found to do well academically.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/90974638@N05/8767899087/in/photolist-emMLVV-QXY1-dGwmqL-dLxmWe-88euwL-dHyKgx-dGwkNC-endnfQ-endofh-pWsidA-dLxmU8-dGwhhf-dArkVy-dGwjaL-6QbvCt-emMKPn-cNV6vm-ea8sX9-dAkUtR-6V8yDw-u8yLeS-che3bY-4ewqCq-dArnnw-jDeQXa-4z6P5D-oGrfMn-dArhnE-6webF-iKtVqz-dAkPiT-9rGyfZ-64WAea-6h7bUM-dAkPha-najQpW-53nouv-chcBLo-dLxmZB-84aCRm-5a1JcK-dLCU7y-chbe6Y-9GCbxv-51Fkxh-2U1QjU-6viwZc-28KrS-chckbN-aNS43g">MJGDSLibrary</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, a <a href="http://gcq.sagepub.com/content/59/1/3.abstract">study</a> by K–12 educational research and policy expert <a href="http://www.questarai.com/about-us/leadership/leadership-katie-mcclarty/">Katie L. McClarty</a> found that grade-skippers were more likely than non-grade-skippers to have more prestigious jobs, higher earnings and job satisfaction. </p>
<p>Another study, by researchers <a href="http://gregorypark.org/">Gregory J. Park</a>, <a href="https://my.vanderbilt.edu/smpy/publications/david-lubinski/">David Lubinski</a> and <a href="https://my.vanderbilt.edu/smpy/publications/camilla-benbow/">Camilla P. Benbow</a>, that followed highly gifted children 40 years into their adulthood and examined the <a href="https://my.vanderbilt.edu/smpy/files/2013/02/Park-Lubinski-Benbow-2013.pdf">long-term impact of grade-skipping</a> related to science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) came up with similar findings.</p>
<p>Grade-skippers were found to be significantly more likely to achieve Ph.D.’s, publish their first paper at an earlier age and achieve highly cited publications by age 50. Grade-skippers compared to non-grade-skippers were 1.6 times as likely to earn a doctorate of any kind, twice as likely to earn a STEM Ph.D., 1.6 times as likely to earn a STEM publication, and 1.6 times as likely to earn a patent.</p>
<h2>More social skills, better mental health</h2>
<p>However, there have been concerns whether grade-skippers are able to make <a href="http://www.accelerationinstitute.org/nation_empowered/">social and psychological adjustments</a>.</p>
<p>Psychologist <a href="http://www.nie.edu.sg/profile/neihart-maureen-frances">Maureen Neihart</a>, who <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.404.6692&rep=rep1&type=pdf">reviewed many studies</a> on the social and psychological outcomes of grade-skipping, concluded that there was no major positive or negative impact.</p>
<p>However, the <a href="http://www.accelerationinstitute.org/nation_empowered/">meta-analysis</a> by <a href="https://www.stthomas.edu/celc/aboutthecollege/facultyandstaff/karen-b-rogers-phd.html">Karen B. Rogers</a> described earlier showed, in fact, positive effects on a range of social and psychological adjustment outcomes, including greater social skills, maturity, peer acceptance, motivation and persistence. </p>
<p>Additionally, a <a href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ746290.pdf">20-year longitudinal study</a> by gifted education expert <a href="https://www.arts.unsw.edu.au/about-us/people/miraca-gross/">Miraca Gross</a> also found social and psychological benefits to grade-skipping. </p>
<p>Gross found that students who had skipped two or more grades (37 percent of the sample) in early elementary school had higher social self-esteem in childhood and built better social relationships later in life.</p>
<h2>Should I grade-skip my child?</h2>
<p>Overall, we found that grade-skipping is a highly effective method of challenging talented students and helping them stay engaged in school. We did not find any negative social or psychological impact of grade-skipping. </p>
<p>So how should parents and students decide whether or not to skip a grade?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/141498/original/image-20161012-16238-18p1lu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/141498/original/image-20161012-16238-18p1lu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141498/original/image-20161012-16238-18p1lu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141498/original/image-20161012-16238-18p1lu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141498/original/image-20161012-16238-18p1lu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141498/original/image-20161012-16238-18p1lu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141498/original/image-20161012-16238-18p1lu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Should you grade-skip your gifted child?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-264079463/stock-photo-smart-toddler-reading-a-book.html?src=BtJPnsucZU8FE54XJRVRFA-3-51">Girl image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The answer to this question depends largely on the degree to which students are bored in school and whether they are mature enough to be able to interact with older peers. It is not recommended for all gifted students.</p>
<p>Researchers have now developed <a href="https://www.accelerationinstitute.org/Resources/IAS.aspx">a scale</a> that can help a parent make such a decision for their child in kindergarten through eighth grade. The scale helps parents or teachers look at the main factors they need to consider when making such a decision. It also provides guidelines on how to weigh the relative importance of each of these factors. </p>
<p>Generally, decisions on whether to grade-skip center on academic and social readiness. Parents also need to understand that students can grade-skip at any point of their academic trajectory. For example, it could be as early as entrance to kindergarten or much later, such as <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02783193.2014.976324?journalCode=uror20">an early start to college</a>. <a href="http://www.accelerationinstitute.org/nation_empowered/">Research shows</a> the benefits are the same whatever the age.</p>
<h2>Decision carries costs</h2>
<p>Despite the positive evidence on grade-skipping, however, the number of students who are academically ready to grade-skip is much larger than the actual number of students that utilize this opportunity. This has costs for both schools and students. </p>
<p>Teaching millions of students content they already know <a href="https://edexcellence.net/articles/stop-wasting-money-teaching-millions-of-students-content-they-already-know">wastes tens of billions of dollars</a> each year.</p>
<p>For parents concerned about the negative impact on social and psychological adjustment, it may also be important to consider the potential fallout even when a student does not skip a grade.</p>
<p>Unchallenged students can become bored and disengaged from school and lose their joy of learning, and this can lead to underachievement. This can be a loss both for the student and for society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/66359/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Wai is affiliated with the Duke University Talent Identification Program which serves talented students with educational programs.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>The original acceleration research was funded (2004-2010) by a grant from the John Templeton Foundation. That funding made possible the production and dissemination of A Nation Deceived and the establishment of the Acceleration Institute.</span></em></p>About two out of seven children are likely bored in their classrooms, as they aren’t learning much that is new. Should these children skip grades? What’s the evidence on grade-skipping?Jonathan Wai, Research Scientist, Duke UniversityAnn Lupkowski Shoplik, Administrator, Acceleration Institute and Research, University of IowaSusan Assouline, Professor of Education, University of IowaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/634802016-08-16T03:11:52Z2016-08-16T03:11:52ZMaking college matter<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134182/original/image-20160815-13035-1uhsl4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Getting oriented at Elon University </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Elon University </span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the next several weeks <a href="http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2015/2015073.pdf">18.4 million students</a> will be headed to colleges and universities in the United States. They, their families and taxpayers are making a monumental investment in the futures of these students, believing, correctly, that an undergraduate education is <a href="https://www.aacu.org/leap/public-opinion-research/2015-survey-falling-short">foundational to success</a> in a global and knowledge-based economy.</p>
<p>Many students arrive in college without a clear sense of purpose or direction. That is to be expected. A significant part of the undergraduate experience, after all, involves grappling with big questions about professional, personal and civic identity. Who am I? What do I want to do with my life? How can I contribute to my community and the world? The best students pursue these questions with vigor.</p>
<p>But many others come to college with too little appreciation for the vast opportunities before them, gloss over foundational curricular requirements as merely hurdles to be cleared, show far too little drive in developing a plan to make the most of their educations and focus too heavily on the party scene.</p>
<p>Analyzing data from a study of more than two dozen institutions, sociologists <a href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo19088566.html">Richard Arum and Josipa Roksa</a> conclude that many students “enter college with attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors that are often at odds with academic commitment.” And many universities reinforce these beliefs by building <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/caranewlon/2014/07/31/the-college-amenities-arms-race/#36c1dbad1f3c">lavish amenities</a> and <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/254524/summary">marketing themselves</a> as something akin to a resort with a curriculum.</p>
<p>An undergraduate education is simply too precious an opportunity to squander or to approach halfheartedly. And while college should ultimately prepare graduates to make a living, it can be – it must be – far more than that.</p>
<p>The good news is that there are simple yet powerful things students can do to ensure that they have a transformative undergraduate experience, no matter where they go to college. </p>
<p>In our book <a href="http://theundergraduateexperience.org/">“The Undergraduate Experience,”</a> drawing on decades of work and scholarship in higher education and also interviews with leaders and students from many institutions, we identified what matters most for students. </p>
<p>Two factors are most important.</p>
<h2>Take responsibility for learning</h2>
<p>Too often students (and others) think learning is a simple process of taking knowledge from the professor during class and then returning it, unharmed, on the test. </p>
<p>When sociologist <a href="http://www.sunypress.edu/p-4801-college-life-through-the-eyes-o.aspx">Mary Grigsby</a> interviewed scores of undergraduates at a large midwestern university, many students echoed the words of one who told her: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I hate classes with a lot of reading that is tested on. Any class where a teacher is just gonna give us notes and a worksheet or something like that is better. Something that I can study and just learn from in five [minutes] I’ll usually do pretty good in.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Real learning – that is, learning that makes a significant and lasting change in what a person knows or can do – emerges from what the student, not the professor, does. Of course, professors are critical actors in the process, but students are the ones doing the learning. </p>
<p>To take responsibility for their own learning, students need to move past what psychologist <a href="http://conferencereport.blogspot.com/2007/10/three-types-of-knowledge.html?zx=3292d95af6bcd3e7">David Perkins</a> has called possessive and performative understandings of knowledge, where learning is about acquiring new facts or demonstrating expertise in classroom settings. </p>
<p>Instead, meaningful learning emerges from a proactive conception of knowledge, where the student’s goal is to experiment with new and unexpected ways of using what he or she is learning in different settings. This requires students to see themselves as the central actors in the drama of learning.</p>
<p>Whether students choose to take the stage or sit in the balcony matters immensely.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134141/original/image-20160815-14904-12pk61y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134141/original/image-20160815-14904-12pk61y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134141/original/image-20160815-14904-12pk61y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134141/original/image-20160815-14904-12pk61y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134141/original/image-20160815-14904-12pk61y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134141/original/image-20160815-14904-12pk61y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134141/original/image-20160815-14904-12pk61y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bard College students abroad in Berlin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Seminar_Bard_College_Berlin,_2013.jpg">Irina Stelea</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When students jump into learning, challenging themselves to stretch and grow, college is most powerful. </p>
<p>Reflections from an <a href="http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/product_info.php?products_id=806863">Ohio University engineering student</a> show what this looks like:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“[My goal for my senior] year was to try to do things that maybe I’m not good at already so that I can learn to do these things. I will have to do this once I have a job so avoiding projects that are uncomfortable for me now won’t help me NOT avoid them when I’m a part of the work force.”</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Develop meaningful relationships</h2>
<p>The relationships students form in college also have a profound influence on their experiences, shaping not only who they spend time with but how they will spend their time. </p>
<p>When <a href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674049024">scholars</a> asked graduates at Hamilton College to think back on their undergraduate years, these alumni pointed to specific individuals (often professors, coaches or classmates) who shaped their paths. </p>
<p>Students typically think first about relationships with peers. These are essential, of course. Finding friends and cohort groups can be reassuring, but <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/196940/summary">scholars</a> have found that students who interact frequently with peers who are different in significant ways (racially, ethnically, religiously, socioeconomically and so on) show more intellectual and social growth in college than those who don’t. </p>
<p>Again, as with learning, students need to move beyond the familiar to find meaning.</p>
<p>And peer relationships are not only about fun. Decades of research have demonstrated that students who study together learn more and more deeply. As the mathematician <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2686410?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">Uri Treisman</a> reported in a classic study of undergraduate calculus courses that has been <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13803611.2014.895388">replicated in other disciplines</a>, students from many different backgrounds are more academically successful when they</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“work with their peers to create for themselves a community based on shared intellectual interests and common professional aims.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Relationships with faculty also are highly significant. </p>
<p>A large 2014 survey by <a href="http://www.gallup.com/poll/168848/life-college-matters-life-college.aspx">Gallup and Purdue University</a> revealed that college graduates who believed they had a professor who (1) cared about them as individuals, (2) made them excited about learning and (3) encouraged them to pursue their dreams reported being far happier and more successful than their peers years after graduation.</p>
<p>A recent graduate of the University of North Carolina at Charlotte’s <a href="http://levinescholars.uncc.edu/">Levine Scholars Program</a>, a prestigious scholarship for academically talented students interested in civic engagement, told us how the mentoring of <a href="http://levinescholars.uncc.edu/dr-diane-zablotsky">sociologist Diane Zablotsky</a> transformed her view of herself:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I arrived at UNC-C shy and uncertain. But Dr. Zablotsky taught me how to go and get what I wanted. She made me do all the work, but coached along the way and helped me develop great confidence in myself.”</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>What matters for all students</h2>
<p>Critically, what we’re describing here doesn’t apply only to privileged, 18-22-year-olds at elite institutions.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134145/original/image-20160815-13035-sf4b6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134145/original/image-20160815-13035-sf4b6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134145/original/image-20160815-13035-sf4b6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134145/original/image-20160815-13035-sf4b6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134145/original/image-20160815-13035-sf4b6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134145/original/image-20160815-13035-sf4b6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134145/original/image-20160815-13035-sf4b6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Just one of the many internships on offer….</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Internship_Program#/media/File:White_House_internship_logo.png">White House</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In fact, <a href="https://www.aacu.org/assessinghips/report">Ashley Finley and Tia Brown McNair</a>, scholars at the Association of American Colleges and Universities, have shown that high-impact educational experiences like internships, undergraduate research, capstone courses and study abroad have particularly positive outcomes for students who traditionally have been underserved in American higher education.</p>
<p>A study at the University of California, Davis reinforces this finding by demonstrating that <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/371687#back">engaging in mentored undergraduate research</a> beyond the typical requirements for biology courses is particularly significant in preparing African-American undergraduates to successfully pursue graduate study and careers in the sciences. </p>
<p>Results from the <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2014/11/20/nsse-2014-finds-size-selectivity-make-little-difference-student-engagement">National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE)</a> also show that institutional prestige and financial resources do <em>not</em> determine the quality of student opportunities:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Institutions with lower selectivity profiles can and often do offer experiences with faculty that are at least comparable to those at more selective institutions.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>As the NSSE director notes: “Doing those things may not cost any more than not doing them.” </p>
<p>Powerful education, in other words, is available to all students at all institutions, if they intentionally choose experiences that are challenging and relationship-rich.</p>
<h2>Acting on what matters most</h2>
<p>Douglas Spencer, a 2016 Elon University graduate and now young alumnus trustee, captured what’s at stake in recent remarks to fellow students. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134175/original/image-20160815-13025-gj29pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134175/original/image-20160815-13025-gj29pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134175/original/image-20160815-13025-gj29pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134175/original/image-20160815-13025-gj29pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134175/original/image-20160815-13025-gj29pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134175/original/image-20160815-13025-gj29pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134175/original/image-20160815-13025-gj29pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Doug Spencer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Elon University</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Doug described coming to campus without a strong sense of who he was as a black man or of what he might do with his life. Then, challenged by friends and professors to think more deeply about his own identity, “I unlocked some sort of hidden energy I did not know I possessed.” He began to read not just for class, but (even more) in his free time. Inspired by this reading and his other studies, and echoing <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/408/408-h/408-h.htm#chap05">W.E.B. Du Bois</a>, </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“It became clear to me that the only way I would find real success was if I learned to thrive in times of uncertainty.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Colleges and universities play an outsized role in shaping the lives of individual students like Doug. </p>
<p>Indeed, we, as educators, cannot recall a time when it mattered more for higher education to cultivate students capable of acting entrepreneurially, ethically, cooperatively and creatively to address complex problems in local, national and global contexts.</p>
<p>That starts with students beginning the academic year ready to act on what matters most for their own learning.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63480/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leo M. Lambert is President of Elon University. He is a member of the board of directors of the American Council on Education and the National Association of Independent College and Universities. He is also chair of the North Carolina Independent Colleges and Universities and a member of the Division 1 Presidential Forum of the NCAA. These are all non-profit organizations.
Leo M. Lambert has received current and past foundational and Federal funding from The Pew Charitable Trusts, the William R. Kenan, Jr. Charitable Trusts, the Arthur Vining Davis Foundation and the Fund for the Improvement of Post-Secondary Education. None of these grants has any bearing on my writing for The Conversation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Felten does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Two simple yet powerful things students can do to ensure that they have a transformative undergraduate experience, no matter where they go to college.Leo M. Lambert, President, Elon UniversityPeter Felten, Assistant Provost for Teaching and Learning and Executive Director, Center for Engaged Learning, Elon UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/587002016-05-30T01:00:25Z2016-05-30T01:00:25ZStarting college? Here’s why you should think about a gap year<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124338/original/image-20160527-879-5q91ol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What's the evidence on a gap year?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cityyear/4596138066/in/photolist-819pHL-9NuuyF-aagG1B-9NGabs-9NtsXt-9Nv8dj-9NDZCz-pdewoi-9NtLnk-aDPTTc-fXqFgu-c1jNQb-9HKzKA-nKgjiv-mEGQJa-owUJSi-5ni5Eq-nxTN5a-dHNyeo-c1jSWW-nqZhxn-o494fF-4dmVcx-uQwpeD-9NvNDw-nFrgWU-pdiWVF-dyiwS-3b9Qh-ioNHKP-pLqbrF-9LBtLk-cUiMf1-9NEYMC-eieSQX-fPzKiW-9abdmA-9NvWQy-9W8GJZ-6FHo9w-gKgAdX-9NFk5w-6bMfye-9ERdG2-qs3FPD-9NJKMw-hB221G-49qUG-nypDAr-fPihNe">City Year</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Malia Obama recently announced that she will take a gap year before attending Harvard University. Historically, American high school graduates have been less likely to take a gap year as compared to their <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4932.2007.00418.x">European and Australian counterparts</a>. </p>
<p>A study of <a href="http://heri.ucla.edu/monographs/TheAmericanFreshman2015.pdf">“The American Freshman,”</a> for example, indicates that only up to three percent of U.S. students are taking a gap year before starting college. By contrast, as far back as 2004, over 11 percent of Australian students were doing so.</p>
<p>As researchers at Florida State and Temple universities, we have individually and collaboratively researched the impact of gap year experiences for several years. Gap years are now <a href="http://americangap.org/data-benefits.php">growing in popularity</a> in the U.S.</p>
<p>Should we encourage more students to take gap years? What’s the evidence? </p>
<h2>Student distress on campus</h2>
<p>First consider this distressing – and relevant – trend on mental health of college students. </p>
<p>Studies have shown that there is a “<a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2004-18956-000#toc">mental health crisis</a>” on college campuses in the U.S. Students are flooding college counseling centers at record numbers. </p>
<p>At any given time, approximately one third of college-aged students across all campuses are suffering from a <a href="http://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/09/cover-pressure.aspx">diagnosable mental illness</a>, such as anxiety or depression.</p>
<p>College itself can add new emotional, financial and personal stresses, leading to increases in psychological distress among students. This is evidenced by a growing number of students <a href="http://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/09/cover-pressure.aspx">seeking counseling services</a> on college campuses.</p>
<p>The implications of these mental issues cannot be overstated. According to the Center for Collegiate Mental Health in a 2014 report, of the students seeking counseling services, <a href="http://ccmh.psu.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3058/2015/02/2014-CCMH-Annual-Report.pdf">more than 30 percent</a> reported that they “seriously considered attempting suicide” at some point in their lives. This number is up from nearly 24 percent in 2010.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124339/original/image-20160527-859-1eudhl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124339/original/image-20160527-859-1eudhl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124339/original/image-20160527-859-1eudhl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124339/original/image-20160527-859-1eudhl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124339/original/image-20160527-859-1eudhl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124339/original/image-20160527-859-1eudhl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124339/original/image-20160527-859-1eudhl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">College can increase psychological distress.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jeremywilburn/5471188217/in/photolist-9ktgDk-9gH4WT-9kwnsd-9gH3fn-drHsfH-8JkMRp-9ktirz-9gH4yp-drHA5Y-drHAxG-9gL6UN-9ktjLX-chMcfh-9gH4n4-9ktfWn-9ktiev-eh8NLo-9kwizW-8JoQNb-oZAG2V-9kwk7h-8JkMxX-8JoQUb-pN7CaP-btz7do-rfRXFs-9kthNr-pgNLai-qAD3Sg-aJ1bKT-e8hjYc-6vBgC5-dw6JLw-6vBvmY-aJ1bcz-nA8FmK-aJ1bvv-dw6KjL-aJ1bFD-8xbUub-rxjqkH-9kwiw9-9kwmhE-chMcaU-pNbPem-rfYoSr-9uJWjg-btz7zb-pvFjj6-8tvCWn">Jeremy Wilburn</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the same time, faculty and staff are reporting that <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/freedom-learn/201509/declining-student-resilience-serious-problem-colleges">today’s students lack coping skills</a> such as resilience and the ability to succeed independently despite adversity.</p>
<p>These observations are not just anecdotal. Evidence of students’ difficulty in finding independent success can be found in a recent study conducted by the <a href="https://nscresearchcenter.org/signaturereport10/">National Student Clearing House Research Center</a>. The study shows that only 52.9 percent of students who start a four-year degree program graduate within six years.</p>
<h2>What does research say about gap years?</h2>
<p>So, how can students take steps in order to better prepare themselves mentally and emotionally for starting college? </p>
<p>Research shows that a gap year – a year between high school and college – can
provide students the opportunity to gain personal skills such as independence, resilience, confidence and focus. A combination of activities during this year that involve volunteering, interning or working, either domestically or internationally, can provide meaningful experiences that challenge students outside their comfort zones. These experience can help students reevaluate how they understand themselves and the world.</p>
<p>Several peer-reviewed studies focusing on students in the U.K. and Australia have shown that students who took a gap year experienced a host of personal benefits, such as higher levels of motivation and higher academic performance in college.</p>
<p>A 2015 survey of over 700 former gap year participants found <a href="http://www.americangap.org/assets/2015%20NAS%20Report.pdf">overwhelming personal, academic, career and civic engagement benefits</a> associated with taking a gap year. </p>
<p>Over 90 percent of all respondents indicated that their gap year provided important time for personal reflection, aided in personal development, increased maturity and self-confidence, and fostered the development of interpersonal communication skills.</p>
<p>Specifically related to college, 73 percent of respondents reported that their gap year helped them increase their readiness for college, 59 percent said it increased their interest in attending college and 57 percent said it helped them figure out what they wanted to study in college.</p>
<h1>Students need more than cognitive ability</h1>
<p>Gap year experiences have been shown to equip students to approach college from a place of increased mental stability. Research by one of us (Joe O'Shea) shows that gap years promote qualities such as <a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/content/gap-year">resilience, tenacity and grit</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/122918/original/image-20160517-9484-vjuqei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/122918/original/image-20160517-9484-vjuqei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122918/original/image-20160517-9484-vjuqei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122918/original/image-20160517-9484-vjuqei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122918/original/image-20160517-9484-vjuqei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122918/original/image-20160517-9484-vjuqei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122918/original/image-20160517-9484-vjuqei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gap year experiences can build multiple skills.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/">Global Citizen Year.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another 2014 research conducted by the co-author here (Nina Hoe) <a href="http://www.tussenjaartwijfels.info/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Not-All-Types-Of-Delay-Are-Equal_-Postsecondary-Delay-In-The-U.s..pdf">that analyzed in-depth interviews</a> with gap year participants also came up with similar findings. Thirty-seven of the 42 study participants reported gaining noncognitive skills such as sense of self, adaptability, confidence, gratefulness, patience, open-mindedness, maturity and grit.</p>
<p>Rigorous academic research has proven that qualities such as grit, self-control, growth mindset, gratitude, emotional intelligence, social belonging, curiosity and openmindedness are associated with all forms of success including academic, personal, financial and physical. </p>
<p>These qualities can help students weather the storms of higher education and make it less likely that they will encounter mental health issues. </p>
<p>In a study measuring the same personal and noncognitive qualities listed above, such as grit and self-control, researchers <a href="https://psychology.sas.upenn.edu/people/angela-duckworth">Angela Duckworth</a> at the University of Pennsylvania and <a href="http://www.utexas.edu/cola/prc/directory/faculty/profile.php?id=yeagerds">Charles Yeager</a> at the University of Texas at Austin <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Angela_Duckworth2/publication/276466956_Measurement_matters_Assessing_personal_qualities_other_than_cognitive_ability_for_educational_purposes/links/55a8317a08ae481aa7f56f7f.pdf">concluded</a> that, “there is a scientific consensus in the behavioral sciences that success in school and beyond depends critically on many attributes other than cognitive ability.”</p>
<h2>Not any gap year</h2>
<p>However, one thing to remember is that not all types of delay or gap year experiences <a href="http://www.tussenjaartwijfels.info/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Not-All-Types-Of-Delay-Are-Equal_-Postsecondary-Delay-In-The-U.s..pdf">yield the same impact</a>. </p>
<p>Gap years need to be properly designed so they can challenge students with <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/03/travel/how-to-plan-a-gap-year.html">new roles and perspectives</a> that accelerate their growth as thinkers and citizens. Experiences that push students out of their comfort zones and allow them to explore new cultures and people from different backgrounds can create an impactful experience. They provide students an opportunity to reflect on a number of challenges and also allow for critical self-reflection that can root part of their identity in contributions to others.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/122916/original/image-20160517-9480-1ldyf7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/122916/original/image-20160517-9480-1ldyf7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122916/original/image-20160517-9480-1ldyf7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122916/original/image-20160517-9480-1ldyf7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122916/original/image-20160517-9480-1ldyf7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122916/original/image-20160517-9480-1ldyf7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122916/original/image-20160517-9480-1ldyf7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gap years need to challenge students and bring new perspectives.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/">Global Citizen Year.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, as gap year students shared in O'Shea’s <a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/content/gap-year">research</a>, they get an opportunity to ask questions such as,</p>
<p>“Why didn’t I know my neighbors growing up, but the sense of community here is so much more intimate?” “Teachers here are using corporal punishment in classes; should I?” “Why are many girls not going to school here?” </p>
<p>In an ideal gap year experience, students get to develop actual relationships with people who are different from them. And when that happens, students can begin to see the world from different perspectives and learn about the complexity of social challenges.</p>
<p>What’s also clear is that a gap year can help better prepare students, emotionally and mentally, for both personal and academic success in college. <a href="http://www.tussenjaartwijfels.info/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Not-All-Types-Of-Delay-Are-Equal_-Postsecondary-Delay-In-The-U.s..pdf">Analysis of nationally representative data</a> from the National Center for Education Statistics, for example, shows that overall, students who delayed college had overall higher GPAs in college as compared to those who did not delay. </p>
<p>With new understandings of the transformative power of gap years, we need to take steps to ensure all students can benefit from them. Expanding gap year education will help more high school graduates arrive at college equipped with skills they need to achieve both personal and academic success.</p>
<p><em>Gary Robinson, director of counseling services at Hartwich College, contributed to the piece.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/58700/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joe O'Shea serves as the president of the board of the American Gap Association.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nina Hoe serves as Director of Research of the American Gap Association and an evaluation consultant for Global Citizen Year.</span></em></p>Many students are in the process of deciding whether to take a gap year – a year between high school and starting college. What does evidence tell us about taking a gap year?Joe O'Shea, Director of Undergraduate Research and Academic Engagement, Florida State UniversityNina Hoe, Study Director at the Institute for Survey Research, Temple UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/579472016-05-27T02:05:51Z2016-05-27T02:05:51ZIs a tuition-free policy enough to ensure college success?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124215/original/image-20160526-22080-xf9voi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What do the most disadvantaged students need for college success?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&search_tracking_id=jJPm_yhyTe-uRQMiFq79EQ&searchterm=commencement&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=298297466">Commencement image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Across the U.S., many soon-to-be high school graduates are excited to begin college. Over the past decades, <a href="http://trends.collegeboard.org/sites/default/files/education-pays-2013-full-report-022714.pdf">rates of college enrollment have increased</a>. In 1950, only 16 percent of young people had at least some college exposure. By 2012, this figure rose to 63 percent. </p>
<p>Such trends should be seen as a positive but for the fact that too many students who begin college don’t finish. Among a recent cohort of students enrolled in four-year degree programs, <a href="http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cva.asp">only three in five</a> completed their bachelor’s degree within six years. </p>
<p>Further, socioeconomic gaps in college completion are large. Among students from high-income backgrounds who recently started college, three-quarters earned a degree. In contrast, <a href="http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_tva.asp">under half</a> of low-income students who matriculated earned any kind of postsecondary credential. Of particular concern is the fact that gaps in degree attainment <a href="http://www.russellsage.org/research/chartbook/fraction-students-completing-college-income-quartile-and-birth-year">have widened over time</a>. </p>
<p>To address some of these concerns, Democratic presidential candidates have proposed improving college access and success for the most disadvantaged students including making public colleges and universities <a href="https://www.hillaryclinton.com/feed/how-much-would-hillary-clintons-debt-free-college-plan-save-you-even-if-youve-already-graduated/">debt-free</a> or <a href="https://berniesanders.com/issues/its-time-to-make-college-tuition-free-and-debt-free/">tuition-free</a>. </p>
<p>In our own research, we have investigated the <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272775716301248">many barriers</a> students can face in accessing and succeeding in college. So, what does rigorous evidence tell us about potential solutions? Is a free college tuition policy sufficient for improving college access and success in the U.S.?</p>
<h2>College costs and financial aid</h2>
<p>Public college costs have risen substantially over time and faster than the rate of inflation, as state and local budget allocations <a href="http://www.basicbooks.com/full-details?isbn=9780465044962">have failed to keep pace with rising enrollments</a>. </p>
<p>Over the two-decade period from 1995 to 2015, the average net cost of college attendance, inclusive of room and board, at public four-year institutions <a href="http://trends.collegeboard.org/sites/default/files/2015-trends-college-pricing-final-508.pdf">has risen from US$8,450 to just over $14,000</a>. For families in the bottom fifth of the income distribution, this implies that sending a child to a public four-year institution would require over <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272775716301248">40 percent of the annual household budget</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124214/original/image-20160526-22050-3hx01a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124214/original/image-20160526-22050-3hx01a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124214/original/image-20160526-22050-3hx01a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124214/original/image-20160526-22050-3hx01a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124214/original/image-20160526-22050-3hx01a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124214/original/image-20160526-22050-3hx01a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124214/original/image-20160526-22050-3hx01a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Financial aid helps. But is that enough?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&search_tracking_id=X4LAzmkh4a-fD6N5LQXdUA&searchterm=college%20debt&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=318232658">Dollar image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Providing financial assistance to low-income students does improve college success. <a href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w15387.pdf">Studies</a> that have rigorously examined the impact of lowering college costs have indicated benefits. For example, the <a href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w19306">Florida Student Assistance Grant</a>, which provides low-income students with an additional $1,300 grant on top of Pell Grant funds, increased six-year bachelor’s degree attainment rates from 21 to 26 percent. The <a href="http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/685442">Wisconsin Scholars program</a>, which provides a $3,500 annual grant for low-income students to attend a Wisconsin public university, similarly increased on-time graduation for recipients from 16 to 21 percent. </p>
<p>However, at least <a href="http://www.brookings.edu/research/reports/2016/04/21-who-would-benefit-most-from-free-college-chingos">one recent analysis</a> should give policymakers and advocates pause about turning to universal free tuition as a strategy for improving college success. <a href="http://www.urban.org/author/matthew-chingos">Matthew Chingos</a> of the Urban Institute, a Washington, D.C.-based think tank, found that such a plan could yield disproportionate benefits to higher-income rather than lower-income students and families across the country. </p>
<p>Therefore, while such a policy may improve outcomes for low-income students, it would also be providing a substantial benefit to students who already have a high likelihood of accessing and succeeding in college. </p>
<h2>Understanding challenges to college success</h2>
<p>An important point to recognize from the Florida and Wisconsin studies is that, even among students who received additional grant funds, college completion rates remained low. How, then, can we improve rates of college success, particularly for those students at greatest risk of attrition? </p>
<p>To answer this question, we must understand the nuanced challenges that students can face, beyond issues directly related to college affordability. </p>
<p>Consider the challenges faced by one student, let’s call her Veronika, in starting her college career. We learned about her experience through ongoing research investigating the factors that contribute to college success. A very strong high school student, Veronika was a mother of two when she was admitted to her state’s prestigious public flagship university. </p>
<p>Although thrilled at the prospect of college, Veronika struggled to identify affordable childcare in the vicinity of the university. She wasn’t sure if she would be able to attend school while also caring for her children. She needed financial aid but also additional guidance.</p>
<p>Fortunately, Veronika received this support through a college success program with which she was affiliated. The program not only helped her locate affordable childcare near campus, but also counseled her to petition for an increase of financial aid to cover the cost. Her initial aid package had not considered child care expenses. </p>
<p>Another student, Marcus, transitioned successfully to college but retained responsibility for supporting his family financially. The dual demands of being a full-time student and working to provide for his family became too much. Marcus stumbled academically, was placed on probation, and lost his financial aid.</p>
<p>The same college success organization stepped in to provide just-in-time financial assistance in addition to guiding him to develop a plan that struck a manageable balance between school and work. </p>
<h2>Low-income students need more than free college</h2>
<p>How much of a difference does it make when students are provided more comprehensive support, including personalized counseling, and not just financial aid?</p>
<p>To inform this question, we collaborated with <a href="http://curry.virginia.edu/about/directory/benjamin-l.-castleman">Ben Castleman</a> at the University of Virginia and <a href="http://www.econ.pitt.edu/people/phd-students">Gumilang Sahadewo</a> at the University of Pittsburgh to rigorously examine the <a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2726320%22%22">impact of one such progam</a> – <a href="http://www.dellscholars.org/">the Dell Scholars Program. </a></p>
<p>The Dell Scholars program aims to support low-income and first-generation college students by providing a combination of scholarship aid and “…ongoing support and assistance to address all of the emotional, lifestyle, and financial challenges that may prevent scholars from completing college.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124216/original/image-20160526-22086-1sq17pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124216/original/image-20160526-22086-1sq17pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124216/original/image-20160526-22086-1sq17pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124216/original/image-20160526-22086-1sq17pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124216/original/image-20160526-22086-1sq17pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124216/original/image-20160526-22086-1sq17pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124216/original/image-20160526-22086-1sq17pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students need other support services as well.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&search_tracking_id=8BCGXdMP8Kv3QlZ3qgYb9g&searchterm=counselling%20students&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=32984956">Girl image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This support includes prematriculation counseling sessions as well as regular tracking of student progress and follow up, as needed, to guide and support students throughout their post-secondary career. We studied 1,800 Dell Scholars selected from nearly 40,000 applicants over six cohorts and attending hundreds of colleges and universities throughout the U.S.</p>
<p>We found the program led to substantial improvements in bachelor’s degree attainment. For example, for the cohort we could track for a full six years, the program increased bachelor’s degree attainment from 61 to 75 percent. </p>
<h2>Experience from other scholarship programs</h2>
<p>Other studies also point to evidence of college success through comprehensive college supports. </p>
<p>Researchers <a href="https://sanford.duke.edu/people/faculty/clotfelter-charles-t">Charles Clotfelter</a>, <a href="http://hemelt.web.unc.edu/">Steven Hemelt</a> and <a href="https://sanford.duke.edu/people/faculty/ladd-helen-f">Helen Ladd</a> investigated the impact of the <a href="http://carolinacovenant.unc.edu/">Carolina Covenant</a>, which supports students from low-income backgrounds to attend University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill. </p>
<p>The program began in 2004 exclusively to provide need-based financial aid. By 2007, however, the program also provided students with additional counseling and support services. </p>
<p>The researchers found that the program improved the four-year degree completion rate for qualifying students by <a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2769196">eight percentage points</a> but only for those cohorts who were provided not just financial, but also non-financial support. </p>
<p>Similarly, at the City University of New York, the <a href="http://www1.cuny.edu/sites/asap/">Accelerated Study in Associates Program (ASAP)</a> which works with low-income community college students, provides support that includes financial aid, special classes, additional advising and career services, free public transportation and free use of textbooks.</p>
<p>Researchers <a href="http://www.mdrc.org/about/susan-scrivener">Susan Scrivener</a> and <a href="http://www.mdrc.org/about/michael-j-weiss">Michael Weiss</a> found that the program increased associates degree attainment <a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2393088">from 18 percent to 33 percent</a> within 2.5 years of students beginning the program. </p>
<p>Critics may argue that ASAP is too expensive, given that it results in substantially higher per student investment. Researchers <a href="http://www.tc.columbia.edu/faculty/hl361/">Henry Levin</a> and <a href="http://www.epi.org/people/emma-garcia/">Emma Garcia</a> have shown, however, that because the program so effectively improved degree attainment, <a href="http://cbcse.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Levin-ASAP-Cost-Effectiveness-Report_092412_FINAL-5.pdf">it led to lower costs on a per-graduate basis</a>. </p>
<p>Taken together, this work points to looking beyond blanket solutions such as free college tuition for all. Many students, and particularly those from low-income backgrounds, face challenges that go beyond simply meeting tuition. </p>
<p>Awarding such students with packages that include financial aid bundled with counseling and other support is likely to yield more success in improving overall degree attainment rates. In contrast, universal free tuition would invest fewer resources where they are needed and more where they are not.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57947/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lindsay Page received research funding from the Michael & Susan Dell Foundation to support the evaluation of the Dell Scholars program. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stacy S. Kehoe received research funding from the Michael & Susan Dell Foundation to support the evaluation of the Dell Scholars program.</span></em></p>Bernie Sanders and Hillary Clinton have called for making colleges and universities debt-free or tuition-free. Disadvantaged students need more than free college to achieve success.Lindsay Page, Assistant Professor of Research Methodology, University of PittsburghStacy S. Kehoe, PhD Student, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/573762016-04-20T15:26:40Z2016-04-20T15:26:40ZUniversities must do more to become a home for vulnerable students<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/119234/original/image-20160419-13898-1tirdrt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Universities can be alienating spaces, particularly for students from poorer backgrounds.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There are more <a href="http://www.economist.com/node/21546062">black African</a> students from poor or working-class backgrounds at South Africa’s universities than ever before. But <a href="http://www.che.ac.za/media_and_publications/research/proposal-undergraduate-curriculum-reform-south-africa-case-flexible">research</a> shows that very few of them actually finish their degrees. Many drop out at undergraduate level. This leaves them and their families in debt and dashes their hopes of climbing the economic ladder.</p>
<p>The same research shows that the socially and economically privileged counterparts of these students fare far better. It is this structural inequality that lies at the heart of <a href="http://mg.co.za/article/2016-01-20-fees-are-just-the-start-of-change">student protests</a> that rocked the <a href="https://theconversation.com/africa/topics/feesmustfall">country’s universities</a> in late 2015 and early 2016. Universities must challenge this inequality if higher education is to experience genuine social change. </p>
<p>Of course, any such response will require a significant <a href="http://www.politicsweb.co.za/news-and-analysis/behind-the-university-funding-crisis?utm_source=Politicsweb+Daily+Headlines&utm_campaign=3b24c3e2df-DHN_20_Oct_2015&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_a86f25db99-3b24c3e2df-140192113">injection of resources</a>, such as more teaching staff being made available to undergraduate students. But not all aspects of inequality are rooted in <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2016/01/20/first-generation-college-students-are-not-succeeding-in-college-and-money-isnt-the-problem/">physical resources</a>. Plenty can be achieved if universities start dismantling the deep-seated assumptions and hierarchies that <a href="http://www.iol.co.za/the-star/we-still-dont-belong-here-1912238#.Vlng_HYrK00">maintain inequality</a> within their structures. </p>
<p>I have conducted <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Talita_Calitz/timeline">research</a> that draws on students’ own experiences to try understand how universities can cultivate the conditions that enable equal participation, regardless of race or economic status.</p>
<h2>The value of student experiences</h2>
<p>All individuals bring a number of advantages or disadvantages to university as their <a href="http://www.dhet.gov.za/summit/Docs/2015Docs/Annex%2012_Wilson-Strydom_Access%20%20%20Success.pdf">bundle of resources</a>. Ideally, they should be able to draw from this bundle to adapt and succeed. But it can also hinder them.</p>
<p>Students are marginalised when they have to negotiate factors that complicate their academic success and social integration. These include belonging to a low-income household, being historically excluded because of race, being a woman, identifying as a sexual minority or living with a physical disability. </p>
<p>I interviewed eight undergraduates at a South African university that historically catered only for white students. They were all the first in their immediate families to attend university. </p>
<p>These students arrived at university with a precarious and less-valued bundle of financial, academic and social <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Disadvantage-Oxford-Political-Theory-Jonathan/dp/0199278261?ie=UTF8&*Version*=1&*entries*=0">resources</a>. Most were from low-income families, with one or more unemployed parent or guardian. <a href="http://mg.co.za/article/2015-07-10-punished-twice-for-being-poor/">Financial pressure</a> made it difficult for them to know where money for the next meal, rent payment, taxi fare or textbook would come from. In the privileged, middle-class university space they felt anxious, ashamed and stressed. They internalised their struggles to cope as individual failure. </p>
<p>My research used a <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books/about/The_Idea_of_Justice.html?id=enqMd_ze6RMC&redir_esc=y">“capability approach”</a> to assess students’ experiences. This evaluates how available resources are converted into opportunities to achieve valued outcomes, or what are called <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AoD-cjduM40">“capabilities”</a>. This could mean, for example, interrogating whether attending university automatically equips the student to become critically engaged in acquiring knowledge. If the student is only attending lectures and regurgitating information, has deep learning taken place? What structures need to be in place to ensure that the resource – in this case, education – is converted into a meaningful academic outcome for vulnerable students?</p>
<p>In other words, resources are an important but insufficient measure of equality. Structural inequality has not been adequately addressed if the environment does not offer equal opportunities for all students to convert their resources into valued outcomes.</p>
<p>The students we interviewed came up with several recommendations that might help universities become more inclusive, equitable environments.</p>
<h2>Doing things differently</h2>
<p>The students had three main concerns:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>they wanted spaces in which to build positive relationships with their lecturers;</p></li>
<li><p>they felt there should be more sustained platforms for voicing their frustrations without being dismissed as emotional or ignorant; and</p></li>
<li><p>they said it was not helpful for lecturers to constantly highlight poorer students’ failures. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>These students felt alienated, fearful and silenced. They said most lecturers weren’t open to sharing the implicit lessons and insider information needed to navigate any university experience. For example, knowing where to find free online sources, or unspoken “etiquette” about approaching or communicating with lecturers. Their more privileged peers were confident enough to approach lecturers, and so found this information more readily available.</p>
<p>Students also complained that there was no real chance for them to have fertile dialogues with teaching staff about their academic challenges. Lecturers should strive to make their classrooms a place where critical engagement with knowledge meets a humane approach to vulnerable students’ challenges. Some lecturers may need to rethink their approach to daily teaching. They could even take the process further by spending an hour a week mentoring a first-generation student.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/AoD-cjduM40?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">US academic Martha Nussbaum explains the capability approach.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There’s also a broader need for spaces where lecturers and students can collaborate in ways that challenge the traditional meritocracy of a university environment. One example of this would be involving undergraduate students in research projects so they can develop academic skills. </p>
<p>The students we interviewed struggled with being constantly reminded of their struggle and academic failure. They found this demoralising and it created doubt in their ability to succeed. To overcome this, lecturers should recognise the capabilities and resources these students bring to university. Lecturers could foreground students’ agency and resilience instead of reminding them of what they cannot yet accomplish.</p>
<h2>Creating equitable universities</h2>
<p>There is no need for universities to wait for more physical resources. All of the work I’ve described here can begin immediately. These suggestions can go a long way towards making universities more welcoming, equitable environments for disadvantaged students. </p>
<p><em>Author’s note: All of the references in this article to race reflect persistent post-apartheid racial classification.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57376/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Talita M.L. Calitz receives funding from the National Research Foundation. </span></em></p>Students from poorer backgrounds feel anxious, ashamed and stressed in the middle-class environment of a university.Talita M.L. Calitz, Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Higher Education and Human Development, University of the Free StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/550032016-03-02T11:21:04Z2016-03-02T11:21:04ZDo school vouchers improve results? It depends on what we ask<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113435/original/image-20160301-31065-f9my4g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Do school voucher programs help improve educational outcomes?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/lowercolumbiacollege/5755864338/in/photolist-9LCiWj-qR1H7R-9pzp2X-r8hGfM-yWXCg7-w6YyLS-pjGSzi-aAKe51-dKgYjW-arEJLr-53HuwY-7FHDGn-eM3NqQ-53D9Ga-88bgji-s5zJsf-eM3NAU-iNbub-7FHsWX-eLRpV2-6v61Qc-bcjPwv-5GddGm-b4yyLc-fCVgbz-eLRqbe-fD6E49-fCVg4c-fDcPpC-9chSab-fCP6z6-fD6Eey-fDcPwJ-6B3SnV-rQX46P-zbB5Do-ALoMP6-bo8HR8-fDcPsd-6RPdny-o1JDa-bbGQN4-5n1Ern-rbjdre-fD6E99-bebGMP-fCP6tp-fD6CEw-fCVggv-fD6EjJ">Lower Columbia College (LCC)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A <a href="http://www.uaedreform.org/how-has-the-louisiana-scholarship-program-affected-students/">set of reports</a> on Louisiana’s statewide school voucher program <a href="http://www.uaedreform.org/the-effects-of-the-louisiana-scholarship-program-on-student-achievement-after-two-years/">recently revealed</a> a number of important features of that program’s operation and overall performance. </p>
<p>The most startling of these reports indicated that students who used school vouchers performed much worse on standardized tests than those who remained in traditional public schools. </p>
<p>This result echoes evidence presented last month from a <a href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w21839">separate team</a> of scholars, who found negative impacts after one year of voucher use in Louisiana. The latest study not only confirmed that finding, but showed the pattern persisting – albeit less severely – after two years of voucher use as well. </p>
<p>School vouchers provide publicly funded tuition – typically for low-income families – to attend private schools. And these reports provide the first evidence that participating in such a system may harm kids’ academic achievement, at least in math. </p>
<p>As a researcher who studies both vouchers and other forms of school choice such as charter schools (independently operated public schools) I believe the new Louisiana studies are important to <a href="http://www.epi.org/publication/webfeatures_viewpoints_hl_testimony_20030509/">longstanding</a> debates over the extent to which such choice enhances academic outcomes. </p>
<p>It may be tempting to use this news as an argument against vouchers, especially because the evidence is drawn from the most sophisticated research tools available to scholars who study these programs. However, it should be stressed that test scores provide only one indicator of program success or failure. </p>
<h2>Impact of vouchers</h2>
<p>The motivation for school voucher programs dates back to the 1950s, when the economist <a href="http://www.edchoice.org/who-we-are/our-founders/">Milton Friedman</a> began to argue that parents should have opportunities to choose between different providers of education for their children.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113438/original/image-20160301-31053-vdj0qd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113438/original/image-20160301-31053-vdj0qd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113438/original/image-20160301-31053-vdj0qd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113438/original/image-20160301-31053-vdj0qd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113438/original/image-20160301-31053-vdj0qd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113438/original/image-20160301-31053-vdj0qd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113438/original/image-20160301-31053-vdj0qd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">School vouchers provide publicly funded tuition – typically for low-income families – to attend private schools.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/68751915@N05/6355327519/in/photolist-aFAHsp-q5DPn9-oZW3YK-fKcz8e-qK5zd3-q5DP7Q-ouRbSr-qPBw1U-qLnACP-oM4pb8-7LWNxp-aFAKZi-qLnABM-pvScdP-6bMfa9-penMYs-op229L-ouQQ2u-ptPWP5-6bMeeQ-r1x1YN-8hDDft-ddtW3K-dV2NxL-o26Dhc-qrtXaj-oKirbj-Egjzr-oMkjfD-J9ECR-penNgb-621BgK-q6PAT5-pemXyx-e545Qs-ykT8sE-gYy3yJ-ouQP4N-6GT2N-oKiqNA-ayZh54-qZncLA-oKiqP7-pemXpp-pAPsGW-qKeyxr-peo25B-cvwN8h-qKeyBV-n2VfM">401(K) 2012</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The first school voucher program began in 1990 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Over the years since, especially in the last decade, voucher or voucher-like systems have spread to <a href="http://afcgrowthfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/AFC_2014-15_Yearbook.pdf">24 states</a>, all of which differ individually on some key details such as the number of children who will be eligible for participation and the maximum amount of tuition available to these students.</p>
<p>In Louisiana, policymakers introduced <a href="http://www.louisianabelieves.com/schools/louisiana-scholarship-program">vouchers</a> in 2008 in New Orleans as part of a series of reforms following Hurricane Katrina’s devastation of the city and the city’s school system. In 2012, vouchers became available statewide. </p>
<p>As with many public programs, policymakers turn to researchers to help determine how well school vouchers work. This is true not only in Louisiana, but elsewhere as well. </p>
<p>And part of what makes the Louisiana results so newsworthy – but also why voucher critics should pause before leaning too heavily on the latest reports – is that many of these studies conducted in other locations, such as <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1541-0072.2008.00268.x/full">Charlotte</a>, <a href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w5964">Milwaukee</a>, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pam.21691/full">Washington, D.C.</a> and <a href="http://amstat.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1198/016214503000071">New York City</a>, for example, found the opposite pattern. In these studies, students who used vouchers to attend private school tended to have higher test scores as a result. </p>
<h2>The answers are not that simple</h2>
<p>The question is whether test scores are the only way to judge schools and school performance.</p>
<p>It is true that public schools have to test their students, so using a similar metric is a reasonable, relative comparison between public and private schools. But test scores, while important, do not necessarily provide an absolute appraisal of the strengths and weaknesses of voucher programs in a large education system. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113436/original/image-20160301-31059-1fof97x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113436/original/image-20160301-31059-1fof97x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113436/original/image-20160301-31059-1fof97x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113436/original/image-20160301-31059-1fof97x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113436/original/image-20160301-31059-1fof97x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113436/original/image-20160301-31059-1fof97x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113436/original/image-20160301-31059-1fof97x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What is the best way to judge schools’ performance?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/wwworks/3058182308/in/photolist-5EeZ4b-ceUkdo-7nXodu-6eRUN6-ceuZwy-c6sGyJ-ceVt7Y-6EFN2v-eczWwi-ceuk2d-bjXo3Q-ciLznu-ecqRLG-bwCisB-smQZyA-4tvFXF-fw4gVZ-ceukb3-o4gtv6-cQn3PA-mEn4UD-6vTyxW-ndXLhn-r3tiLJ-6p1brf-fecWWw-38UaQg-fdjRDb-fdWmfr-38YJ7q-bcEr1t-6vPmsM-38UbCH-8nEEcG-8QNUZQ-rsJXGW-a6RbUL-bBAeN6-6F8sr-mMQMQp-fxxGz2-fe1qJB-ncqXsF-6vTygy-48uYgr-fnGFqP-koWzDL-fdVsDH-mMKGDy-cjuLNL">woodleywonderworks</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>First, we know from earlier studies that student attainment levels – high school graduation or enrollment in post-secondary education – may be <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047272714002461">higher</a> among voucher users even when test score differences between them and their public school counterparts are nonexistent. </p>
<p>Whether this means that private schools are especially good at preparing kids to graduate and attend college or that they simply prioritize such success more than other outcomes is still <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/psj.12006/full">unclear</a>. But we see similar patterns in charter schools too: a <a href="https://theconversation.com/charter-schools-fabulous-or-failures-35995">number of studies</a> have shown that charter school students have a higher chance of high school graduation or college enrollment even when their test scores do not differ on average from their traditional public school counterparts.</p>
<p>In the Louisiana context, the researchers also found more nuanced results when they posed a number of other questions.</p>
<p>When researchers examined, for example, whether competition from private schools pressed nearby public schools to improve performance, <a href="http://educationresearchalliancenola.org/publications/the-competitive-effects-of-the-louisiana-scholarship-program-on-public-school-performance">they found</a> that the test scores of students in these competing schools did indeed increase, albeit modestly. </p>
<p>When they asked whether the declines in voucher users’ tests scores were present in noncognitive student outcomes (such as grit, self-esteem, and political tolerance), they found both public and private school students had <a href="http://www.uaedreform.org/downloads/2016/02/report-2-measure-of-student-non-cognitive-skills-and-political-tolerance-after-two-years-of-the-louisiana-scholarship-program.pdf">similar levels</a> on those indicators. </p>
<p>Each of these questions provides a different way of assessing the overall impact of the voucher program both on students who use them and on students in the surrounding communities as well. </p>
<h2>Weighing other factors</h2>
<p>More generally, it’s important to <a href="http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/rick_hess_straight_up/2016/02/it_varies_what_new_research_on_louisianas_voucher_program_reminds_us_about_school_choice.html">remember</a> that voucher programs operate differently in different places. </p>
<p>In Louisiana, for example, one <a href="http://educationnext.org/the-folly-of-overregulating-school-choice/">prominent explanation</a> for the negative test scores is that heavy regulation of private providers keeps the best schools in that sector away from offering seats to voucher users. But in Wisconsin, we know that some regulations, such as <a href="http://epa.sagepub.com/content/36/4/437.short">requiring private schools</a> to publicly report the academic performance of their voucher users, actually increased test scores.</p>
<p>Other <a href="http://www.ecs.org/vouchers-scholarship-tax-credits-and-individual-tax-credits-and-deductions/">state laws</a> determine who’s eligible to use a voucher in the first place. In some states, vouchers exist expressly for kids with special academic needs; in others, low-income families are eligible as well.</p>
<p>Again, this implies that we have to be very careful. It is not as simple as taking evidence from one state and expecting the same results, good or bad, in another. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113439/original/image-20160301-31040-1xxin48.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113439/original/image-20160301-31040-1xxin48.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113439/original/image-20160301-31040-1xxin48.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113439/original/image-20160301-31040-1xxin48.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113439/original/image-20160301-31040-1xxin48.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113439/original/image-20160301-31040-1xxin48.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113439/original/image-20160301-31040-1xxin48.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Little is known about teachers in schools that accept vouchers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/earthfixteam/14126238704/in/photolist-nwhEBJ-eFk95B-fCENjK-zDUjyc-CN7sUK-7AAX14-uQWRB8-CbHjU6-pjGSzi-rsRnRG-3cxyJE-swXWpU-vKvjws-7ftF5C-3fACaa-62tqP2-9j5Wm3-6AKJBu-6xgrDN-6NDxgW-oWYPXR-kCbeA2-8r7wJD-6Nzkqg-arHoZS-8MNrrm-8VRJvV-7r8NEs-eiVcuu-9owNaf-fE6SqR-cA2sXf-7v5q4c-qbqW6Q-kCd12W-bPcQH4-7GANtt-scna6P-dkZHvw-kCcRwj-qQRt2L-6NDtvQ-pw3sL1-jm5tXf-8VUNk9-8VRJEF-8r7wsM-37Pu4a-2wpccb-qbDd5D">EarthFix</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Apart from differences between states, there are other things to consider about the way voucher programs operate. </p>
<p>We know surprisingly little about teachers in schools that accept vouchers. State oversight of private school teachers is far less – in some places practically nonexistent – than for public school teachers.</p>
<p>Researchers are beginning, for example, to devote considerable effort to <a href="http://educationresearchalliancenola.org/files/publications/ERA-Policy-Brief-Changes-in-the-New-Orleans-Teacher-Workforce.pdf">understanding</a> who teaches in public charter schools. Answering that question in different voucher programs will help explain differences in students’ outcomes between private and public schools, both within and between different states. </p>
<p>Finally, we need to consider not only which students accept and benefit from a voucher, but also the extent to those who do attend private school – or any nontraditional alternative – are actually able to do so over the long term. </p>
<p>The evidence we have from places like <a href="http://epa.sagepub.com/content/35/2/179.short">Milwaukee</a> and <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pam.20002/abstract">Washington, D.C.</a> suggests substantial turnover in voucher programs, with minority students and students with the lowest test scores leaving private schools. </p>
<p>All of this is to say that when it comes to educating kids, what we know about school vouchers depends on what we ask. And what we ask should be informed not only by traditional academic outcomes, such as test scores, but also by a new understanding of the many different ways that schools can contribute to student success.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/55003/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joshua Cowen is a member of the national research advisory team for the Education Research Alliance of New Orleans, which released several of the studies discussed in this posting. He has received funding from the Russell Sage Foundation, the Spencer Foundation and the Walton Family Foundation for research unrelated to the studies discussed here. </span></em></p>A recent study on school vouchers shows that the program may be harming kids’ academic achievement, at least in math. What’s missing here? Are test scores the only way to judge a program?Joshua Cowen, Associate Professor of Educational Policy, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.