tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/attainment-gap-10347/articlesAttainment gap – The Conversation2023-11-02T12:05:15Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2164092023-11-02T12:05:15Z2023-11-02T12:05:15ZGCSE and Higher results show worsening gap between richer and poorer pupils: pandemic assessment shows we should reconsider exams<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556683/original/file-20231030-23-w85ovl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4365%2C2973&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-students-building-robotic-arm-school-434172778">DGLimages/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The difference in average GCSE English and maths results between poorer and richer pupils – the so-called “attainment gap” – is the largest in England in over a decade, according to a <a href="https://explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk/find-statistics/key-stage-4-performance-revised/2022-23">recent government analysis</a>. </p>
<p>Reducing this gap is something politicians have struggled with <a href="https://ifs.org.uk/inequality/education-inequalities/">for decades</a>. </p>
<p>But education professionals do know of one way to reduce it, which was made clear from the last few years of exam results. When end-of-year exams were replaced with teacher assessment during the first year of the COVID pandemic in 2020, there was a small but real closing of the gap. </p>
<p>In 2021, when teacher assessment was also used, the attainment gap widened from 2020 and was higher than in 2019 – but this may reflect the many further barriers the pandemic added to <a href="https://d2tic4wvo1iusb.cloudfront.net/production/documents/guidance-for-teachers/covid-19/Impact_of_Covid_on_Learning.pdf?v=1698645998">disadvantaged students’ attainment</a>. </p>
<p>By 2021, most students had had two years of disruption, and for those with fewer resources to help them cope during the pandemic, the disadvantage rose exponentially. In other words, the less well-off students were falling further and further behind. </p>
<p>In Scotland’s Higher results, the difference between teacher-assessed grades and exam results is more stark. The <a href="https://www.scotsman.com/education/snp-ministers-under-fire-over-widening-attainment-gap-between-richest-and-poorest-pupils-4247041">percentage point gap</a> between the number of pupils from the most affluent and the most deprived areas gaining A, B and C grades in their Highers was 16.9% in 2019. </p>
<p>When teacher assessment was used, the gap fell to 6.4% in 2020 and 7.9% in 2021. In 2023, the gap is back up to 16%. A similar pattern is seen in A to C grades for Scotland’s <a href="https://www.sqa.org.uk/sqa/files_ccc/equalities-monitoring-report-2023.pdf">National 5 qualifications</a>. </p>
<p>The difference between Scotland and England may be explained by differences in their exam cultures. In Scotland there is far less emphasis on standardised testing through different levels of education, and so students are likely to have had more experience of alternative forms of assessment to exams. They were therefore better placed to respond when exams were cancelled.</p>
<p>In other words, even when faced with multiple forms of disadvantage during the pandemic, less well-off young people were able to better demonstrate their learning using alternative forms of assessment. </p>
<h2>Return to exams</h2>
<p>Nevertheless, the government in England has pushed ahead with a return to exams and ensuring pre-pandemic levels of student achievement. This is down to a belief that <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/education-secretary-congratulates-gcse-students-on-results-day">“exams remain the fairest and best form of assessment”</a>. Exams are back in Scotland, too, though with post-COVID <a href="https://www.sqa.org.uk/sqa/103249.html">modifications remaining</a> as to how they were graded in 2023. </p>
<p>There is no evidence that the pandemic approach to assessment was less robust. It simply produced a different profile of results. The assertion that such results are less valid is made purely based on the unevidenced belief in exam fairness that governments cling to.</p>
<p>The problem is that there can be no doubt that better-off pupils are more likely to do well in exams. They are more likely to have a quiet space and resources for revision. They may have more time to revise if they don’t have to work a part-time job as well as study. </p>
<p>Their parents may be able to afford tutoring for them. For students who do not have these resources, their achievements in the classroom over a period of study, as seen by their teachers, are likely to be a much better representation of their knowledge and skills. </p>
<p>The most vulnerable and disadvantaged students continue to fall further behind their more well-off peers. This is an urgent educational and social justice issue because GCSE results predict <a href="https://ifs.org.uk/inequality/education-inequalities/">future possibilities and social and economic success</a>. </p>
<h2>A fairer system?</h2>
<p>Exams are often considered fair because they are anonymous. It has been argued that teacher-assessed grades further disadvantaged vulnerable students during the pandemic because teachers mark with <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03054985.2022.2124964">unconscious biases that privilege</a> the work of students with university-educated parents. </p>
<p>This evidence, however, is contested. Other research has argued that there is <a href="https://ijpds.org/article/view/2303">no evidence for teacher bias</a> in the 2020 assessment process that replaced exams.</p>
<p>What’s more, <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/01443330110789664/full/html">research on anonymous assessment</a> has suggested that the marker can still impute an identity onto the exam script’s author. In doing so, they may bring with them any unconscious bias they have. </p>
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<img alt="Students in exam hall" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556684/original/file-20231030-20-emx4q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556684/original/file-20231030-20-emx4q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556684/original/file-20231030-20-emx4q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556684/original/file-20231030-20-emx4q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556684/original/file-20231030-20-emx4q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556684/original/file-20231030-20-emx4q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556684/original/file-20231030-20-emx4q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Exams test a specific skill: memory recall under pressure.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-focused-middle-school-students-taking-1873350910">Juice Flair/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Also, <a href="https://ofqual.blog.gov.uk/2017/03/17/mythbusting-3-common-misconceptions/">despite protestations to the opposite</a>, our GCSE and A-level assessments rely on norm-based assumptions. In a norm-based system there is an assumption that a certain number of students will get an A, a certain number fail and so on. </p>
<p>We know that this thinking underpins the management of GCSEs from the government’s own statements that results should return to a pre-pandemic “norm”. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/gcse-results-2023-how-the-qualification-is-failing-disadvantaged-young-people-211804">GCSE results 2023: how the qualification is failing disadvantaged young people</a>
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<p>Norm-based assessment is unjust on many levels, not least because it <a href="https://theconversation.com/learning-from-exam-results-crisis-the-way-students-work-is-assessed-needs-to-change-144710">undermines standards of achievement</a> and it makes education a competition in which there are necessarily winners and losers. How can we ever narrow an achievement gap when we insist on set proportions of our students passing and failing? </p>
<p>And exams themselves are a flawed measure of knowledge. They only assess one way of demonstrating engagement with knowledge: memorisation under pressure. Naturally, therefore, those better skilled in this single form of engagement with knowledge will always do better.</p>
<p>The essential point is that such a critical moment of evaluating student success should not be down to a single form of assessment. Nor is a single form of assessment likely to be the most appropriate for the whole range of GCSE subjects.</p>
<p>Without a diverse system of assessment that recognises different student strengths and different disciplinary requirements we cannot possibly address the attainment gap. And if we are to hold exams at this most crucial stage in our young people’s lives, then we need a better reason than this one of alleged fairness.</p>
<p>There is no stark choice between exams and teacher-based assessment. There are many different ways of evaluating student learning and of recording or grading student achievement that could be used together. If governments were serious about the attainment gap, they would explore alternatives to exams.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216409/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jan McArthur does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There is no evidence that the pandemic approach to assessment was less robust. It simply produced a different profile of results.Jan McArthur, Head of Department and Senior Lecturer in Education and Social Justice, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2055352023-05-30T14:04:31Z2023-05-30T14:04:31ZPoorer pupils do worse at school – here’s how to reduce the attainment gap<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527990/original/file-20230524-24637-l4fgym.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C222%2C5089%2C2835&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/group-school-children-sitting-together-drawing-1878869518">Juice Verve/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Children living in relative poverty in England have worse average educational outcomes, including lower grades in exams, than other pupils. This situation is often referred to as the poverty attainment gap. </p>
<p>Closing this gap, so that poorer students do as well at school as their peers, is a concern for countries around the world. The ways this can be done has been a <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003287353/making-schools-better-disadvantaged-students-stephen-gorard-nadia-siddiqui-beng-huat-see">focus of my research</a>. </p>
<p>A key issue to address is the social divisions that mean that certain schools cater for richer or poorer pupils. Extra funding should also be focused on the children who need it most. </p>
<h2>Measuring the gap</h2>
<p>In official statistics, the attainment gap is measured as the difference between the attainment of the majority of pupils and those eligible for free school meals (<a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/measuring-disadvantaged-pupils-attainment-gaps-over-time">a measure of poverty</a>). This is problematic because the gap changes as the <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003287353/making-schools-better-disadvantaged-students-stephen-gorard-nadia-siddiqui-beng-huat-see">proportion of pupils eligible</a> for free school meals changes over time. </p>
<p>Individual students’ circumstances might change as their family income changes. But, more importantly, different groups of students may have more or fewer pupils eligible for free school meals due to fluctuations in the economy or changes in government policy. This then affects the attainment gap, but is nothing to do with education or the work of schools. </p>
<p>A more robust measure is to measure the difference in attainment between pupils always eligible for free school meals for their entire school lives, and the rest. These two groups are stable over time and less affected by economic and legal changes. And the attainment gap between them had been reducing historically in England until 2014. </p>
<p>The gap increased in 2015 – perhaps due to changes to the curriculum – but since 2016 the gap has started decreasing again at key stage two (ages seven to 11). It is difficult to compare the attainment gap after 2019 with what came before, because of the exam disruption caused by COVID-19 lockdowns. </p>
<p><strong>The attainment gap at the end of year two over time</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Line graph" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526596/original/file-20230516-21547-bbff3j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526596/original/file-20230516-21547-bbff3j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526596/original/file-20230516-21547-bbff3j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526596/original/file-20230516-21547-bbff3j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526596/original/file-20230516-21547-bbff3j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526596/original/file-20230516-21547-bbff3j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526596/original/file-20230516-21547-bbff3j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Change in effect size for the gap between long-term disadvantaged pupils and the rest, KS1 points, 2006-2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Making Schools Better for Disadvantaged Students: The International Implications of Evidence on Effective School Funding, by Stephen Gorard, Beng Huat See and Nadia Siddiqui, Routledge.</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Despite this progress, the gap between the permanently disadvantaged students and the rest is still substantial – note that the graph above does not start at zero. </p>
<p>Perhaps the main driver of the change has been a slow reduction in social segregation – the extent to which poorer children are <a href="https://policy.bristoluniversitypress.co.uk/education-policy">clustered in schools</a> with others like them. </p>
<p><strong>Decline in social segregation of pupils in year one</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Line graph" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526599/original/file-20230516-37075-7170vy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526599/original/file-20230516-37075-7170vy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526599/original/file-20230516-37075-7170vy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526599/original/file-20230516-37075-7170vy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526599/original/file-20230516-37075-7170vy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526599/original/file-20230516-37075-7170vy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526599/original/file-20230516-37075-7170vy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Change in effect size for the gap between FSM-eligible pupils and the rest, FSM Segregation in Year 1, 2006-2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Making Schools Better for Disadvantaged Students: The International Implications of Evidence on Effective School Funding, by Stephen Gorard, Beng Huat See and Nadia Siddiqui, Routledge.</span></span>
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<p>In <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003287353/making-schools-better-disadvantaged-students-stephen-gorard-nadia-siddiqui-beng-huat-see">my research</a>, I’ve compared the attainment gap with the level of poverty segregation in schools in areas across England. I’ve found that where segregation is lower, the attainment gap is too. </p>
<p>Reinforcing the ongoing reduction in segregation, and in the attainment gap in turn, should be an educational priority.</p>
<p><strong>Scatterplot showing the relationship between segregation (y axis) and attainment gap (x axis) at key stage two</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Scatterplot" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526597/original/file-20230516-17-p2hxsk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526597/original/file-20230516-17-p2hxsk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526597/original/file-20230516-17-p2hxsk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526597/original/file-20230516-17-p2hxsk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526597/original/file-20230516-17-p2hxsk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526597/original/file-20230516-17-p2hxsk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526597/original/file-20230516-17-p2hxsk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scatterplot of segregation (y axis) by attainment gaps (x axis) for the Economic Areas of England.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Making Schools Better for Disadvantaged Students: The International Implications of Evidence on Effective School Funding, by Stephen Gorard, Beng Huat See and Nadia Siddiqui, Routledge.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Types of school</h2>
<p>One way to reduce this social segregation – and so reduce the attainment gap – is to reduce the <a href="https://dro.dur.ac.uk/38522/">variety of different types</a> of schools. </p>
<p>There is an unnecessarily wide variety of different types of school in England. Grammar schools select pupils by ability – which is linked to social background. Faith schools select by religion, which is linked to ethnicity. There are also special, free, foundation, specialist, and community schools, plus academies and university technical colleges. Each type can end up with somewhat different pupil intakes, so driving segregation.</p>
<p>All these schools could be gradually phased into a national system of similar all-ability local schools. Pupils would still be able to receive additional help or tailored interventions within such schools, but the social mix of the schools would better represent their region than at present.</p>
<p>School catchment areas are another factor increasing social segregation. Where schools are oversubscribed, contested places should not be allocated on the basis of travel or distance from home, or of feeder primary schools. These methods all duplicate and reinforce residential segregation by poverty. </p>
<p>Alternative measures could include banding by poverty, where each school might be required to give a certain number of places to pupils eligible for free school meals, or lotteries, where oversubscribed places are allocated randomly. Pupils could be given free transport to schools outside their immediate neighbourhood. </p>
<p>The idea would be to spread out the most disadvantaged students between schools, in order to make any issues with their attainment easier to address. </p>
<h2>Managing funding</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://bera-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/berj.3775">biggest decline</a> in poverty segregation has <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003287353/making-schools-better-disadvantaged-students-stephen-gorard-nadia-siddiqui-beng-huat-see">taken place since 2011</a>, when <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/pupil-premium/pupil-premium">pupil premium funding</a> was introduced. Pupil premium allocates extra funding to schools in proportion to the number of disadvantaged pupils that they take. This reduces the disincentive for schools to take poorer children.</p>
<p>But the pupil group with the <a href="https://www.tes.com/magazine/analysis/general/i-helped-design-pupil-premium-funding-it-needs-urgent-update">lowest attainment</a> are those who have been eligible for free school meals for the longest. So it makes sense for pupil premium funding to be better calibrated in future. Proportionately more funding should follow the most disadvantaged pupils – those who are eligible for free school meals for all of their time at school.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205535/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Gorard does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Measures need to focus on reducing social segregation in schools.Stephen Gorard, Professor of Education and Public Policy, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1626952021-06-22T18:29:10Z2021-06-22T18:29:10ZHow race, sex and class combine to affect school results<p>When it comes to education, we cannot think about race, sex and class in isolation. When I was commissioned by the UK government to investigate how these issues affect academic achievement, I discovered how they all matter – and in combination. I believe that an analysis that focuses on any one of these in isolation will inevitably miss important aspects of inequality.</p>
<p>I was tasked with analysing inequalities in <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-report-of-the-commission-on-race-and-ethnic-disparities-supporting-research/ethnic-socio-economic-and-sex-inequalities-in-educational-achievement-at-age-16-by-professor-steve-strand">educational achievement</a> – specifically at age 16 – as part of the Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities’ <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-report-of-the-commission-on-race-and-ethnic-disparities">report</a> which was published in March. The issue has been raised again recently by <a href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm5802/cmselect/cmeduc/85/8502.htm">a report</a> from the House of Commons education select committee <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-57558746">that highlighted</a> the educational outcomes of white working class children in particular.</p>
<p>Sixteen is when pupils sit their GCSEs and statutory full-time education in England ends. It is an important transition. The qualifications they achieve at this stage are key to their future outcomes at every level: <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/post-16-education-highest-level-of-achievement-by-age-25">educational</a>, <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/651012/SFR56_2017_Main_Text.pdf">economic</a>, <a href="http://www.share-project.org/press-news/share-research-findings/new-scientific-findings/education-and-health-in-later-life.html">health</a> and <a href="https://esrc.ukri.org/files/news-events-and-publications/evidence-briefings/the-wellbeing-effect-of-education">wellbeing</a>. </p>
<p>I looked at what historically have been the three central dimensions of inequality: race, sex and class (or socio-economic status). I used the Department for Education’s second longitudinal study of young people in England. This nationally representative <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/longitudinal-study-of-young-people-in-england-cohort-2-wave-1">sample</a> of 10,000 young people sat their GCSEs in 2015/16, and is the most up-to-date and comprehensive data on race, sex, class and achievement at age 16. </p>
<p>The data showed that how well pupils do at GSCE level is related far more to social class – as assessed by parental occupation, education and household income – than to race or sex. For example, the achievement gap between pupils from the 20% of homes with the highest household income and the 20% of homes with the lowest household income was very large (measured at 0.91 standard deviations or SD). It was over three times larger than the small gap between boys and girls (0.29 SD), and over eight times larger than the very small gap between black and white pupils (0.11 SD). (Standard deviations are a <a href="https://theconversation.com/95-chance-god-particle-statements-are-being-misread-by-the-media-3204">unit of measurement</a> used in statistics to gauge how far any given data point is from the average, or mean.) </p>
<h2>Comparing gaps</h2>
<p>But it is important to look at this data in the round. Everyone has an ethnicity, sex and a class background. We don’t hold any of these characteristics in isolation.</p>
<p>The dataset provided a large number of categories. It included two sexes, three levels of socio-economic status (high, average and low), and nine major ethnic groups (white British, white other groups, Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, other Asian, black Caribbean including mixed white and black Caribbean, black African including mixed white and black African, and any other group). With these categories, we produced 54 unique combinations of race, sex and class. We then used <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-report-of-the-commission-on-race-and-ethnic-disparities-supporting-research/ethnic-socio-economic-and-sex-inequalities-in-educational-achievement-at-age-16-by-professor-steve-strand">statistical modelling</a> to calculate the achievement score for each of these groups. The results are shown in the graph below.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407110/original/file-20210617-23-1wx2kl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407110/original/file-20210617-23-1wx2kl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407110/original/file-20210617-23-1wx2kl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=332&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407110/original/file-20210617-23-1wx2kl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=332&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407110/original/file-20210617-23-1wx2kl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=332&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407110/original/file-20210617-23-1wx2kl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407110/original/file-20210617-23-1wx2kl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407110/original/file-20210617-23-1wx2kl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Best 8 exams point score at age 16 by race, sex and class combination.</span>
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<p>Three of these groups performed significantly less well than white British pupils of the same sex and socio-economic status: black Caribbean and black African boys from high socio-economic status homes, and Pakistani girls from high socio-economic status homes.</p>
<p>Understanding these outcomes means considering them from all angles. Why is this under-achievement only noted among pupils from high status backgrounds in these ethnic groups, and why only among boys or girls respectively? My <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-report-of-the-commission-on-race-and-ethnic-disparities-supporting-research/ethnic-socio-economic-and-sex-inequalities-in-educational-achievement-at-age-16-by-professor-steve-strand">report</a> discusses the factors which may be having an effect on these outcomes. These include how different high socio-economic status families deploy their capital, what their expectations and norms might be, what expectations the teachers in their schools might have, or cultural considerations around masculinity or identity.</p>
<p>But there was no ethnic under-achievement in the other 45 comparisons we made between ethnic minority and white British pupils. Indeed in two-thirds of them, the average score for pupils from ethnic minority groups was substantially higher than the mean score for white British pupils. So, where there are ethnic achievement gaps in England at age 16, they are predominantly associated with higher achievement by pupils from ethnic minority groups compared to their white British peers. This success in education has been identified before, for example in the <a href="https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/7916/1/DCSF-RR029.pdf">first</a> longitudinal study of young people in England, in 2006.</p>
<h2>Poverty and inequality</h2>
<p>Given the critical role of educational achievement at age 16 for <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/post-16-education-highest-level-of-achievement-by-age-25">life outcomes</a>, an important question is which groups of young people are most at risk of low achievement. The data shows that young people with the lowest achievement are those from low socio-economic backgrounds. This applies particularly (though not exclusively) to white British and black Caribbean young people, and particularly to boys. </p>
<p>Poverty affects young people from all ethnic groups. So policies such as the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/pupil-premium-allocations-and-conditions-of-grant-2020-to-2021/pupil-premium-conditions-of-grant-2020-to-2021">pupil premium</a> – introduced in 2011 to target funding for young people from disadvantaged backgrounds – are crucial. Such funding will also particularly support pupils from those ethnic minority groups (including Pakistani and Bangladeshi pupils) who are most likely to experience poverty. </p>
<p>Given the size of the class-related achievement gap, it is unclear whether the scale of the funding is sufficient. The National Audit Office <a href="https://www.nao.org.uk/report/funding-for-disadvantaged-pupils/">concluded</a> in 2015 that “no clear trend has been established and the gap remains wide”.</p>
<p>None of this denies ethnic inequalities in other educational or social outcomes, be that in entry to <a href="http://csi.nuff.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Are-employers-in-Britain-discriminating-against-ethnic-minorities_final.pdf">employment</a>, access to <a href="https://theconversation.com/hard-evidence-why-arent-there-more-black-british-students-at-elite-universities-25413">high-fee universities</a> or representation in the <a href="https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/work-pay-and-benefits/employment/employment-by-occupation/latest#by-ethnicity-and-type-of-occupation">highest status occupations</a>. Indeed, a key question is why high educational achievement at age 16 does not always translate into later success for young people from ethnic minorities.</p>
<p>If we want to help young people do better at secondary level, and improve their chances for the future, we have to think about race, sex and class in tandem. And for those students who fare the worst, great care needs to be taken to unpick at which points institutional biases might be hurting them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162695/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The UK Government Cabinet Office funded the University of Oxford.to undertake this research.</span></em></p>The data shows that attainment gaps in English education at age 16 cannot be attributed to any single factor.Steve Strand, Professor of Education, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1175292019-08-23T10:39:05Z2019-08-23T10:39:05ZClosing attainment gap is not about ‘character’ and ‘grit’ – children need a place to excel and thrive<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289046/original/file-20190822-170922-1d9x3jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?u=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.shutterstock.com%2Fgatekeeper%2FW3siZSI6MTU2NjQ5NzA1NywiYyI6Il9waG90b19zZXNzaW9uX2lkIiwiZGMiOiJpZGxfMTczNTMzNjkxIiwiayI6InBob3RvLzE3MzUzMzY5MS9odWdlLmpwZyIsIm0iOjEsImQiOiJzaHV0dGVyc3RvY2stbWVkaWEifSwiQ0dLclNqNjFhSTNSMHc1S1FMOVRORVhDMjVJIl0%2Fshutterstock_173533691.jpg&pi=33421636&m=173533691&src=SkquprCbHlnFbEYoUK1nYA-1-59">Shutterstock/Pressmaster</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Recent statistics from The Education Policy Institute suggest <a href="https://epi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/EPI-Annual-Report-2018-Executive-Summary.pdf">it will take another 100 years</a> to bridge the academic attainment gap between rich and poorer students in the UK. And <a href="https://www.suttontrust.com/newsarchive/8-schools-send-as-many-pupils-to-oxbridge-as-three-quarters-of-all-schools/">according to the Sutton Trust</a>, eight elite schools sent as many pupils to Oxbridge between 2015 and 2018 as three-quarters of all the state schools in the country. </p>
<p>The Department of Education claims <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/developing-character-skills-in-schools">teaching “character” to poorer pupils</a> will help to raise their academic standards – as though somehow students from more disadvantaged backgrounds lack “grit”, “perseverance” and “resilience”. There is no research to support this argument. Poorer students <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/jan/15/state-school-pupils-confidence-lessons-personality-private-education">lack opportunities, not character</a>.</p>
<p>My research suggests an alternative route – a route which begins in primary school, through extra-curricular activities. The benefits obtained by children and young people who participate in these activities are <a href="https://edexec.co.uk/school-clubs-matter-delivering-outlets-for-activity-and-creativity/">well documented</a>. Benefits include greater self-esteem, resilience and a chance to make new friends. Extra-curricular activities have also been shown to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-36090537/after-school-clubs-boost-grades">boost grades</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-after-school-activities-help-reduce-attainment-gap-for-poorer-pupils-43952">Can after-school activities help reduce attainment gap for poorer pupils?</a>
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<p>But <a href="https://www.suttontrust.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Extracurricular-inequality.pdf">studies show</a> that disadvantaged children are less likely to participate in these groups. And beyond the age of 11, participation in them diminishes for all pupils. By this age, a child who has never participated in extra-curricular activities never will. So early introduction and positive experiences are key to sustaining participation.</p>
<p>I wanted to discover what triggers and sustains extra-curricular activities for children in primary school and what the benefits were of this sustained participation. To do this, I documented 20 stories of disadvantaged Free School Meal children who were judged by their school to be facing significant adversity in their lives, between the ages of nine and 11, who had never engaged in extra-curricular activities before. </p>
<h2>Competition and feedback</h2>
<p>The first notable discovery was that 16 of the 20 stories featured a disadvantaged child being invited or selected to participate, rather than choosing to do so out of their own volition. Eight of the schools incorporated their activities into the school day – usually at lunchtime – in order to be available for those children who never habitually remain for after-school clubs when historically most of these activities occur. </p>
<p>Other notable findings were that each club in my research was structured by competition or projects. Many of the extra-curricular activities I studied – for example, debating, football, art and running clubs – competed against other schools and gave the children an opportunity to represent their school. Improving competence was important to compete successfully. My research revealed not only the importance of feedback from the adult structuring the activity, but equally the importance of the feedback received from other children, which really enhanced their enjoyment of the experience and raised their competency levels.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289057/original/file-20190822-170941-8vp4j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289057/original/file-20190822-170941-8vp4j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289057/original/file-20190822-170941-8vp4j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289057/original/file-20190822-170941-8vp4j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289057/original/file-20190822-170941-8vp4j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289057/original/file-20190822-170941-8vp4j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289057/original/file-20190822-170941-8vp4j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Football and other sports are often taken up by pupils in extra-curricular clubs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/running-soccer-football-players-footballers-kicking-792838930?src=qACbtUCJbM1KUQNZvqfcsg-1-5">Shutterstock/matimix</a></span>
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<p>In many cases, within six months of starting the activity, the children featured had developed into an ambassador for it and were encouraging and initiating new members. Seven of the 20 children had better school attendance after participating and a quarter of the children improved academically in class.</p>
<p>Six of the children subsequently chose to participate in other extra-curricular activities. Four children had immediate improvement in their academic work. Nineteen of the 20 children were perceived by their school to be more resilient and confident as a result of participating. </p>
<h2>Educational implications</h2>
<p>It is clear from this research that many children do not always habitually chose to participate in activities. So activity provision is not enough. A helping hand to guide a child to participate is required. It isn’t “character education” that poor and disadvantaged pupils require, but pathways to positive experiences to succeed and feel valued.</p>
<p>Extra-curricular activities provide a rich vein of positive experiences which may be particularly significant for children struggling to succeed in the classroom. </p>
<p>The findings also illustrate that success breeds success. Once a child has experienced achievement in one domain, there is a tendency for it to spread into other areas of school life. Extra-curricular activities may provide a valuable catalyst for schools to bolster a child’s sense of identity and belonging in the school, offering them a meaningful experience that allows them to excel and thrive.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117529/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr. David Glynne-Percy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research shows that extra-curricular activities do more to help close the attainment gap between richer and poorer pupils than nebulous lessons in ‘character’.Dr. David Glynne-Percy, PhD researcher and lecturer, University of BrightonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1062702018-11-23T14:56:38Z2018-11-23T14:56:38ZScotland’s attainment gap: three ways to bridge the educational divide<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/246919/original/file-20181122-182056-1kdyod4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock crop</span> </figcaption></figure><p>The UK has one of the most socially segregated school systems in the developed world, with <a href="https://theconversation.com/grammar-schools-why-academic-selection-only-benefits-the-very-affluent-74189">academic selection</a> – where children are admitted to a school on the basis of ability – and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2016/jun/13/parental-choice-education-schools-chains">parental choice</a> at its core.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.oecd.org/about/">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</a> (OECD) believes this has a <a href="https://www.oecd.org/education/school/50293148.pdf">negative impact</a> on social equality and a young person’s ability to earn a good income in the future. OECD evidence shows that segregated schools present children with two different perspectives of the world and <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-19548597">affect their life chances</a>.</p>
<h2>Effects of poverty</h2>
<p>There is a strong link between a pupil’s socioeconomic status and <a href="http://www.parliament.scot/ResearchBriefingsAndFactsheets/S5/SB_16-68_Closing_The_Attainment_Gap_What_Can_Schools_Do.pdf">how well they do in school</a>. Pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds have a higher chance of failing. Children and young people living in the most deprived communities do significantly worse at all levels of the education system than those from more affluent backgrounds. This is often referred to as the “<a href="http://www.parliament.scot/ResearchBriefingsAndFactsheets/S5/SB_16-68_Closing_The_Attainment_Gap_What_Can_Schools_Do.pdf">attainment gap</a>”.</p>
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<p>In Scotland, it is <a href="http://www.cpag.org.uk/scotland/child-poverty-facts-and-figures">estimated</a> that one in four children is living in poverty. <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plugin=1&pcode=tessi120&language=en">European Commission figures</a> suggest this is higher than in many other countries in Europe and the <a href="https://www.ifs.org.uk/about">Institute for Fiscal Studies</a> (IFS) <a href="http://www.cpag.org.uk/scotland/child-poverty-facts-and-figures">predicts</a> that more than one-third of children in the UK will be living in poverty by 2021/22.</p>
<p>In 2016, Scotland’s first minister, Nicola Sturgeon, declared that the Scottish government would “draw on successful ideas from around the world” to help children from disadvantaged backgrounds and close the attainment gap. She <a href="https://news.gov.scot/speeches-and-briefings/priorities-speech-taking-scotland-forward">introduced</a> a range of initiatives, not only in the education sector, but across health, childcare, social services, welfare and employment. </p>
<p>Some of these measures introduced as a matter of urgency have already proved controversial, such as the <a href="https://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/scottish-government-accused-of-deceiving-parents-over-p1-national-testing-1-4778457">national testing of P1 pupils</a> (a standardised assessment for five-year-olds designed to measure the attainment gap) which parents and teachers complained had caused some children distress. Schools play a significant role, but the initiatives adopted need to follow a long arc of slow structural change. Short-term political fixes have been tried for decades, yet people in Scotland and the rest of the UK continue to live in a deeply unequal society divided by class, income and poverty.</p>
<h2>Following the Finns</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/12/safe-happy-and-free-does-finland-have-all-the-answers">Finland</a> is widely recognised as being an <a href="https://www.oph.fi/download/146428_Finnish_Education_in_a_Nutshell.pdf">educational success story</a>. Like Scotland, it has a population of around five million which shares the same culture, language and a keen sense of social justice. But after World War 2 the Finns recognised that a society divided by class and poverty would weaken their country further, so they embarked on <a href="http://ijse.padovauniversitypress.it/system/files/papers/2014_2_3.pdf">long-term structural reform</a> abolishing private and selective schools in favour of a system in which every child would attend high-quality state schools. The Finns reduced socioeconomic inequality by reducing inequality in the education system.</p>
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<p>Having different educational provisions and greater freedom for parents to choose their preferred school may seem democratic, but it leads to a country that separates children and damages the very fabric of democracy it seeks to champion. I think there are three fundamental ways to help bridge the educational divide in Scotland.</p>
<p>First, as the Finns have done, the government should look beyond parental choice and introduce the “<a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/46581035.pdf">common school</a>” which provides basic comprehensive education to serve all children equally well, regardless of family background. Not just a form of school organisation, the idea of the common school embodies a philosophy of education as well as a deep <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/46581035.pdf">set of values</a> about what all children need and deserve.</p>
<p>Second, the quality of teachers and teaching is crucial for effective learning and can have a demonstrable impact on a disadvantaged pupil’s prospects. Teachers need to be paid at a level that will attract top graduates, so that the profession becomes more appealing and valued.</p>
<p><a href="https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2018/united-kingdom_eag-2018-70-en#page1">According</a> to the OECD the UK has one of the least well-paid and youngest teaching workforces in the EU, predominantly populated by women. Because teaching is a highly skilled profession, only teachers who are <a href="https://www2.gov.scot/resource/doc/337626/0110852.pdf">academically well-qualified</a>, research literate and socially committed should be encouraged to teach Scotland’s children.</p>
<h2>Freedom and trust</h2>
<p>A long-term solution for reducing the attainment gap is to restore a culture of responsibility and trust within the education system that values teacher and headteacher professionalism in judging what is best for students. The Scottish government has <a href="https://www.gov.scot/policies/schools/pupil-attainment/">pledged £120m</a> directly to headteachers, which although considered a sound idea by the OECD, has been met with concern due to a lack of clear guidance on how this money should be spent.</p>
<p>Striking a balance between accountability and autonomy, with greater levels of responsibility, flexibility and freedom to be creative in addressing pupils’ needs takes time. <a href="https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2018/united-kingdom_eag-2018-70-en#page6">Research</a> suggests that encouraging schools to make their own decisions about how best to support their pupils to do well is essential for closing the attainment gap.</p>
<p>Third, the <a href="https://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/reading-standards-in-scotland-falling-behind-uk-study-warns-1-4512105">standard of literacy has fallen</a> in Scotland over the past four years. Literacy and life chances are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2014/sep/08/reading-literacy-uk-cbi-schools-read-on-get-on-campaign">closely linked</a>, and <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/libraries-deliver-ambition-for-public-libraries-in-england-2016-to-2021/libraries-deliver-ambition-for-public-libraries-in-england-2016-to-2021">evidence</a> suggests that libraries can contribute to improving quality of life for all. Starting with areas that have been designated as <a href="https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/Statistics/SIMD">deprived</a>, new public libraries should be built or existing community libraries transformed.</p>
<p>Raising the level of literacy is not just about the child, it has to involve the literacy of families and communities too. As we see in places such as Finland and Singapore, public libraries can serve as the educational and cultural bedrock of a community, and could help work towards closing the attainment gap.</p>
<p>Persistent poverty exacerbated by budget cuts and coupled with entrenched mindsets in government and education are all obstacles in the current climate. There is an urgent need to think out of the box and to re-imagine long-term solutions to reverse the inequalities that face disadvantaged children in Scotland.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106270/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Geetha Marcus does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The education system needs an urgent re-think to give children from disadvantaged backgrounds a better chance in life.Geetha Marcus, Lecturer in Education, School of Interdisciplinary Studies, University of GlasgowLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/754612017-03-31T04:20:15Z2017-03-31T04:20:15ZDoes bad weather affect student performance in school?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163391/original/image-20170331-4588-1agv2zf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">All schools were closed throughout south-east Queensland due to severe rain.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dave Hunt/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>All schools in <a href="http://www.news.com.au/technology/environment/schools-closed-as-brisbane-and-sydney-brace-for-fall-as-cyclone-debbies-aftereffects-get-disastrous/news-story/9f025c16d4be60ddaa330e09c73a6f96">south-east Queensland</a>, and many in <a href="http://www.dec.nsw.gov.au/about-us/news-at-det/bushfire-safety">northern New South Wales</a>, have been closed following tropical cyclone Debbie, which hit the area this week causing large-scale destruction. </p>
<p>An increase in extreme and unpredictable <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/v5/n2/abs/nclimate2492.html">weather events</a> in Australia continues to occur, which often disrupts students’ attendance at school.</p>
<p>In July 2015, over 40 schools were closed in the Blue Mountains and Southern Highlands of NSW due to a <a href="http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw-snowstorm-road-closures-school-closures-flooding-alerts/news-story/8486e6b51f6833af805decd35f4d1deb">snowstorm</a>.</p>
<p>In June 2016, around 12 schools closed in New South Wales due to a weekend of <a href="http://www.news.com.au/national/breaking-news/twelve-nsw-schools-closed-after-storms/news-story/59b13d1423abfe3f48a53bbf2ce866a7">storms</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.decd.sa.gov.au/department/media-centre/news/severe-weather-event-school-closures">Power outages</a> due to severe weather in South Australia in September 2016 forced schools to shut.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-11-15/catastrophic-fire-risk-closes-wa-schools/8025074">Bushfires</a> across southern Western Australia in November 2016 caused several schools to close.</p>
<p>In Tasmania, schools have even had to close due to <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-02-10/is-there-a-school-policy-for-heatwaves/8257320">high winds and heavy rainfall</a>.</p>
<p>Despite these examples, there is little statistical information on the number of unplanned closures that take place in Australian schools. </p>
<h2>So are students losing out from school closures?</h2>
<p>It’s obvious, but to get the <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/it-important-be-school-every-day-0">most out of education</a>, students should go to school every day. In cases of extreme weather, students don’t always have that option.</p>
<p>However, <a href="http://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1221&context=research_conference">research shows</a> that authorised absences from school (such as during extreme weather) are less problematic for students than absences that are not authorised (no explanation or reasoning).</p>
<p>This is because unauthorised absences tend to reflect patterns and behaviours of student disengagement, or the possible negative attitudes of parents towards education that students adopt and carry with them through schooling. </p>
<p>The level of impact on students’ educational performance is all to do with the length of time that a student is absent from school and how regularly this occurs. </p>
<h2>Missing school on a regular basis is a problem though</h2>
<p><a href="http://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1221&context=research_conference">Research shows</a> that absence from school on a regular basis has a negative impact on numeracy, reading and writing performance. </p>
<p>Students who miss more than 10% of school days across a school year or 10 days per term are at <a href="https://www.telethonkids.org.au/globalassets/media/documents/research-topics/student-attendance-and-educational-outcomes-2015.pdf">risk</a> of poorer academic achievement. </p>
<p>In New South Wales, the average absence rate for public school students in 2013 was approximately <a href="http://www.dec.nsw.gov.au/about-us/plans-reports-and-statistics/key-statistics-and-reports">7%</a>, which suggests that additional days off can be placing students at educational risk. </p>
<h2>Little research on impact of unplanned school closures</h2>
<p>Until 2014, there had been little international evidence of the frequency, causes, and characteristics of <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0113755&type=printable">unplanned school closures</a>, despite the impact of extreme weather events on students and their school communities. </p>
<p>The research that investigated school closures was largely based around the prevention of contagious <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/16/3/09-1216_article">illnesses</a> such as influenza. </p>
<p>In the <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0113755&type=printable">US</a> from 2011 to 2013, it was revealed that there were almost 21,000 unplanned school closures – 16,000 of these resulting from extreme weather (this affected around 27 million students). </p>
<p>And <a href="http://ftp.iza.org/dp2923.pdf">reports</a> show that state-wide assessment results in the US tended to be lower in areas where schools had to make unplanned closures to snowfall, compared to other years when schools didn’t have to close.</p>
<h2>Wet weather</h2>
<p>Even if the weather isn’t bad enough to spark closures, it can still disrupt the school day.</p>
<p>Wet weather, in particular, means that students are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18614949">less likely to take part in</a> or <a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/tpp/jpp/2015/00000002/00000002/art00002">enjoy</a>, physical education and recess time activities, for example.</p>
<p>If such weather occurs on a regular basis, it makes it harder for school students to meet the national physical activity <a href="http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/health-pubhlth-strateg-phys-act-guidelines">guidelines</a>, which are designed to ensure kids are keeping sufficiently active. </p>
<p>It’s important, then, for the schools to cater for these situations and provide spacious, well equipped indoor school <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3127966/">spaces</a> to ensure kids can still take part in physical education and recess time activities. </p>
<p>Wet weather can also be stressful for <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2043610617694731?journalCode=gsca">teachers</a> in primary schools who have to keep children safe while they play outside on slippery surfaces.</p>
<h2>Learn at home instead?</h2>
<p>Similar to the online learning platforms used for rural/distance teaching <a href="https://brisbanesde.eq.edu.au/Pages/default.aspx">programs</a> in Australia, there are online school learning <a href="http://www.forsyth.k12.ga.us/Page/46646">programs</a> in place in the US for students to learn at home during school closures. </p>
<p>During this time, teachers can communicate with students and parents and provide them with updates, and also <a href="http://www.edtechmagazine.com/k12/article/2016/01/online-learning-options-combat-snow-day-closures-across-country">set students work</a> to do.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/75461/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brendon Hyndman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Bad weather conditions often force schools to make unplanned closures.Brendon Hyndman, Academic in Health and Physical Education, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/578512016-04-20T13:02:54Z2016-04-20T13:02:54ZAfter-school clubs help poorer primary pupils get ahead<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118934/original/image-20160415-11173-h6m9sh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pressmaster/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Taking part in after-school clubs can give primary school children from poorer families a boost in academic performance and provide them with important social skills. According to <a href="http://www.cls.ioe.ac.uk/news.aspx?itemid=4428&itemTitle=Out+of+school+activities+improve+children%E2%80%99s+educational+attainment%2c+study+reveals&sitesectionid=27&sitesectiontitle=News">our new working paper</a> published by the Centre for Longitudinal Studies and funded by the Nuffield Foundation, after-school clubs stood out among a wide range of out of school activities as having positive benefits for
young children, making the case for ongoing investment in these clubs as a way to help close the education gap. </p>
<p>There were around 13,400 providers of <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/355075/SFR33_2014_Main_report.pdf">after-school clubs</a> in England in 2013. According to our research, clubs <a href="http://www.natcen.ac.uk/media/1123186/resbr3-final.pdf">typically fall</a> into two categories: those that provide sport, arts or language activities for an hour at the end of the day, or less structured play clubs used to help parents with childcare. </p>
<p>Using data from the <a href="http://www.cls.ioe.ac.uk/page.aspx?&sitesectionid=851&sitesectiontitle=Welcome+to+the+Millennium+Cohort+Study">Millennium Cohort Study (MCS)</a>, which has tracked children born in 2000 and 2001 who have been surveyed five times since their birth, we analysed the out-of-school activities of 6,400 children from the survey for who we also had school attainment data for. We looked at how they changed during primary school and the patterns of activity for children from different backgrounds. We also interviewed school staff, activity providers, parents and pupils at ten primary schools in the north-east and south-east of England. </p>
<h2>Closing the attainment gap</h2>
<p>We found that attending after-school clubs was associated with positive outcomes for disadvantaged children. On average, they achieved a two-point higher total score in their end of primary school assessments in English, maths and science than their peers who did not attend such groups. </p>
<p>This equates to two-fifths of the “attainment gap” we observed between poorer and more affluent children at age 11 – and also took into account their attainment when they were seven-years-old. </p>
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<p>Looking at data from a large sample of 10,000 children in the MCS, we also found positive “prosocial” outcomes – such as social skills and showing empathy towards others – for disadvantaged children who went to after school clubs. They had higher odds to achieve the top prosocial score on Goodman’s <a href="http://www.sdqinfo.com/a0.html">Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire</a> at age 11. </p>
<h2>Easier access</h2>
<p>Despite the evident advantages, participation in out-of-school activities such as sports clubs, music lessons and private tuition <a href="https://theconversation.com/growth-of-private-tuition-tells-story-of-mounting-pressure-on-parents-47808">varies according</a> to the socio-economic status of a child’s family. Children from families below the poverty line (with less than 60% of average income) in at least two of the three MCS interviews that took place during primary school were much less likely to take part in these activities. </p>
<p>For example, at age seven, 41% of disadvantaged pupils took part in organised sports compared to 75% of more affluent children. At age 11, the gap had narrowed a little as the proportion of disadvantaged children taking part in sports rose to 61%. By age 11, 6% of disadvantaged children received music lessons paid for by their families compared to 26% of more affluent children.</p>
<p>After-school clubs were the only activity where access was unaffected by family circumstances – around a third of all children attended them age 11. Parents said the reasons why they sent children to after-school clubs was because they were affordable, easy to access and children were familiar with staff and knew the location. </p>
<h2>Good use of pupil premium money</h2>
<p>With disadvantaged children missing out on other kinds of activities, after-school clubs provide an important way to narrow the education gap both in terms of academic attainment but also through other aspects of what could be called “character” through promoting positive social skills. </p>
<p>Primary school children spend a substantial proportion of their time outside of the formal school day and for many children, this provides wide-ranging opportunities for extra-curricular activities. Our research has shown how disadvantaged children are more likely to miss out on these opportunities because of cost, ease of access, familiarity and trust. </p>
<p>As schools decide how to spend the money allocated to disadvantaged pupils via the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/pupil-premium-information-for-schools-and-alternative-provision-settings">pupil premium</a> and <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/pe-and-sport-premium-for-primary-schools">PE and sport premium</a>, our research makes the case for continued use of this money to invest in school clubs. In the end, schools should evaluate the benefits of after-school clubs alongside other possible interventions, to decide what is most appropriate for their school.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57851/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Tanner receives funding from the Nuffield Foundation.</span></em></p>New research finds clubs can help close the education gap and improve children’s social skills.Emily Tanner, Head of Children, Families & Work, Policy Research Centre, National Centre for Social ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/544472016-02-11T12:59:31Z2016-02-11T12:59:31ZWhich countries must do more to help children who fall behind at school?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111144/original/image-20160211-29188-9catbv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Too many students are struggling to make the grade. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">bibiphoto/Shutterstock.com </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many of the world’s leading economies can do more to help struggling teenagers to get a better level of education that will equip them for later life. A <a href="http://www.oecd.org/education/low-performing-students-9789264250246-en.htm">new report</a> from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), looking at why low-performing students fall behind at school, has found that much remains to be done to reduce the number of children that perform poorly in maths, reading and science skills. </p>
<p>One of the most striking aspects of the report is just how many children are low performers, even in highly-developed nations such as the UK, Australia, or the US. I find it shocking that one in six children in the UK has a low level of reading comprehension skills – 17% of those tested in both the UK and US, and 14% in Australia. </p>
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<p>The new report is based on data taken from the OECD-funded Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the world’s largest and most influential educational survey. It aims to raise educational standards by providing detailed information about successful and less successful educational systems.</p>
<p>Every three years, 15-year-old children around the world take the two-hour PISA test. It focuses on some of the most fundamental academic skills: reading comprehension, mathematics, and science literacy. The new report is based on the 2012 PISA round, in which nearly half a million children participated. </p>
<p>The average score in OECD countries for each skill is around 500 PISA points. For example, in the UK, children’s scores in reading comprehension ranged from 121 to 788 points, with a national average of 499 points. Low performance is defined as a score below (approximately) 400 PISA points. According to the OECD, a low performer does not have the skills required to participate fully in a modern society.</p>
<p>The numbers of low performers in mathematics are worse than in reading – 22% in the UK, 20% in Australia and 26% in the US. Of course, it is possible that a child is a low performer in only one of the skills, but the numbers of children performing poorly in all of the three skills is still worryingly high: 11% in the UK, 9% in Australia, 12% in the US and 13% in France. </p>
<h2>Which countries do best</h2>
<p>There are considerable differences between countries. Those that generally score highly in PISA are, unsurprisingly, also the countries with the fewest low performers. Generally, East Asian countries and economic regions <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-singapores-school-system-so-successful-and-is-it-a-model-for-the-west-22917">are successful in PISA</a> (with the Chinese cities Shanghai and Hong Kong leading the league table) and have relatively few low performers. But there are European countries that have a similar level of success. For example, Estonia has one of the highest PISA scores in Europe, and only 3% of children are low performers in all three skills, leading the European league table.</p>
<p>There are no simple explanations for why some countries do better than others – many factors play a role. These include the educational levels and income of parents, their engagement, and whether or not children live in an urban or rural area. We should not only look at the leaders of the league table, but also at countries which are culturally and geographically similar.</p>
<p>Take Ireland, for example, which has 10% low performers in reading and 17% in mathematics and has seen a considerable reduction in low performers between 2006 and 2012. In Ireland, only 7% of low-performing children skipped school at least once in the two weeks before the PISA test, compared to 27% in the UK and 45% in Australia. Ireland’s data also shows a lower level of segregation by educational achievement. Such comparisons suggest that dealing more effectively with truancy and a more equal distribution of low performers across schools might help to drive down the numbers of low performers in other countries. </p>
<h2>Gender gaps persist</h2>
<p>This new OECD report also reports gender differences among low-performers. From other research, we already know that <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289614001688">boys fall behind in education around the world</a>, and <a href="http://volition.gla.ac.uk/%7Estoet/pdf/stoet2015-boys.pdf">in the UK in A-Level and GCSE</a> exams. In particular, boys fall behind in reading, and girls, to a lesser extent, in mathematics. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111012/original/image-20160210-12178-18n7cbu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111012/original/image-20160210-12178-18n7cbu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111012/original/image-20160210-12178-18n7cbu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111012/original/image-20160210-12178-18n7cbu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111012/original/image-20160210-12178-18n7cbu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111012/original/image-20160210-12178-18n7cbu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111012/original/image-20160210-12178-18n7cbu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111012/original/image-20160210-12178-18n7cbu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gender gaps at age 15.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933315297">OECD, PISA 2012 Database</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These gender gaps are also reflected in the new report. As the graph above shows, more boys than girls are low performers in reading and science, whereas more girls are low performers in mathematics. Policies aimed at reducing gender inequalities have so far not been effective in resolving these gaps. A new approach is needed. </p>
<p>One of the problems that the report does not address is that <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0057988">countries with a larger mathematics gap often have a smaller reading gap and vice versa</a>. This is enormously challenging, because some of the countries, such as Iceland or Finland, that are able to eliminate the mathematics gap affecting girls, have a particularly large reading gap affecting boys.</p>
<h2>How to raise achievement</h2>
<p>The final chapter of the report lays out a series of policies to tackle low performance levels. It gives examples of successful approaches, which include language training for non-native speakers and improving the quality of pre-primary education, which has happened in Germany. It also suggests that schools could foster high academic expectations, and use networks of schools to disseminate best practise. </p>
<p>It concludes that the percentage of low performers in any country can be reduced within a couple of years, if government is willing to reform the education system. While the number of low-performing children in the OECD is disappointingly high, with the appropriate educational reforms, based on evidence, a lot can be done to improve the situation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/54447/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gijsbert Stoet does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new OECD report has put the spotlight on countries where teenagers struggle in maths, reading and science.Gijsbert Stoet, Reader in Psychology, University of GlasgowLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/508162015-11-20T14:01:42Z2015-11-20T14:01:42ZWhy the potential of white boys from poor homes is hit by double disadvantage<p>We <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-improve-the-chances-of-poor-children-at-school-34787">know that</a> children from less affluent homes are much less likely to get good GCSE and A-level results, access the most selective universities and secure leading jobs. But we know less about the impact that other factors – such as their gender, ethnicity or where they live – have on a pupil’s academic outcome. </p>
<p>Our research, <a href="http://www.suttontrust.com/newsarchive/white-working-class-boys-from-poor-neighbourhoods-unlikely-to-do-a-levels/">published by the Sutton Trust charity</a>, found that some young people experience a “double disadvantage”. Being a boy and poor, especially being a boy of white UK background, much diminishes the likelihood of going on to advanced level studies. Growing up in a poor neighbourhood also has a negative impact on long-term outcomes up to age 18.</p>
<p>Overall, we found a significant gender divide: boys were much less likely to carry on with academic study after their GCSEs than girls. Drawing on data from the <a href="http://www.ioe.ac.uk/research/153.html">EPPSE longitudinal cohort study</a>, I, along with my colleagues Katalin Toth and Kathy Sylva from the University of Oxford, found that two thirds of the girls in our sample went on to take AS, A-levels or another advanced level qualifications, compared with just 55% of all boys.</p>
<p>Our study shows that the adverse impact of family disadvantage was also particularly evident for boys. Disadvantaged boys were less likely to go on to advanced level studies than disadvantaged girls, with just 40% of them carrying on an academic route compared with 55% of their girl peers.</p>
<p>Living in a poor neighbourhood also compounded the effects of family disadvantage: poor boys that lived in the poorest neighbourhoods were less likely to take A-levels than poor boys who lived in more affluent neighbourhoods. Being brought up in a neighbourhood with a higher proportion of children living in poverty predicted poorer attainment at GCSE and a lower likelihood of going on to advanced-level studies.</p>
<h2>Impact on young futures</h2>
<p>The EPPSE study followed 3,000 young people from age three to age 16 between 1996 to 2014, and we were funded by the Sutton Trust to follow up this national sample to age 18 to establish whether they had gone on to take AS or A-levels. </p>
<p>In our sample, just 29% of disadvantaged white UK boys living in the poorest neighbourhoods went onto this advanced level study. This compared with around 46% of disadvantaged white boys living in the most affluent neighbourhoods and two-thirds of boys from more advantaged families. Similar patterns occurred for girls too, but the attainment gap was especially marked for boys.</p>
<p>Taken together, these findings point to the powerful influence that different aspects of a student’s background have in shaping their long-term academic outcomes and destinations after the age of 16. A teenager’s chance of entering advanced level study is shaped not just by their family’s income and socio-economic status; other characteristics, particularly gender and ethnicity, also play a role.</p>
<p>What is particularly notable is the creation of what we term a “double disadvantage” that reduces the chances that a pupil will go on to study AS or A-levels. </p>
<p>Some young people, particularly white working class boys living in the poorest neighbourhoods, are the least likely of all pupil groups to progress onto advanced level studies. This matters because such <a href="https://theconversation.com/gcse-attainment-crucial-for-widening-participation-in-higher-education-27752">qualifications</a> are important in determining the likelihood of entering higher education and future earning potential. Drawing on our research following students from age three to age 18, we argue that the boys most at risk of failure are likely to need additional encouragement and support to help them engage in activities that can help promote good academic outcomes, such as reading for pleasure and homework.</p>
<h2>Cuts don’t help</h2>
<p>Politicians and civil servants should not to assume that all pupils who are eligible to receive extra pupil premium funding have the same needs regardless of where they live. As the government moves to promote “fair funding” <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-34844385">amid calls for</a> a new national funding formula, we believe it important to recognise the case for extra funding of those facing this double disadvantage.</p>
<p>More attention should be paid to the combined impact of place and family poverty. We must make sure that the <a href="https://theconversation.com/fact-check-is-the-pupil-premium-narrowing-the-attainment-gap-39601">benefits of the pupil premium</a> are not offset by reductions in the funding targeted at the disadvantaged communities in which many of the poorest pupils live.</p>
<p>Unfortunately over the last five years there have been <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/sep/01/local-government-association-cannot-cope-further-cuts">major cuts</a> to local authority budgets, particularly affecting those local authorities that serve the most disadvantaged populations. Instead, we need joined-up thinking with an explicit alignment of area-based and school-based policies to help address the consequences of “double disadvantage”.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/50816/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pam Sammons has received funding from the Department for Education (& previously the DCSF) and the Sutton Trust. </span></em></p>White boys from poorer backgrounds repeatedly come up worst when it comes to attainment.Pam Sammons, Professorial Senior Research Fellow, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/439522015-06-29T14:06:40Z2015-06-29T14:06:40ZCan after-school activities help reduce attainment gap for poorer pupils?<p>Children from poorer backgrounds are not always getting the same opportunities to take part in extra-curricular activities as their better-off peers, according to a <a href="http://www.demos.co.uk/publications/learning-by-doing">new report</a> from the think-tank Demos. </p>
<p>The kind of semi-structured activities mentioned in the report, which was backed by the Scout Association, include scouting and guiding, music, drama, debating and sport, as well as social or community action and volunteering. This non-formal learning takes place largely outside the classroom and its <a href="http://www.demos.co.uk/blog/inequalities-character-education">advocates believe</a> it can improve levels of academic attainment and character development. </p>
<p>Demos asked just over 1,000 young people aged 14 to 18 (and 800 teachers) about their participation in extra-curricular activities, the chances they had to participate and the impact they thought it might have on their lives. More than 40% of the pupils said that their schools did not provide enough opportunities to take part in uniformed activities such as police cadets, and around 25% said that their schools did not provide enough other activities, such as debating or working with charities. </p>
<p>The figures were slightly higher for those pupils eligible for free school meals – a common measure of economic disadvantage. Pupils on free school meals were also slightly less likely to take part in each of the categories of extra-curricular activities. Those teenagers who did take part in these activities also reported more positive attitudes to schooling. </p>
<p>The problem with all of this, and with the prior evidence cited in the Demos report, is that the research is based on <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Research_Design.html?id=UEA1b2ug-agC&redir_esc=y">a snapshot design</a> with no evidence on what happens later as a result of taking part in extra-curricular activities. This means that we cannot tell whether extra-curricular activities <em>are</em> valuable for the children who may have not have ready access to them. Or whether those taking part in the survey were already more positive about school and social action, and so also less likely to be negative about the opportunities provided by their schools.</p>
<p>Most evaluations of character studies tend to use these weak research designs, collecting evidence from snapshot interviews or surveys. For example, an <a href="http://characteredworks.org/wwce/index.php/main_controller/results/48">evaluation</a> by the Jefferson Centre for Character Education reported improved pupil behaviour and a decline in discipline problems, but this was based only on interviews with school administrators. Such studies <a href="http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/nov93/vol51/num03/Synthesis-of-Research-%7E-In-Search-of-Effective-Character-Education.aspx">are likely</a> to introduce bias as there are no comparisons made between the educational outcomes of those who received the programme and those who did not. Similarly weak, but more recent, <a href="http://www.jubileecentre.ac.uk/1557/projects/research-reports/character-education-in-uk-schools">studies in the UK</a> reporting the positive outcomes of extra-curricular activities are cited in the Demos report.</p>
<h2>Keen to take part</h2>
<p>In a move to gather more robust evidence, at Durham University, we have <a href="https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/projects/youth-social-action-trials-youth-united/">been commissioned </a> by the Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) charity to undertake two very large randomised controlled trials – one in primary schools related to the <a href="http://www.childrensuniversity.co.uk/">Children’s University</a> and one in secondary schools involving <a href="http://www.youthunited.org.uk/">Youth United</a>, an umbrella body for uniformed groups such the Sea Scouts and St John’s Ambulance Brigade.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86705/original/image-20150629-9059-ocnxnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86705/original/image-20150629-9059-ocnxnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86705/original/image-20150629-9059-ocnxnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86705/original/image-20150629-9059-ocnxnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86705/original/image-20150629-9059-ocnxnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86705/original/image-20150629-9059-ocnxnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86705/original/image-20150629-9059-ocnxnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Learn to find your way.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Boy scouts via RossHelen/www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Results for the difference in attainment and attitudes between the groups of children who did the activities and those who didn’t will be published in 2016-17. However, the findings from before the interventions are largely in line with those of Demos: pupils who are eligible for free school meals and those with prior low attainment at school are at least as keen to take part in extra-curricular activities as other pupils, but slightly fewer report having taken part so far. However, the good news is that participation in these activities, and the attitudes and aspirations they are intended to improve, are already much more fairly distributed among different socio-economic groups than exam results are.</p>
<p>Where evaluations have used experimental designs before (so far largely in the US), there <a href="http://ies.ed.gov/ncer/pubs/20112001/pdf/20112001.pdf">is no clear benefit</a> from extra-curricular activities, either in terms of attainment or long-term character development. It is easy enough to get pupils to report a change of attitude, but much harder to show that this makes any real difference – especially to the poorer children reported to be at a disadvantage. A recent randomised controlled trial, also funded by the EEF in the UK, introduced acting, singing and drama to largely disadvantaged pupils in Year 2 (aged six to seven). The findings <a href="https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/uploads/pdf/Act__Sing__Play.pdf">suggested no impact</a> on any academic outcomes. </p>
<h2>Weighing up the costs</h2>
<p>Non-formal learning and extra-curricular activities could have an impact on wider and longer-term outcomes, such as a child’s enjoyment of school or their subsequent participation in education and training. However, not only are these possible outcomes very varied, the activities are very broad as well. </p>
<p>Some extra-curricular activities are relatively cheap and simple to conduct, for example using citizenship or personal, social, and health education (PSHE) lessons to encourage responsible action, such as the removal of litter and graffiti in a local park, or fund-raising for charity. Others are more expensive and require special equipment and trained staff, such as scouting or guiding, or the provision of some specialist sessions in sports, music or drama. These are the kind of extra-curricular activities that are likely to be most unfairly distributed between poorer and better-off pupils. </p>
<p>Research in this area needs to be both clearer and stronger. While it seems unlikely that extra-curricular activities have any benefit for attainment in general, it seems more likely that the culture of a school <a href="http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCYQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.co.uk%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FEquity_in_education.html%3Fid%3Dh5RYAAAAYAAJ&ei=OAyRVYriGMzeUarag9gE&usg=AFQjCNE6adqDRCHdBK-QyX1BRFhToc2Ukw&bvm=bv.96783405,d.d24">can make a real difference</a> to character development. </p>
<p>This is not primarily about what is taught and rather more about how schools behave as societies: it is harder to teach active citizenship in a school where there is no pupil input to management, or teach about inclusion in a selective or faith-based school. This is the case, however good the teaching methods involved.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/43952/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Gorard receives research funding from the Educational Endowment Foundation, the Nuffield Foundation, the National Literacy Trust and the Scottish Funding Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Beng Huat See receives funding from the Education Endowment Foundation, the Nuffield Foundation and the National Literacy Trust.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nadia Siddiqui receives funding from the Nuffield Foundation, the Education Endowement Foundation, the National Literacy Trust</span></em></p>Disadvantaged pupils know what they’re missing when it comes to extra-curricular activities.Stephen Gorard, Professor of Education and Public Policy, Durham UniversityBeng Huat See, Research Associate in the School of Education, Durham UniversityNadia Siddiqui, Research Fellow in the School of Education, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/264202014-05-12T05:18:39Z2014-05-12T05:18:39ZFor Scotland’s poorer children to catch up with England’s, a fairer economy is needed<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/48189/original/xd54qxfp-1399648694.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children's backgrounds peg them to different achievement levels from a young age</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/clearwood/4461733295/in/photolist-7NgxS8-egNDoA-KRYG-cFV2Yq-7BimHW-dsmWFn-ft5UG9-dx463s-dx4555-9Zij1G-eSZsJ7-arTQXz-6tMdF3-4FxnLv-hxDuk-acjbUk-dupt4m-dupfvb-dupqnL-duiFwH-dupjsd-duiLqK-duiMHR-duiK6a-duprPq-7QuUKW-7aWw8P-aqoxik-myBS5-dbWXHk-dbX8pK-dbWRAj-dbWQAr-dbWQr4-8JqETX-aLxEPx-aLyiP6-aqqSoE-aDP5u3-dsmXYt-aDzhXj-aqGUeW-dCftCV-bbSFcD-8X4esB-7rqt3k-8dKGhD-7vsgTJ-7vsNww-aCost7">Tom Donald</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Scotland likes to think of itself as a nation reflecting the core social values of collectivism and meritocracy. Yet social and economic inequality is deeply entrenched within both the education system and wider society. </p>
<p>One in five Scottish children live in poverty and according to an <a href="http://www.jrf.org.uk/publications/closing-attainment-gap-scottish-education">important research review published by</a> the Joseph Rowntree Foundation last week, there is a strong and enduring association between low household income and low educational attainment.</p>
<p>The difficulties faced by Scottish children from low income backgrounds are evident at an early age and intensify during the course of primary and secondary education. The Growing Up in Scotland study shows that by age three, average vocabulary scores for children from low income households were below those of children from high income households. </p>
<p>By age five, the scores correspond to a 13-month gap in vocabulary development. By the end of compulsory schooling, young people from socially advantaged neighbourhoods are much more likely to gain a university place, with social differences in entrance to ancient universities particularly marked. </p>
<p>Despite massive expansion of the system, young people from the most advantaged neighbourhoods in Scotland are five times more likely to gain a place in an ancient university compared with those from the most deprived neighbourhoods. The most selective universities in Scotland draw about 40% of their intake from private schools, which only cater for about 5% of the Scottish school population.</p>
<h2>Lagging behind</h2>
<p>Social inequality in educational attainment at school level in Scotland appears to be around the OECD average. The many countries that have narrower gaps include Norway, Japan, Canada, the Netherlands and Australia. The attainment gap is also slightly lower in England. Some initiatives, such as the <a href="http://www.ofsted.gov.uk/resources/london-challenge">London Challenge</a>, have achieved “stunning” results in narrowing it. There appear to be no equivalent initiatives in Scotland at the moment.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/48194/original/xvjf77gd-1399649448.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/48194/original/xvjf77gd-1399649448.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48194/original/xvjf77gd-1399649448.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48194/original/xvjf77gd-1399649448.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48194/original/xvjf77gd-1399649448.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48194/original/xvjf77gd-1399649448.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48194/original/xvjf77gd-1399649448.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">What are your chances of getting from here….</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/tedandjen/9044685326/in/photolist-eMfnQs-5hPfkw-6W8Hzg-nfv9Pr-9GMfPz-7Mmwqg-dsdV3x-dse6kQ-dse6Cm-2E8uJ-aeqPp6-2E8Qs-4y8tyK-2E8TU-2E8Ss-aetB7Q-akruCQ-aetRTU-aer3sc-aetACW-gVK5k5-dse64o-dsdVdi-dsdX4P-dse5PU-dsdXKc-dse6RU-dsdXqR-dsdVGk-dsdXeB-dse5n1-dsdY4D-bbXzf6-5z3yps-96fSmv-7LZ55t-7M43bE-7MTdTg-fF613N-5jqFyx-7M438f-7CnfnS-7MrqQq-7Lebpy-7MGm5W-7LdfNH-73b8dW-6BCqH7-96fSrV-akrua3">Ted and Jen</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The JRF review concludes that narrowing this gap has not been a social policy priority in Scotland. It notes that the agenda around poverty and educational achievement in Scottish education is, “virtually invisible in the key documents that provide advice for schools and on-the-ground examples of policy and curriculum development.”</p>
<p>The review notes that, “all successful programmes are accompanied by targeted funding,” but Scottish local authorities distribute only 5% of their budget allocation towards social deprivation, with no clear link overall between deprivation and per-pupil expenditure. With year-on-year reductions in their budgets, local authorities are struggling to meet their statutory responsibilities, but there is still a need for them to re-examine their funding priorities.</p>
<p>It is suggested that the new Scottish curriculum, Curriculum for Excellence, might have the potential to improve the educational outcomes of children from poorer backgrounds by allowing teachers to design, “context-specific, whole-school approaches that bridge the gap between learning in school and the experiences that children have outside school.”</p>
<h2>The problem with cutting your coat…</h2>
<p>But clearly there are some potential pitfalls here. If educators proceed on the assumption that children from different social backgrounds need access to different types of knowledge, there is a real danger that children from poorer backgrounds are channelled into vocational courses at an early age. This would itself ensure that access to high-status academic knowledge remains the preserve of those from more affluent backgrounds, particularly those in the private school sector – one of the key problems that the report identifies. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/48195/original/v2bnx44f-1399649682.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/48195/original/v2bnx44f-1399649682.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48195/original/v2bnx44f-1399649682.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48195/original/v2bnx44f-1399649682.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48195/original/v2bnx44f-1399649682.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48195/original/v2bnx44f-1399649682.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48195/original/v2bnx44f-1399649682.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">… to here?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/tedandjen/9044685326/in/photolist-eMfnQs-5hPfkw-6W8Hzg-nfv9Pr-9GMfPz-7Mmwqg-dsdV3x-dse6kQ-dse6Cm-2E8uJ-aeqPp6-2E8Qs-4y8tyK-2E8TU-2E8Ss-aetB7Q-akruCQ-aetRTU-aer3sc-aetACW-gVK5k5-dse64o-dsdVdi-dsdX4P-dse5PU-dsdXKc-dse6RU-dsdXqR-dsdVGk-dsdXeB-dse5n1-dsdY4D-bbXzf6-5z3yps-96fSmv-7LZ55t-7M43bE-7MTdTg-fF613N-5jqFyx-7M438f-7CnfnS-7MrqQq-7Lebpy-7MGm5W-7LdfNH-73b8dW-6BCqH7-96fSrV-akrua3">Stephen McLeod Blythe</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This would be a regressive move. It would threaten the principle of universal cultural literacy, which informs the Scottish liberal education tradition. There is sometimes a belief in Scotland that new educational initiatives inevitably produce more socially just outcomes. But as the review acknowledges, there is a need for more robust research to ensure that policy development is informed by careful data analysis.</p>
<p>The review emphasises the role which the Scottish education system could and should play in reducing unfair educational outcomes. But it is also important to recognise that while schools can make a difference, levels of economic inequality in the wider society are far more important in intensifying or reducing the attainment gap. </p>
<p>In the context of the referendum on independence, this raises very important questions on what can be done to address the growing problem of social and economic inequality, which is evident in Scotland as well as other developed countries.</p>
<p>The day after the referendum, irrespective of the outcome, the problem of educational inequality in Scotland will remain. A future Scottish government will clearly have to think much harder about how to inspire local authorities and schools to achieve more socially just outcomes. Fairer resource distribution, as well as rhetoric, will be essential here.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/26420/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sheila Riddell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Scotland likes to think of itself as a nation reflecting the core social values of collectivism and meritocracy. Yet social and economic inequality is deeply entrenched within both the education system…Sheila Riddell, Professor of Inclusion and Diversity, The University of EdinburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.