tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/cheese-7516/articlesCheese – The Conversation2024-02-08T14:00:57Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2209682024-02-08T14:00:57Z2024-02-08T14:00:57ZNigeria’s popular wara cheese has a short shelf life: we’ve found a way to keep it fresh for longer<p>Cheese is a highly nutritious food produced in hundreds of varieties around the world. It’s all made by fermenting milk but the results range widely in flavour, texture and end uses.</p>
<p>The global market value of cheese was about <a href="https://www.statista.com/topics/6586/global-cheese-market/">US$83.4 billion</a> in 2022 and is projected to exceed <a href="https://www.statista.com/topics/6586/global-cheese-market/">US$120 billion</a> in 2028.</p>
<p>In Nigeria, the most popular cheese is wara, a soft product with a mild, sweet taste and milky flavour. Wara is produced by coagulating cow’s milk with an extract of sodom apple (<em>Calotropis procera</em>, or bomubomu) and is traditionally sold in its whey (milk-like liquid), sometimes in a calabash, at room temperature. </p>
<p>Unhygienic conditions during production and sale, and lack of good packaging materials, can result in wara containing harmful <a href="https://www.sciencepub.net/nature/0403/06-0176-uzeh-ns.pdf">microorganisms</a> such as <em>E. coli</em>, <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em> and other bacteria. These can spoil the cheese or make a person ill after eating it.</p>
<p>Wara also has a very <a href="https://www.academia.edu/63932279/EFFECT_OF_PRESERVATIVES_AND_STORAGE_CONDITIONS_ON_MICROORGANISMS_IN_NIGERIAN_UNRIPENED_CHEESE_WARA">short shelf life</a> of about two or three days. This can be prolonged by refrigerating, drying or frying the cheese but these processes usually affect the taste, texture, colour, flavour and other sensory properties. They also discard the whey, which is an essential component of wara.</p>
<p>As Nigerian food scientists, we set out to find a way to preserve wara more effectively in its indigenous form. </p>
<p>We used different amounts of sorbic acid and natural ginger as preservatives, separately and in combination, and compared the microbial load in the wara samples. We <a href="https://www.academia.edu/63932279/EFFECT_OF_PRESERVATIVES_AND_STORAGE_CONDITIONS_ON_MICROORGANISMS_IN_NIGERIAN_UNRIPENED_CHEESE_WARA">found</a> that the best combination was 2.5% ginger with 0.05% sorbic acid, and that refrigeration was better than keeping the cheese at room temperature.</p>
<p>Extending its shelf life and improving its safety could boost demand and sales at all outlets, from informal to supermarkets. It would make a nutritious food more accessible and be good for producers and food processing businesses.</p>
<h2>Our research</h2>
<p>In our experiment we <a href="https://www.academia.edu/63932279/EFFECT_OF_PRESERVATIVES_AND_STORAGE_CONDITIONS_ON_MICROORGANISMS_IN_NIGERIAN_UNRIPENED_CHEESE_WARA">preserved</a> wara with chemical and natural preservatives: sorbic acid and ginger respectively. We kept the wara in whey for three weeks. </p>
<p>Sorbic acid was added to different samples at a concentration of 0.05% and 0.1%, which is below its maximum permissible limit of 0.3% in cheese according to the international <a href="https://dairyconsultant.co.uk/pdf/codex_specification_spreadable_processed_cheese">Codex Alimentarius standard</a>. The ginger (known locally as atalẹ) was prepared by washing and peeling rhizomes, slicing them into thin sheets, drying them in an oven at 50°C, and cooling, milling and sieving the dried product to obtain ginger powder. </p>
<p>Wara was produced by filtering 2 litres of fresh cow’s milk. The milk was divided into four portions (A, B, C and D). Preservatives were added in the following concentrations:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>5% ginger to portion A</p></li>
<li><p>2.5% ginger and 0.05% sorbic acid to portion B</p></li>
<li><p>0.1% sorbic acid to portion C</p></li>
<li><p>no preservatives in portion D.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Each mixture was boiled and an extract of sodom apple leaves was added while boiling. The curd (the solid which separates from the liquid whey) was moulded into a cone shape. Each curd was transferred into a sterile plastic container, covered in whey and <a href="https://ijt.oauife.edu.ng/index.php/ijt/article/view/152">stored</a> in the refrigerator or at room temperature.</p>
<p>The populations and types of microorganisms associated with the preserved wara were determined every week. Microorganisms are important in fermenting milk and most are beneficial, but could cause spoilage if their growth is not controlled.</p>
<p>We also studied the effect of the preservatives on the sensory attributes such as taste, flavour, colour, appearance and texture of the wara samples. </p>
<h2>The outcome</h2>
<p>Preservation of wara with ginger and/or sorbic acid significantly reduced the population of microorganisms during storage. The use of 0.1% sorbic acid to preserve wara was the most effective in reducing bacterial and fungal count. The control sample without preservatives had the highest population of microorganisms. The addition of 2.5% ginger and 0.05% sorbic acid to wara reduced the microorganisms present and was much more effective than the addition of 5% ginger alone. </p>
<p>The physical examination of the stored wara showed that samples stored inside the refrigerator retained their fresh aroma throughout the period of storage. Those stored on the shelf at room temperature showed a change in aroma after two weeks. The samples without preservatives, stored at room temperature, had an offensive odour after a week. Spoilage of samples stored at room temperature was due to the higher rate of microbial metabolism. </p>
<p>There were no pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms in any of the wara samples throughout storage. </p>
<p>Wara samples stored inside the refrigerator had better quality in terms of microbial load, type of microorganisms, colour, texture and aroma than samples kept on the shelf at room temperature.</p>
<p>Freshly made wara samples without preservatives had the highest score for taste, flavour, colour, texture and overall acceptability. The values were not significantly different from the samples treated with 0.1% sorbic acid. Adding 2.5% ginger and 0.05% sorbic acid reduced the sensory scores of wara compared to the 0.1% sorbic acid sample. </p>
<p>In conclusion, we suggest that Nigerian wara can be produced on a large scale by using 0.1% sorbic acid or a combination of 2.5% ginger extract and 0.05% sorbic acid as a preservative. This will increase the time wara can be stored after production, thereby increasing the ability of the producers to scale up. </p>
<p>Preservation of wara can improve nutrition and create employment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220968/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Malomo Adekunbi Adetola works for Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile - Ife, Nigeria. She receives funding from Carnegie and the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs. </span></em></p>Nigeria’s soft cheese, wara, could be made more widely available with new techniques to extend its shelf life.Malomo Adekunbi Adetola, Lecturer in Food Science and Technology, Obafemi Awolowo UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2095052023-07-12T05:58:22Z2023-07-12T05:58:22ZWhat’s in a name? Quite a lot if it’s prosecco, parmesan or mozzarella<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536972/original/file-20230712-29-bay9u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=209%2C0%2C7073%2C4627&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/search/lunch-platters?image_type=photo">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Prosecco might evoke warm summer evenings while prosciutto conjures scenes of generous platters at a casual weekend lunch. But would “sparkling wine” or “thinly sliced ham” have the same impact?</p>
<p>Australian producers would argue they wouldn’t. They are fighting a push by the European Union to stop them from using these and other terms that indicate the geographical origin of numerous cheeses, wines and other foodstuffs now widely produced in Australia.</p>
<p>This stoush over using European names for locally made products has stalled <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-07-11/european-union-trade-deal-prosecco-feta-geographic-indicators/102583310">this week’s trade talks</a>, with the EU refusing Australia better access to their markets unless Australia agrees to rebrand its products.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.news.com.au/national/politics/anthony-albaneses-warning-on-australiaeu-trade-talks/news-story/fa15fa19a945311c21ac1326c1675653">Prime Minister Anthony Albanese </a>said Australia was keen to conclude the trade agreement but would not sign a deal that wasn’t in Australia’s interests. He is strongly backed by the National Farmers’ Federation and food producers.</p>
<h2>So why does Europe want to control the use of food names?</h2>
<p>Consumers increasingly want to know their foods’ provenance. They also pay premiums for guarantees about origin and quality. There has been a corresponding rise in so-called geographical indicator registrations, with <a href="https://agenceurope.eu/en/bulletin/article/13128/21">the 3,500th</a> listed earlier this year.</p>
<p>Items included on the EU Geographical Indications register cover different foodstuffs that are either applying for or have been accepted for having their geographic origin related name protected from being used for similar foods produced elsewhere.</p>
<p>Europe has the highest number of registered products, with most relating to wine, agricultural products and foodstuffs, as well as spirits and beers.</p>
<p>Champagne is among those with a widely recognised connection to its place of origin which assures consumers about the regional and cultural values as well as the products’ characteristics and quality.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536984/original/file-20230712-16-3r8z8x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Unidentified person filling glasses with prosecco." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536984/original/file-20230712-16-3r8z8x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536984/original/file-20230712-16-3r8z8x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536984/original/file-20230712-16-3r8z8x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536984/original/file-20230712-16-3r8z8x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536984/original/file-20230712-16-3r8z8x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536984/original/file-20230712-16-3r8z8x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536984/original/file-20230712-16-3r8z8x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sparkling wine doesn’t have the same cache as prosecco or Champagne.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/search/prosecco-bubbles?image_type=photo">www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Like high value household product brand names (for example, Coca-Cola which has been valued at US $97.88 billion) geographical indication registered names also attract substantial dollar values.</p>
<p>This is because of strong international awareness, familiarity, and appeal among consumers. The geographic indicator name often attracts a price that can easily be double that of a similar but non-registered product. </p>
<p>Registered products can therefore bring in significant revenue to the European Union member countries. They contribute to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jwip.12208">regional development </a>by stimulating tourism and by helping to reverse population decline often experienced in rural areas.</p>
<p>Like household brands, the names which indicate a product’s origins, are recognised as intellectual property. They have consequently become an integral part of international trade agreements. </p>
<h2>What would Australia gain by agreeing to European product names?</h2>
<p>In return for complying with European Union demands, Australian producers would gain access to European markets of [<a href="https://www.afr.com/politics/federal/minister-flies-to-brussels-amid-signs-of-eu-trade-deal-breakthrough-20230708-p5dmre">445 million people</a>] with a GDP of $24 trillion.</p>
<p>The lost opportunity of non-compliance is best illustrated by Brexit. Since Brexit, UK <a href="https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/12/29/brexit-draft-deal-first-of-many-hurdles-to-a-smooth-exit">exports to Europe have fallen</a> and UK farmers have faced significant challenges finding <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2022/dec/29/uk-farmers-impact-brexit-trade-deal-losing-common-agricultural-policy">alternative markets</a>.</p>
<p>If Australia agrees to the European Union’s conditions to get a trade deal through then producers will need to rename some of their products.</p>
<p>This would be a large and costly exercise but might give local producers an opportunity to capitalise on the growing consumer demand for locally sourced food and promote Australia’s unique geographical brand values.</p>
<p>Recent research conducted by Charles Darwin University reveals some of the unique brand values of Australian agri-food products, including unique selling points of products from the <a href="https://researchers.cdu.edu.au/en/publications/nt-shelf-stable-food-products-market-opportunity-analysis">Northern Territory</a>.</p>
<p>Selling points included the unique climate, soil and traditional community values as selling points.</p>
<p>Australia’s reputation for quality and ethically produced goods was also important. Such values may lead to Australia developing more of its own geographical indication registration requirements in the future.</p>
<p>Rather than fight the rising tide of European Union registrations, the federal government might embrace the trend, in conjunction with renewed promotion of Australia’s geographical brand benefits.</p>
<p>Should the government choose to comply with Europe’s demands then producers will need support to rebrand some of their products. Government and departments such as CSIRO should be keen to support this as it can only strengthen Australia’s agri-food sector’s international reputation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209505/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The CDU research report mentioned in the article relates to a market opportunity analysis led by Steven Greenland. This is part of the ongoing Government funded Northern Australia Food Technology Innovation (NAFTI) project investigating avenues for developing food manufacturing capability in Northern Australia (<a href="https://www.cdu.edu.au/news/supporting-northern-australia%E2%80%99s-agricultural-and-food-manufacturing-capability">https://www.cdu.edu.au/news/supporting-northern-australia%E2%80%99s-agricultural-and-food-manufacturing-capability</a>)</span></em></p>Australia wants better access to European markets but isn’t prepared to give up using the names of popular products including parmesan and prosecco as part of the latest trade talks.Steven Greenland, Professor in Marketing, Charles Darwin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2041002023-04-20T03:10:34Z2023-04-20T03:10:34ZCoronation Quiche anyone? You’ll need to fork out A$35. Here are cheaper and healthier options<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521744/original/file-20230419-20-hg9dc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C0%2C1052%2C703&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.royal.uk/coronation-quiche-0">www.royal.uk</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you are a monarchist, or just enjoy the tradition of the royal family, you may have heard about the Coronation Quiche – made with spinach, broad beans and tarragon.</p>
<p>The idea is for us to make it and share it with friends and family during the coronation celebrations in May. King Charles and Queen Consort Camilla have just shared a <a href="https://www.royal.uk/coronation-quiche-0">recipe</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1647917367798939648"}"></div></p>
<p>As dietitians, we’re interested in the quiche’s nutritional value. So we analysed its contents and found that although it’s quite a healthy dish, we could make a healthier version. Spoiler alert: the original recipe contains lard (pork fat).</p>
<p>We’ve also found we could make the quiche using cheaper or more easily available ingredients.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/king-charles-iii-will-be-crowned-in-may-the-ritual-has-ancient-origins-heres-what-we-can-expect-191262">King Charles III will be crowned in May. The ritual has ancient origins – here's what we can expect</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What exactly is a quiche?</h2>
<p>Today, most people consider quiche a French dish that’s essentially a savoury pie. It typically consists of a pastry crust filled with a mixture of eggs, cream and cheese, plus various other ingredients such as veggies, meat and herbs. </p>
<p>Quiche can be served hot or cold. You can have it for breakfast, lunch or dinner with salad or veggies. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/platinum-pudding-a-history-of-desserts-with-royal-connections-175264">Platinum pudding: a history of desserts with royal connections</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How much does it cost?</h2>
<p>Quiches are usually quite economical to make. Most of the basic ingredients are cheap, and you can adapt the fillings depending on what’s in the fridge or left over from recent meals.</p>
<p>Let’s see if this applies to the Coronation Quiche. We split the costs into typical quantities you can buy at the shops (for instance, six eggs) and the costs to make the quiche (which only needs two eggs).</p>
<p>If you make the quiche from scratch and have to buy the ingredients in quantities sold in the shops, this will cost you almost A$38. Although this may seem a lot, you’ll have some ingredients left over for another meal.</p>
<p>So how much do the ingredients cost for one quiche? We worked it out at
$12 for the entire quiche, or $2 a serve. Quite reasonable!</p>
<p><iframe id="4kwy0" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/4kwy0/5/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Can you make it even cheaper?</h2>
<p>Busy lives and the rising cost of living are front of mind right now. So here are a few things you can do to save time and money when making a Coronation Quiche:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>buy pre-made pastry. Keep any sheets you don’t use for the quiche in the freezer</p></li>
<li><p>use <a href="https://theconversation.com/are-home-brand-foods-healthy-if-you-read-the-label-you-may-be-pleasantly-surprised-189445">home-brand products</a> where possible </p></li>
<li><p>consider vegetable shortening as it is a little cheaper than lard</p></li>
<li><p>buy vegetables in season and from a farmers’ market</p></li>
<li><p>can’t find tarragon? Try seasonal and cheap herbs such as parsley, basil or rosemary</p></li>
<li><p>can’t find broad beans? Try cheaper pulses such as edamame or cannellini beans. </p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/are-home-brand-foods-healthy-if-you-read-the-label-you-may-be-pleasantly-surprised-189445">Are home-brand foods healthy? If you read the label, you may be pleasantly surprised</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How nutritious is the Coronation Quiche?</h2>
<p>We also looked at the Coronation Quiche’s nutritional profile. We expressed quantities for the whole quiche, and per serve.</p>
<p><iframe id="OnW3S" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/OnW3S/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>The healthy … and the not so healthy</h2>
<p>This quiche has high amounts of healthy protein and fibre that come from the broad beans and eggs. </p>
<p>One serving of this quiche gives you about 18-25% of your daily protein and about 10% of your daily fibre requirements, which is great.</p>
<p>But the quiche has high levels of saturated fat, mostly from its high amounts of lard, butter and cream.</p>
<p>Saturated fat has been linked to an increased risk of <a href="https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD011737.pub3/full">cardiovascular events</a>, such as heart attacks and stroke, because it raises levels of LDL cholesterol (the bad kind of cholesterol). </p>
<p>This LDL cholesterol can build up in the walls of arteries and form plaques, leading to arteries hardening over time and increasing the risk of heart attack and stroke. So, high amounts of saturated fats is something we want to avoid eating too much of, especially if we have cardiovascular disease. It’s also something we want to avoid if we’re trying to lose weight.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521811/original/file-20230419-24-axsfat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Pouring jug of cream into mixing bowl" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521811/original/file-20230419-24-axsfat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521811/original/file-20230419-24-axsfat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521811/original/file-20230419-24-axsfat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521811/original/file-20230419-24-axsfat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521811/original/file-20230419-24-axsfat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521811/original/file-20230419-24-axsfat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521811/original/file-20230419-24-axsfat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The quiche has high levels of saturated fat, mostly from its high amounts of lard, butter and cream.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cream-pouring-into-bowl-ready-whip-1088041406">TayaJohnston/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For an average Aussie consuming roughly 9,000 kilojoules per day, the recommended maximum intake of saturated fat is about 24 grams. </p>
<p>Just one serve of this quiche has about 17g of saturated fat, which means there’s not much wriggle room for other foods after you have a slice. </p>
<p>You may be better off trying <a href="https://nomoneynotime.com.au/healthy-easy-recipes/clares-rolled-oats-quiche">this quiche</a> instead, as it has half the amount of saturated fat as the Coronation Quiche. You could even try a <a href="https://www.wellplated.com/crustless-quiche/">crustless quiche</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-is-margarine-actually-better-for-me-than-butter-82445">Health Check: is margarine actually better for me than butter?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4 ways to make a healthier quiche</h2>
<p>Here are a few swaps to help make this recipe healthier:</p>
<p><strong>1. Use low-fat options</strong>. If you’re watching your weight and looking to reduce the kilojoules of the quiche, swap the full-fat cheddar cheese, milk and double cream to low-fat products. This will reduce the total fat content per serve from 29.6g to 15g and save 112.2 kilojoules per serve</p>
<p><strong>2. Ditch the lard</strong>. Swap the lard for butter to save 15g of total fat per serve. This may change the texture of the quiche slightly but it will reduce the kilojoules </p>
<p><strong>3. Use feta</strong>. Swap the cheddar cheese for feta cheese, which has fewer kilojoules per gram</p>
<p><strong>4. Add extra veggies</strong>. This increases the fibre content of the quiche and adds loads of extra nutrients. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Correction: This story has been updated to price butter at $3.70 per 250 grams. An error was made in the original calculation.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204100/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Ball works for The University of Queensland and receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council. She is a Director of Dietitians Australia, a Director of the Darling Downs and West Moreton Primary Health Network and an Associate Member of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Burch works for Southern Cross University.</span></em></p>Coronation Quiche may be fit for a king. But with a few tweaks, can be made to suit your budget. Hint: store-bought pastry is cheaper.Lauren Ball, Professor of Community Health and Wellbeing, The University of QueenslandEmily Burch, Dietitian, Researcher & Lecturer, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2015952023-03-17T13:15:38Z2023-03-17T13:15:38ZAn international battle over cheese has left European producers feeling bitter<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516024/original/file-20230317-2279-s4e9bx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=126%2C99%2C5912%2C3911&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/july-11-2022-lyon-france-switzerland-2225136575">ventdusud/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For most cheese lovers, taste is the thing. Whether it’s a tangy blue stilton or a creamy oozing camembert, the most important element is the eating. </p>
<p>But cheese has profound political and economic properties too, with implications for international trade deals and commerce.</p>
<p>The taste of gruyere, for example, can depend on where you eat it. In Europe, it has a particular taste that comes from being a Swiss cheese (a French version is also available) made by heating Swiss cow’s milk in a copper vat and then ripening the cheese in Swiss cellars with the humidity of a natural cave. </p>
<p>In the US though, gruyere means any nutty, pale yellow cheese made from cow’s milk, and it can be produced anywhere in the world. That definition was recently <a href="https://fingfx.thomsonreuters.com/gfx/legaldocs/jnpwyakwnpw/GRUYERE%20TRADEMARKS%20opinion.pdf">given legal weight</a> by the US court system after representatives of Swiss and French manufacturers tried to win <a href="https://www.uspto.gov/trademarks/apply/certification-mark-applications">protected status</a> for the word “gruyere”. This would have restricted the use of the term in the US for cheeses produced in particular parts of Switzerland and France.</p>
<p>The European consortiums’ aim was to extend the kind of prize status grueyere enjoys <a href="https://europa.eu/youreurope/business/running-business/intellectual-property/geographical-indications/index_en.htm">closer to home</a>. For in Switzerland and the EU, gruyere is protected by a <a href="https://www.ige.ch/en/protecting-your-ip/indications-of-source/protecting-geographical-indications">geographical label</a> which certifies that production, including the sourcing of the raw materials, takes place in a specific geographical area. It is a means of <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4272893">preserving</a> cultural heritage and expertise, which in the case of gruyere, is said to go back to <a href="https://www.gruyere.com/en/le-gruyere-aop/the-history">the 12th century</a>.</p>
<p>In the US however, the <a href="https://www.usdec.org/">Dairy Export Council</a> argued that vast quantities of cheese made in all kinds of places have been labelled and sold as gruyere for decades. They argued that the name “gruyere” is generic and cannot be owned by anyone. The US court sided with them.</p>
<p>The case highlights the clear difference between the ways Europeans and Americans regulate geographical names of traditional foods. The contrasting views had already been a <a href="https://www.cato.org/cato-online-forum/geographical-indications-ttip-impossible-task">tricky element</a> in recent negotiations for a proposed trade deal between the US and the EU. </p>
<p>For in Europe, many products – including hams, cheese and wines – receive strong levels of legal protection to preserve the reputations and traditions that have sometimes been built over centuries. They are considered “<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-europe-and-the-us-are-locked-in-a-food-fight-over-ttip-45279">products with a story</a>” and the names of the geographical locations where they are produced are given intellectual property rights.</p>
<p>The US follows a very different set of rules. There, firms use European geographical names (not only gruyere, but also parmesan, asiago, feta and <a href="https://h2o.law.harvard.edu/cases/4997/export">fontina</a>, among others) to label cheeses that have been produced far from their original homes. The reason is that most US consumers view these names as generic – to them they just describe the features of the product, like whether it melts well, or has a salty taste. </p>
<p>The economic stakes are high on both sides of the Atlantic. To Europeans, the absence of legal protection in the US leads to unacceptable exploitation of Europe’s cultural legacy and costs manufacturers of cheese a lot of money, as they can’t rely on exclusive rights over names which attract customers.</p>
<p>On the other hand, American cheese producers are concerned that caving into Europeans’ demands to monopolise such names would be unfair as they wouldn’t be able to continue using terms that they perceive as generic. Introducing legal protection would offer European cheese producers an unfair competitive edge.</p>
<p>It would, in American eyes, essentially be a trade barrier that would drive up customer prices by forcing many US producers to undergo an expensive rebranding process. According to one <a href="https://eu.wisfarmer.com/story/news/2019/03/06/tremendous-losses-face-u-s-dairy-over-eu-cheese-names/3071424002/">study</a>, the American dairy industry could lose as much as US$20 billion (£16 billion) if the Europeans were successful in restricting the use of common cheese names.</p>
<h2>Hard cheese</h2>
<p>A US <a href="http://www.commonfoodnames.com/">Consortium for Common Food Names</a> has even been set up specifically to represent the interests of American producers and farmers to lobby US lawmakers into denying legal protection for numerous European geographical terms, not only for cheeses. It obviously <a href="http://www.commonfoodnames.com/court-of-appeals-extends-huge-victory-for-worldwideproducers-of-gruyere/">welcomed</a> the gruyere decision enthusiastically.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Swiss mountain landscape." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516025/original/file-20230317-14-3xknih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516025/original/file-20230317-14-3xknih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516025/original/file-20230317-14-3xknih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516025/original/file-20230317-14-3xknih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516025/original/file-20230317-14-3xknih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516025/original/file-20230317-14-3xknih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516025/original/file-20230317-14-3xknih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Swiss cheese, (almost) as old as the hills.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/landscape-regional-park-paysdenhaut-switzerland-1810833901">Pawel Piotr/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The group backs up its <a href="https://www.foodingredientsfirst.com/news/us-dairy-sector-celebrates-ruling-on-gruyere-as-generic-cheese-term.html">stance</a> by arguing that the US was founded on the work of immigrants who brought authentic and artisan traditions from around the world, including many of the processes protected in Europe. </p>
<p>And it is no doubt true that when Europeans emigrated to the US in the 19th and 20th centuries, many continued to produce the delicacies they had made back home. They brought with them traditional manufacturing techniques and the names they were used to. </p>
<p>But surely this argument cannot be stretched to the point of denying Europeans all rights over geographical terms which still have a reputation further afield. Not all of the US businesses which use famous European geographical names were founded by European migrants.</p>
<p>One possible compromise might be to attempt to reach bilateral agreements allowing only those US producers created by European migrants to use the labels in question. </p>
<p>But for the time being, the impasse continues. European producers will strive to get the protection in the US that they think their delicacies deserve – and their American counterparts will fiercely reject any move to restrict their freedom to use the labels they wish to use. There is still a hearty appetite for this trans-Atlantic food fight.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201595/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>For some producers, the American approach to EU delicacies really grates.Enrico Bonadio, Reader in Intellectual Property Law, City, University of LondonAndrea Zappalaglio, Lecturer in Intellectual Property Law, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1847642022-06-22T13:51:43Z2022-06-22T13:51:43ZVegan cheese: what you should know<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470297/original/file-20220622-11-6cs40r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C0%2C5582%2C3732&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Vegan cheese made with cashew nuts is a healthier option.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/vegan-cashew-cheese-dried-tomatoes-spices-2082105367">Nina Firsova/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For many people who go vegan, one of the hardest things to give up is cheese. Fortunately, thanks to the increasing popularity of veganism, food manufacturers have begun producing a greater variety of vegan cheeses – with some success in replicating everything people love most about cheese, including its texture and taste. However, not all vegan cheeses are equal – and many have little nutritional value. </p>
<p>People who buy vegan cheese may <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35334904/">expect it</a> to be as nutritious as dairy cheese. But because many manufacturers are focused on making the cheese taste, look and even melt like dairy cheese, this is rarely the case. The main ingredients in many vegan cheeses are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34579169/">starch and vegetable oils</a> – usually coconut oil, or sometimes palm oil.</p>
<p>Starch and oil may give vegan cheeses their texture, but they are of little nutritional value. For instance, when we eat starch, it is broken down in our gut into sugar. Over time, too much starch could potentially lead to weight gain or diseases such as type 2 diabetes and heart disease.</p>
<p>The vegetable oils in vegan cheese are even worse. Coconut oil is composed <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nbu.12188">almost entirely</a> of saturated fats. Some types of saturated fat raise blood levels of “bad” LDL cholesterol, which can <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28620111/">increase the risk</a> of heart disease. </p>
<p>This is the case with lauric acid, the main type of saturated fat in coconut oil. Despite some claims online that coconut is healthy, lauric acid significantly <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31928080/">increases the levels</a> of LDL cholesterol. It also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27881409/">increases the risk</a> of coronary heart disease. Because of the high levels of coconut oil in some vegan cheeses, even a modest-sized portion (30g) is around a third of a person’s total recommended daily allowance for saturated fat.</p>
<p>Palm oil, found in some vegan cheeses, fares little better as an alternative ingredient. About half of the fat in palm oil is saturated fat – mostly a type of saturated fat called palmitic acid. Like lauric acid, this also increases the risk of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27881409/">coronary heart disease</a>. And although some manufacturers claim to use “sustainable” palm oil, it’s <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30359800/">uncertain how sustainable</a> these products actually are.</p>
<p>While dairy cheeses are also high in saturated fat, there’s <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28374228/">good evidence</a> that consuming them is not linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. It’s unclear why this is the case, but it may be that the saturated fats in dairy cheese are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26907978/">not absorbed</a> by the body as much as those in other foods, such as meat or coconut oil.</p>
<h2>Nutritional content</h2>
<p>Many people might also expect vegan cheese, like dairy cheese, to be a good source of protein. But vegan cheeses consisting of vegetable oils and starch have <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35334904/">little to no protein</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A mother and daughter shopping in the refrigerated foods section of a supermarket." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470324/original/file-20220622-3398-vqs3j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470324/original/file-20220622-3398-vqs3j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470324/original/file-20220622-3398-vqs3j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470324/original/file-20220622-3398-vqs3j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470324/original/file-20220622-3398-vqs3j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470324/original/file-20220622-3398-vqs3j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470324/original/file-20220622-3398-vqs3j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Not all vegan cheeses are the same nutritionally.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mother-daughter-shopping-supermarket-young-people-1669913029">Naty.M/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The amounts and types of vitamins and minerals that vegan cheeses contain also vary significantly, as it’s up to the manufacturer to add these during production. As a result, unlike dairy cheese, most vegan cheeses contain <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35334904/">little or no calcium</a>. They also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35334904/">often lack</a> other important micronutrients found in dairy cheese, such as iodine, vitamin B12 and vitamin D. </p>
<p>While the occasional slice of vegan cheese is unlikely to do any harm, relying on it as a replacement for dairy could have costs to your health. In <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32939557/">one clinical study</a>, people who replaced animal-based dairy and eggs with vegan alternatives for 12 weeks had poorer bone health at the end of the study, compared with those who ate animal-based dairy and eggs. This was probably due to lower vitamin D and calcium intake. However, more studies like this are needed to better establish the long-term health consequences for vegans who don’t consume dairy. </p>
<p>It’s not quite all bad news, though. Some vegan cheeses may be healthier than others depending on their ingredients – for instance, those that use cashew nuts. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8952881/">These products</a> usually have higher levels of protein and lower levels of sodium and saturated fat than other types of vegan cheese. However, they may also be more expensive than those other types. </p>
<p>Of course, there are many reasons why a person may want to adopt a vegan diet – including for environmental reasons or to improve their health. But while <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26853923/">numerous studies</a> have found that vegan diets can be healthy, this is typically only true for people whose diets are high in natural foods such as fruit, vegetables, nuts and pulses.</p>
<p>As such, it’s important for vegans to watch the number of ultra-processed food alternatives they eat (such as vegan cheese) as these could have many of the same <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33167080/">negative health effects</a> (such as heart disease and cancer) that ultra-processed foods have for non-vegans.</p>
<p>This means checking the contents of vegan cheese products (and other vegan alternatives) carefully to minimise the number of harmful ingredients, such as saturated fats, that vegans regularly consume. Vegans should also focus on getting essential micronutrients such as vitamin B12, calcium and vitamin D from vitamin supplements or whole foods.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184764/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>I am the author of two books on the Mediterranean diet: The Mediterranean Diet: Health and Science (2011) and More Healthy Years - Why a Mediterranean Diet is best for you and for the planet (2020).</span></em></p>Most vegan cheeses have little nutritional value.Richard Hoffman, Associate lecturer, Nutritional Biochemistry, University of HertfordshireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1774542022-04-22T01:35:23Z2022-04-22T01:35:23ZWhat is toe jam? From harmless gunk to a feast for bugs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456809/original/file-20220407-14-flir0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1000%2C664&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-girls-toes-healthy-beautiful-wellgroomed-1371423317">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/all-about-toe-jam">Toe jam</a> can be a source of fascination, disgust or barely noticed. It can be a sign you need to wash your feet or rethink your choice of footwear. It can also lead to major health issues.</p>
<p>Toe jam, the gunk and debris between your toes, has even made it to a Beatles song.</p>
<p>But it was unlikely John Lennon was thinking about foot hygiene when he wrote the lyrics to the second verse of <a href="https://genius.com/The-beatles-come-together-lyrics">Come Together</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>He wear no shoeshine, he got toe-jam football</p>
<p>He got monkey finger, he shoot Coca-Cola</p>
<p>He say, ‘I know you, you know me’</p>
<p>One thing I can tell you is you got to be free.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/uSM5MpKSnqE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Yes, The Beatles really mentioned toe jam in Come Together (YouTube).</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What is toe jam, actually?</h2>
<p>Toe jam isn’t a medical term. There is no formal medical term to describe the dead skin cells, sweat, sock lint and dirt that combine in the small and often cramped spaces between our toes.</p>
<p>Toe jam can have the consistency of soft cheese or cake crumbs. It can smell or be odourless. And its colour can range from white to grey-brown.</p>
<p>You’re more likely to create toe jam if you wear closed-in shoes when it’s hot, or gumboots that don’t allow sweat to evaporate.</p>
<p>Poor foot hygiene will certainly make it more likely you’ll develop toe jam. That’s because sweaty debris accumulates in between the toes if you don’t pay attention to cleaning these areas in the shower or bath.</p>
<p>Toe jam may also be more likely if your feet sweat a lot for other reasons. For instance, we know <a href="https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2009/september/sweaty-smelly-hands-and-feet">sweaty feet</a> can be a problem for children and adolescents, who have more active sweat glands. And some people have a serious medical condition called <a href="https://www.sweathelp.org/index.php">hyperhidrosis</a>, where they sweat excessively.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/anhidrosis-why-some-people-apparently-like-prince-andrew-just-cant-sweat-127280">Anhidrosis: why some people – apparently like Prince Andrew – just can't sweat</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Is toe jam like athlete’s foot?</h2>
<p>The collection of sweat and dead skin between toes provides bacteria living naturally on our skin the chance to thrive. </p>
<p>These bacteria, which include ones in the genus <em>Brevibacterium</em>, feed on sweat, releasing molecules that give the characteristic “cheesy” <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-feet-stink-by-the-end-of-the-day-125037">smell of sweaty feet</a>. Brevibacterium is also used to ripen some cheeses.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457034/original/file-20220408-19484-ox4ymj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Soft cheese, cut in slices" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457034/original/file-20220408-19484-ox4ymj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457034/original/file-20220408-19484-ox4ymj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457034/original/file-20220408-19484-ox4ymj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457034/original/file-20220408-19484-ox4ymj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457034/original/file-20220408-19484-ox4ymj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457034/original/file-20220408-19484-ox4ymj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457034/original/file-20220408-19484-ox4ymj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">No wonder your feet smell cheesy if you don’t wash them properly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cheeseboard-sliced-yellow-limburger-cheese-top-1343151806">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This warm and damp environment is also a perfect site for <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/tinea">tinea pedis</a>, a fungal skin infection you might know as athlete’s foot. </p>
<p>Signs of tinea might be soggy white skin between your toes, which can be itchy, and red areas, a sign of skin damage. <a href="https://dermnetnz.org/topics/athletes-foot">Damaged skin</a> between toes might develop small fluid-filled blisters and may also bleed if the weak skin is torn.</p>
<p>So while toe jam isn’t the same as tinea, it might provide the perfect conditions for the fungus to grow.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-feet-stink-by-the-end-of-the-day-125037">Why do feet stink by the end of the day?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How serious is toe jam?</h2>
<p>Generally, toe jam is a minor health problem. You can <a href="https://www.racgp.org.au/getattachment/233c1fdf-8802-471e-9828-f792110c30d1/Sweaty-smelly-hands-and-feet.aspx">manage it</a> with good foot hygiene. And if you develop tinea, you can use a short course of an anti-fungal treatment you can buy from a pharmacy (see below).</p>
<p>It is quite a different prospect, however, for a person living with a chronic disease such as diabetes, someone who has poor vision (so can’t see toe jam or its complications developing), or who may be unable to reach their feet due to limited mobility.</p>
<p>Diabetes not well controlled with diet and exercise, or drugs, increases the <a href="https://www.diabetesfeetaustralia.org/">risk</a> of a person having reduced blood flow (peripheral arterial disease) and reduced feeling in their feet (sensory neuropathy). </p>
<p>Broken skin between the toes caused by tinea can become infected rapidly, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3248359/">increasing the risk</a> of:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>infection spreading to the foot and leg (cellulitis)</p></li>
<li><p>infection of the bone (osteomyelitis)</p></li>
<li><p>gangrene (dead tissue caused by lack of blood flow)</p></li>
<li><p>amputation of a toe, part of the foot or leg. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>So early identification of tinea in a vulnerable person is especially important to prevent complications.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/life-on-us-a-close-up-look-at-the-bugs-that-call-us-home-25754">Life on Us: a close-up look at the bugs that call us home</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4 ways to avoid problems</h2>
<p>Here are our four tips to avoid problems with toe jam, including developing tinea and its complications:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>wash the spaces between your toes and dry them carefully after a shower or bath, and after swimming. Gyms and swimming pools are a common place to pick up a fungal infection on your feet so it’s a good idea to wear thongs to reduce the risk of tinea</p></li>
<li><p>if possible, avoid wearing footwear that doesn’t allow sweat to evaporate (such as closed-in shoes made of synthetic material and gumboots). Going barefoot, when there is no risk of injury, will also allow sweat to evaporate</p></li>
<li><p>treat sweaty feet by using an <a href="https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2009/september/sweaty-smelly-hands-and-feet">anti-perspirant</a> containing aluminium chloride. More severe cases of hyperhidrosis may be managed using drugs, such as <a href="https://www.dermcoll.edu.au/atoz/plantar-hyperhidrosis/">Botox</a> injections to the feet. Fungal infections (<a href="https://dermnetnz.org/topics/tinea-pedis">tinea</a>) should be treated using over-the-counter antifungal creams such a terbinafine or clotrimazole. Resistant infections might require a course of prescribed antifungal medicines</p></li>
<li><p>pay attention to <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/all-about-toe-jam#when-to-see-a-doctor">signs</a> indicating an infection is spreading from the foot. These could be pain and swelling in the toes, or red streaks along the foot and up the leg. This requires an urgent visit to a podiatrist or doctor.</p></li>
</ol>
<h2>Footnote</h2>
<p>Lennon mentions a “walrus gumboot” in verse three of Come Together. The final line of verse two says “you got to be free”. The cover of The Beatles album Abbey Road shows Paul McCartney walking barefoot (second from the left).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457039/original/file-20220408-18-vvxes4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Beatles album Abbey Road propped up behind turntable playing a record" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457039/original/file-20220408-18-vvxes4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457039/original/file-20220408-18-vvxes4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457039/original/file-20220408-18-vvxes4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457039/original/file-20220408-18-vvxes4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457039/original/file-20220408-18-vvxes4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457039/original/file-20220408-18-vvxes4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457039/original/file-20220408-18-vvxes4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Maybe The Beatles were onto something.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/naples-italy-10032019-fabulous-beatles-depicted-1334880947">Imma Gambardella/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Maybe the Beatles did know a thing or two about toe jam and foot health.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/beatles-abbey-road-at-50-is-a-marker-of-how-pop-music-grew-up-in-the-1960s-124433">Beatles: Abbey Road at 50 is a marker of how pop music grew up in the 1960s</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177454/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Caroline Robinson is affiliated with the Australasian Council of Podiatry Deans and the Australian Podiatry Association.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luke Donnan is affiliated with the Australasian Council of Podiatry Deans and the Australian Podiatry Association.</span></em></p>Toe jam was mentioned in a song by The Beatles. Maybe they knew a thing or two about foot hygiene.Caroline Robinson, Associate Professor Podiatry, Charles Sturt UniversityLuke Donnan, Lecturer in Podiatry, Charles Sturt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1533772021-01-25T01:00:19Z2021-01-25T01:00:19ZIt gets better with age: a brie(f) history of cheese in Australia<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380100/original/file-20210122-21-1buecll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3000%2C2002&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/australian-culinary-histories-97720">this series</a>, our writers explore how food shaped Australian history – and who we are today.</em></p>
<p>The history of cheese in Australia has, until recent decades, been a rather tasteless affair. Not so long ago our choice was either “vintage” or “tasty”.</p>
<p>We associate Italy with salty wedges of Parmigiano-Reggiano. France is synonymous with pillowy-soft triple bries and intensely aromatic Roquefort. Paneer is the cheese of Indian curries. Queso Oaxaca is quintessentially Mexican, while the humble cheddar is named for the English village in which it was first produced. </p>
<p>Australia’s most well-known cheese, on the other hand, is not recognised for its remarkable flavour or texture but rather its brand name, which was recently <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-01-13/coon-cheese-changes-name-cheer-racist-slur-stephen-hagan/13053524">changed to Cheer</a> following campaigning of many years against its racist connotations. </p>
<p>Great cuisines — and their cheeses — have arisen from peasant societies. As the historian Keith Hancock <a href="https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.172679/2015.172679.Australia_djvu.txt">wrote in 1930</a>, Australia “has not inherited a village civilisation nor love of the soil, but she has inherited factories and factory farms”. </p>
<h2>Early provisions</h2>
<p>Cheese is listed among the <a href="https://www.mup.com.au/books/one-continuous-picnic-paperback-softback">provisions</a> aboard the First Fleet. Even convicts received a weekly cheese ration — albeit, less than that of officers and seamen.</p>
<p>Ensuring access to cheese upon arrival also seems to have been a priority for the white settlers, acquiring seven cows on the fleet’s final stop in The Cape of Good Hope. However, the plan to begin cheesemaking was thwarted when the cows escaped soon after they arrived in what they called New South Wales. </p>
<p>It took a further eight years for another herd to be assembled, and the first dairy was built in Rose Hill in 1796, near the banks of the Parramatta River. The fledgling industry expanded with the foundation of Van Diemen’s Land in 1804. By 1820 the weekly produce market was offering cheese for sale at two shillings a pound. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380096/original/file-20210122-15-1oqe6ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Black and white photograph of a cattle yard." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380096/original/file-20210122-15-1oqe6ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380096/original/file-20210122-15-1oqe6ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380096/original/file-20210122-15-1oqe6ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380096/original/file-20210122-15-1oqe6ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380096/original/file-20210122-15-1oqe6ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380096/original/file-20210122-15-1oqe6ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380096/original/file-20210122-15-1oqe6ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Briarwood dairy, property of S. Blanchard in Brogo, NSW, photographed in 1885.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">State Library of New South Wales</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Given that cheddar was by far the most common cheese being produced in England at the time this cheese was most likely a rudimentary cheddar. </p>
<p>Australia’s first commercial cheese factory — the Van Diemen’s Land Company — was established in Tasmania in the 1820s. Not long after, farmers from the NSW district of Illawarra began to send their cheese and butter to Sydney by sea. As more ports opened, dairying extended all the way <a href="https://www.dairy.com.au/our-industry-and-people/our-history">down to Bega</a> in southern NSW.</p>
<h2>Industrialisation</h2>
<p>Henry Harding arrived in Bodalla on the south coast of New South Wales from England in 1853. The son of the “<a href="https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-742826118/findingaid">father of Cheddar cheese</a>”, Joseph Harding, Henry shared his father’s <a href="https://www.iomcworld.org/medical-journals/cheddar-cheese-52198.html">dictum</a> that: “cheese is not made in the field, nor in the byre [cowshed], nor even in the cow, it is made in the dairy”. </p>
<p>This began a long era of commercialisation and industrialisation in which consistency, ease of storage and distribution and longevity were foremost considerations. The blue and yellow boxes of Kraft processed cheddar which travelled so well became a fixture of our cheese landscape. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380094/original/file-20210121-13-17grny5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="I choose good wholesome food like ... kraft cheese!" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380094/original/file-20210121-13-17grny5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380094/original/file-20210121-13-17grny5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=833&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380094/original/file-20210121-13-17grny5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=833&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380094/original/file-20210121-13-17grny5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=833&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380094/original/file-20210121-13-17grny5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1046&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380094/original/file-20210121-13-17grny5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1046&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380094/original/file-20210121-13-17grny5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1046&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An advertisement for Kraft Cheese in the The Australian Woman’s Mirror, 1935.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Trove</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Before the 1980s, most of the cheese made in Australia were cheddars from big factories. But in that decade we begin to see some European varieties introduced — though virtually all <a href="https://www.dairy.com.au/products/cheese/white-mould-cheese">white-mould cheeses</a> sold in Australia until the mid 1980s were tinned camemberts and bries, mass produced in Europe and stabilised to survive long periods in transit. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/an-ode-to-mac-and-cheese-the-poster-child-for-processed-food-137973">An ode to mac and cheese, the poster child for processed food</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This cheese bore very little resemblance to those available in Europe, and stand in stark contrast to the vast range of artisan cheeses on offer in Australia today: delicate, hand-tied pouches of cow’s milk mozzarella with their oozy filling of stracciatella made by <a href="https://vannellacheese.com.au/">Vannella Cheese</a>; nutty, aged French-style washed-rind from <a href="https://www.holygoatcheese.com.au">Holy Goat</a> made with organic goat milk or biodynamic quark and feta from <a href="https://www.mungallicreekdairy.com.au">Mungalli Creek Dairy</a> produced without fertilisers or pesticides.</p>
<p>To what then, can we attribute the rise of this vibrant cheese industry? </p>
<p>Broadly speaking, there was a cultural and political shift towards more ethical practices in food production and a backlash against industrial food systems. </p>
<p>The values and meaning we associate with mass-produced food have changed.</p>
<h2>Food cultures</h2>
<p>Perhaps it started with the tree-change hippies in the 1970s. A small, decaying dairy in Nimbin was resurrected following the counter-cultural Aquarius Festival of 1973, bringing with it an ethos of sustainability, community, resilience and simplicity. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nimbin-before-and-after-local-voices-on-how-the-1973-aquarius-festival-changed-a-town-forever-116165">Nimbin before and after: local voices on how the 1973 Aquarius Festival changed a town forever</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Then there is the <a href="https://www.slowfood.com/about-us/our-philosophy/">slow food movement</a> founded in Italy in 1989. It espouses ideals of good-quality flavoursome food, clean production that does not harm the environment, fair accessible prices for consumers and fair conditions and pay for producers. </p>
<p>More recently, we’ve seen an “<a href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9781137463227">artisanal turn</a>” with its critical focus on the industrialisation of food. The proliferation of food media, celebrity-driven television cooking shows and social media have taught us good food is <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Alternative-Food-Politics-From-the-Margins-to-the-Mainstream/Phillipov-Kirkwood/p/book/9780367582234">small-scale, artisan, local, connected</a> – and the antitheses of factory-produced sliced cheddar. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380098/original/file-20210122-19-60hfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tasting platter and wine flight." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380098/original/file-20210122-19-60hfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380098/original/file-20210122-19-60hfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380098/original/file-20210122-19-60hfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380098/original/file-20210122-19-60hfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380098/original/file-20210122-19-60hfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380098/original/file-20210122-19-60hfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380098/original/file-20210122-19-60hfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australia’s tastes in cheese has developed alongside our taste in other artisan foods, too.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chelsea Pridham/Unsplash</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Three decades ago, <a href="https://www.ibisworld.com/au/bed/cheese-butter-yoghurt-consumption/4774/">low cost cheddar</a> accounted for around 70% of the cheese we consumed. These days, we eat a diversity of fresh, mouldy, semi-hard and stretched cheese — almost half of the cheese we consumed in 2019.</p>
<p>We may not have a national cheese but we have certainly developed a distinctly Australian food culture. Central to this culture is the emphasis on quality over quantity. There is certainly something to cheer in that.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153377/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Morag Kobez does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australian cheese was once ‘vintage’ or ‘tasty’. Now we have a plethora of options. How did we get here?Morag Kobez, Associate lecturer, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1532212021-01-22T12:41:55Z2021-01-22T12:41:55ZThe spellbinding history of cheese and witchcraft<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379982/original/file-20210121-21-q98tpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C8243%2C5499&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cheese and witches: a potent combination.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">apolonia via Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As I was scrolling through Twitter recently, a viral tweet caught my attention. It was an image from a book of spells claiming that: “You may fascinate a woman by giving her a piece of cheese.” The spell comes from Kathryn Paulsen’s 1971 book, <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/2155384.The_Complete_Book_of_Magic_And_Witchcraft">The Complete Book of Magic and Witchcraft</a> – and, while proffering a lump of cheddar may seem like an unusual way of attracting a possible mate, Paulsen’s book draws on a long history of magic. It’s a history that has quite a lot of cheese in it.</p>
<p>It’s not entirely clear why cheese is seen to have magical properties. It might be to do with the fact it’s made from milk, a powerful substance in itself, with the ability to give life and strength to the young. It might also be because the process by which cheese is made is a little bit magical. The 12th-century mystic, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Hildegard">Hildegard von Bingen</a>, compared cheese making to the <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/7943846.pdf">miracle of life</a> in the way that it forms curds (or solid matter) from something insubstantial. </p>
<p>In the early modern period (roughly 1450-1750) the creation of the universe was also thought of by some <a href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL4266213M/The_cheese_and_the_worms">in terms of cheesemaking</a>: “all was chaos, that is, earth, air, water, and fire were mixed together; and out of that bulk a mass formed – just as cheese is made out of milk – and worms appeared in it, and these were the angels.” The connection with life and the mysterious way that cheese is made, therefore, puts it in a good position to claim magical properties.</p>
<p>Cheese magic stretches back long before Hildegard and the medieval period. The 2nd-century diviner, Artemidorus, mentions “<a href="https://occult-world.com/tyromancy/">tyromancy</a>” – cheese divination – as a method of discovering the future in his treatise <a href="https://www.the-tls.co.uk/articles/artemidorus-interpretation-of-dreams-review/">Oneirocritica</a>. Ironically, given our later association of cheese with vivid dreams, Artemidorus claims that cheese fortune-telling is among the most unreliable. </p>
<p>This didn’t stop later generations from interpreting cheese dreams, though. The Interpretation of Dreams, a 17th-century English manual, advised that: “[to dream of] cakes without cheese is good; those which have both signifie deceit and treason by a Welshman.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379979/original/file-20210121-15-1i5km3m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A finger points at a line from a book of spells." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379979/original/file-20210121-15-1i5km3m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379979/original/file-20210121-15-1i5km3m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379979/original/file-20210121-15-1i5km3m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379979/original/file-20210121-15-1i5km3m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379979/original/file-20210121-15-1i5km3m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379979/original/file-20210121-15-1i5km3m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379979/original/file-20210121-15-1i5km3m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Unusual advice for the lovelorn.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kathryn Paulsen: The Complete Book of Magic and Witchcraft</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of the most common uses for magic cheese in the medieval and early modern periods was to identify thieves and murderers. The method could be quite simple. First bless cheese with a prayer. <a href="https://bd.b-ok.com/book/3502484/f3326a?dsource=recommend">For example, you might say</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>May his mouth be cursed and full of bitterness, under his tongue pain and labour. If he is guilty, he will eat in the name of the devil. If he is not guilty, he will eat in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Then feed a small piece to each of your suspects. The culprit will be unable to swallow their piece of cheese, thus admitting their guilt. </p>
<h2>Mischievous magic</h2>
<p>Even if you’re not a thief, you should be wary around cheese when there’s a witch in the room. In The Odyssey, the sorceress Circe turns Odysseus’ companions into animals by feeding them a magic potion mixed into a drink made of cheese, barley meal, honey and wine. The fourth century Christian theologian, St Augustine of Hippo, <a href="https://archive.org/details/witchcraftinoldn00kitt_0/page/184/">agreed</a> that such things might be possible, though unlikely. </p>
<p>William of Malmesbury seemed convinced that enchanted cheese was a genuine risk, though, and in his 12th-century writings William explained that female Italian innkeepers were especially prone to using enchanted cheese to turn their customers into beasts of burden.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Medieval depiction of Circe, the witch from Homer's Odyssey." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379988/original/file-20210121-21-qe85ij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379988/original/file-20210121-21-qe85ij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379988/original/file-20210121-21-qe85ij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379988/original/file-20210121-21-qe85ij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379988/original/file-20210121-21-qe85ij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379988/original/file-20210121-21-qe85ij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379988/original/file-20210121-21-qe85ij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Making Circe angry meant it was ‘hard cheese’ for the companions of Odysseus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Creator:Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione/Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Malevolent witches were also thought to meddle with milk and cheese: in fact, spoiling milk was one of the most common curses associated with witches in early modern Europe. Around 1650, the dairymaid Isabel Maine was convinced her milk was cursed, as it wouldn’t turn into cheese. Only after a <a href="https://theconversation.com/in-medieval-england-magic-was-a-service-industry-used-by-rich-and-poor-alike-124009">service magician</a> named <a href="http://www.witchtrials.co.uk/person.html">Margaret Stothard</a> performed a counter-curse would the milk curdle properly. Margaret advised Isabel to carry a stick of rowan wood when she milked the cows in future, to protect the milk from “evil eyes”.</p>
<p>On a more playful side, though still a serious annoyance for their neighbours, witches were also thought to magically steal milk directly from cows’ udders. A 14th century morality manual tells a story about a woman with an <a href="https://archive.org/details/witchcraftinoldn00kitt_0/page/164/">enchanted leather bag</a>. On her command, the bag would leap up and run to her neighbours’ cattle herd, where it would secretly steal milk and bring it back to her.</p>
<h2>Charming cheese</h2>
<p>The idea that cheese is seductive also has a long history. Writing in the 13th century, the moralist and theologian <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2850446">Odo of Cheriton</a> used the alluring smell of grilled cheese to <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30035100">explain adultery</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Cheese is toasted and placed in a trap; when the rat smells it, it enters the trap, seizes the cheese, and is caught by the trap. So it is with all sin. Cheese is toasted when a woman is dressed up and adorned so that she entices and catches the foolish rats: take a woman in adultery and the Devil will catch you.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The link between cheese and love magic doesn’t stop at seduction, though. In 14th-century Germany, biting a piece of bread and cheese and throwing it over your shoulder was meant to ensure fertility in a relationship. Cheese could also cure <a href="https://societasmagica.org/userfiles/files/Newsletters/docs/SMN_Fall_2004_Issue_13.pdf">male impotence</a>: if a pesky witch had cursed a man’s genitals, a medieval Italian cure was for the man’s wife to bore a hole in cheese, and feed him the resulting pieces.</p>
<p>Given Europeans’ longstanding attraction to cheese, perhaps it’s no wonder that Kathryn Paulsen’s spell is so short and why it needed no further elaboration.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153221/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tabitha Stanmore received funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) for her PhD research.</span></em></p>For hundreds of years, magicians believed cheese could help them foretell the future or identify a criminal.Tabitha Stanmore, Honorary Research Fellow, Early Modern Studies, Department of History, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1504562020-11-27T03:05:22Z2020-11-27T03:05:22ZCoon’s rebranding dilemma: polishing a brand name to stay out of controversy<p>The makers of Coon cheese will no doubt have paid close attention to the publicity surrounding Nestle’s rebadging of its Red Skins and Chicos confectionary brands.</p>
<p>While the change of Chicos to Cheekies was uncontroversial, the change of Red Skins to Red Ripper – a name given decades ago to Soviet serial killer Andrei Chikatilo – was widely mocked.</p>
<p>The perils of rebranding helps explain the length of deliberations by Canadian-owned Saputo Dairy Australia, which has controlled the Coon brand since 2015. It announced in July it would “retire” the name, in the wake of increasing activism about brand names considered to have racist connotations. </p>
<p>“We are working to develop a new brand name that will honour the brand-affinity felt by our valued consumers while aligning with current attitudes and perspectives,” it <a href="https://www.broadsheet.com.au/national/food-and-drink/article/coon-cheese-getting-name-change-following-complaints-racism">said at the time</a>.</p>
<p>Saputo <a href="https://www.news.com.au/finance/business/retail/saputo-dairy-australia-affirms-plan-to-dump-racist-coon-cheese-brand/news-story/6dc3af4e241c493cad121acb6f849145">reaffirmed</a> this month it would change the name, but was still “working on the new brand development and look forward to revealing it to our customers and consumers once completed”.</p>
<p>That change can’t come soon enough for Indigenous activist Stephen Hagan, who has lobbied for Coon’s retirement from the Australian market for <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/nation/indigenous/activist-cheesed-off-by-coon-rebranding-delay/news-story/690ffa2dc352dbe3eeaeb0e2fcbc2373">more than two decades</a>. </p>
<p>But the Nestle experience explains why the Coon deliberations are taking so long.</p>
<p>A well-known brand identity is hugely valuable in the food market. It’s how shoppers find and choose things in supermarkets that stock as many as <a href="https://www.marketwatch.com/story/grocery-stores-carry-40000-more-items-than-they-did-in-the-1990s-2017-06-07">40,000 more products</a> than they did 50 years ago. Re-establishing a brand, with a new identity, is expensive and risks losing market share.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Supermarket aisle" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371677/original/file-20201127-14-ey5m7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371677/original/file-20201127-14-ey5m7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371677/original/file-20201127-14-ey5m7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371677/original/file-20201127-14-ey5m7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371677/original/file-20201127-14-ey5m7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371677/original/file-20201127-14-ey5m7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371677/original/file-20201127-14-ey5m7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The average supermarket now has 40,000 more products than 50 years ago.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How Coon cheese got its name</h2>
<p>Previous owners of the Coon brand, Kraft and Dairy Farmers, resisted demands for a name change on the grounds the association with an American racial slur for African Americans was mere coincidence, with the cheese being named after its American creator Edward William Coon, who <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US1579196A/en">patented his method</a> for making it – known as “Cooning” – in the 1926.</p>
<p>Australian dairy manufacturers began making cheese using Coon’s methods in the mid-1930s. In keeping with a common branding strategy at the time, the cheese was marketed using the name of its creator. </p>
<p>It is not known if that decision was made with knowledge the word had by then been in use in the US as a <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/ejas/9712?lang=en">derogatory term</a> for African Americans for a century.</p>
<p>In any event, the brand lived on in the Australian market. Coon is now the leading brand in the hard/cheddar cheese category, with <a href="https://www.euromonitor.com/cheese-in-australia/report">a 9% market share</a> (followed by Bega with 7.7%).</p>
<p>That share has been built over decades. Research shows strong brand loyalty in the cheese market, particularly for <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3585273">cheddar and sliced cheese</a>. Coon’s owners will therefore be carefully weighing how to rebrand Coon to minimise the risk of shoppers failing to recognise it by another name and opting for another well-known brand. </p>
<h2>Brands on the run</h2>
<p>Given all this, it is reasonable to assume the retirement of Coon is being done under some duress. </p>
<p>But social media, woke activism and the internationalisation of the Black Lives Matter movement has changed the landscape, putting pressure on companies to retire all brand names associated with historic racial stereotypes. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/brands-backing-black-lives-matter-it-might-be-a-marketing-ploy-but-it-also-shows-leadership-139874">Brands backing Black Lives Matter: it might be a marketing ploy, but it also shows leadership</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Those brands include Minnesota-based Land O’Lakes butter (dropping its logo featuring a native American woman), Eskimo Pie ice-cream (now Edy’s Pie), and US Conagra Foods’ Mrs Butterworth’s brand of syrups, packaged in bottles the shape of a “matronly” woman.</p>
<p>The biggest to fall is the “Aunt Jemima” brand of pancake mixes, syrups and breakfast foods. In June, Quaker Foods North America (owned by PepsiCo) announced it <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/jun/17/aunt-jemima-products-change-name-image-racial-stereotype">would finally retire</a> the brand, in use since 1889 and named after a character from 19th century minstrel shows. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The Aunt Jemima's brand of cake mixes, syrups and breakfast foods has been around since 1889." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371674/original/file-20201127-24-pelr7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371674/original/file-20201127-24-pelr7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371674/original/file-20201127-24-pelr7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371674/original/file-20201127-24-pelr7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371674/original/file-20201127-24-pelr7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371674/original/file-20201127-24-pelr7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371674/original/file-20201127-24-pelr7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Aunt Jemima’s brand.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Like Coon’s owners, Aunt Jemima’s owners are still deliberating on how to rebrand. </p>
<p>Should it, for example, attempt to replace the Aunt Jemima visual identity with another character (or characters) better representing people of colour? Or will it simply “deracialise” the brand. After all, while removing stereotypical black faces from brands achieves one objective of the Black Lives Matter movement, removing all black faces isn’t necessarily a step forward in promoting diversity. </p>
<p>But that would be an extremely difficult feat to pull off.</p>
<p>It’s more likely Quaker Foods will emulate the approach taken by US multinational Mars, which in September announced the end of Uncle Ben’s, a rice brand launched in 1946 named after an African American rice farmer whose logo features a bow-tied “Chicago chef and waiter named Frank Brown”. Mars has opted to rebadge as “Ben’s Original” and drop the face.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="www.foodnavigator-usa.com" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371676/original/file-20201127-19-1s937b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371676/original/file-20201127-19-1s937b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=199&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371676/original/file-20201127-19-1s937b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=199&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371676/original/file-20201127-19-1s937b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=199&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371676/original/file-20201127-19-1s937b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=251&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371676/original/file-20201127-19-1s937b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=251&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371676/original/file-20201127-19-1s937b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=251&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Uncle Ben’s rebranding as Ben’s Original.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Article/2020/09/23/We-listened-we-learned-we-re-changing-Uncle-Ben-s-rebrands-to-more-inclusive-Ben-s-Original</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The gravity of the deliberation over Aunt Jemima’s is exemplified by the sales boost for a competitor in the syrup market, Michele Foods, founded by African American woman Michele Hoskins. She <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/annakang/2020/08/18/black-owned-syrup-companys-sales-jump-78-after-aunt-jemima-brand-retirement/?sh=324f68705394">told Forbes</a> that July sales of her company’s syrups – based on a recipe handed down to her from her great great grandmother, America Washington, a freed slave – were 78% higher than the year before. </p>
<p>The Michele’s brand features Hoskins herself on the label. But as she told Forbes: “People want authentic products.”</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/where-woke-came-from-and-why-marketers-should-think-twice-before-jumping-on-the-social-activism-bandwagon-122713">Where 'woke' came from and why marketers should think twice before jumping on the social activism bandwagon</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Maintaining brand continuity</h2>
<p>Whatever Saputo decides is the next name for Coon, its intention will be to quell criticism without dramatically changing brand identity.</p>
<p>It will seek to do what Nestle clearly sought to do with renaming its <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-11-16/red-ripper-and-cheekies-the-new-name-of-allens-red-skin-chicos/12887278">Red Skins and Chicos</a> confectionery. It will want to change the name as little as possible and retain continuity with brand colours and styling.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371675/original/file-20201127-20-1k7fl1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371675/original/file-20201127-20-1k7fl1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371675/original/file-20201127-20-1k7fl1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371675/original/file-20201127-20-1k7fl1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371675/original/file-20201127-20-1k7fl1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371675/original/file-20201127-20-1k7fl1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371675/original/file-20201127-20-1k7fl1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">From Red Skins to Red Ripper: little else in the brand identity has changed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Note the new branding for Red Rippers looks almost identical to Red Skins (and the same with Chicos to Cheekies). So long as supermarkets stock these products in the same place on the shelves, customer confusion should be minimised.</p>
<p>Moon cheese, perhaps?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150456/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Abas Mirzaei does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Nestle’s experience explains why the Coon deliberations are taking so long.Abas Mirzaei, Senior Lecturer - Branding, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1379732020-05-29T12:28:20Z2020-05-29T12:28:20ZAn ode to mac and cheese, the poster child for processed food<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338365/original/file-20200528-51527-9omqt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C35%2C5973%2C3925&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We love to bad-mouth processed foods – usually while our mouths are full of it.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/macaroni-and-cheese-in-bowl-royalty-free-image/539959124?adppopup=true">IcemanJ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In January 2015, food sales at restaurants overtook those at grocery stores for the first time. Most thought this marked <a href="https://www.aei.org/carpe-diem/chart-day-retail-sales-grocery-stores-vs-restaurants/">a permanent shift</a> in the American meal. </p>
<p>Thanks to the coronavirus pandemic, that trend took a U-turn. <a href="https://www.restaurant.org/articles/news/restaurant-sales-and-job-losses-are-widespread">Restaurant revenue cratered</a>, while shoppers emptied grocery shelves stocking up on food to cook at home. And with sales of pantry items soaring, shoppers found themselves reaching for an old reliable.</p>
<p>In April 2020, sales of Kraft macaroni and cheese <a href="https://www.dallasnews.com/business/2020/04/09/we-cant-make-enough-mac-and-cheese-processed-food-is-undergoing-a-renaissance/">were up 27%</a> from the same time last year. General Mills, the maker of Annie’s mac and cheese, <a href="https://www.foxbusiness.com/lifestyle/processed-foods-see-sales-boost-during-coronavirus-pandemic">has seen a similar bump</a>.</p>
<p>The cheap, boxed meal has long been a poster child for processed food. While it’s often dismissed as stuff for kids, a lot of grownups secretly savor it. As I tell my own students, we love to bad mouth processed foods – usually while our mouths are full of it. It’s also played an important role in kitchen science, wars and women’s liberation.</p>
<h2>Solving the age-old problem of spoiled cheese</h2>
<p>People have eaten pasta and cheese together for hundreds of years. Clifford Wright, the doyen of Mediterranean food history, says <a href="http://www.cliffordawright.com/caw/food/entries/display.php/topic_id/16/id/105/">the first written recipe</a> for macaroni and cheese was created in the court of the king of Naples in the 13th century, while <a href="https://food52.com/blog/9916-the-history-of-macaroni-and-cheese">the first reference</a> in an English language cookbook likely appeared in Elizabeth Raffald’s 1769 book “The Experienced English Housekeeper.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338398/original/file-20200528-51462-z9itwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338398/original/file-20200528-51462-z9itwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338398/original/file-20200528-51462-z9itwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338398/original/file-20200528-51462-z9itwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338398/original/file-20200528-51462-z9itwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338398/original/file-20200528-51462-z9itwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338398/original/file-20200528-51462-z9itwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Neopolitans eating macaroni, which they often dressed with Parmesan cheese and a little salt.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/neopolitans-eating-macaroni-a-typical-country-village-news-photo/113489991">Universal History Archive/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>An internet search for macaroni and cheese recipes will turn up over 5 million hits, but many still prefer to get theirs in a box – the kind with pasta that comes in shapes ranging from shells to Pokemon characters, accompanied by a packet of powdered cheese sauce. </p>
<p>Boxed macaroni and cheese was one outcome of the quest for ways to keep cheese longer. Some cheese gets better as it ages – a well-aged cheddar is one of life’s delights – but once most cheeses hit their prime, <a href="https://www.dairyfoods.com/articles/91548-how-to-maximize-cheese-shelf-life">they tend to quickly go bad</a>. Before household refrigeration became common, many retailers wouldn’t even stock cheese in the summer because it spoiled so quickly.</p>
<p>Processed cheese solved this age-old problem.</p>
<p>Credit for inventing processed cheese should go to a pair of Swiss food chemists named Walter Gerber and Fritz Stettler who, in 1913, were looking for a way to improve the shelf life of Emmenthaler cheese using sodium citrate. When they heated up the treated cheese, they noticed it <a href="https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-03-27/what-exactly-processed-cheese-anyway">melted better as well</a>. But Chicago cheese salesman James L. Kraft was awarded the first patent for processed cheese in 1916.</p>
<p>Kraft understood the spoilage problem and had tried various solutions to it. He tried putting it tin foil packages, sealing it in jars, even canning it. But none of these solutions caught on with the public. </p>
<p>He eventually realized that the same bacteria that made cheese age nicely was also the bacteria that ultimately caused it to go bad. So he took some cheddar cheese scraps, heated them to kill the bacteria, ground them up with some sodium phosphate as an emulsifier and voila – <a href="https://www.inventionandtech.com/content/cheese-cheese-food-1">Kraft processed cheese was born</a>. </p>
<p>These early processed cheeses were similar to the processed American cheese slices we see in the stores today, though wrapping slices individually didn’t happen for another 40 years. Kraft’s first big customer was the U.S. Army, which <a href="https://www.wired.com/2015/08/us-military-helped-invent-cheetos/">bought more than 6 million pounds of the stuff to feed soldiers in World War I</a>. A number of variations appeared in the following years, including Velveeta and Cheez Whiz. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338397/original/file-20200528-51471-1n5x97w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338397/original/file-20200528-51471-1n5x97w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338397/original/file-20200528-51471-1n5x97w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338397/original/file-20200528-51471-1n5x97w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338397/original/file-20200528-51471-1n5x97w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338397/original/file-20200528-51471-1n5x97w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1041&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338397/original/file-20200528-51471-1n5x97w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1041&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338397/original/file-20200528-51471-1n5x97w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1041&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">From the start, Kraft was selling convenience.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jbcurio/7308722038">Jamie/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The product was a hit, but Kraft wanted to find more ways to sell processed cheese, and eventually came up with the idea to make a powdered base. The packet in the box of macaroni and cheese is essentially a cheese sauce that has been partially defatted and dehydrated. When you make it, you’re adding back the fat and the liquid when you mix in the milk and butter.</p>
<p>In 1937, Kraft debuted its boxed macaroni and cheese, <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/marvelous-macaroni-and-cheese-30954740/">which it sold for 19 cents and contained four servings</a>. Its slogan was “make a meal for four in nine minutes,” and the product got a big lift with American consumers during World War II because you could get two boxes and spend only one ration point. With meat hard to come by, the cheap main dish substitute was a hit. </p>
<h2>When natural was nasty</h2>
<p>Today, food that’s simple, pure and natural is <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-was-french-cuisine-toppled-as-the-king-of-fine-dining-66667">all the craze</a>, while <a href="https://apnews.com/c06a1200807c4b82a03452d08d480692">disdain for processed foods</a> is practically a credo among sophisticated consumers.</p>
<p>But when Kraft’s different forms of processed cheese came out, they found widespread acceptance despite their strange textures. The fact that it wasn’t natural didn’t seem to bother consumers at all. In fact, as international food historian Rachel Laudan <a href="https://online.ucpress.edu/gastronomica/article/1/1/36/93394/A-Plea-for-Culinary-Modernism-Why-We-Should-Love">has noted</a>, back then, “natural was something quite nasty.” She describes fresh milk as warm and “unmistakably a bodily secretion.” Throughout the history of cookery, most recipes aimed to transform an unappetizing raw product into something delightful and delectable.</p>
<p>So for most consumers, processed foods were a godsend. They kept well, tended to be easily digestible and, most importantly, they tasted good. Many of them could be easily prepared, freeing women from spending entire days cooking and giving them more time to pursue professions and avocations.</p>
<p>In some ways, processed foods were also healthier. They could be fortified with vitamins and minerals, and, in an era before everyone had access to mechanical refrigeration, the fact that they kept well meant consumers were less likely to contract diseases from spoiled, rotten foods. Pasteurization of dairy products virtually <a href="https://www.the-scientist.com/foundations/rethinking-raw-milk--1918-65126">eliminated diseases like undulant fever</a>, while foods processed and canned in large factories were less likely to harbor food-borne illnesses that could crop up due to faulty or improperly sanitized equipment used by home canners.</p>
<p>Given today’s marketing emphasis on the fresh, local and natural, one might think that processed foods are going the way of the dinosaur. But this isn’t the case. Almost all the processed foods invented in the 20th century are still being produced <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-spam-became-one-of-the-most-iconic-american-brands-of-all-time-80030">in one form or another</a>. While you may not see much Tang on American shelves, it’s <a href="https://fortune.com/2011/11/29/what-ever-happened-to-tang/">hugely popular</a> in the Middle East and Central and South America. </p>
<p>And mac and cheese – with roughly 7 million boxes of Kraft’s version <a href="https://www.mashed.com/123963/untold-truth-kraft-macaroni-cheese/">sold each week</a> – continues to be devoured in good times and bad. Whether it recalls <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-diets-whats-behind-the-urge-to-eat-like-little-kids-137864">happier, simpler times</a> or feeds a family on a shoestring budget, the Day-Glo orange dinner is here to stay.</p>
<p>[<em>Insight, in your inbox each day.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=insight">You can get it with The Conversation’s email newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/137973/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffrey Miller does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A food historian explains how the popular boxed dinner played an important role in kitchen science, wars and women’s liberation.Jeffrey Miller, Associate Professor, Hospitality Management, Colorado State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1348472020-04-01T12:24:17Z2020-04-01T12:24:17ZHot curries, potato cheddar and muddy beetroot – some super surprising facts about your food<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323346/original/file-20200326-133001-1hllta2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C1%2C988%2C663&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Get in there...</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/senior-farmer-organic-cheese-outside-green-283165046">Halfpoint/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Spending a lot more time in your house doesn’t have to make you any less curious about the world around you. Just look inside your kitchen cupboards and there’s a wealth of chemistry just bursting to get out. Here are some surprising facts about the food you eat: why some things taste hot and cold without changing temperature, the chemistry behind cheese connoisseurship, and why a squeeze of lemon could make beetroot – and some fish – more palatable.</p>
<h2>Why mints are cold but curries are hot</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323633/original/file-20200327-146705-1gar8gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323633/original/file-20200327-146705-1gar8gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=282&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323633/original/file-20200327-146705-1gar8gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=282&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323633/original/file-20200327-146705-1gar8gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=282&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323633/original/file-20200327-146705-1gar8gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323633/original/file-20200327-146705-1gar8gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323633/original/file-20200327-146705-1gar8gw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hoooootttt and cold!!</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Johan Swanepoel & Banu sevim/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our nervous system is packed with receptors, which are proteins embedded in cell membranes. Ions generally cannot move freely across these cell membranes, but must enter or exit a cell through ion channels (which you can think of as tiny gates) which convert chemical messages into electrical signals, which your brain interprets as a sensation. Under certain conditions, ion channels open and allow the ions to move in or out of the cell, creating an electrical signal. For the most part, the receptors detect the correct stimulus, be it chemical, light, or vibration. But sometimes these ion channels can be fooled.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6038138/">Transient receptor potential channels</a> (or TRPCs) are a type of ion channel which behave like mini thermometers. An example of which, called TRPM8, responds to lower temperatures (below 26°C) and to the menthol molecule found in minty flavours. So when you eat something minty, this ion channel opens and your senses are fooled. The cooling sensation it produces means menthol is found in many applications such as lip balms, decongestants, cough mixtures, mouthwashes, toothpastes and treatments for aches and pains. Some athletes say their performance improves when inhaling minty flavours, and that’s why they chew gum.</p>
<p>Another example of this type of ion channel is TRPV1. These channels respond to heat (above 43°C) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsaicin">capsaicin</a> (a molecule found in chilli peppers) also activates them. The burning sensation in your mouth when chewing chillies is due to capsaicin. Your brain is convinced you’re eating something hot, despite no actual change in physical temperature. These receptors are clustered on our tongue, in our mouth and on our skin because their aim is to prevent us from sensations that will burn us but capsaicin also triggers it too, giving a false response.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/P17EnQff6Ts?wmode=transparent&start=57" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Have you ever put your hand in really hot water and it has initially felt cold? Some cold receptors can be activated by both low temperatures and extremely high temperatures and is a phenomenon known as <a href="https://academic.oup.com/brain/article/122/2/239/357452">paradoxical cold sensation</a>. It’s usually corrected within a matter of seconds. </p>
<p>Have you ever jumped into really cold water and noticed the initial shock wears off pretty quickly? <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00510/full">The proteins in the ion cells become desensitised</a>, so it’s not quite as bracing as your body gets used to it. This is highlighted by <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/iceman-wim-hof-dutch-technique-science-2019-1?r=US&IR=T">frequent cold-water swimmers</a>, who generally don’t have the extreme response to cold as novices do.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323351/original/file-20200326-133007-h0gcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323351/original/file-20200326-133007-h0gcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323351/original/file-20200326-133007-h0gcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323351/original/file-20200326-133007-h0gcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323351/original/file-20200326-133007-h0gcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323351/original/file-20200326-133007-h0gcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323351/original/file-20200326-133007-h0gcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Take three bowls.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/metal-bowl-kitchen-utensil-front-white-148210343">Andre Helbig/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>You can demonstrate really easily how our heat sensors can be fooled. Get three containers, large enough so you can submerge your hand. Fill one with cold water, one with hot water (usual bath temperature is fine) and one with warm water. Place the container filled with warm water in the middle of the three. Place one hand in the cold water and one in the hot water for one minute. Then simultaneously put your hands into the middle container containing the warm water. You’ll be amazed at the perceived difference in temperature and the ease at which we can fool certain ion channels. </p>
<h2>Cheddar that tastes of boiled potato</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323349/original/file-20200326-132995-8ccjym.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323349/original/file-20200326-132995-8ccjym.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323349/original/file-20200326-132995-8ccjym.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323349/original/file-20200326-132995-8ccjym.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323349/original/file-20200326-132995-8ccjym.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323349/original/file-20200326-132995-8ccjym.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323349/original/file-20200326-132995-8ccjym.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some cheese …</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-front-plate-cheese-under-cover-251915224">TunedIn by Westend61/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Milk is primarily water, and suspended in the water are solids – mainly proteins called casein and whey. To make cheese, you have to separate these two proteins. If the milk is not heated (unpasteurised), bacteria naturally present will start to turn it sour. </p>
<p>But the milk used to make cheese these days is pasteurised and heated to remove unwanted bacteria, so the bacteria which gives cheese distinctive flavours (such as <em>Streptococci</em> and <em>Lactobacilli</em>) are added afterwards, along with an enzyme called rennet, and the mixture is processed at 30-40˚C for a couple of hours. During this time, lactose – the natural sugar in the milk – is fermented into lactic acid, reducing the pH at which point the rennet helps to coagulate the casein protein, forming curds.</p>
<p>Curds have the consistency of a rubbery gel. They are set for an hour or two before the liquid whey is separated by cutting the curds into small pieces and draining it away. What you’re left with is cottage cheese. These drained cheese curds have a soft consistency, with some of the whey still present. Ever wondered why cottage cheese doesn’t have a strong taste but does taste slightly sharp? It’s due to the pH decrease and the fact the volatile flavours haven’t had the time to develop. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>Some cheeses have additional bacteria injected into them or brushed onto their surface to mature into distinctive tastes. Others are warmed to release more whey, making them firmer and less rubbery. Softer cheeses ripen faster by the action of bacteria as they contain more water. That’s why hard cheeses such as parmesan can last for weeks in your fridge – it contains less water, which bacteria find difficult to survive in.</p>
<p>The longer you leave a cheese before eating it, the more lactose is converted into lactic acid so older cheeses tend to have a sharper taste. In cheddar, the curds are mixed with salt before the whey is drained and this makes it a difficult breeding ground for bacteria. Extra mature cheddar is much stronger in flavour than mild cheddar and needs to be matured for over a year. During this time, the proteins are chopped up into amino acids, which break down further to produce all the different flavour chemicals. </p>
<p>Cheddar contains hundreds of compounds at detectable thresholds. Try some cheddar and see if you can detect furaneol and homofuraneol (caramel), δ-dodecalactone (peach/coconut), butanedione (buttery), ethanoic acid (sharp, vinegar), (Z)-4-heptenal (creamy, biscuit) and methional (boiled potato). </p>
<p>Gorgonzola and other blue cheeses get their distinctive taste from a class of chemicals called methyl ketones. In gorgonzola, 2-heptanone and 2-nonanone impart “blue cheese” notes. But try some gorgonzola to see if you can also taste 1-octen-3-ol (mushroom), 2-heptanol (fresh, lemongrass), ethyl hexanoate (apple), ethyl butanoate (pineapple), 2-nonanol (waxy) and 4-methylanisole (mothballs!). </p>
<p>When you tune your taste buds into the different flavours, why not try these:</p>
<p>• Can you taste methanethiol in camembert? It smells of cabbages.<br>
• Can you taste 3-methylindole in Swiss cheese? In low concentrations it’s rather sweet; you’ll find it in orange blossom and jasmine, but in higher concentrations it stinks of manure.<br>
• Can you taste ethyl octanoate in pecorino? It’s a taste associated with oranges and apricots.<br>
• Can you taste phenylethanoic acid in gruyère? It gives a sweet, honey, malty, vanilla-like taste.</p>
<p>It’s amazing to think that all the flavour molecules found in cheese derive from just three starting materials – lipids in the milk fat, lactose (a sugar) and casein (a protein). </p>
<h2>Why beetroots taste really ‘earthy’</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323343/original/file-20200326-132974-1wdrlg8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323343/original/file-20200326-132974-1wdrlg8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323343/original/file-20200326-132974-1wdrlg8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323343/original/file-20200326-132974-1wdrlg8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323343/original/file-20200326-132974-1wdrlg8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323343/original/file-20200326-132974-1wdrlg8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323343/original/file-20200326-132974-1wdrlg8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Beetroot soup – or is that mud soup ..?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/spring-detox-beetroot-soup-mint-chia-626659418">Foxys Forest Manufacture/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Some people just don’t like the taste of beetroot. If you ask someone what it tastes of, chances are they’ll use the words “earthy” or “muddy” and is quite unlike the taste of any other food. The chemical geosmin is responsible for this. </p>
<p>Geosmin is a terpene, produced by a class of plant-eating microorganisms <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/streptomyces-coelicolor">called <em>Streptomyces coelicolor</em></a> and are released when they die. Terpenes are a strong-smelling class of compounds and help to protect plants from parasites and predators.</p>
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<p>The amount of geosmin in beetroot is genetically determined and food scientists rate varieties based on geosmin concentration. Some varieties contain two or three times more geosmin than others, so if the earthy flavour is what’s stopping you from enjoying it, choose your variety carefully. </p>
<p>While some people like the earthy taste of beetroot, geosmin isn’t a molecule welcome elsewhere. People who take their drinking water from surface sources may experience a muddy taste. There have been cases where utility consumers complain about the taste of their water and it has been traced back to geosmin. Also, blue-green algae release geosmin when they die and this can be absorbed by certain freshwater fish such as trout or eel, which can give them <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/are.13881">an unpleasant taste</a>. Geosmin is rendered odourless by an acid, so these fish are often eaten with a squeeze of lemon juice. And people who don’t like the taste of beetroot may find it more palatable when eaten with lemon.</p>
<p>If you’re struggling to know what foods pair well with beetroot, why not try them with other earthy flavours generated by aromatic pyrazines? Foods such as roasted onions, coffee or even dark chocolate might sound like an odd combination, but complement beetroot really well.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/runny-honey-furry-spinach-and-shiny-apples-some-super-surprising-facts-about-your-food-134629">Runny honey, furry spinach and shiny apples – some super surprising facts about your food</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/134847/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanna Buckley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Three foods and some cool stuff you should know about them.Joanna Buckley, Materials Chemist and Science Communicator, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1304512020-02-27T14:38:31Z2020-02-27T14:38:31ZWhy does Swiss cheese have holes?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316919/original/file-20200224-24701-1lk36vg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=53%2C33%2C4439%2C2957&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Holey moley!</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cheese-on-wooden-board-125744069">Tim UR/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
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<p><em><strong>Why does Swiss cheese have holes? – Owen F., age 13, Belmont, Massachusetts</strong></em></p>
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<p>There are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cheeses">thousands of kinds of cheese</a>, each with its own color, shape, nutritional value, flavor and texture. </p>
<p>Since cheese is made from milk, cheese types tend to vary based on the source of milk. Some of the most popular cheeses are made from the milk of cows, goats and sheep. But there are also cheeses made from camel milk, water buffalo milk – even <a href="https://nowthisnews.com/videos/food/moose-cheese-is-one-of-the-most-expensive-cheese-on-earth">moose milk</a>.</p>
<p>To make cheese, you need to add bacteria to the milk. These create chemical reactions that cause it to change into a combination of solid “<a href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/curds">curds</a>” and liquid “<a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/whey">whey</a>.” The whey is generally drained off, concentrated and dried into a powder.</p>
<p>Variations in the amount and type of bacteria influence the taste and texture of the final product. Other aspects factor into the type of cheese that’s produced: the salting method, its temperature and how long cheesemakers age it, which refers to the amount of time it is left alone to ripen and form. Some cheeses are aged <a href="https://luxeadventuretraveler.com/bitto-storico-cheese/">for as long as 18 years</a>.</p>
<p>Like many other cheeses, Swiss cheese is made with cow’s milk and contains bacteria that help convert the milk into a solid. </p>
<p>So why does Swiss cheese have holes? Also called “eyes,” they’re so essential to Swiss cheese that when they’re missing, the cheesemakers say the batch is “<a href="https://www.cheese.com/swiss/">blind</a>.” </p>
<p>What makes Swiss cheese “holey” is additional bacteria called <em><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2909200/">Propionibacterium freudenrichii subspecies shermanii</a></em> – <em>P. shermanii</em> for short. Under the specific conditions that Swiss cheese is made, the <em>P. shermanii</em> produce a gas: carbon dioxide. </p>
<p>Because Swiss cheese is made at a warm temperature – around 70 degrees Fahrenheit – the cheese is soft and malleable. So as the bacteria grow, the gases they emit end up creating round openings. Think of blowing a bubble with chewing gum: As you blow air from your lungs, the pressure forces the gum into a circle. The bubble eventually pops, due to air pressure from your lungs or the atmosphere. </p>
<p>But when a bubble has formed inside a hunk of warm cheese – and then that cheese is cooled to around 40°F – the hole stays in place. The cheese now has its eyes. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.cheesehouse.com/cheese/how-the-aging-process-works/">It takes about four weeks</a> at 70°F for the eyes to form. In total, it takes about six weeks to make Swiss cheese, and then it is aged two additional months before it is sold.</p>
<p>Swiss cheese was first made in Switzerland in the 15th century. But there, it’s known as “<a href="https://www.cheese.com/emmental/">emmental</a>” or “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1a7f9wzOfWk">emmentaller</a>.” </p>
<p>Other countries are also known for cheeses that are similar to Swiss cheese. France has <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruy%C3%A8re_cheese#/media/File:Gruy%C3%A8re_Premier_Cru.jpg">Gruyere</a>, while Italy has <a href="https://www.castellocheese.com/en-us/cheese-types/semi-hard-cheese/fontina-cheese/">Fontina</a>. In the U.S., cheesemakers concoct a modified version, called Baby Swiss, which tends to have <a href="https://www.swissvalley.com/business/products/cheese/Baby%20Swiss/">smaller eyes</a>. Gouda cheese – which originated in the Netherlands – is sometimes intentionally made with cultures that produce a little bit of gas and <a href="https://www.mariekegouda.com/product-page/marieke-gouda-plain-mature-6-9-months-1-lb">tiny eyes</a>.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316649/original/file-20200221-92497-fui4nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316649/original/file-20200221-92497-fui4nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316649/original/file-20200221-92497-fui4nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316649/original/file-20200221-92497-fui4nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316649/original/file-20200221-92497-fui4nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316649/original/file-20200221-92497-fui4nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316649/original/file-20200221-92497-fui4nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Fontina cheese also has ‘eyes.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/italian-cheese-fontina-di-valle-d-523684417">Brian Yarvin/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>But in most cases, cheesemakers actually <a href="https://www.dairyscience.info/index.php/cheese-quality/67-causes-of-early-gas-production-in-cheddar-cheese.html">try to prevent the formation of gas in their cheeses</a>. Especially in harder cheeses, gas doesn’t lead to nice, round eyes; instead, it forms <a href="https://www.thespruceeats.com/thmb/--MBrgZEz-icGvgl2vwa5PrtiBA=/960x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc():format(webp)/wheel-of-cut-gruyere-cheese-on-a-table-with-a-knife-179313182-c1033ccf75f54802b4bdac89a4aa435d.jpg">unsightly crevices, cracks and splits</a>. </p>
<p>[<em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130451/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephanie Clark has received funding to support research on dairy foods from the Midwest Dairy Foods Research Center, National Dairy Council, Minnesota Corn Growers Association, Agricultural Utilization Research Institute. </span></em></p>When the holes – also called ‘eyes’ – don’t appear in a batch, cheesemakers say the cheese is ‘blind.’Stephanie Clark, Virginia M. Gladney Professor of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1257932019-11-25T21:47:11Z2019-11-25T21:47:11ZThank fungi for cheese, wine and beer this holiday season<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303049/original/file-20191121-113012-1yidb57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">These foods are all dependent on microorganisms for their distinctive flavor.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/assorted-winebread-cheese-328891478">margouillat photo/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s hard to imagine a holiday table without bread, meat, vegetables, wine, beer or a board of French cheeses for those with more adventurous palates. Savoring these delicacies with family and friends is part of what makes the holidays so much fun.</p>
<p>These foods and drinks are courtesy of the domestication of several different animals, plants and microbes. Plant and animal domestication has been well studied, since it is thought to have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01019">the most momentous change</a> in recent human history. </p>
<p>Scientists know much less about the domestication of microbes, however, and as a result, society fails to appreciate their pivotal contributions to the foods and drinks that we enjoy all year long.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.rokaslab.org">I am an evolutionary biologist studying fungi</a>, a group of microbes whose domestication has given us <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.05.033">many tasty products</a>. I’ve long been fascinated by two questions: What are the genetic changes that led to their domestication? And how on Earth did our ancestors figure out how to domesticate them? </p>
<p>Curious too? Recent studies shed light on these questions, so grab some Camembert cheese and a beer, and keep on reading.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thank the large variety of microbes, including fungi, for this assortment of international cheeses.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/large-assortment-international-cheese-specialities-on-1094617058">Umomos/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<h2>The hybrids in your lager</h2>
<p>As far as domestication is concerned, it is hard to top the honing of brewer’s yeast. The cornerstone of the baking, brewing and wine-making industries, brewer’s yeast has the remarkable ability to turn the sugars of plant fruits and grains into alcohol. How did brewer’s yeast evolve this flexibility?</p>
<p>By discovering new yeast species and sequencing their genomes, scientists know that some yeasts used in brewing are hybrids; that is, they’re descendants of ancient mating unions of individuals from two different yeast species. Hybrids tend to resemble both parental species – <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/14/science/14creatures.html">think of wholpins (whale-dolphin) or ligers (lion-tiger)</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Cells of the mighty brewer’s yeast, the cornerstone of the baking, brewing and wine making industries.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">wikipedia</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>For example, lager beer yeasts are hybrids of two closely related species: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1105430108">the brewer’s yeast <em>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</em> and <em>Saccharomyces eubayanus</em></a>. <em>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</em> produces tasty beers, such as the British ales, but grows better at warmer temperatures. In contrast, <em>Saccharomyces eubayanus</em> grows better in the cold but produces compounds that taint the beer’s flavor. Lager yeast hybrids combine the best of both - good flavors from <em>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</em> and growth at colder temperatures, thanks to <em>Saccharomyces eubayanus</em>. This makes these hybrids great for brewing beer in the cold winters of Europe, where lagers were invented. </p>
<p>Researchers have also discovered <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/yea.3283">natural hybrids from the union of other <em>Saccharomyces</em> species</a>. What is still unknown is whether hybridization is the norm or the exception in the yeasts that humans have used for making fermented beverages for millennia. </p>
<p>To address this question, a team led by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0998-8">graduate student Quinn Langdon at the University of Wisconsin</a> and another team led by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0997-9">postdoctoral fellow Brigida Gallone at the Universities of Ghent and Leuven in Belgium</a> examined the genomes of hundreds of yeasts involved in brewing and wine making. Their bottom line? Hybrids rule.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0997-9">a quarter of yeasts collected from industrial environments</a>, including beer and wine manufacturers, are hybrids. </p>
<p>Amazingly, some hybrids trace their origins to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0998-8">three or four different parental species</a>. Why all this hybridization?, you may ask. Much like the lager hybrids, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0997-9">these newly discovered hybrids differ in what they like to eat and how quickly they grow</a>. These preferences, which come courtesy of hybridization, influence not only how people use them in brewing but also the flavor profiles of the resulting brews.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This assortment of beer styles and flavors comes courtesy of brewer’s yeasts and their fondness for hybridization.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/refreshing-cold-craft-beer-assortment-ipa-1264196215">Brent Hofacker/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The mutants in your cheese</h2>
<p>Comparing the genomes of domesticated fungi to their wild relatives helps scientists understand the genetic changes that gave rise to some favorite foods and drinks. But how did our ancestors actually domesticate these wild fungi? None of us was there to witness how it all started. To solve this mystery, scientists are experimenting with wild fungi to see if they can evolve into organisms resembling those that we use to make our food today. </p>
<p><a href="https://sites.tufts.edu/wolfelab/">Benjamin Wolfe, a microbiologist at Tufts University, and his team</a> addressed this question by taking wild <em>Penicillium</em> mold and growing the samples for one month in his lab on a substance that included cheese. That may sound like a short period for people, but it is one that spans many generations for fungi.</p>
<p>The wild fungi are very closely related to fungal strains used by the cheese industry in the making of Camembert cheese, but look very different from them. For example, wild strains are green and smell, well, moldy compared to the white and odorless industrial strains.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=572&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=572&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=572&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Colonies of <em>Penicillium</em> mold isolated from a blue cheese. The white colony is a domesticated version of the wild mold.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Benjamin Wolfe</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For Wolfe, the big question was whether he could experimentally recreate, and to what degree, the process of domestication. What did the wild strains look and smell like after a month of growth on cheese? Remarkably, what he and his team found was that, at the end of the experiment, the wild strains looked much more similar to known industrial strains than to their wild ancestor. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.02445-19">they were white in color and smelled much less moldy</a>. </p>
<p>Fungi spend a lot of energy producing pigments and pungent compounds that enable them to compete and defend themselves. Living comfortably on a diet of cheese and safe from predators means that losing the ability to produce, say, pigments may actually be advantageous. That’s because the energy saved can instead be spent toward growth of the fungal colony.</p>
<p>But how did the wild strain turn into a domesticated version? Did it mutate? By sequencing the genomes of both the wild ancestors and the domesticated descendants, and measuring the activity of the genes while growing on cheese, Wolfe’s team figured out that these changes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.02445-19">did not happen through mutations in the organisms’ genomes</a>. Rather, they most likely occurred through <a href="https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/howgeneswork/epigenome">chemical alterations that modify the activity of specific genes</a> but don’t actually change the genetic code. Such so-called <a href="https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/howgeneswork/epigenome">epigenetic modifications</a> can occur much faster than mutations. The path toward domestication appears to be quicker than previously thought, which will perhaps encourage adventurous cheese makers to begin experimenting with domesticating wild fungi for new flavors.</p>
<p>While you savor your favorite foods and beverages this holiday season, spare a thought for these microscopic fungi, how they evolved their mighty powers and how much more bland our world would be without them.</p>
<p>[ <em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125793/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Antonis Rokas and his laboratory receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, the Burroughs Wellcome Trust, the National Institutes of Health, the Beckman Scholars Program, the March of Dimes, the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Vanderbilt University.</span></em></p>Bread. Yeast. Wine. Cheese. All these delicious foods are courtesy of various forms of domesticated fungi. So how, exactly, did humans tame wild fungi into the cooperative species that make our food?Antonis Rokas, Cornelius Vanderbilt Chair in Biological Sciences and Professor of Biological Sciences and Biomedical Informatics, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1250372019-11-04T12:12:57Z2019-11-04T12:12:57ZWhy do feet stink by the end of the day?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299913/original/file-20191101-88428-e37hgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=485%2C0%2C2540%2C1882&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Keep those stinkers away!</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-smelly-feet-1131532760">leungchopan/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Why do feet stink by the end of the day? – Helen E., age 6, Somerville, Massachusetts</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>When I was a kid, our family would end the day by relaxing in front of the TV after dinner. Everyone would have a seat, take off their shoes and put up their feet. Before long, a strange and unsavory aroma invaded our noses. Sometimes our feet smelled so bad that my dad would joke, “Who cut the cheese?”</p>
<p>That seems like an odd thing to say, because cheese tastes good! But some cheeses, like <a href="https://www.cheese.com/limburger/">Limburger cheese</a>, smell nasty. When it is cut, many people hold their nose and run for the hills.</p>
<p>But people running to escape the stench of Limburger cheese may be in for an unpleasant surprise when they take their sneakers off later. All that running would make their feet sweat, and sweaty feet often reek like smelly cheese.</p>
<p>What’s the connection?</p>
<p>It comes down to a type of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/bacteria/The-importance-of-bacteria-to-humans">bacteria</a> called <em>Brevibacterium linens</em>. Bacteria are very tiny creatures that can be seen only with a microscope. There are many different kinds of bacteria found all over the world, including inside your body and on your skin. Some of these bacteria are germs that can make you sick, but most do not cause harm and can even be helpful.</p>
<p><em>Brevibacterium linens</em> are harmless bacteria found on people’s skin – they eat up skin cells that have died. Normally, these bacteria do not produce much of an odor because there aren’t too many of them.</p>
<p>But when you wear shoes, your feet get warm and moist. Your foot sweat contains salt, which these bacteria love. Under these conditions, a little <em>Brevibacterium linens</em> can become a lot of <em>Brevibacterium linens</em> munching on your feet.</p>
<p>And like anything else that eats, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.00632-6">these bacteria make smelly waste</a>. It is their waste that gives sweaty feet their funky odor: It contains stinky chemicals like those made by skunks and rotten eggs.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299914/original/file-20191101-88372-6i7l1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299914/original/file-20191101-88372-6i7l1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299914/original/file-20191101-88372-6i7l1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299914/original/file-20191101-88372-6i7l1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299914/original/file-20191101-88372-6i7l1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299914/original/file-20191101-88372-6i7l1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299914/original/file-20191101-88372-6i7l1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299914/original/file-20191101-88372-6i7l1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bacteria contribute the stink of their waste to the overall odor of some cheeses as well.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/piece-belgian-limburger-cheese-on-board-309618497">picturepartners/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When people make cheese like Limburger, some of the <em>Brevibacterium linens</em> bacteria on their skin get <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.00675-2">left behind on the cheese</a>. These bacteria aren’t picky eaters, so they’ll start gobbling up the surface of the cheese. As the bacteria eat the cheese, they make the shell around the cheese, <a href="https://www.specialtyfood.com/news/article/cheese-rinds-101/">called the rind</a>. And they produce the same foul-smelling waste.</p>
<p>This is why feet can smell like cheese – they both have the same bacteria living on them. Other kinds of bacteria eat cheese too, and they make different chemicals that give the various cheeses their unique odors and flavors.</p>
<p>Because foot stench and cheese stench have the same source, some scientists have come up with a sneaky idea. Mosquitoes zero in on people by sensing these chemicals our skin bacteria produce. Researchers are experimenting with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-4758(96)10002-8">using Limburger cheese to trick the insect pests</a> and lure them into traps so they can’t bite people.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299915/original/file-20191101-88403-1f1i23w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299915/original/file-20191101-88403-1f1i23w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299915/original/file-20191101-88403-1f1i23w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299915/original/file-20191101-88403-1f1i23w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299915/original/file-20191101-88403-1f1i23w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299915/original/file-20191101-88403-1f1i23w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299915/original/file-20191101-88403-1f1i23w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299915/original/file-20191101-88403-1f1i23w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There are ways to cut down on the stink.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/male-smelly-foot-colorful-visible-odor-1293754405">Ezume Images/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Remember all this next time everyone’s relaxing, shoes and socks off, toes free. If someone’s little piggies smell like they went to market and bought a ton of stinky cheese, now you can explain what’s going on.</p>
<p>And don’t worry: Other than the offensive smell, stinky feet won’t hurt you. <a href="https://health.clevelandclinic.org/4-sure-fire-ways-you-can-avoid-stinky-feet/">To get rid of the odor</a>, keep them clean and dry. Wear fresh socks and use powder to absorb the sweat that skin bacteria need to grow. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125037/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bill Sullivan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sweaty feet and certain cheeses have something in common that makes them reek – can you guess what it is?Bill Sullivan, Professor of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Indiana UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1179632019-06-11T23:09:02Z2019-06-11T23:09:02ZLab-grown dairy: The next food frontier<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278583/original/file-20190609-52748-3q3tgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=45%2C0%2C5053%2C3305&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Could dairy products soon be produced in labs?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Lab-grown meat is getting a lot of attention along with plant-based meat substitutes. Technology is driving the industry toward providing alternatives to conventionally produced food products. Dairy proteins may be the next product produced in a lab, for use in fluid “milk” production and processed dairy products like yogurt and cheese, to name a few.</p>
<p>Winston Churchill predicted the rise of <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/ezzeye/winston-churchill-predicted-synthetic-lab-grown-meat-in-1931">synthetic foods</a> in 1931.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“We shall escape the absurdity of growing a whole chicken in order to eat the breast or wing, by growing these parts separately under a suitable medium. Synthetic food will, of course, also be used in the future.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>While it took longer than 50 years, his prediction is coming true with meat proteins and now dairy proteins.</p>
<h2>What is synthetic dairy?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.perfectdayfoods.com/">Perfect Day Inc.,</a> a California-based start-up, has recreated the proteins found in conventional cow’s milk without the use of animals. The company developed a form of genetically modified microflora that produces both <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/casein-vs-whey">whey and casein</a> through a fermentation process. </p>
<p>The approach can be loosely compared to the use of brewer’s yeast to produce alcohol. Yeast is used in controlled environments to create fermentation byproducts and the two processes simply employ different yeasts for a different purpose and output.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Could she be headed for an early retirement?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amanda Kerr/Unsplash</span></span>
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<p>Perfect Day says their product is the exact same as the protein found in cow’s milk. <a href="http://milkfacts.info/Nutrition%20Facts/Nutritional%20Components.htm">Conventional milk</a> is approximately 3.3 per cent protein, of which 82 per is casein and 18 per cent is whey. The other main elements are water, fat and carbohydrates. </p>
<p>Perfect Day has the technology to remake the small fraction of milk that is protein, arguably the most important component to produce other foods. The company suggests that its dairy protein is vegan and lactose-free, while providing the same high-quality nutrition as conventional dairy protein. This could have significant appeal for consumers.</p>
<h2>Tough to mimic full-fat milks</h2>
<p>Milk produced by dairy cattle is a versatile ingredient used in various products worldwide. More than <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210011301">70 per cent of milk sold</a> from Canadian farms in 2019 is used for further processing, leaving the remainder to be consumed as fluid milk.</p>
<p>It may be difficult to produce full-fat milks that mimic the taste and texture of cow’s milk. Protein is just one component of fluid milk; milk fat is another, which would likely be the most difficult to mimic with plant-based alternatives. The structure of milk fat provides a specific taste and mouth feel when drinking milk, and this may be a tougher formulation challenge than creating proteins to be used in cheese or yogurt. </p>
<p>The early focus of Perfect Day’s communication was on fluid milk — the kind we drink —but the company has shifted its focus to processed products. </p>
<p>Perfect Day has partnered with food production powerhouse <a href="https://www.adm.com/">Archer Daniels Midland (ADM)</a>, among others, to move towards full-scale production. The company is one of the world’s largest agricultural processors and food ingredient providers with more than 330 manufacturing facilities in almost 200 countries. ADM supplies a vast list of ingredients for both human and animal consumption; synthetic dairy protein may be a perfect addition to their offerings.</p>
<p>Products such as yogurt and cheese are different than fluid milk, and may be more suitable for using lab-grown casein and whey. The synthetic proteins could be used to replace dairy milk ingredients or to complement them.</p>
<p>In <a href="http://www.milkfacts.info/Milk%20Processing/Yogurt%20Production.htm">yogurt production</a>, for example, protein is often added to improve texture. There are differing proportions of milk components in various processed products. This means that fermented casein and whey proteins could augment or replace conventional protein ingredients. This is easier to do in products with high-protein ingredients.</p>
<p>That said, the potential use of animal-free dairy protein goes far beyond traditional dairy products such as cheese and yogurt. Hot dogs that contain milk powder and granola bars that contain modified milk ingredients are examples of the many foods that could use this alternative dairy protein.</p>
<h2>Tackling malnutrition?</h2>
<p>Perfect Day CEO Ryan Pandya <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/perfect-day-2018-ryan-pandya?trk=related_artice_Perfect%20Day%20in%202018_article-card_title">said last year</a>: “We began to look into how we can use our protein to prevent stunted growth and malnutrition in the developing world.” This suggests Perfect Day’s focus is on providing ingredients rather than producing milk.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">We’ve long had an alternative to butter – margarine. But a lot of consumers prefer butter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Some products aren’t well-suited to this approach. Butter, for example, is made from milk fat and has almost no protein. We’ve long had a plant-based alternative to butter — margarine. But many consumers moved away from margarine and back to butter. </p>
<p>The Canadian <a href="http://www.cdc-ccl.gc.ca/CDC/index-eng.php?id=3800">per capita consumption of butter</a> increased from 2.72 kilograms to 3.21 kilograms from 2007 to 2016. This increase in butter demand has led to an <a href="http://www.agrifoodecon.ca/uploads/userfiles/files/logic%20of%20milk%20marketing%20trends%20briefing%20note-%20may%2025%202016.pdf">excess of milk protein</a> in the marketplace in both Canada and the United States.</p>
<p>While it remains to be seen if these fermented proteins can be produced economically, their introduction into the marketplace could cause significant disruption to the dairy industry. The disruption would be due in part to switching some processed products away from conventional dairy proteins.</p>
<p>There would be additional disruption because of the change in relative demand for protein and other milk components. We would likely end up with more significant surpluses of proteins from both conventional dairy and synthetic production.</p>
<h2>The future</h2>
<p>Many issues need to be resolved before these products arrive in our supermarkets. The economics of production have to work. Products need to be reformulated to incorporate the fermented proteins with other ingredients to replace the milk components.</p>
<p>The Canadian Food Inspection Agency currently <a href="http://www.inspection.gc.ca/about-the-cfia/acts-and-regulations/list-of-acts-and-regulations/documents-incorporated-by-reference/canadian-standards-of-identity-volume-1/eng/1521473554991/1521473555532">describes milk</a> as being produced by an animal. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not yet made a policy statement on classifying synthetic milk proteins. </p>
<p>Milk in Canada is also subject to a supply management system that includes quota for production. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-dairy-lobbys-cash-grab-put-canada-in-trumps-crosshairs-102974">How the dairy lobby's cash grab put Canada in Trump’s crosshairs</a>
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<p>Will synthetic casein and whey be subject to the same system? The regulatory environment will require significant clarification, and any changes will be vigorously debated by various interests.</p>
<p>Some consumers will highly value the fact that animals are not required to produce these proteins, creating a vegan, lactose-free product. There will also be a perception that synthetic dairy proteins will have a smaller environmental footprint. </p>
<p>Other consumers will likely have concerns that the proteins are produced using a genetically modified yeast.</p>
<p>Despite these uncertainties, we will likely see synthetic dairy products on grocery shelves within a few years.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117963/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>
Michael von Massow receives funding from the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food to research issues in food waste and nutrition labeling for restaurant menus. He has received funding from the Walmart Foundation to explore food waste at the household level. He has received money from the Tim Hortons Sustainable Food Management Fund to explore consumer attitudes to antibiotic use and animal welfare. He has also received funding from Longo's Brothers Markets in support of research into consumer behaviour in food retail.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mitchell Gingerich does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Dairy proteins may be the next product to be mass produced in labs, for use in fluid “milk” production and processed dairy products like yogurt and cheese.Michael von Massow, Associate Professor, Food Economics, University of GuelphMitchell Gingerich, Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Food, Agriculture and Resource Economics, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1160572019-05-07T23:22:03Z2019-05-07T23:22:03ZWhy cheese may help control your blood sugar<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272355/original/file-20190502-103049-1coe4vd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A study from the University of Alberta suggests that the beneficial effects of cheese might not be related to fat but to some other component, such as protein or calcium.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Mmmm, cheese – a food as nutritious as it is delicious. Or is it? </p>
<p>On the one hand, cheese is an excellent source of minerals like calcium and magnesium, vitamins A, B2 and B12, not to mention being a complete protein. </p>
<p>On the other hand, cheese is also a significant source of saturated fat and sodium in our diets. To lower saturated fat intake, consuming reduced-fat cheese is sometimes recommended to lower cardiovascular disease risk. </p>
<p>Paradoxically, however, there is now a growing body of evidence that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114515005000">people who eat lots of cheese do not have a higher risk of cardiovascular diseases</a>, including Type 2 diabetes. </p>
<p>Our research team at the University of Alberta examined the impact of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2018.10.018">both reduced- and regular-fat cheese on insulin resistance</a> in the bodies of pre-diabetic rats. We found that both types of cheese reduced insulin resistance, which is important to maintain normal blood sugars.</p>
<h2>Why we used rats</h2>
<p>Many of the studies previously conducted into the impact of cheese on cardiovascular disease (CVD) have been observational. In other words, researchers have studied the usual eating behaviour of large numbers of people, usually for years, and then correlated the amount of cheese (and other dairy foods) eaten with the development of CVD risks, such as high cholesterol or coronary artery disease.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272360/original/file-20190502-103053-109t14b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272360/original/file-20190502-103053-109t14b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272360/original/file-20190502-103053-109t14b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272360/original/file-20190502-103053-109t14b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272360/original/file-20190502-103053-109t14b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272360/original/file-20190502-103053-109t14b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272360/original/file-20190502-103053-109t14b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Observational studies of human eating patterns cannot be used to determine causation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>A 2016 survey of published observational studies found that cheese had either a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/an.115.011403">neutral or beneficial effect on several CVD risk factors</a></p>
<p>These studies are very useful to establish trends associated with usual eating patterns but they can’t definitively say that a particular food causes or prevents a particular disease. </p>
<p>To understand causation better, studies that examine the effects of foods in a controlled setting are useful. These studies can be conducted in humans but there are limitations. Thus, studies in laboratory animals can also be useful, particularly in understanding biochemical mechanisms.</p>
<h2>Cheese and insulin resistance</h2>
<p>Insulin resistance is a condition that commonly develops with ageing and obesity, leading to high blood glucose, and risk factor of CVD and Type 2 diabetes. </p>
<p>Our objective was to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2018.10.018">compare how consuming reduced- versus regular-fat cheese affected insulin resistance, and to explore biochemical mechanisms that might explain any observed effects</a>.</p>
<p>We used a rat model of insulin resistance that shares many characteristics with humans. We created the model by feeding the rats high amounts of lard. After four weeks, the rats were divided into three groups: 1) lard diet, 2) lard diet and reduced-fat cheddar cheese, 3) lard diet and regular fat cheddar cheese. </p>
<p>All the diets had the same total amount of fat, only the source of it varied (lard versus cheese). The rats ate these diets for eight more weeks.</p>
<p>The most interesting finding in our research was that both reduced- and regular-fat cheddar cheese reduced insulin resistance in the rats. This suggests that the beneficial effects of cheese might not be related to the amount of fat but to some other component, such as the protein or the calcium.</p>
<h2>Butter versus cheese</h2>
<p>A few new studies in humans have appeared in the literature since we began our study. A group from Laval University and the University of Manitoba <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.116.150300">compared the effects of eating fats from different sources in men and women with abdominal obesity</a>. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272361/original/file-20190502-103060-12xwz2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272361/original/file-20190502-103060-12xwz2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272361/original/file-20190502-103060-12xwz2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272361/original/file-20190502-103060-12xwz2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272361/original/file-20190502-103060-12xwz2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272361/original/file-20190502-103060-12xwz2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272361/original/file-20190502-103060-12xwz2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Another study tested butter, cheese, olive oil and corn oil diets and found no impact on insulin levels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>The diet duration was four weeks and each diet was assessed in all the participants. Butter, cheese, olive oil and corn oil diets (32 per cent calories from fat) were compared with a higher carbohydrate diet (25 per cent calories from fat). </p>
<p>The researchers examined blood glucose and insulin levels (which are indirect indicators of insulin resistance) and found no effect from any of the fats. However, the blood samples were collected after fasting, so the information about blood sugar was incomplete.</p>
<p>Another <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12986-018-0300-0">study that compared reduced- to regular-fat cheese</a> found no overall differences on LDL-cholesterol characteristics in people with cardiovascular disease risk factors, but did not examine blood sugar-related outcomes.</p>
<h2>Changing blood metabolites</h2>
<p>In our study, we also examined how metabolites in the blood changed after cheese feeding and found similar effects in reduced- and regular-fat cheese. </p>
<p>The changes are related to a specific type of molecule called phospholipids, which have many functions in the body. Interestingly, low-circulating phospholipids are linked with diabetes and insulin resistance in humans. </p>
<p>The rats fed on a lard diet had lower phospholipid levels. These were normalized in the rats that ate cheese. </p>
<p>We are pursuing this line of research now — to understand how cheese regulates phospholipid metabolism and how this relates to insulin resistance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116057/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This study was funded by the Dairy Farmers of Canada and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council. A representative of Dairy Farmers of Canada reviewed the manuscript prior to submission but had no role with respect to study design, data collection, analysis or interpretation, writing of the manuscript and its final content, or the decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
Catherine Chan receives funding from Dairy Farmers of Canada, Alberta Agriculture Funding Consortium, Danone Institute, Canadian Institutes for Health Research, Lawson Foundation, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, Canadian Foundation for Dietetics Research, Egg Farmers of Canada, Alberta Health Services </span></em></p>A recent research study found that cheese reduced insulin resistance in prediabetic rat models.Catherine Chan, Professor, Agricultural Life and Environmental Sciences, University of AlbertaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1143302019-03-27T12:08:09Z2019-03-27T12:08:09ZBrexit with brie? Common Market 2.0 proposal explained – through the import and export of cheese<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266076/original/file-20190327-139364-1xwdlj3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/465300203?size=medium_jpg">ULKASTUDIO/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Amid the ongoing Brexit standoff, one proposal that has been gaining traction and which MPs will now vote on in a series of <a href="https://theconversation.com/brexit-q-a-what-are-indicative-votes-and-how-do-they-work-114229">indicative votes in parliament</a>, has been the <a href="http://betterbrexit.org.uk/about/">cross-party plan</a> for a “Common Market 2.0”. </p>
<p>Superficially, the plan resolves a number of the challenges posed by Brexit, including the thorny issue of the Irish border and the UK’s future trading relationship with the EU. But the plan – also known as Norway+ because it has similarities with the EU’s relationship with Norway – involves the UK compromising on a number of its current red lines, while at the same time requiring a fundamental revision of one of the EU’s existing free trade agreements. </p>
<p>One way to understand how a Common Market 2.0 might work – and how it would differ to other options on the table – is to look at one type of good that might move between countries. Say, cheese.</p>
<p>First, it’s important to establish the difference between a free trade agreement and a customs union. As a rule, tariffs are applied on the basis of where goods originate from. The EU’s free trade agreement with Canada, for example, means that you can import Canadian Avonlea cheese into the EU free from tariffs. However, the EU’s lack of an free trade agreement with the US means that American Monterey Jack cheese is charged at €221.20/100kg. If you first export Monterey Jack to Canada, and then from Canada to the EU it will still be chargeable, as the goods originated in the US. Under a free trade agreement, checks on where good originated – known as “rules of origin” checks – are still required.</p>
<p>A customs union is a more advanced form of trading relationship, where you agree not only to remove any tariffs on each other’s goods, but also to apply the same tariffs on goods originating from third countries. This means, for the purposes of the EU customs union, that Monterey Jack will be treated the same whether it is imported to Belgium or Bulgaria. Within a customs union it’s unnecessary to check from where goods originate when they cross a border as they will already have received the appropriate customs treatment.</p>
<h2>Back to the 1990s</h2>
<p>The Common Market 2.0 idea is an attempt to reverse engineer the previous 25 years of EU integration, reverting the UK’s participation in the EU to the position before the Maastricht Treaty was agreed in 1992.</p>
<p>Under the plan, the UK would rejoin the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) of which it was a founding member prior to joining the European Economic Community. The UK would also accede to the European Economic Area (EEA) agreement with the EU. This is a two-pillared agreement between the EU, as well as three of the four EFTA members: Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, but not Switzerland. This is often known as the “Norway model”.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265945/original/file-20190326-36252-rn8cc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265945/original/file-20190326-36252-rn8cc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265945/original/file-20190326-36252-rn8cc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265945/original/file-20190326-36252-rn8cc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265945/original/file-20190326-36252-rn8cc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265945/original/file-20190326-36252-rn8cc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=680&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265945/original/file-20190326-36252-rn8cc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=680&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265945/original/file-20190326-36252-rn8cc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=680&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Under Common Market 2.0, the UK would be the only state outside of the EU to participate in both the EU customs union and the single market. The lack of a red line bisecting Ireland is the reason why a customs union is so attractive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dr Stuart MacLennan</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Such an approach would result in the UK adopting EU-EEA measures relating to the internal market, including the free movement of goods and services, and competition law. But the UK would no longer be subject to the direct jurisdiction of the Court of Justice of the EU, which would be replaced by the jurisdiction of the <a href="http://www.eftacourt.int/">EFTA Court</a>.</p>
<p>Under this approach, regulatory alignment is all but guaranteed, as standards would ultimately be agreed by the EU and EEA (of which the UK would be a member) – meaning that all cheese capable of being sold in the EU, be that French brie or Dutch edam, ought to be capable of being sold in the UK and vice versa.</p>
<p>What moves the Common Market 2.0 proposal beyond simply replicating the Norway model, however, is that it also involves the UK entering a customs union directly with the EU, thereby removing the need for rules of origin checks on the Irish border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Checks on cheese moving between Norway and Sweden are rare – but they do happen. By entering into a customs union with the EU such checks along the Northern Irish border would never be necessary.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/brexit-why-is-the-irish-border-backstop-so-crucial-to-securing-a-brexit-deal-113398">Brexit: why is the Irish border 'backstop' so crucial to securing a Brexit deal?</a>
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<p>The major stumbling block with Common Market 2.0, however, is that under the EFTA agreement it’s not currently possible for member states to enter into a customs union with other states – whether the EU or otherwise. So Norway cannot enter into a customs union directly with the EU, or the US, for example. If the UK were to seek this, it would require special treatment not only by the EU, but by EFTA as well – the political difficulties of which have been largely overlooked.</p>
<h2>Free movement question</h2>
<p>The Common Market 2.0 arrangement would also, controversially for many, involve the UK continuing with the free movement of persons. The key piece of legislation providing free movement rights for EU and EEA citizens – directive 2004/38 – was incorporated into <a href="https://www.efta.int/sites/default/files/documents/legal-texts/eea/other-legal-documents/adopted-joint-committee-decisions/2007%20-%20English/158-2007.pdf">EEA law in 2007</a>. </p>
<p>One saving grace for the UK might be the <a href="https://www.efta.int/sites/default/files/documents/legal-texts/eea/other-legal-documents/adopted-joint-committee-decisions/2007%20-%20English/158-2007-declaration.pdf">joint declaration</a> attached to that 2007 EEA decision that it cannot be the basis for the creation of political rights, and that the directive does not impinge upon immigration policy. This reflects the fact that the primary focus of EEA law is on economically active migrants, rather than EU citizens.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/brexit-a-norwegian-view-on-the-norway-plus-model-and-why-it-wouldnt-be-easy-for-the-uk-109981">Brexit: a Norwegian view on the Norway-plus model and why it wouldn't be easy for the UK</a>
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<p>The Common Market 2.0 approach is therefore unlikely to be viable. Not only would it enrage the right wing of the Conservative Party, it would require agreement from the EU, the EEA and Switzerland. Given the difficulties the UK has had agreeing a deal with one trading bloc, trying to win over three – the EU, the EEA, and EFTA, as well a domestic audience – looks near-impossible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/114330/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stuart MacLennan is a member of the Labour Party.</span></em></p>What is the Common Market 2.0 proposal, also known as Norway+ and what would it mean in practice?Stuart MacLennan, Senior Lecturer in Law, Coventry UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1083562018-12-11T15:04:35Z2018-12-11T15:04:35ZCopyright law does not protect the taste of cheese<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249226/original/file-20181206-128196-a4891y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Umomos via Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>“Blessed are the cheesemakers”, runs the famous line from the Monty Python film Life of Brian. But a recent court case gives the lie to the notion that manufacturers of cheese have fortune on their side, after the court that interprets EU law ruled that cheese cannot be protected by copyright.</p>
<p>In November 2018, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) handed down its judgment in the case of <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/GA/TXT/?uri=CELEX:62017CN0310">Levola Hengelo v Smilde Foods</a> – in which one cheesemaker sued another because they said their rival’s product tasted the same as theirs. The ruling, that copyright law does not protect the taste of cheese, is important because it affects more than cheese. The judgment implies that other similar products such as perfumes cannot be copyrighted either. </p>
<p>While it might be bad news for the makers of cheese or scents, it’s an important judgment for British and Irish artists as the court’s argument implies that their creations do not have to fall into one of the eight rigid categories of the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1988/48/contents">UK Copyright Act</a> – such as “literary, dramatic and musical works” or “artistic works” – and therefore more works are protectable.</p>
<p>This may sound counter-intuitive but in fact it is not. In the UK and Ireland, until the Levola decision, it was not sufficient for a creation to be an original expression, it needed to fit into one of the categories provided in the act – and different categories, under UK law, had different rights under the act. But, in continental Europe, to be protected by copyright, creations do not have to fall within categories – they just have to be an author’s original expression. So the creation of a new perfume, cheese, cake, painting – to name but a few – is arguably an author’s original expression.</p>
<p>This is why this case came to the CJEU. A Dutch company making spreadable cheese sued a competitor for copyright infringement as it argued the other company’s cheese had a similar taste. The competitor counterclaimed that the taste of cheese was not protectable by copyright. Up until then, Dutch courts had found that <a href="https://uitspraken.rechtspraak.nl/inziendocument?id=ECLI:NL:HR:2006:AU8940&showbutton=true&keyword=kecofa">perfumes were subject to copyright</a>. So why not tastes as well? The Dutch cheese-making company sued and the Dutch court referred this decision to the CJEU.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249261/original/file-20181206-128208-pcmpn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249261/original/file-20181206-128208-pcmpn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249261/original/file-20181206-128208-pcmpn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249261/original/file-20181206-128208-pcmpn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249261/original/file-20181206-128208-pcmpn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249261/original/file-20181206-128208-pcmpn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249261/original/file-20181206-128208-pcmpn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Perfume is not protected under copyright law either.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Africa Studio via Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The CJEU replied that, apart from being an author’s original expression, a work also had to “be expressed in a manner which makes it identifiable with sufficient precision and objectivity, even though that expression is not necessarily in permanent form”. In other words, something cannot be protected by copyright if it is vague and subjective. It concluded that because tastes do not pass this hurdle, copyright cannot protect them. </p>
<p>But it added that if in the future, technology could identify tastes with enough precision and objectivity, then copyright could protect tastes. So, it did not completely close the door to the protection of tastes and smells. A more detailed examination of this judgment <a href="https://cla.co.uk/blog/higher-education/copyright-cheese">can be found here</a>.</p>
<h2>What’s in it for the UK?</h2>
<p>The decision is great news for artists in the UK because it also <em>de facto</em> abolishes the requirement of categorisation. In the past, some artists were not protected. There was a <a href="http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/Ch/1997/370.html">famous legal dispute in 1997</a> regarding use by a UK tabloid newspaper of an image that was very similar to the cover of Oasis’s Be Here Now album. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249244/original/file-20181206-128214-ibs7ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249244/original/file-20181206-128214-ibs7ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249244/original/file-20181206-128214-ibs7ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249244/original/file-20181206-128214-ibs7ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249244/original/file-20181206-128214-ibs7ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249244/original/file-20181206-128214-ibs7ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249244/original/file-20181206-128214-ibs7ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s Oasis, but is it art?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Oasisnet</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The UK courts held that this scene was not protected by copyright because it could not fall in one of the subcategories of artistic works. It could not be a work of artistic craftsmanship as it was not crafted and it could not be a collage as the objects were not stuck to the ground with glue. It could not be sculpture as it was not carved, modelled or made in any of the other ways in which sculpture is made, and it could not be a dramatic work as there was no action (all objects and persons were static). </p>
<p>Because UK courts are bound by CJEU decisions, these sorts of scenes are now clearly protectable – even if the UK Copyright Act has not yet been modified to take account of the Levola decision, UK courts have to interpret the country’s copyright law in light of the ruling recognising the copyright in an artist’s original work of expression. This means that all sorts of modern, abstract, avant garde, mixed media art works now clearly fall within the realm of copyright law. </p>
<p>The Levola decision also means that it does not matter in which category these works used to fall – it has clarified that as long as something is an original artistic expression that can be clearly described (so not cheese or perfume, but books, paintings, songs, movies and the like). So, given that EU law, including CJEU case law, affects the way copyright is protected in the UK and Ireland as well, it means that all creators of artistic works, no matter how different they may be, will enjoy the same rights.</p>
<p>It may be that one day it will be possible to identify tastes and smells with enough precision and objectivity and that they will be protected by copyright in the EU. But for now, companies can imitate their competitors’s cheeses and perfumes without the fear of breaching any copyright.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/108356/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Estelle Derclaye has in the past received funding to do research from the European Commission, UK Intellectual Property Office, BILETA (<a href="http://www.bileta.ac.uk">http://www.bileta.ac.uk</a>), the Max Planck Institute, the German Academic Exchange Service, the Franco-British Lawyers society and Research Council UK. She is a member of the European Copyright Society: <a href="http://www.europeancopyrightsociety.org">www.europeancopyrightsociety.org</a> </span></em></p>A judgment by the European court has extended copyright to all literary and artistic creations, but cheese is still not protected.Estelle Derclaye, Professor of intellectual property law, University of NottinghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1020842018-08-29T10:15:20Z2018-08-29T10:15:20ZThe surprising role cheese played in human evolution<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234042/original/file-20180829-195298-c94cey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A solid white mass found in a broken jar in an Ancient Egyptian tomb has turned out to be the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-45233347">world’s oldest example</a> of solid cheese. </p>
<p>Probably made mostly from sheep or goats milk, the cheese was found several years ago by archaeologists in the <a href="http://time.com/5371503/ancient-egypt-tomb-old-cheese/">ancient tomb of Ptahmes</a>, who was a high-ranking Egyptian official. The substance was identified after the archaeology team carried out <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.analchem.8b02535">biomolecular identification of its proteins</a>.</p>
<p>This 3,200-year-old find is exciting because it shows that the Ancient Egyptian’s shared our love of cheese – to the extent it was given as a funerary offering. But not only that, it also fits into archaeology’s growing understanding of the importance of dairy to the development of the human diet in Europe. </p>
<h2>Dairy in diets</h2>
<p>About two-thirds of the world’s population <a href="https://www.karger.com/Article/PDF/360136">is lactose intolerant</a>. So although dairy products are a daily part of the diet for many living in Europe, Northern India and North America, drinking milk in adulthood was only possible from <a href="https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/13155/nature14507.pdf?sequence=2">the Bronze Age</a>, over the last 4,500 years. </p>
<p>For most of human history, adults lost the ability to consume milk after infancy – and the same is true of people who are lactose intolerant today. After weaning, people with lactose intolerance can no longer produce <a href="https://www.karger.com/Article/PDF/360136">the enzyme lactase</a>. This is necessary to break down the lactose sugars in fresh milk into compounds that can be easily digested. People with lactose intolerance experience unpleasant symptoms if they consume dairy products such as bloating, flatulence and diarrhoea. </p>
<p><a href="https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/13155/nature14507.pdf?sequence=2">Ancient DNA analysis</a> on human skeletons from prehistoric Europe places the earliest appearance of the gene lactase gene (LCT) – which keeps adults producing lactase – to 2,500BC. But there is plenty of evidence from the Neolithic period (around 6,000-2,500BC in Europe) that milk was being consumed. </p>
<p>This is not totally surprising though, as the Neolithic marks the start of farming in most regions of Europe – and the first time humans lived closely alongside animals. And although they were unable to digest milk, we know that Neolithic populations were processing milk into substances they could consume. </p>
<h2>Archaeological evidence</h2>
<p>Using a technique called “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature07180">lipid analysis</a>”, sherds of ancient pottery can be analysed and fats absorbed into the clay identified. This then allows archaeologists to find out what was cooked or processed inside them. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234044/original/file-20180829-195325-gf7shx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234044/original/file-20180829-195325-gf7shx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234044/original/file-20180829-195325-gf7shx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234044/original/file-20180829-195325-gf7shx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234044/original/file-20180829-195325-gf7shx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234044/original/file-20180829-195325-gf7shx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234044/original/file-20180829-195325-gf7shx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We have ancient ancestors to thank for the cheese we eat today.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although it is not yet possible to identify the species of animal, dairy fats can be distinguished. It is also challenging to determine what techniques were being used to make dairy products safe to consume, with many potential options. Fermenting milk, for example, breaks down the lactose sugar into lactic acid. Cheese is low in lactose because it involves separating curd (from which cheese is made) from whey, in which the majority of the lactose sugars remain. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/news/archaeology-the-milk-revolution-1.13471">Clay sieves from Poland</a>, similar to modern cheese sieves, have been found to have dairy lipids preserved in the pores of clay, suggesting that they were being used to separate curds from the whey. Whether the curds were then consumed or attempts made to preserve them by pressing into a harder cheese is unknown. Fermentation of milk was also possible to our ancestors, but harder to explore with the techniques currently available to archaeology. </p>
<h2>Early cheese making</h2>
<p>While the techniques from bioarchaeology have provided this fantastic detail on Neolithic diets, where the science stops, experimental archaeology can explore what was possible. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jVx-O9ZYa3A">We have been making cheese</a> using the <a href="http://www.prehistoricsociety.org/files/PAST_84_for_web.pdf">utensils, plants and techniques</a> available to Neolithic farmers. The aim of the experiments is not to faithfully recreate early cheeses, but to begin to capture some of the decisions available to early cheese makers – and the experiments have thrown up some interesting results. </p>
<p>By using these ancient techniques, we have discovered that a wealth of different means of curdling the milk would have been possible, each producing different forms, tastes and amounts of cheese. </p>
<p>And such specialist knowledge may have been akin to the spread of bronze smelting at the end of the Neolithic. Dairy may have had a special status among foodstuffs. For example, at the major late <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/feeding-stonehenge-cuisine-and-consumption-at-the-late-neolithic-site-of-durrington-walls/E60784FB3D83BFF8ED22A2E9393B5B3E">Neolithic feasting site of Durrington Walls</a>, not far from and contemporary with Stonehenge, dairy residues were found in a particular kind of pottery vessel and concentrated in the area around a timber circle – a form of Late Neolithic monument. </p>
<p>From the Bronze Age, however, lactase persistence offered an advantage to some people who were able to pass this on to their offspring. It also seems that this advantage was not solely because of increased calorie and nutrient intake alone – but because of the special status dairy foods may have had. The development of this biological adaption to fresh milk took place after humans had already found ways to safely include dairy products in the diet. </p>
<p>This shows that humans are not only able to manipulate their food to make it edible, but that what we consume can also lead to new adaptations in our biology.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102084/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Penny Bickle receives funding from the AHRC. </span></em></p>Archaeologists have discovered the world’s oldest cheese, and it reveals how our ancestor’s cooking methods helped the human diet adapt.Penny Bickle, Lecturer in Archaeology, University of YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/981562018-07-23T20:07:04Z2018-07-23T20:07:04ZIs cheese bad for you? We asked five experts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222716/original/file-20180612-182733-pcwywc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cheese contains saturated fats, but we don't actually know if that's what clogs our arteries.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Almost everyone loves a good vegemite and cheddar sandwich or some brie with a glass of wine. But the evidence seems to shift about whether or not cheese should be part of a healthy diet.</p>
<p>Most types of cheese contain salt and saturated fat, but it’s also high in protein and calcium, so what’s the verdict?</p>
<p>We asked five experts if cheese is bad for our health.</p>
<h2>Five out of five experts said no</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222715/original/file-20180612-182713-1vuuq73.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222715/original/file-20180612-182713-1vuuq73.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222715/original/file-20180612-182713-1vuuq73.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=99&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222715/original/file-20180612-182713-1vuuq73.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=99&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222715/original/file-20180612-182713-1vuuq73.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=99&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222715/original/file-20180612-182713-1vuuq73.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=125&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222715/original/file-20180612-182713-1vuuq73.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=125&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222715/original/file-20180612-182713-1vuuq73.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=125&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<p><strong><em>Here are their detailed responses:</em></strong></p>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-281" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/281/00b1df734b209a05407adbcc187a91a6dcbf355c/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p><em>If you have a “yes or no” health question you’d like posed to Five Experts, email your suggestion to: alexandra.hansen@theconversation.edu.au</em></p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210303/original/file-20180314-113452-h7un11.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210303/original/file-20180314-113452-h7un11.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210303/original/file-20180314-113452-h7un11.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210303/original/file-20180314-113452-h7un11.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210303/original/file-20180314-113452-h7un11.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210303/original/file-20180314-113452-h7un11.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210303/original/file-20180314-113452-h7un11.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em>Disclosures: Rebecca Reynolds owns The Real Bok Choy, a nutrition and lifestyle consultancy.</em></p>
<p><em>Clare Collins is affiliated with the Priority Research Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition, the University of Newcastle, NSW. She is an NHMRC Senior Research and Gladys M Brawn Research Fellow. She has received research grants from NHMRC, ARC, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Meat and Livestock Australia, Diabetes Australia, Heart Foundation, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, nib foundation. She has consulted to SHINE Australia, Novo Nordisk, Quality Bakers and the Sax Institute. She was a team member conducting systematic reviews to inform the Australian Dietary Guidelines update and 2017 evidence review on dietary patterns for the Heart Foundation.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98156/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Good news for cheese-lovers: all five experts said no.Alexandra Hansen, Deputy Editor and Chief of Staff, The Conversation AUNZLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/794692017-12-13T11:23:51Z2017-12-13T11:23:51ZGold rush opportunists, hippie goat ladies, Latino newcomers: California entrepreneurs dream of cheese<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198638/original/file-20171211-9396-2ppeyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=182%2C82%2C3245%2C2443&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Humboldt Fog chèvre, born in a dream.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.cypressgrovecheese.com/resources/press-kit.html">T.Depaepe</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The idea for Humboldt Fog goat’s milk cheese first came to Mary Keehn in a dream. She fell asleep on an airplane and awoke with a vivid picture in her mind of how the cheese looked. And then she set out to realize her vision – in the process, helping to launch a late-20th-century American renaissance in artisan cheese-making.</p>
<p>But the dream didn’t come from nowhere. In Keehn’s telling, the revelation occurred on a transatlantic flight home from France, where she’d gone in 1992 as a young cheese-maker looking for new inspiration by tasting traditional French cheeses and visiting their makers. Indeed, a wheel of Humboldt Fog melds elements of two iconic French cheeses, with a Morbier-like ribbon of ash running through chalky paste more reminiscent of a soft-ripened Valançay. The result is thoroughly distinct.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.cypressgrovecheese.com/about-us/our-story.html">story of Keehn’s Cypress Grove Cheese</a> is a quintessential telling of the California dream. Not merely an entrepreneurial success story, it is a narrative of self-reinvention. The California dream is about moving west (or, as in Keehn’s case, farther north, to Humboldt County from Sonoma) to start anew, seeking not so much to get rich quick as to envision and inhabit a new identity. Cypress Grove’s heroine embodies characteristics that could describe the American artisan cheese industry as a whole: scrappy, innovative and unapologetically indebted to European tastes and know-how – condensing themes that emerged through anthropological research I conducted across the United States for my book, “<a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520270183">The Life of Cheese</a>.”</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A day in the life of Humboldt Fog.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Back to the land, making cheese</h2>
<p>Mary Keehn acquired her first goats in 1970, wanting to feed fresh goat’s milk to her first daughter, whom she was herself then weaning. For years, Keehn and her family lived as self-sufficiently as possible. Overwhelmed with more goat’s milk than her human companions could or were willing to drink, she began experimenting in her kitchen and learned to make fresh cheese, or chèvre. </p>
<p>A friend who was opening a restaurant told Keehn, now a divorced mother of four, “If you start a [licensed] cheese factory, I’ll buy your cheese.” And in 1983 – without any official training, apprenticeship or business experience beyond selling her goats’ breed stock – Keehn launched <a href="http://www.cypressgrovecheese.com/cheese/">Cypress Grove</a>. For nine years, prior to the trip to France and subsequent introduction of Humboldt Fog, Cypress Grove sold fresh chèvre and fromage blanc, cheeses more wholesome than gourmet.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mary Keehn with a new wheel of Humboldt Fog.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.cypressgrovecheese.com/resources/press-kit.html">Cyprus Grove</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Indeed, Keehn was one of a number of Americans involved in the back-to-the-land movement who, in the early ‘80s, began making cheese by hand for commercial sale. Located in the Northern California coastal town of Arcata, Keehn grew Cypress Grove into a successful business with national distribution and name recognition that employs over 40 workers – a far cry from its modest origins. In 2010, Keehn sold the company to the Swiss corporation Emmi, although her daily involvement continues.</p>
<p>Today’s cheese lovers can drive (or internet browse) along the <a href="http://cheesetrail.org/trail-map/">California Cheese Trail</a>, stretching from Crescent City near the Oregon border south to Los Angeles. It leads to artisan microdairies as well as Kraft Foods subsidiaries. Created in 2010 by a Marin County dairy farmer’s daughter on the model of wine-tasting maps, the California Cheese Trail today features 72 cheese-making operations. Nationwide, the <a href="http://www.cheesesociety.org/events-education/state-of-the-industry/">American Cheese Society</a> counts more than 900 artisan and specialty cheese operations.</p>
<p>Reflective of the state’s cultural diversity, the variety in California cheese-making is neither new nor unique to the state. But it is indicative of how <a href="https://www.crcpress.com/Edible-Identities-Food-as-Cultural-Heritage/Brulotte-Giovine/p/book/9781138634947">food-making traditions</a> in the United States are often animated by personal narratives of innovation rather than, as in Europe, adherence to customary tradition.</p>
<p>Since 2000, the number of California’s artisan cheese producers has grown exponentially. But while hippie goat ladies have been celebrated as cheese-making pioneers, they are not without precedent. The California dream of a century earlier saw a similar flourishing of cheese-making activity in port cities up and down the Pacific Coast.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">San Francisco harbor at Yerba Buena Cove was so busy during the Gold Rush that ships could wait days to unload.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2004664511/">Sterling C. McIntyre, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Gold rush roots for new cheese markets</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.marinfrenchcheese.com/">Marin French Cheese Company</a>, in Petaluma, California, claims to be the oldest continuously operating cheese factory in the United States. In 1865, with Lincoln in the White House and the Civil War coming to an end, Marin French (originally Thompson Brothers Cheese Co.) got its start when Jefferson Thompson, a dairy farmer, recognized an emergent market niche in the nearby port town of San Francisco. </p>
<p>The now late Jim Boyce, who purchased Marin French in 1998 from Thompson’s descendants, related the company’s history to me in the course of my <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520270183">own research</a>. During the California Gold Rush between 1849 and 1855, European stevedores who sailed into what’s now called San Francisco Bay delivering goods to support the mining enterprises got “caught up in the fever” themselves. Many abandoned ship to seek their own fortunes mining.</p>
<p>After the gold rush went bust, workers returned to the bay to make a living at the dockyards. As Boyce said to me, “Now, in any workman’s bar or inn… the beer gives them hydration and carbohydrate but no protein,” so “typically in a workman’s bar there’s a jar of pickled eggs or something like that – pig knuckles, sausage.” But in the Bay Area at that time agriculture had yet to be fully developed. “There weren’t any eggs,” Boyce explained, as there were no commercial hen farms. So according to Boyce, enterprising dairy farmer Jefferson Thompson said to himself:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“in a moment of marketing brilliance, ‘I wonder if they’d eat cheese, instead?’ So he starts making these little cheeses, three-ounce cheeses, more or less. And he hauls them off to the docks, and they put them on the table in a bowl, and they were an immediate hit! Why? Because these are European stevedores: They knew cheese! They ate it breakfast, lunch and dinner. And that was the origin of the company.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/_Te1OHOtLk","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>With new migrants come new tastes</h2>
<p>If Mary Keehn’s Humboldt Fog exemplifies personal insight and passion, Jefferson Thompson’s Breakfast Cheese (now Marin French’s <a href="http://www.marinfrenchcheese.com/history/petite-breakfast/">Petite Breakfast</a>) celebrates the generation of new markets. It’s a reminder that the California dream of entrepreneurial reinvention requires not only creative genius but also the appreciative taste of willing consumers.</p>
<p>The Gold Rush brought European deckhands eager to eat soft-ripened cheeses. Marin French was at the ready, hand-ladling Camembert. In the late-20th century, hippie eaters of “health foods” gave way to American Europhiles who valued a diversity of distinctive tastes.</p>
<p>Here it is worth remembering that California, nearly all the up way to present-day Arcata, was until 1848 part of Mexico. Cross-cutting immigrant histories have long underwritten the California dream – and they still do.</p>
<p>The California Cheese Trail declares <a href="http://ariza-cheese.com/">Ariza Cheese</a>, established in 1970, to be “the oldest artisan Mexican cheese-maker in Southern California.” It specializes in Salvadoran cheeses in addition to crumbly Mexican Cotija. You will find Ariza just off Alondra Blvd. in the city of Paramont, east of Compton in LA County.</p>
<p>In 2015, four of the company’s long-term employees – immigrants from Mexico and El Salvador – <a href="https://laopinion.com/2015/02/01/ariza-la-adquisicion-de-un-sueno/">purchased</a> the company with the aid of <a href="http://www.concernedcapital.org/">Concerned Capital</a>, a social benefit corporation that invests in low- to moderate-income communities by helping to transfer business ownership to workers.</p>
<p>In 21st-century narratives of new beginnings are echoes of earlier immigrant worlds. Dreams upon dreams – while consumers continue to savor California cheeses with wide-ranging inspirations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79469/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heather Paxson receives funding from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. She is on the Academic Advisory Committee of Oldways Cheese Coalition.</span></em></p>California’s artisan cheese-making industry has followed the changing tastes of the state’s population waves, from the mid-1800s through today.Heather Paxson, Professor of Anthropology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/688082016-11-25T04:41:16Z2016-11-25T04:41:16ZResearch Check: can eating aged cheese help you age well?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146712/original/image-20161121-25642-enia5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A compound found in aged cheese has been linked to better ageing processes.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most people are interested in how to slow the ageing process, or at least they get more interested as the years tick by. So when new research promises to have discovered the secret, which happens to include eating more of a food that tastes great but often appears on “eat less” food lists, it is bound to make the headlines.</p>
<p>According to a recent article in <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/health-and-wellbeing/nutrition/aged-cheese-could-help-you-age-well-20161114-gsp5m0.html">The Sydney Morning Herald</a>, “aged cheese could help you age well”. The article was based on research published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nm.4222.html">Nature Medicine</a>. It showed that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermidine">spermidine</a> – a compound found in aged cheese, legumes and whole grains – could extend the life of mice when added to their drinking water. </p>
<p>A separate study within the Nature Medicine paper looked at the diets of around 800 Italians. It concluded that those who had a high spermidine intake had lower blood pressure and a 40% lower risk of heart failure and other heart diseases.</p>
<p>So if the newspaper report is accurate, then it would be time to get out the cheese and crackers. But before the party starts, let’s take a closer look at the original paper, in which cheese plays a very small, almost insignificant, part.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147527/original/image-20161125-15348-1ulznbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147527/original/image-20161125-15348-1ulznbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=810&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147527/original/image-20161125-15348-1ulznbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=810&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147527/original/image-20161125-15348-1ulznbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=810&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147527/original/image-20161125-15348-1ulznbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1018&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147527/original/image-20161125-15348-1ulznbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1018&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147527/original/image-20161125-15348-1ulznbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1018&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Spermidine</h2>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermidine">Spermidine</a> is a naturally occurring compound originally found, as its name suggests, in semen. It is present throughout the human body and plays a vital role in cell survival. Studies have shown spermidine supplements can extend the lifespan of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19801973">worms, flies and yeast</a>. </p>
<p>The Nature Medicine paper is a series of several studies and analyses in mice, rats and humans. </p>
<h2>Studies in mice</h2>
<p>The first study compared the effects of adding spermidine, or the related compound spermine, to drinking water in mice, and the effects of not doing so; for either their whole life or starting only at middle age. Researchers found adding the compounds increased lifespan: good news if you are a mouse. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146719/original/image-20161121-4528-toqrb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146719/original/image-20161121-4528-toqrb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146719/original/image-20161121-4528-toqrb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146719/original/image-20161121-4528-toqrb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146719/original/image-20161121-4528-toqrb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146719/original/image-20161121-4528-toqrb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146719/original/image-20161121-4528-toqrb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146719/original/image-20161121-4528-toqrb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Two groups of mice were tested for spermidine’s effects on different health measures.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The next analysis is bad news for mice. Researchers looked for the development of tumours related to ageing in the mice in the first study and found no difference between the supplemented and unsupplemented mice. </p>
<p>This meant the supplement in the water didn’t prevent tumours mice get due to ageing. The conclusion then drawn was that the longer life seen in the first study was not due to cancer prevention. </p>
<p>There was not much difference in the heart tissue between groups that had spermidine and those that didn’t. So researchers looked more broadly at heart characteristics and found the hearts in the supplemented group were structurally more healthy. </p>
<p>There were a number of other comparisons that looked at hearts in mice.</p>
<h2>The rat study</h2>
<p>In the rat study, <a href="http://www.criver.com/products-services/basic-research/find-a-model/dahl-salt-sensitive-(dahl-ss)-rat">salt-sensitive Dahl rats</a> – a type bred to develop high blood pressure when fed a high-salt diet – were given food really high in salt. Half of the rats had spermidine added to their drinking water and half did not. </p>
<p>From weeks nine to 15 of the study, the rats in the spermidine group had significantly lower blood pressure compared to the others. But at the end of the study there was not much difference between the two groups. </p>
<h2>The human study</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146720/original/image-20161121-4547-agl0jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146720/original/image-20161121-4547-agl0jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146720/original/image-20161121-4547-agl0jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146720/original/image-20161121-4547-agl0jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146720/original/image-20161121-4547-agl0jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146720/original/image-20161121-4547-agl0jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146720/original/image-20161121-4547-agl0jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146720/original/image-20161121-4547-agl0jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The diets of 100 Italians were put under the microscope.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the final human analysis, researchers recorded the diets of more than 800 Italians at three time points (1995, 2000 and 2005) and the number of heart-related events they experienced. These were high blood pressure, heart failure, stroke and premature death from heart disease over the 15 years from 1995 to 2010. </p>
<p>The study found about a 40% lower risk of heart failure, both fatal and non-fatal, among those with the highest spermidine intakes compared to those with the lowest. It also found a significantly lower risk of any heart disease – based on a composite score that included acute coronary artery disease, stroke, high blood pressure and death from vascular disease – among those with the highest versus lowest spermidine intakes.</p>
<p>Of greatest relevance to this analysis is that the biggest contributor to spermidine intakes in this cohort was wholemeal foods, accounting for 13.4% of intake. Next were apples and pears (13.3%), salad (9.8%), vegetable sprouts (7.3%) and potatoes (6.4%). Aged cheese was listed sixth and accounted for only 2.9% of estimated spermidine intake.</p>
<h2>What can we take from it?</h2>
<p>This extensive body of work is a credit to the researchers involved and does suggest that, at least for mice and rats, investigating the health-promoting effects of spermidine is worthwhile. However, the animal studies were small – with fewer than 15 animals per group – and the number of analyses done increases the potential for some findings to occur by chance. </p>
<p>When analysing <em>differences between groups</em>, as the mouse research in this paper did, one cannot claim spermidine changed a particular value – such as heart muscle strength – in the animals. This is because their heart muscles were not measured before they were given spermidine to compare the before and after effects, so you can only focus on differences between groups.</p>
<p>It’s better to say the outcome was higher or lower, or more or less frequent, in the spermidine-supplemented group compared to unsupplemented animals.</p>
<p>Of major importance in the human cohort study, which followed people for more than 15 years, is that it was <em>not</em> cheese that accounted for the majority of their spermidine intake. Also because this study was observational, it only showed associations, not cause and effect. </p>
<p>Also of note when you read the research is that, unlike the media report suggested, the mice were not fed cheese. A lot more research would be needed, and much more in humans, before claiming spermidine in cheese is the new superfood.</p>
<p>In the human study, although we weren’t told what the participants’ overall usual food habits were, we do know high intakes of whole grains, vegetables and fruit are characteristic of foods recommended for good health and longevity generally.</p>
<p>Try increasing your intakes of these foods and, for a variety of reasons, they’re very likely to help you age well. <strong>– Clare Collins</strong></p>
<hr>
<h2>Peer review</h2>
<p>The Nature Medicine paper found a correlation between the health of human participants and the amount of spermidine found in their diet. Unfortunately, although this part of the work is tantalising, it is still correlative: who knows whether there is some other ingredient in those foods that improves health, or whether people who preferred to eat those foods were already predisposed to better health?</p>
<p>The Nature Medicine paper also showed spermidine extended lifespans in mice. The animal studies were well performed and showed differences between groups in measures of heart function. But as the author of this Research Check states, a comparison where heart function would have been measured just before and just after drug treatment was not shown.</p>
<p>I believe this is okay, as animals were treated with spermidine for large proportions of their lifetimes, and such a comparison would have been confounded by the effects of ageing. So the comparisons between treated and untreated groups are adequate. </p>
<p>The key difficulty with moving spermidine forward is our understanding of how it works. Spermidine has been demonstrated to promote a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19801973">process called autophagy</a>, where the cell literally eats part of itself. This is actually a very good thing. By breaking down parts of the cell, old machinery gets destroyed and is replaced by new cellular machinery. </p>
<p>Autophagy is turned on when we exercise or go on a diet, but turned off when we eat too much or sit on the couch, so this could be how spermidine is beneficial.</p>
<p>Scientists like to understand every fine detail of how drugs work. The precise molecular biology of spermidine, and in particular what parts of the cell it interacts with, are poorly understood. Once we know how this works better, spermidine could well find its way into a new therapy. <strong>– Lindsay Wu</strong></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68808/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clare Collins is affiliated with the Priority Research Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition, the University of Newcastle, NSW. She is an NHMRC Senior Research fellow. She has received funding from a range of research grants including NHMRC, ARC, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Horticulture Innovation Australia, Meat and Livestock Australia. She has consulted to SHINE Australia and Novo Nordisk. Clare Collins is a spokesperson for the Dietitians Association of Australia on some specific nutrition issues, including Australia's Healthy Weight Week.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lindsay Wu's lab receives funding from Cancer Institute NSW, the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) of Australia, and MetroBiotech NSW Pty Ltd. He is a director of Metro Biotech NSW, Intravital Pty Ltd, and Liberty Biosecurity Pty Ltd, and is a shareholder in Intravital, EdenRoc Sciences, and Hydra Capital. His salary is supported by fellowships from Cancer Institute NSW and an RD Wright Biomedical Fellowship from the NHMRC. </span></em></p>Headlines screaming that aged cheese could be an aid to better ageing were based on a paper that didn’t test the effects of cheese on ageing.Clare Collins, Professor in Nutrition and Dietetics, University of NewcastleLindsay Wu, Senior Lecturer, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/598852016-11-14T04:36:03Z2016-11-14T04:36:03ZHealth Check: is cheese good for you?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145005/original/image-20161108-29124-8ae9vg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We need protein and calcium, but shouldn't have too much fat and salt. So what's the verdict on cheese?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com.au</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s no wonder people are confused about whether it’s good to eat cheese, when even food experts are divided. Some argue that we’re not eating enough of this important source of protein and calcium, while others say the high levels of salt and saturated fat mean we should be eating less.</p>
<p>Whatever your position, it’s becoming increasingly hard to avoid cheese. Whether its grilled halloumi with poached eggs for breakfast, pumpkin and feta salad for lunch, or pepperoni pizza for dinner, cheese is a key ingredient in many regular meals. It’s a popular snack food, with many health professionals promoting crackers and cheese as a high-protein snack. A cheese platter is also the favourite way to kick off afternoon drinks or a barbeque.</p>
<p>So just how much cheese are Australians eating, and is it good for us?</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/guidelines/australian-dietary-guidelines-1-5">Australian Dietary Guidelines</a> recommend that adults eat about 2.5 serves of dairy (including milk, yoghurt and cheese) a day. They also say this should preferably be low-fat to ensure that nutrient needs are met without exceeding energy requirements.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.dairyinfo.gc.ca/index_e.php?s1=dff-fcil&s2=cons&s3=consglo&s4=tc-ft">Available sales data for cheese</a> suggest that Australians are eating 13.6kg of cheese per person per year, which works out at 37g per person per day, or just less than one Australian portion (Australian portion sizes are 25% bigger than European Union ones, at 40g compared with 30g).</p>
<h2>Fat</h2>
<p>It seems that the advice to limit full-fat cheeses to two or three serves per week is being ignored. Low-fat products <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4364.0.55.012main+features12011-12">only made up 29%</a> of dairy products consumed in the last dietary survey while cheese accounted for 99% of the high-fat dairy products consumed. </p>
<p>Full-fat cheese products contain high levels of saturated fat, which can <a href="https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/healthy-eating/food-and-nutrition/fats-and-cholesterol/saturated-and-trans-fat">increase the risk of heart disease</a>. A 40g portion of cheese <a href="http://www.legendairy.com.au/%7E/media/Legendairy/Documents/Health/Fact%20sheets/2012%20Proximate%20Composition%20Booklet.ashx">can contain between</a> 2.24g (reduced-fat ricotta) and 9.5g (Danish creamy cheese Havarti) of saturated fat.</p>
<p>This is 11% and 40%, respectively, of the amount used as the <a href="http://www.mydailyintake.net/daily-intake-levels">reference guide for daily intake labelling</a>. So even though actual recommendations depend on individual energy requirements, it is still clear that we need to limit our consumption of full-fat cheese to avoid excessive amounts of saturated fat.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145006/original/image-20161108-29136-224lor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145006/original/image-20161108-29136-224lor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145006/original/image-20161108-29136-224lor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145006/original/image-20161108-29136-224lor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145006/original/image-20161108-29136-224lor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145006/original/image-20161108-29136-224lor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145006/original/image-20161108-29136-224lor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145006/original/image-20161108-29136-224lor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Saturated fats are bad for heart health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Salt</h2>
<p>The levels of sodium in cheese are also something to watch out for as too much salt increases blood pressure, which increases the risk of heart disease and stroke.</p>
<p>Sodium levels in one 40g portion of cheese range from 74mg (<a href="http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/guidelines/sodium_intake/en/">4% of the World Health Organisation’s (WHO)</a> recommended daily amount) in reduced-fat ricotta, to a scary 1,160mg (<a href="http://www.legendairy.com.au/%7E/media/Legendairy/Documents/Health/Fact%20sheets/2012%20Proximate%20Composition%20Booklet.ashx">58% of the WHO’s</a> recommended daily amount) in halloumi.</p>
<p>Interestingly, processed cheddar contains twice as much sodium as unprocessed cheddar, at 532mg per portion (26% of WHO recommended amount), so it would seem better to opt for the unprocessed version on that basis (although this may have higher levels of saturated fat and less calcium).</p>
<h2>Processed cheeses</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/code-revision/Documents/35%20-%20Standard%202.5.4%20.pdf">definition of a processed cheese</a> is a product manufactured from cheese and products obtained from milk, which is heated and melted, with or without added emulsifying salts, to form a homogeneous mass. </p>
<p>Such products can be produced more cheaply, last longer and are more convenient to use and so are a popular product for kids’ school lunchboxes. Current concerns over increasing childhood obesity in Australia means its important to keep an eye on fat and energy contents of children’s foods.</p>
<p>Kraft singles and Bega Stringers both contain a little less energy, substantially less saturated fat, and about the same amount of sodium and calcium per portion as regular cheddar cheese. Meanwhile, Philadelphia cream cheese contains even less energy and much less sodium but is higher in saturated fat.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145007/original/image-20161108-29136-1hut6qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145007/original/image-20161108-29136-1hut6qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145007/original/image-20161108-29136-1hut6qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145007/original/image-20161108-29136-1hut6qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145007/original/image-20161108-29136-1hut6qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145007/original/image-20161108-29136-1hut6qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145007/original/image-20161108-29136-1hut6qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Are we getting any nutrition from highly processed cheeses?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Health benefits?</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27517544">recent meta-analysis</a> of 15 studies, that suggested moderate cheese consumption (up to 40g per day) was associated with reduced heart disease risk, didn’t differentiate between low and full fat cheeses. </p>
<p>The authors (two of whom incidentally work for a leading dairy company in Asia) suggested the calcium, protein, vitamins or minerals (not specified) in cheese might explain the apparent protective health benefits.</p>
<p>Cheese is a <a href="https://www.nrv.gov.au/nutrients/calcium">good source of calcium</a> and we need calcium for bones and teeth as well as regulating muscle and heart functions. </p>
<p>The recommendations are for most adults and children aged nine and above to eat 1,000-1,300mg of calcium a day. A 40g serving of cheddar cheese contains around 320mg. So you would need to eat at least three portions if you were to get your calcium requirements just from cheese.</p>
<h2>So what’s the verdict?</h2>
<p>For maximum health outcomes I’d stick to the advice to eat two to three serves of dairy (mainly low fat) per day. This may include one serve of low-fat cheese, with maybe one serve each of low-fat milk and yoghurt to ensure you get enough calcium. I’d also stick with the recommendations to limit full-fat cheeses to two to three serves per week. </p>
<ul>
<li><p>Enjoy sparingly (two to three times a week): full-fat cheeses, hard cheeses, feta, halloumi, blue cheese. </p></li>
<li><p>Eat moderate amounts (one portion a day): low-fat cheeses, cottage cheese, reduced fat ricotta, reduced fat mozarella.</p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/59885/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacqui Webster is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council Career Development Fellowship and a National Heart Foundation Future Leaders Award and receives additional project funding from The National Health and Medical Research Council, The World Health Organization and The Victorian Health Promotion Foundation. </span></em></p>It’s no wonder people are confused about whether it’s good to eat cheese, when even food experts are divided.Jacqui Webster, Senior Research Fellow, Food Policy. Director of World Health Organization Collaborating Centre on Population Salt Reduction, George Institute for Global HealthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/570082016-04-12T14:55:49Z2016-04-12T14:55:49ZGourmet meals are filled with bacteria – and they taste delicious<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118314/original/image-20160412-15864-1rcfgsn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When diners sat down at a recent <a href="http://www.manchestersciencefestival.com/whatson/menumadebymicrobes">gourmet experience</a> held at the Harvey Nichols department store in Manchester, their food was filled with bacteria, fungus and mould. Far from being a public health hazard, this special five-course meal was designed to show how microorganisms are a fundamental part of the food we eat.</p>
<p>In general, microbes don’t have a good reputation. Yet while some cause disease and decay, the vast majority of the planet’s microorganisms are not harmful to us. In fact, they can be incredibly useful, producing alcohol, acids and other molecules that add flavour, texture and nutritional value to food, as well as helping to preserve it.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118315/original/image-20160412-15885-1fvtqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118315/original/image-20160412-15885-1fvtqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118315/original/image-20160412-15885-1fvtqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118315/original/image-20160412-15885-1fvtqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118315/original/image-20160412-15885-1fvtqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118315/original/image-20160412-15885-1fvtqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118315/original/image-20160412-15885-1fvtqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Baker’s yeast: keeping humanity fed for thousands of years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Microorganisms are used to make many of the staples of our diets. Bread, cheese and wine all immediately spring to mind. But the roles of these tiny living cells is far more diverse than you might think. The term “<a href="http://www.nature.com/articles/nmicrobiol201639">artisanal food microbiology</a>” has even been coined recently to describe an emerging interest among cooks to explore the potential for microbes to create new flavours and dishes.</p>
<p>At the gourmet meal we introduced in Manchester – the first of four we are running to raise awareness of the importance of microbes in food – almost every aspect of the food had been touched in some way by microorganisms.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118326/original/image-20160412-15871-2r746m.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118326/original/image-20160412-15871-2r746m.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118326/original/image-20160412-15871-2r746m.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118326/original/image-20160412-15871-2r746m.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118326/original/image-20160412-15871-2r746m.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118326/original/image-20160412-15871-2r746m.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118326/original/image-20160412-15871-2r746m.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Crostini canapés.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Devin Louttit</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sourdough crostini were the base for our delicious Welsh Rarebit canapes. Bread is produced through the <a href="https://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/bread/bread_science.html">action of the yeast</a> <em>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</em> (baker’s yeast). This type of fungus is dormant until activated by the warm water in the dough, at which point it starts feeding on the sugars in the flour, releasing carbon dioxide that makes bread rise. Yeast adds many of the distinctive flavours and aromas we associate with bread and also produces the alcohol in beer and wine.</p>
<p><a href="http://discovermagazine.com/2003/sep/featscienceof">Sourdough bread</a> dough ferments and rises more slowly because it uses lactic acid bacteria and wild yeasts found naturally on cereal grains, rather than baker’s yeast. This produces lactic acid that gives it a tart flavour and breaks down the gluten that some people <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/12/rise-sourdough-bread-slow-fermented-health-benefits">struggle to digest</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118327/original/image-20160412-15861-1hh3pm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118327/original/image-20160412-15861-1hh3pm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118327/original/image-20160412-15861-1hh3pm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118327/original/image-20160412-15861-1hh3pm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118327/original/image-20160412-15861-1hh3pm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118327/original/image-20160412-15861-1hh3pm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118327/original/image-20160412-15861-1hh3pm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sauerkraut surprise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Devin Louttit</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our first course was a prosciutto platter, with apple and sultana sauerkraut (sour cabbage). The sourness comes from lactic acid, which is produced by lactic acid bacteria naturally present on the cabbage that feed on sugars released when the vegetable is sliced. These bacteria also produce vitamins including vitamin C, which is why sailors used to take sauerkraut on long voyages to <a href="http://modernfarmer.com/2014/04/magical-sour-cabbage-sauerkraut-helped-save-age-sail/">help prevent scurvy</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118328/original/image-20160412-15883-123naeu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118328/original/image-20160412-15883-123naeu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118328/original/image-20160412-15883-123naeu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118328/original/image-20160412-15883-123naeu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118328/original/image-20160412-15883-123naeu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118328/original/image-20160412-15883-123naeu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118328/original/image-20160412-15883-123naeu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Deep-fried mould.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Devin Louttit</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A warm salad of deep-fried Roquefort with smoked tofu followed. Cheese is made using bacteria such as <em>Lactobacillus</em> and <em>Streptococcus</em> that ferment the sugar in milk (lactose) into lactic acid. This causes a decrease in pH, preventing the growth and survival of other microbes and clotting the milk protein, turning it into solid cheese. The <a href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/roquefort-cheese/">blue colour</a> and distinct flavour of Roquefort comes from the mould <em>Penicillium roqueforti</em>, which – as you can guess – is related to the fungus that makes the antibiotic penicillin. Moulds are filamentous (thread-like) fungi that produce coloured spores, giving their colonies a distinctive and powdery appearance.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118330/original/image-20160412-15861-vw6cbl.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118330/original/image-20160412-15861-vw6cbl.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118330/original/image-20160412-15861-vw6cbl.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118330/original/image-20160412-15861-vw6cbl.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118330/original/image-20160412-15861-vw6cbl.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118330/original/image-20160412-15861-vw6cbl.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118330/original/image-20160412-15861-vw6cbl.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Merely a truffle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Devin Louttit</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The main course was truffled mushroom risotto and beer flatbread with rosemary. Like mushrooms, truffles are the fruiting body (spore-forming part) of fungi – organisms that are neither plants nor animals. Truffles form a symbiotic relationship (mycorrhiza) with the tree roots they grow on. This means they help the plant to gather water and minerals from the soil in exchange for sugars. Their <a href="http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20151125-why-do-truffles-taste-so-weird">pungent, musky smell</a> is thought to come <a href="http://aem.asm.org/content/81/20/6946.full">from a combination</a> of molecules given off by the truffles themselves and more microbes – the bacteria that live on them. </p>
<h2>And for dessert …</h2>
<p>The dessert consisted of pears poached in sauternes, a sweet wine that is unusual because it is made from mouldy grapes. This concentrates the grape sugar so that a significant amount remains in the wine after the traditional fermentation converts most of it to alcohol. Because of the delicious flavour this develops, the mould is known as the “<a href="http://winefolly.com/tutorial/they-call-it-noble-rot-botrytis/">Noble Rot</a>”. The scientific name for this grey mould is <em>Botrytis cinerea</em> and it is closely related to species of <em>Penicillium</em>. It produces a chemical aroma compound, phenylacetaldehyde, which is also commonly found in buckwheat and milk chocolate.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118331/original/image-20160412-15864-iutbt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118331/original/image-20160412-15864-iutbt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118331/original/image-20160412-15864-iutbt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118331/original/image-20160412-15864-iutbt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118331/original/image-20160412-15864-iutbt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118331/original/image-20160412-15864-iutbt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118331/original/image-20160412-15864-iutbt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">From slime to sublime.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Devin Louttit</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We finished our gourmet microbe meal with chocolate tart with framboise beer sauce, followed by coffee and chocolate petit fours. Both chocolate and coffee beans, which are actually seeds, go through a fermentation process that is used to break down the slimy “mucilage” coating that holds the seeds in the pod and to develop delicious and important chemical compounds. <a href="http://accounts.smccd.edu/case/chocolate.html">A series of bacteria</a>, yeasts and moulds are used to develop these flavour compounds, natural chemicals that we enjoy for their aroma and flavour.</p>
<p>Although many of these food fermentations are thousands of years old, chefs at experimental restaurants such as <a href="http://www.theverge.com/2016/3/29/11320596/chefs-fermentation-microbe-flavor-cooking-nature-microbiology">noma in Copenhagen</a> are still playing with microbes to produce new flavours. There is even a <a href="http://fermentationfest.com">growing fermentation community</a> of professional and amateur microbiologists who can cook up new kinds of acid to help make your new dish taste just right. So when you’re looking for a special new ingredient, perhaps you should turn to some of the oldest lifeforms on the planet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57008/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>How microbes are the key ingredients when it comes to concocting a gourmet menu.Joanna Verran, Professor of microbiology, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityMike Dempsey, Head of Faculty Research Degrees, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/190362013-10-18T01:46:33Z2013-10-18T01:46:33ZAfter wine, Chinese consumers want a slice of cheese<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/32950/original/7bvbq8v5-1381711437.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4096%2C2704&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Chinese demand for cheese has intensified, creating a boom for Australian producers. But international manufacturers have become interested, and want a slice.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Jens Buettner</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When I heard that Asia, and particularly China, started to show interest in cheese, I automatically assumed that the French would be leading the race of cheese exports to the region. How wrong I was. Australian and New Zealand producers will have the most to gain from a booming Chinese demand for cheese.</p>
<p>The introduction of Western-style cheese to the Chinese urban middle class has been gradual. It may have started with large supermarket chains stocking cheese on their shelves to cater for expatriate communities. Even so, it was certainly the international fast food chains and their offerings of pizzas and cheese burgers that shaped the taste of cheese of China’s biggest cities. </p>
<p>The impact of fast food on urban communities was such that, by the late 1990s, Chinese consumers had accepted processed cheese or ‘nai lao’ (milk jelly) into their diet. </p>
<p>But the taste for cheese has come about mainly in large urban areas.</p>
<h2>No Roquefort for me</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.chinaeconomicreview.com/all-cheese-china">Anecdotal evidence</a> suggests a dislike of “Old World” cheese in China. Most people asked to sample a range of French, Italian and Spanish cheeses said they disliked the smell of the most potent cheeses. </p>
<p>The idea of ingesting old rotten milk is found off-putting in a country that traditionally had no dairy in its diet and where <a href="http://www.cmj.org/ch/reader/view_abstract.aspx?file_no=2000121129&flag=1">lactose intolerance</a> is common.</p>
<p>Despite the fact that cheese is alien to traditional Chinese gastronomy, imports of processed cheese or “New World” cheese – as it is often called – have been growing at an impressive rate.</p>
<p>Overall, the yearly consumption of cheese per capita is still very low at 200 grams compared to the French consumption of 26kgs per person per year or the yearly Australian consumption of about 12kgs per person.</p>
<p>With an average annual growth rate of 20%, China imported some <a href="http://www.maison-du-lait.com/fr/chiffres-cles/des-donnees-reference">30,000 tons</a> of cheese in 2011. This is good news for the three major suppliers of processed cheese to the Chinese market. New Zealand supplies 40% of the import market. Australia and the US make up another 40%.</p>
<p>Unsurprisingly, the local Chinese cheese industry is still in its infancy with production levels of about 20,000 tons (2011) representing a drop in the bucket for the vast world of cheese making. In comparison, in 2011 Australia produced <a href="http://www.daff.gov.au/agriculture-food/food/publications/afs/australian-food-statistics-2011-12">340,000 tons</a> of cheese of which some 215,000 tons were consumed domestically.</p>
<p>Chinese processed cheese manufacturers not only face aggressive competition from international players, but are still struggling to re-establish trust among their customers since the 2008 milk scandal. </p>
<p>Australian dairy manufacturers – who enjoy a reputation for quality, safety, and competitiveness – now have an opportunity for growth. This was confirmed with recent growth figures in dairy product exports released by the <a href="http://mpegmedia.abc.net.au/rn/podcast/2013/02/bst_20130228_0750.mp3">Bega Cheese Company</a>.</p>
<p>Australia’s competitiveness and low-cost production are attractive features to international corporations that are seeking an entry point into the growing Asian markets. Already Canadian dairy processor Saputo is in the process of acquiring the Warrnambool Butter and Cheese Company.</p>
<p>And the signing of a free-trade agreement between Australia and China will only bode well for Australian cheese exports. Negotiations have been difficult and lengthy but it is hoped that tariffs will be reduced to allow Australian dairy companies to compete with New Zealand’s Fonterra on an equal footing.</p>
<h2>Got milk?</h2>
<p>But the story of cheese in China is part of much bigger initiative: the introduction of milk into the daily life of ordinary Chinese people. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/32952/original/4d5cb7nd-1381711708.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/32952/original/4d5cb7nd-1381711708.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/32952/original/4d5cb7nd-1381711708.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/32952/original/4d5cb7nd-1381711708.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/32952/original/4d5cb7nd-1381711708.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1132&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/32952/original/4d5cb7nd-1381711708.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1132&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/32952/original/4d5cb7nd-1381711708.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1132&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Traditionally a diet lacking dairy, Chinese authorities have been trying to increase the amount of milk consumed on a daily basis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">2 Dogs</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 2000, the State Council of China set up a national <a href="http://www.schoolmilk.gov.cn/">school milk program</a> to address public health concerns, but also to kick start a national dairy industry. Despite the 2008 milk scandal, the program has been going from strength to strength, boosting the average national daily consumption of dairy products <a href="http://www.daff.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/2259123/food-consumption-trends-in-china-v2.pdf">two-fold</a> in the last decade.</p>
<p>The burgeoning middle class and its demand for exotic tastes and products prove to be significant trend setters in changing diet as well. The ‘Old World’ or European-style cheeses have started to capture the imagination of this middle class who are still showing strong interest for European wine. As wine merchants have had to do, cheese manufacturers will have to educate their customers about cheese and its meaning within European gastronomy.</p>
<p>And no doubt European cheese makers are dreaming of achieving what wine makers have accomplished in China. Today, the affluent and urban Chinese youth is learning more about wine than ever before and as a result, the consumption of wine has not stopped increasing. </p>
<p>One sign that traditional cheese is making in-roads into the life of middle class urban China is the opening of traditional cheese-making retail outlets in Shanghai and Beijing. </p>
<p>The Beijing Cheese Maker, or ‘<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MGBOTitYpnE">Le Fromager de Pekin</a>’ as it is called, believes that the Chinese won’t be put off by the tangy taste of traditional cheese for long.</p>
<p>So, either way, traditional or processed, things are looking good for cheese!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/19036/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brigit Busicchia does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When I heard that Asia, and particularly China, started to show interest in cheese, I automatically assumed that the French would be leading the race of cheese exports to the region. How wrong I was. Australian…Brigit Busicchia, PhD Candidate, Political Economy, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.