tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/climate-change-act-7154/articlesClimate Change Act – The Conversation2023-11-30T12:20:37Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2164882023-11-30T12:20:37Z2023-11-30T12:20:37ZGhana’s shea industry is not taking care of the women behind its growth<p>Ghana’s shea industry has a rich history. Shea – <em>nkuto</em>, <em>karite</em>, <em>galam</em> in some west African languages – is deeply embedded in the culture and tradition of the country’s northern regions. It is often considered a woman’s crop – women pick the fruit and extract its “butter” – and has acquired the name “woman’s gold” because rural women earn income from its sale. </p>
<p>The crop is not just locally important, though. Shea butter, derived from the nuts of the shea tree, has become a global commodity. It is used widely as an ingredient in the confectionery, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.futuremarketinsights.com/reports/shea-butter-market">report</a> by Future Markets Insights values the global shea butter market at US$2.75 billion. It’s expected to reach US$5.58 billion in 2033. In Ghana, shea is one of the <a href="https://www.gepaghana.org/export-statistic/non-traditional-export-statistics-2022/">top</a> export commodities. According to the Ghana Export Promotion Authority, the export of shea butter was <a href="https://www.gepaghana.org/export-statistic/non-traditional-export-statistics-2022/">estimated</a> to be worth US$92.6 million (38,792 tonnes) in 2022 and kernels US$20 million (36,162 tonnes) in 2021. </p>
<p>In spite of shea’s global prominence, primary actors in this sector aren’t reaping the benefits from these exports. Rural women, who are the primary producers, are also the <a href="https://sun.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma998897791203436&context=L&vid=27US_INST:27US_V1&lang=en&search_scope=Combined&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,shea%20butter&offset=0">lowest earners</a> in the shea value chain, with an annual income of about US$234 per capita.</p>
<p>The reasons behind this were the subject of my <a href="https://sun.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma998897791203436&context=L&vid=27US_INST:27US_V1&lang=en&search_scope=Combined&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,shea%20butter&offset=0">PhD dissertation</a>. I discovered that the shea environment was poorly regulated and “empowerment” policies had actually enabled poverty. </p>
<h2>Importance of shea</h2>
<p>Economically, shea has gained international prominence stemming from its properties and value. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Specifications-of-whole-and-processed-shea-butters_tbl1_272022836">Stearin</a>, a creamy fat, is used industrially as a cocoa butter equivalent in chocolate production and confectionery. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Specifications-of-whole-and-processed-shea-butters_tbl1_272022836">Olein</a> is used to make cosmetics.</p>
<p>Socially, activities in the shea industry confer on women a level of respect and power that they do not possess in other economic sectors. It’s also an area where women pass on indigenous knowledge from one generation to another by observing and participating in shea activities.</p>
<p>Shea trees also <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/12/12/1740">provide</a> carbon sinks and storage, improve soil fertility and promote better yields in agroforestry systems. </p>
<p>The shea industry is potentially a vehicle for economic development, environmental sustainability, gender empowerment and social progress.</p>
<h2>Shea policies</h2>
<p>These benefits are not all being realised, however.</p>
<p>Structural adjustment reforms were implemented in Ghana in the late 1980s and early 1990s to address economic woes. The shea export policy devised within that framework has been <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-modern-african-studies/article/abs/market-reforms-and-the-state-the-case-of-shea-in-ghana/E0584FCC3B95AF6A2026A14F7840C4F8">identified</a> as a watershed moment for the problems inherent in the industry. The state’s involvement in the economy was reduced, and this created the conditions for continued gender inequality and exploitation. The plight of women in the shea industry was not helped, either, by long-held gender norms and cultural underpinnings in northern Ghana.</p>
<p>Successive governments and institutions over the years have sought to revamp the industry through regulatory policies and interventions. A chapter of my <a href="https://sun.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma998897791203436&context=L&vid=27US_INST:27US_V1&lang=en&search_scope=Combined&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,shea%20butter&offset=0">PhD thesis</a> conducted in 2017 analysing the yearly budget statements from 2002 to 2017 noted the government’s knowledge of the persistent challenges of rural women. </p>
<p>These challenges relate to quality control and standardisation. Others are the lack of fair-trade practices, limited access to direct markets and resources, and challenges in land tenure and resource management. </p>
<p>Liberalising the shea market was expected to promote economic growth through reducing trade barriers and encouraging foreign investment. However, a downside was the breakdown of social contracts, leading to a “gold rush” mentality that prevails when there are no structures and regulations.</p>
<p>The 2008 <a href="http://gis4agricgh.net/POLICIES/GHANA'S%20TREE%20CROPS%20POLICY.pdf">Tree Crops Policy</a> was supposed to support agricultural growth, rural development and food security. A <a href="https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/business/COCOBOD-opens-Shea-office-amale-676131">Shea Unit</a> under the <a href="https://cocobod.gh/">Ghana Cocoa Board</a> was formed in 2011 to develop strategy for the sector. This unit was expected to become a Shea Development Board, responsible for introducing effective production, post-production and marketing initiatives. But it remains under the cocoa board. </p>
<p>The shea industry over time has been a niche where middlemen and women buy shea from rural women at low prices. Price negotiations are done on behalf of rural women on a mostly informal contractual basis. A chapter of my <a href="https://sun.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma998897791203436&context=L&vid=27US_INST:27US_V1&lang=en&search_scope=Combined&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,shea%20butter&offset=0">PhD thesis</a> analysing the cost structure and assigning a value to the unpaid labour of rural women reported the profit margin of a shea nut picker as Gh₵ 8.82 (66 US cents) while a middleman earned Gh₵ 49.5 (US$4) on a 100kg bag of shea nuts. Similarly, a shea butter extractor earned Gh₵ 1.92 (8 cents) while a middleman earned Gh₵ 63.42 (US$6) on a 25kg box of shea butter.</p>
<p>This is aptly captured in an interview:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We are always here and we see people troop in for them (shea butter). Because
we don’t understand the English language they always request for Madam. She
directs us to sell to them at a certain amount. We don’t know the buyers. They
are those bringing them, we will just be sitting, and they will tell you that they are to buy shea, there is a buyer in, we will not even see the person. She is going to negotiate with the buyer till they finish buying.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Shea business model</h2>
<p>Even with the best of intentions, desired policy objectives can’t always be reached. It’s necessary to analyse why.</p>
<p>Empowering rural women shea actors to make choices and to transform those choices to desired outcomes must start by recognising them as knowledge producers and involve them as knowledge contributors in policies. Ghana needs to bring all the players in the shea industry together to develop a business model. Primary producers, middlemen, sourcing companies and government should collaborate. </p>
<p>Drawing from <a href="https://www.scirp.org/%28S%28351jmbntvnsjt1aadkposzje%29%29/reference/referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=2591801">lessons</a> on the marketing of cocoa in Ghana, this model should focus on:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>regulation of ceiling and floor prices of shea nuts and butter</p></li>
<li><p>promoting community-based rural producer groups</p></li>
<li><p>capacity building</p></li>
<li><p>quality improvement</p></li>
<li><p>preserving the shea landscape. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>There is also a need for a government instituted shea body to enforce a regulatory framework on the licensing and registration of activities and the promotion of partnerships between actors in the shea supply chain. It’s very important for the various stakeholders to keep working together to minimise undesirable effects of proposed interventions.</p>
<p>Shea is indeed golden. But there are real people living with the impact of weak institutional structures and policy frameworks. The most affected are rural women.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216488/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Abiba Yayah was previously funded by the Trans-disciplinary Training for Resource Efficiency and Climate Change Adaptation in Africa II INTRA-ACP (TRECCAFRICA II). She is currently being funded for a Postdoctoral Fellowship by The Mark Grosjean Post-doctoral Fellow in Political Science at the University of Calgary.</span></em></p>Shea is a key economic crop for poor women in the northern parts of Ghana.Abiba Yayah, Postdoctoral Associate, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2028632023-03-29T15:20:14Z2023-03-29T15:20:14ZClimate change is accelerating – and the UK government is ‘strikingly unprepared’<p>Read successive progress reports by the <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/">Climate Change Committee</a> (CCC), the UK government’s statutory advisor on climate change, and you sense the growing frustration. Over the years, the CCC’s assessments of the government’s response to the climate crisis have become more critical, its recommendations more explicit and the tone more direct. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/progress-in-adapting-to-climate-change-2023-report-to-parliament/">latest progress report</a> from the CCC concerns the UK’s preparedness for climate change, rather than progress toward net zero emissions, but it makes similar conclusions. The committee is scathing and has said that the country is “strikingly unprepared”. </p>
<p>The CCC criticised the government’s <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/climate-change-second-national-adaptation-programme-2018-to-2023">national adaptation programme</a> for its lack of vision, ambition and reach. Sector by sector, the report lists failings in the government’s planning for climate change, or where plans exist, in their execution. </p>
<p>Thirteen sectors, from infrastructure and the built environment to health, nature and managed lands are forensically analysed, highlighting that “fully credible” planning is only in place for five of 45 key risk areas, while evidence that the country is becoming less vulnerable to climate change is “lacking across the board.” </p>
<p>If this sounds worrying it should be. It means UK citizens are being left exposed to increased risks of flood damage, food and water shortages, excess deaths from heatwaves, energy outages and infrastructure breakdown, among others. </p>
<h2>An international challenge</h2>
<p>Internationally, the CCC’s impatience is matched by increasingly urgent messages from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the foremost body of experts on climate change which issued its <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/">latest report</a> earlier this month. </p>
<p>The approval process of IPCC reports, which require sign-off by member governments, keeps its <a href="https://theconversation.com/ipccs-conservative-nature-masks-true-scale-of-action-needed-to-avert-catastrophic-climate-change-202287">language bland</a>. Yet the report left no doubt that climate change is a rapidly escalating global risk and that, so far, policies and plans do not do enough to address it. </p>
<p>But it also led with a message of hope: <a href="https://theconversation.com/it-can-be-done-it-must-be-done-ipcc-delivers-definitive-report-on-climate-change-and-where-to-now-201763">there is still time</a> to secure a liveable future for all if we act now.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three smokestacks poking above clouds belching smoke." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518203/original/file-20230329-1118-dtk85g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518203/original/file-20230329-1118-dtk85g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518203/original/file-20230329-1118-dtk85g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518203/original/file-20230329-1118-dtk85g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518203/original/file-20230329-1118-dtk85g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518203/original/file-20230329-1118-dtk85g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518203/original/file-20230329-1118-dtk85g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Countries are not doing enough to cut greenhouse gas emissions – or prepare for their consequences.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-view-coal-power-plant-high-1930905959">Bilanol/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Adaptation means dealing with the consequences of climate change, the effects of a warming climate that can no longer be avoided. Emissions reductions and net zero emissions targets deal with the root causes of climate change, the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. </p>
<p>The two strategies are complementary. Yet adaptation campaigners have long <a href="https://theconversation.com/cop26-countries-are-not-spending-nearly-enough-on-adapting-to-climate-change-171422">lamented</a> that building resilience to global heating gets second billing to net zero, and they have a point. </p>
<p>In the UK, this hierarchy was institutionalised. Within the CCC, emissions reductions was – and remains – the purview of the main committee, while adaptation was dealt with by a separate sub-committee. This judgemental prefix was dropped only recently. </p>
<p>The more global efforts to reduce emissions veer off track, the more important – and the more difficult – adaptation becomes. At the very least, we will have to adapt to a world that is between 1.5 and 2°C warmer. But on current trends, it could be much more. Failure in one part of the twin strategy puts pressure on the other, and at the moment we are failing on both. </p>
<p>The CCC does not explicitly make this connection in its progress report. It simply points to the fact that the first impacts of climate change can already be felt. </p>
<p>In the summer of 2022, recorded temperatures exceeded 40°C in the UK for <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/press-office/news/weather-and-climate/2022/july-heat-review#:%7E:text=This%20was%20the%20first%20time,record%20of%2038.7%C2%B0C.">the first time</a>. The summer was also very dry, piling stress on ecosystems and farms. People are also becoming accustomed to more frequent winter storms – Dudley, Eunice and Franklin all struck the UK in February 2022. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A fire truck parked on a rural road with a grass fire on a hillside in the distance." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518200/original/file-20230329-22-icf6xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518200/original/file-20230329-22-icf6xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518200/original/file-20230329-22-icf6xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518200/original/file-20230329-22-icf6xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518200/original/file-20230329-22-icf6xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518200/original/file-20230329-22-icf6xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518200/original/file-20230329-22-icf6xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The CCC estimates that 3,000 people died prematurely at the peak of the 2022 heatwave.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/editorial-scotland-uk-april-22-2022-2156230067">Leighton Collins/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Taking adaptation seriously is crucial because extreme weather is one of the most immediate ways in which the public will experience climate change. In the short term, it is vital that the UK is adequately prepared as these events become more likely and intense, and that it seizes the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/net-zero-review-uk-could-do-more-to-reap-economic-benefits-of-green-growth">opportunities and benefits</a> of the transition to a net zero economy. </p>
<h2>Retaining global leadership</h2>
<p>Even before the COP26 climate summit in Glasgow, the UK prided itself on being a leader in climate change policy. In the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/27/contents">Climate Change Act 2008</a>, the UK has a widely admired and frequently copied framework of climate governance. This system is now being put to the test. </p>
<p>The fact that there is an independent body (the CCC itself), which raises the alarm when things are off track, is an important part of this governance framework. This part of the system is working well. However, the real test is whether those warnings are heeded and policy is brought back on track. </p>
<p>The UK government has two immediate opportunities to change tack, and it should take them both. On emissions, the launch of its updated net zero strategy is imminent. The government had been sent back to the drawing board by the <a href="https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/10/18/embarrassing-but-welcome-green-lawyers-triumph-as-uk-admits-its-net-zero-strategy-is-unlaw">courts</a> which had ruled the earlier net zero strategy inadequate. On adaptation, the government will launch a new national adaptation programme, for the years 2023 to 2028, later in the year. </p>
<p>The early signs are not good. The new net zero strategy is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/mar/24/uk-government-launch-revamped-net-zero-strategy-oil-gas-capital-aberdeen">rumoured</a> to be about “energy security” (and new oil licenses) as much as about climate action. In the meantime, industry bodies are warning that the UK is <a href="https://www.cbi.org.uk/articles/the-uk-is-falling-behind-on-green-growth/#:%7E:text=Between%202020%20and%202022%2C%20the,in%20total%20across%20both%20areas.">losing ground</a> in the race to capture economic benefits from the zero-carbon transition, while the Met Office predicts another year of <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-64032458">record-breaking temperatures</a>. </p>
<p>If these warnings are not heeded, the CCC’s frustrations may soon be shared by the wider public, who will rightly question why adaptation measures were not taken earlier.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202863/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sam Fankhauser receives funding from the University of Oxford's Strategic Research Fund for Oxford Net Zero and the UK Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) for the Place-based Climate Action Network (PCAN).</span></em></p>The government’s pro-climate rhetoric has met reality – and it doesn’t look good.Sam Fankhauser, Professor of Climate Economics and Policy, Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1900502022-09-08T06:00:19Z2022-09-08T06:00:19ZAustralia finally has new climate laws. Now, let’s properly consider the astounding social cost of carbon<p>The federal government’s climate change bill <a href="https://www.pm.gov.au/media/australia-legislates-emissions-reduction-targets">passed the Senate</a> on Thursday. Among the mandates in the new <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Bills_Legislation/Bills_Search_Results/Result?bId=r6885">Climate Change Act</a> are assessments of the social, employment and economic benefits of climate change policies. </p>
<p>These assessments will be included in annual statements, prepared by the government with input from the Climate Change Authority. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00196-6">letter</a> we published today in The Lancet Planetary Health outlines the importance of measuring the effects of climate change on human health when assessing the social cost of carbon.</p>
<p>Reducing greenhouse gas emissions <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162514000146">will improve</a> the health of Australians, especially by reducing air pollution from electricity generation and road transport. Every year, around 2,600 (2% of) Australian deaths are attributed to <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/1/254">air pollution</a> from human activities such as transport, mining, and power generation using fossil fuels. </p>
<p>And as the planet continues to warm, heatwaves, bushfires and floods will bring a heavier social impact. For example, natural hazards are responsible for <a href="https://actuaries.logicaldoc.cloud/download-ticket?ticketId=38cecc1c-68e2-4433-8822-58cd3d0ccf42">an estimated</a> 30% of total insurance costs today. Australian home insurance premiums would increase by as much as 15% (A$782 million) by 2050 if global emissions continue unabated. </p>
<p>So let’s explore what the social cost of carbon entails, and why it should inform policymaking in Australia in areas such as fossil fuel extraction, infrastructure projects and emissions reduction.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-social-cost-of-carbon-2-energy-experts-explain-176255">What is the ‘social cost of carbon’? 2 energy experts explain</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What is the social cost of carbon?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.rff.org/publications/explainers/social-cost-carbon-101/">social cost of carbon</a> is a monetary value of the harms of climate change associated with emitting an additional tonne of carbon dioxide.</p>
<p>Estimating this cost should capture harms to human health, decreased agricultural productivity, damages from natural disasters and other effects on the economy.</p>
<p>A study this month in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05224-9">Nature</a> put the global social cost of carbon at A$275 per tonne of CO₂ released. Impacts on health (49%) and agriculture (45%) accounted for most of this.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483407/original/file-20220908-9695-8gzz17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483407/original/file-20220908-9695-8gzz17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483407/original/file-20220908-9695-8gzz17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483407/original/file-20220908-9695-8gzz17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483407/original/file-20220908-9695-8gzz17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483407/original/file-20220908-9695-8gzz17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483407/original/file-20220908-9695-8gzz17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483407/original/file-20220908-9695-8gzz17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The estimate should cover harms from natural disasters.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Climate change poses grave risks to many Australian homes, lives and livelihoods through, for example, worsening <a href="https://theconversation.com/no-not-again-a-third-straight-la-nina-is-likely-heres-how-you-and-your-family-can-prepare-188970">floods</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-world-endured-2-extra-heatwave-days-per-decade-since-1950-but-the-worst-is-yet-to-come-141983">heatwaves</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/wildlife-recovery-spending-after-australias-last-megafires-was-one-thirteenth-the-2-7-billion-needed-188459">bushfires</a>.</p>
<p>Australia’s new climate change law legislates emissions reduction of 43% below 2005 levels by 2030, and reaching net-zero by 2050. It also requires climate policy benefits to be assessed each year. </p>
<p>But we don’t know exactly how the assessments will be conducted, and the law does not explicitly mention measuring the social cost of carbon.</p>
<h2>Weighing up the social cost of projects</h2>
<p>Accounting for the social cost of carbon would lead to investment and policy decisions that support emissions reduction. It would also deter support for projects that increase emissions, such as new coal mines. </p>
<p>Decision-makers often use a cost-benefit analysis to assess and compare projects. If a project increases emissions, the social cost of carbon multiplied by the expected emissions should be added to the overall costs of the project.</p>
<p>Projects that decrease emissions, such as a new offshore wind farm, should have these benefits included in the assessment, bringing the overall net cost of the project down. Infrastructure Australia’s <a href="https://www.infrastructureaustralia.gov.au/sites/default/files/2021-07/Assessment%20Framework%202021%20Guide%20to%20economic%20appraisal.pdf">guide to economic appraisal</a> mentions such an approach.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483195/original/file-20220907-19-vqciq3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483195/original/file-20220907-19-vqciq3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483195/original/file-20220907-19-vqciq3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483195/original/file-20220907-19-vqciq3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483195/original/file-20220907-19-vqciq3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483195/original/file-20220907-19-vqciq3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483195/original/file-20220907-19-vqciq3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483195/original/file-20220907-19-vqciq3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How to apply the SCC in decisions related to emissions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">RFF</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The United States and <a href="https://climateinstitute.ca/is-canada-underestimating-the-benefits-of-climate-action/">Canada</a> already include the social cost of carbon in assessments of federal regulatory proposals and investments. Some <a href="https://costofcarbon.org/states">14 US states</a>, including California and New York, also use the measure. </p>
<p>Last year, the Biden administration announced it would increase the <a href="https://blog.ucsusa.org/rachel-cleetus/the-social-cost-of-carbon-gets-an-interim-update-from-the-biden-administration/">social cost of carbon</a> to A$76 per tonne of CO₂, which is much higher than the A$10 per tonne of CO₂ used by the Trump administration. </p>
<p>Also in 2021, the Australian Capital Territory became the first and only Australian jurisdiction to <a href="https://www.cmtedd.act.gov.au/open_government/inform/act_government_media_releases/rattenbury/2021/considering-the-social-cost-of-carbon">adopt</a> the social cost of carbon. It was set at an interim A$20 per tonne of CO₂ and will be reviewed in future.</p>
<h2>What we’re calling for</h2>
<p>A key component of calculating the social cost of carbon is a damage function that typically uses a single equation to estimate a global GDP loss. </p>
<p>However, as we argue in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00196-6">our letter</a>, regional and sub-national damage functions would better capture the diverse range of climate change impacts, especially for human health and agriculture.</p>
<p>For example, losses in agricultural and labour productivity from heat stress <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2018EF000922">differ by country</a>. Economic losses range from less than 2% per year to over 28% per year in 2100, depending on the country and emissions scenario used. </p>
<p>Also, climate zones are a key determinate of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-019-02519-1">the number of deaths</a> associated with extremely hot and cold temperatures. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heat-kills-we-need-consistency-in-the-way-we-measure-these-deaths-120500">Heat kills. We need consistency in the way we measure these deaths</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<p>Our arguments are echoed by a US <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/24651/valuing-climate-damages-updating-estimation-of-the-social-cost-of">Interagency Working Group</a> on the social cost of carbon. In 2017, it recommended separating market and non-market climate damages by region and sector.</p>
<p>Australia’s new annual climate change statement should also explicitly examine the health benefits of climate policies. These are likely to include fewer respiratory illnesses as a result of cleaner air, and increases in exercise associated with active travel options such as walking and cycling.</p>
<p>Understanding these health benefits will also improve decision-making and could change our approach to dealing with climate change.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284453/original/file-20190717-147307-j7e065.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284453/original/file-20190717-147307-j7e065.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284453/original/file-20190717-147307-j7e065.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284453/original/file-20190717-147307-j7e065.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284453/original/file-20190717-147307-j7e065.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284453/original/file-20190717-147307-j7e065.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284453/original/file-20190717-147307-j7e065.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284453/original/file-20190717-147307-j7e065.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How climate zones differ across Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Longden (2019)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Better climate decision-making</h2>
<p>Climate change and related extreme events are already being felt in Australia. Back-to-back floods this year and the devastating Black Summer bushfires are just a few examples of our vulnerability to extreme weather events. </p>
<p>Governments must account for the impacts of these events when making decisions. Annual assessments of climate change policies are a decent start. Establishing a robust method to explicitly measure the social cost of carbon would go one better.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/222-scientists-say-cascading-crises-are-the-biggest-threat-to-the-well-being-of-future-generations-131551">222 scientists say cascading crises are the biggest threat to the well-being of future generations</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190050/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Longden receives funding from the Healthy Environments And Lives (HEAL) National Research Network as part of the National Health and Medical Research Council special initiative in Human Health and Environmental Change (grant number 2008937).
He also receives funding from the Australian Government Department of Defence.
He is a member of the ACT Climate Change Council, which provides advice to the Minister for Water, Energy and Emissions Reduction on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Norman receives funding from the NHMRC through the HEAL Network</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sotiris Vardoulakis is the Director of the Healthy Environments And Lives (HEAL) Network, which receives funding from the NHMRC Special Initiative in Human Health and Environmental Change. He also receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, the NSW Government, CSIRO, Asthma Australia, and Dyson. He is a member of the Public Health Association of Australia and of the Climate and Health Alliance.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Kompas receives funding from the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry and the Victorian Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planing. </span></em></p>Every year, air pollution kills 2,600 Australians. Australia’s new climate policy regime must account for this and other harms climate change wreaks on society.Thomas Longden, Fellow, Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National UniversityRichard Norman, Associate Professor in Health Economics, Curtin UniversitySotiris Vardoulakis, Professor of Global Environmental Health, The Australian National UniversityTom Kompas, Professor of Environmental Economics and Biosecurity, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1152302019-05-15T06:27:13Z2019-05-15T06:27:13ZThe UK has a national climate change act – why don’t we?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274310/original/file-20190514-60541-lwn0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C4%2C3235%2C2148&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It’s time Australian politicians were guided by national climate change legislation.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>No matter who wins the upcoming federal election, both the <a href="https://www.alp.org.au/media/1692/labors_climate_change_action_plan.pdf">ALP</a> and <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/climate-change/climate-solutions-package">LNP</a> are committed to remaining in the Paris Climate Agreement. </p>
<p>This means every five years Australia is expected to submit progressively stronger targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and report on progress. And by 2020, Australia is expected to submit a long-term emissions reduction strategy showing how to get to net zero emissions. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/uk-becomes-first-country-to-declare-a-climate-emergency-116428">UK becomes first country to declare a 'climate emergency'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>Regardless of what policy mix is chosen to achieve this, the process of hitting the Paris targets is now a permanent feature of economy-wide decision-making, one that will need <a href="https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article-abstract/19/3/438/440598">credible</a> ongoing support from government and businesses. Policy uncertainty, and a lack of national framework, has reduced investment confidence. </p>
<p>The UK has shown how national climate change <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/27/contents">legislation</a> can guide institutional action, and not only dramatically cut emissions, but also promote economic growth.</p>
<p>Victoria rolled out <a href="https://www.climatechange.vic.gov.au/legislation/climate-change-act-2017">similar legislation</a> in 2017, one of the first pieces of legislation in the world to be modelled on the Paris Agreement.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1127972847098449920"}"></div></p>
<p>But Australia lacks a national version of Victoria’s or UK’s legislation. </p>
<p>We have national targets, but not yet ongoing systems embedded in departments. These systems would include measures to ensure continuous target-setting every five years (as used in other jurisdictions) with guidelines and progress reporting obligations. A lack of national legislation means the community and businesses lack transparency about Australia’s long-term direction, pace and progress.</p>
<h2>How national climate change legislation would work</h2>
<p>A national Climate Change Act <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/364/6436/132">would reduce</a> recognise climate change was not taken into account when many current laws were developed, and reduce policy instability around Australian meeting our Paris obligations by:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>providing a role for governments and courts to flesh out and stabilise the low carbon transition</p></li>
<li><p>guiding an emissions reductions path that looks ten years ahead, across all sectors of the economy, and that can be ratcheted up if policies fail to meet their targets</p></li>
<li><p>ensuring transparent reporting of emissions and progress towards meeting interim Paris Agreement targets</p></li>
<li><p>allocating responsibilities across government for reporting and climate-conscious planning</p></li>
<li><p>signalling to business, communities and government agencies about emerging opportunities in a low carbon economy.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>How Victoria did it</h2>
<p>In 2017, the Victorian Labor government rolled out state-wide climate legislation, the <a href="https://www.climatechange.vic.gov.au/legislation/climate-change-act-2017">Victorian Climate Change Act</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"966923097830932480"}"></div></p>
<p>This legislation recognises how addressing climate change needs a whole-of-government approach, extending obligations to each state government portfolio.</p>
<p>And it has already catalysed climate change reporting and planning activity across government. An <a href="https://www.climatechange.vic.gov.au/reducing-emissions/interim-targets">independent committee</a>
has been tasked with advising on the first ten years of emissions budgets. </p>
<p>Government departments are preparing adaptation plans for each sector, reviewing operational guidelines and establishing regular reporting of emissions in sectors and their future plans.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-major-parties-climate-policies-side-by-side-116896">Australia’s major parties' climate policies side-by-side</a>
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</em>
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<h2>The UK’s success story</h2>
<p>The UK passed its <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/27/contents">Climate Change Act</a> in 2008 with a near unanimous vote. It has guided government decisions on national energy and industrial policy ever since. </p>
<p>The Act contains a process for setting economy-wide, multi-year targets, generating a clear, but flexible path towards its long-term objective – an 80% reduction in national greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. It’s not explicit about how targets are to be met and successive governments have been free to choose their own mitigation policies. </p>
<p>What has resulted is a clear shift away from the politics of the past where climate change action was traded off against other government goals.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/10-Years-of-the-UK-Climate-Change-Act_Fankhauser-et-al.pdf">Ever since the Act passed</a>, subsequent UK parliaments have created management and efficiency initiatives, a minimum price on carbon (called carbon price floors), renewable energy targets, competitive reverse auction schemes and capacity markets. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274548/original/file-20190515-60532-1bl01s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274548/original/file-20190515-60532-1bl01s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274548/original/file-20190515-60532-1bl01s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274548/original/file-20190515-60532-1bl01s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274548/original/file-20190515-60532-1bl01s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274548/original/file-20190515-60532-1bl01s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274548/original/file-20190515-60532-1bl01s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274548/original/file-20190515-60532-1bl01s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The UK’s national climate change act has dramatically reduced their carbon emissions to below 1860s levels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Combined, these policies promote a competitive, sustainable, low carbon energy supply, along with economic growth and increased national energy security.</p>
<p>And the results have been <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-uk-cuts-carbon-record-coal-drop">extraordinary</a>: emissions in the UK have fallen dramatically since 2008, with the UK’s carbon dioxide emissions now <a href="https://voxeu.org/article/driving-uks-capita-carbon-dioxide-emissions-below-1860-levels">below 1860s levels</a>.</p>
<h2>National transparency would improve the market</h2>
<p>With a clear legislative process with interim targets every five years, a Climate Change Act for Australia would provide businesses and the public with a certainty around the pace of climate change action that reaches beyond the political cycles. </p>
<p>Governments would still have the freedom to choose interim targets and how to deliver them, but the legislation would create transparency around our obligations. </p>
<p>It would also ensure that a transition to a low-carbon future does not risk <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/364/6436/132">financial stability</a>.</p>
<p>Regulatory bodies, such as the <a href="https://www.apra.gov.au/sites/default/files/Pages/insight-issue1-2017.html#phi">Australian Prudential Regulation Authority</a>, the <a href="https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/-/media/boe/files/prudential-regulation/publication/impact-of-climate-change-on-the-uk-insurance-sector.pdf">Bank of England</a>, and the <a href="https://www.fsb-tcfd.org/">Financial Stability Board</a>, recognise the necessity for climate change legislation to create confidence in markets. They are <a href="https://www.monash.edu/sustainable-development/capabilities/climateworks-australia/climate-risk-and-the-financial-system">already applying pressure</a> to local and international financial markets to improve disclosure of climate risk.</p>
<p>Finally, national legislation would ensure the market and the public are kept up-to-date about progress and future pathways, and how they can be involved in the process along the way. This includes investing in Australia’s potential as a new <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/07/ammonia-renewable-fuel-made-sun-air-and-water-could-power-globe-without-carbon">lower-carbon powerhouse</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cutting-cities-emissions-does-have-economic-benefits-and-these-ultimately-outweigh-the-costs-116986">Cutting cities' emissions does have economic benefits – and these ultimately outweigh the costs</a>
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</em>
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<hr>
<h2>Let’s agree what is agreed, and move on</h2>
<p>Australian politicians don’t often agree on climate change action, but the major parties do agree on Australia staying in the Paris Agreement.</p>
<p>A national Climate Change Act for Australia would embody this commitment, aligning us with the international process in a policy-flexible framework. Agreement on such an Act would show the Australian public that each party is serious about tackling climate change, providing a stable platform for the next parliament.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/115230/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Skarbek is CEO of ClimateWorks Australia which receives funding from philanthropy and project-based income from federal, state and local government and private sector organisations. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Malos is part of ClimateWorks Australia which receives funding from philanthropy and project-based income from federal, state and local government and private sector organisations.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cameron Hepburn is Director of the Oxford Smith School which receives funding from government, research councils, private sector and philanthropic organisations. He receives direct funding from the Oxford Martin School and the Nature Conservancy. He is co-founder and shareholder in Aurora Energy Research Ltd and Vivid Economics Ltd.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Carl Ives receives funding from the Oxford Martin School </span></em></p>Nation-wide climate legislation would not only help reduce our carbon emissions, but also boost economic growth.Anna Skarbek, CEO at ClimateWorks Australia, Monash UniversityAnna Malos, Project Manager, climate and energy policy, Climateworks CentreCameron Hepburn, Professor of Environmental Economics, University of OxfordMatthew Carl Ives, Senior Researcher in Economics, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/932182018-03-29T08:35:11Z2018-03-29T08:35:11ZFurther, faster, deeper: the UK needs a more ambitious Climate Change Act<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212257/original/file-20180327-109193-1oy66r9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Deborah Benbrook / shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK’s <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/27/contents">Climate Change Act</a> is a pioneering and far-sighted piece of legislation, ushered in ten years ago by a remarkable cross-party consensus in parliament and clear support across the nation.</p>
<p>As we celebrate its tenth anniversary, it is time to ask, though, whether the central ambition of the Act – reducing carbon emissions by at least 80% from 1990 levels by 2050 – is still adequate in light of changing circumstances, or whether it needs strengthening.</p>
<p>Climate scientists are clear that global carbon emissions will have to fall to net zero at some point if the rise in average temperature is to be halted. This is because as long as the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere continues to increase, the temperature is likely to keep on rising. (“Net zero” means that although there may be a small amount of carbon dioxide being emitted each year to the atmosphere, an equivalent amount will be absorbed and stored.)</p>
<p>The UK government, along with all others, acknowledged this reality by signing up first to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report in 2014, and then the Paris Agreement in December 2015.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_SPM.pdf">IPCC said</a> that meeting the 2°C target then in place “…would require that global net emissions of CO₂ eventually decrease to zero”. In the <a href="https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/pdf/paris_agreement_english_.pdf">Paris Agreement</a> governments committed “…to achieve a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this century”. In 2016, the UK’s then energy minister, Andrea Leadsom, <a href="https://www.businessgreen.com/bg/news/2450973/government-confirms-zero-emission-paris-goal-to-be-enshrined-in-law">told parliament</a>: “The government believes that we will need to take the step of enshrining the Paris goal for net zero emissions in UK law.”</p>
<p>Having agreed that a net zero target is necessary, the next question is “when?”</p>
<h2>2050 is already too late</h2>
<p>In the Paris Agreement, governments pledged not only to hold global warming to “well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels”, but also to attempt to “limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C … recognising that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change.”</p>
<p>The government’s statutory advisor, the Committee on Climate Change (the CCC, on which one of us used to sit), <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/2017-Report-to-Parliament-Meeting-Carbon-Budgets-Closing-the-policy-gap.pdf">advises that</a> in order to stand an evens chance of meeting the 1.5°C aspiration, global emissions of CO₂ need to fall to net zero by the 2040s. The IPCC is producing a special report this year on the case for limiting warming to 1.5°C and pathways for doing so, and is <a href="https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-climatechange-draft/warming-set-to-breach-paris-accords-toughest-limit-by-mid-century-draft-idUKKBN1F02RH">likely to say the same thing</a>.</p>
<p>One of the principles of the UN climate convention is that prosperous nations lead the way. Britain agreed to this back in 1992 and has reaffirmed it many times since. If the science is clear that the global target should be “net zero by 2050”, there is no case for the UK setting a later date – and there is a case for making it earlier.</p>
<h2>Getting to zero</h2>
<p>Nevertheless, adopting a national net zero target is not a trivial matter. Carbon emissions in most sectors of the economy would have to fall to zero. This is largely achievable with current technology, but in sectors such as agriculture and <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-time-to-wake-up-to-the-devastating-impact-flying-has-on-the-environment-70953">aviation</a> it will be challenging. It will also be necessary to put in place mechanisms to <a href="https://theconversation.com/paris-emissions-cuts-arent-enough-well-have-to-put-carbon-back-in-the-ground-52175">take carbon dioxide from the atmosphere</a>, to make up for the small amount of emissions that will inevitably remain.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212296/original/file-20180327-109185-1knp52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212296/original/file-20180327-109185-1knp52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212296/original/file-20180327-109185-1knp52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212296/original/file-20180327-109185-1knp52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212296/original/file-20180327-109185-1knp52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212296/original/file-20180327-109185-1knp52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212296/original/file-20180327-109185-1knp52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mexico’s General Law on Climate Change (2012) was influenced by the UK’s Climate Change Act.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">mundosemfim / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are opportunities as well as challenges. For example, many measures that store carbon in nature, such as <a href="http://www.wildlifetrusts.org/peatlands">restoring peat bogs</a> or planting forests, bring other benefits in terms of landscape, recreation and wildlife.</p>
<p>Sweden, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/jun/15/norway-pledges-to-become-climate-neutral-by-2030">Norway</a>, Iceland, and <a href="https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-france-carbon-emissions/france-to-revise-carbon-emissions-target-after-missing-2016-goal-idUKKBN1FB2W0">France</a> have either adopted a net zero target or are considering doing so. The longer the UK delays, the more its claim to be a global leader on climate change is compromised. British leadership has led other countries to introduce legislation <a href="http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Globe2014.pdf">modelled on its Climate Change Act</a>, and a decision to set a net-zero target is also likely to stimulate others to do the same.</p>
<p>The UK can justifiably be proud of the Climate Change Act. But it’s time to be more ambitious.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/93218/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Krebs is a member of the House of Lords EU Energy and Environment Select Committee and a former member of the Committee on Climate Change as well as Chair of its Adaptation Sub Committee. He is also an advisor to the Wellcome Trusts' programme on planetary health and sits on the Advisory Board of the Energy and Climate Intelligence Unit.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanna Haigh is a Professor of Atmospheric Physics and the Director of the Science and Solutions for a Changing Planet (SSCP) Doctoral Training Partnership. She sits on strategic/advisory boards for the National Physical Laboratory, the Cyprus Institute, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, and the BNPParibas philanthropy programme.</span></em></p>The pioneering legislation is ten years old – and the latest science means it now does not go far enough.John Krebs, Emeritus Professor of Zoology, University of OxfordJoanna Haigh, Co-Director, Grantham Institute for Climate Change & Environment, Imperial College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/193172013-10-22T05:20:58Z2013-10-22T05:20:58ZUnderground water heat will aid bid to hit renewable targets<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/33264/original/r4jnsk7c-1382103405.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Deep underground the coal is off - but the heat is still on.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ashley Dace</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Solar and wind power rightly receive a lot of attention as we struggle to ramp up renewable electricity and move away from fossil fuels. But in a damp, blustery island such as ours, generating heat is as much a priority as electricity. This is especially the case in fuel poor homes where affordable warmth (as opposed to fewer carbon emissions) is the pressing priority. In this case, district heating systems can play an important role in making heat cheaper, while also reducing carbon emissions.</p>
<p>The importance of renewable heat has been recognised in the <a href="http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Environment/climatechange/scotlands-action/climatechangeact">Climate Change Act (Scotland)</a>, which requires 11% of Scotland’s heat to come from renewable sources by 2020. However, as of last year it’s estimated that less than 3% of demand for heat not being supplied by electricity is from renewables.</p>
<p>There is an exciting renewable resource right under our feet that lends itself well to district-level heating solutions, however: warm water lying in abandoned mine workings, which varies between 11°C and 14°C. There is a <a href="http://www.mine-exploration.co.uk/">vast network</a> of abandoned pits in the former mining areas across Britain where coal and ironstone were extracted. Many of these seams are found very close to the surface, extending down to a few hundred metres, which makes the water now occupying these voids relatively accessible.</p>
<p>The geology is such that many of these coal seams, and therefore the mine workings, are interconnected through faults and layers of permeable rock. This means that in many cases the water can move freely and could be considered as one large, albeit rather complex, reservoir. For this reason the thermal energy stored in the mine water should be considered a truly renewable energy sources, since any water extracted from a mine will be recharged by water percolating through from the surroundings.</p>
<p>The heat stored in these waters is vast. In Glasgow alone the stored heat is in excess of 2,000 GWh per square kilometre. While the temperature of the water might appear low, modern heat pump technologies are at such efficiencies that even a few degree difference between the air and water temperatures is adequate to harvest the heat. This would therefore means that the mineworkings below Glasgow are able to heat more than 80,000 homes per square kilometre. </p>
<p>British Geological Survey (BGS) scientists have interpreted more than 50,000 borehole records from the Glasgow area and records of abandoned mines dating back to 1839. These have been brought together with data from other sources to create <a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/energy/geothermal/expertiseHeatEnergyGlasgow.html">detailed 3D geological models</a>, enabling researchers to predict the geology and depth of mines anywhere below the city’s centre.</p>
<p>Using mine water to provide heating has been demonstrated already, in two housing association estates in Glasgow and Fife, in Scotland. These projects have run for over ten years, providing reliable heating to residents for a very low cost. For example, the average heating costs in Shettleston, Glasgow which uses heat from mineworkings is £150 per year plus £10/month for maintenance, compared to the national average of £800-1000 per year for gas heating.</p>
<p>These systems can be very easily reversed to provide cooling if required. Given its moderate levels of temperature (11-14°C) the water could be directly pumped into buildings as chilled water for air conditioning. Scotland’s temperate climate may not require it often, but large buildings such as universities, hospitals and offices require cooling year round due to the heat given off from running lots of electrical equipment and extensive lighting throughout.</p>
<p>Research at the Glasgow Caledonian University is focusing on how to exploit this significant heat resource. The aim is to create a resource map that outlines potential hotspots for development that would be appropriate for mine water heating systems. This map will consider heat demand across the Glasgow, with the intention of mapping those who use lots of heat with potential nearby sources. The research will also analyse different heat pump and ground loop configurations and their relative suitability for residential, commercial, or light industrial sites.</p>
<p>Monitoring the temperature and chemistry of mine water at a number of sites across Glasgow is another focus, with a view to providing insights to the general condition and characteristics of mine water in this area. To develop the business case, it will also consider the economic aspects to the installation and running costs, as well as length of time to recoup the investment and government incentives on offer.</p>
<p>An separate but related initiative is to work with <a href="http://www.spt.co.uk/">Strathclyde Partnership for Transport</a> (SPT) to transform the water that enters Glasgow’s underground system into a sustainable heat source. Ultimately the aim of these projects is to raise awareness of this renewable heat resource and build confidence in the technology that could put it to use throughout the UK.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/19317/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rohinton Emmanuel receives funding from the Technology Strategy Board and Scottish Power.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Church receives funding from TSB and Scottish Power.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Hytiris receives funding from Scottish Power and through the Scottish Government's Knowledge Transfer Partnership.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bjorn Aaen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Solar and wind power rightly receive a lot of attention as we struggle to ramp up renewable electricity and move away from fossil fuels. But in a damp, blustery island such as ours, generating heat is…Rohinton Emmanuel, Professor of Sustainable Design & Construction, Glasgow Caledonian UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/182162013-09-17T05:36:24Z2013-09-17T05:36:24ZCarbon footprint is not as small as you think<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/31399/original/b92zfj4y-1379341484.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Your footprint is bigger (and messier) than you've been led to believe.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">KR1212</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK government <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/jul/06/uk-government-carbon-reduction">has made much</a> of <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/2012-energy-and-emissions-projections">claims</a> that its climate policies have been successful in reducing carbon emissions. This claim is based on the data used to create the national inventories required under the <a href="http://unfccc.int/2860.php">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a>, which wealthier nations such as the UK publicise as proof of their commitment to decarbonising their economies.</p>
<p>However, the authors of <a href="http://www.bsos.umd.edu/sites/bsos.umd.edu/files/erl13_3_035039.pdf">a recent paper</a> published in Environmental Research Letters have calculated the carbon footprint differently. They reveal that the government’s claims are rose-tinted, to say the least. They calculate what we might view as the “real” carbon footprint of the UK: measured in terms of consumption, rather than production. </p>
<p>The official national inventories hide an uncomfortable feature of the global economy - that of “carbon leakage.” In the production-based accounting that these inventories use, carbon is assigned to a nation according to where it is emitted. This feature has been bemoaned justifiably by nations such as China that have become the “factory of the world,” producing goods for export to consuming nations such as the UK. The result is a continuing growth in carbon emissions from China, the products of which are in significant measure flowing around the globe to consumers.</p>
<p>Were a global carbon tax imposed on carbon released in production, the burden would fall squarely on the shoulders of the developing economies in which goods are increasingly produced. This seems anything but equitable, seeing as much of the products of these emissions are globally consumed. </p>
<p>An alternative is consumption-based accounting, in which the ultimate consumer of a product is held accountable for the emissions that took place during production, regardless of where that production occurs.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.bsos.umd.edu/sites/bsos.umd.edu/files/erl13_3_035039.pdf">The paper by Minx et al</a> is one of a growing stream of publications aimed at addressing and making possible this shift to consumption-based accounting. Performing such accounting is anything but straightforward, and results are much higher in uncertainty than production-based accounting. Still, the methods and analyses are needed, both as a way of bringing equity to our global climate policies, and as a strategy for identifying the root causes of carbon emissions in patterns of personal consumption.</p>
<p>The message of their paper is clear: when one uses consumption-based accounting, a very different picture emerges - of both the national average emissions, and where those emissions are or should be assigned. Under consumption-based accounting, the UK has not been declining in emissions, simply shifting those emissions to countries such as China. The same is true for the EU generally. </p>
<p>This method reveals that wealthy urban areas do not have lower per capita emissions than poorer areas: they are simply net importers of carbon from other (manufacturing) parts of the UK. This reveals that wealthier people have consumption levels of carbon that the traditional method of measuring carbon footprint hides from view. </p>
<p>The analysis is not without its problems. The idea of following carbon through a chain from extraction, to manufacturing, to sale, and on to consumption is still in its infancy. Due to the difficulty of this, results of <a href="http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/publications/journal-article/2013/consumption-based-ghg-emission-accounting-uk-case-study">different studies</a> vary by factors of two, three and sometimes more. And reducing consumption of any given good, such as a refrigerator in the UK, may not reduce global carbon emissions. It may simply drive down the price of goods globally, allowing poorer nations to hoover up those goods. </p>
<p>But we will not be able to test policies based on shifting consumption patterns until we can assess their impact. Studies such as this one set the stage for a future in which those who consume will be just as responsible for carbon as those who produce. It may not be a message welcomed by the UK government, but it will be a step forward in truthfully tackling the risks of climate change. </p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/18216/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Douglas Crawford-Brown, and the Cambridge Centre for Climate Change Mitigation Research, receives funding from the EPSRC and European Commission. He is affiliated with the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change.</span></em></p>The UK government has made much of claims that its climate policies have been successful in reducing carbon emissions. This claim is based on the data used to create the national inventories required under…Douglas Crawford-Brown, Director, Cambridge Centre for Climate Change Mitigation Research (4CMR), University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/181612013-09-12T14:03:36Z2013-09-12T14:03:36ZIn praise of Britain’s Climate Change Act<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/31248/original/bbv7p5fg-1378989264.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Global carbon emissions, by country - climate legislation helps.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Distantbody</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Approved with overwhelming support from all political parties, the Climate Change Act came into force in 2008 and was hailed as a ground-breaking piece of legislation that would guide Britain’s transition to a low-carbon economy. Five years on, it is worth asking whether it has lived up to expectations.</p>
<p>There is no doubt that the act has consolidated Britain’s role as an international leader in climate policy. It is studied routinely when other countries embark on their own climate change legislation. Increasingly this includes not only industrialised countries, but also emerging markets like China, Mexico and South Korea. About 20 climate laws are passed each year.</p>
<p>Three features of the act stand out. The first is the statutory long-term target – an 80% cut in emissions by 2050, relative to 1990. The second is the establishment of five-year carbon budgets, also statutory, which determine the path to 2050. Four carbon budgets have so far been enacted, mandating an emissions cut of 50% by 2025, the mid-point of the fourth budget. The third feature is the establishment of an independent body, the <a href="http://www.theccc.org.uk/tackling-climate-change/the-legal-landscape/climate-change-act-and-uk-regulations/">Committee on Climate Change</a>, which recommends and monitors the carbon budgets.</p>
<p>These provisions were put in place with a view to the long term. They recognise that without guidance politicians, with their eyes on the political cycle, would be unlikely to maintain a steady course toward a low-carbon future.</p>
<p>The full merits of the act are therefore only revealed in times of adversity. As long as there is consensus about climate policy, the act is barely constraining. It is at times of waning commitment that its provisions begin to bite.</p>
<p>Times like now, in other words, when we observe a growing adversity to climate policy in parts of the media and among some politicians. This is usually expressed as concern about <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/10181196/Government-policy-to-blame-for-rising-energy-bills-npower-insists.html">rising energy bills</a>, opposition to wind farms or <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/aug/21/david-cameron-fracking-green-investors">enthusiasm for shale gas</a>, rather than outright opposition to climate control. But there is no doubt that the Climate Change Act is facing its first major test.</p>
<p>So far its provisions have held. UK climate policy would be in a very different place without the act; we would almost certainly have a much more lenient carbon target for the 2020s, and the political discourse would have a different dynamic. A comparison with <a href="http://www.europeanvoice.com/article/2013/march/commission-to-propose-new-2030-climate-targets-by-year-end/76835.aspx">climate policy in the European Union</a>, which lacks the guidance of a strong legislative basis, supports this conjecture.</p>
<p>Stiffer tests await: The fourth carbon budget, for the period 2023-27, is due for review in 2014. The fifth budget has to be agreed by 2016.</p>
<p>Some commentators see these constant challenges to the act as its main weakness. The act has not transformed political attitudes or the institutional balance of power on climate policy. Its achievements are still reversible, as can be seen in the <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/southern-crossroads/2013/jul/08/tony-abbott-climate-policy-australia">situation in Australia</a>.</p>
<p>The act itself recognises that in a field full of uncertainties it is worth checking from time to time whether its objectives are still appropriate. The evidence to date suggests they are. Much has been made of the recent <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/has-global-warming-stopped-no--its-just-on-pause-insist-scientists-and-its-down-to-the-oceans-8726893.html">pause in the rise</a> of global temperatures. The pause is not fully understood and several factors are likely to play a role, including the possibility that the climate system may be slightly less sensitive than feared.</p>
<p>A helping hand from the climate system would be extremely welcome, but on its own is not a sufficient reason to change tack. <a href="http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch8s8-6.html">Climate sensitivity</a> is only one element in the causal chain that leads from greenhouse gas emissions to temperature change and from temperature change to impacts.</p>
<p>For most of the other elements in that chain the news has got worse. Greenhouse gas emissions <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/mar/08/hawaii-climate-change-second-greatest-annual-rise-emissions">continue to rise</a> at the upper end of most predictions, and there is evidence that the socio-economic impacts of a given amount of warming may perhaps be more severe than previously thought, for example in terms of <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/341/6145/508">food security</a>. Confidence in many of these findings is still low, but uncertainty reinforces, rather than weakens, the case for emissions control as a rational insurance policy.</p>
<p>What about the risk that the UK is moving too fast? Perhaps a slower pace of decarbonisation would be more appropriate. Models suggest otherwise, and the current emissions path is already back-loaded. The mandated carbon budgets require average emission cuts of about 3% a year until 2030, and about 5% a year thereafter.</p>
<p>To put these numbers into perspective; if capital investments have a lifetime of 20 years, one twentieth or 5% of the capital stock is renewed each year and can be replaced with cleaner alternatives as part of the normal investment cycle. Decarbonise faster and capital will have to be scrapped prematurely. It therefore makes sense to act early, even before we factor in technology reasons (learning effects may be stronger) and scientific reasons (emissions over the years will be lower) to do so.</p>
<p>In short, the scientific and economic rationale for the Climate Change Act has not changed. Five years after its inception, it remains a farsighted and innovative piece of legislation. The fact that its value is debated in some circles merely demonstrates how much it is needed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/18161/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sam Fankhauser is also a member of the Committee on Climate Change. He receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council and the Grantham Foundation for the Protection of the Environment. .</span></em></p>Approved with overwhelming support from all political parties, the Climate Change Act came into force in 2008 and was hailed as a ground-breaking piece of legislation that would guide Britain’s transition…Sam Fankhauser, Co-Director, Grantham Research Institute, London School of Economics and Political ScienceLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.