tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/congestion-4054/articlesCongestion – The Conversation2023-01-31T18:50:54Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1981792023-01-31T18:50:54Z2023-01-31T18:50:54ZAccra is congested, but relocating Ghana’s capital is not the only option<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505824/original/file-20230123-22-yykqto.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Accra's population has doubled over the past decade</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Muntaka Chasant/Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Capital cities play an important role in the socio-economic development of every country. People generally move to cities where there are opportunities. </p>
<p>Accra, Ghana’s capital, demonstrates this pull effect – and the problems it can create, like <a href="https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Over-population-of-Accra-putting-pressure-on-resources-GSS-1364164">congestion</a> and development planning issues. </p>
<p>One of the consequences has been regular <a href="https://www.mwh.gov.gh/addressing-the-increasing-risk-of-perennial-flooding-across-the-country-a-shared-responsibility/">flooding</a>, which has claimed lives and property. Over the years, the city authorities have tried to decongest Accra, without success. The city is now <a href="https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Demolish-illegal-structures-on-waterways-Akufo-Addo-1546295">demolishing illegal structures</a>, especially those close to waterways. </p>
<p>Some people have suggested that Accra’s congestion problem could be solved if the capital were to be <a href="https://www.modernghana.com/news/1072846/relocate-ghanas-capital-from-accra-omanhene.html">moved</a> to another city. Others <a href="https://www.pulse.com.gh/news/local/moving-ghanas-capital-away-from-accra-will-be-expensive-minister/ps8jx0l">disagree</a>. </p>
<p>Our position in this ongoing debate is informed by a six-year-old <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19376812.2015.1134335">study</a> one of us conducted comparing Accra with Nigeria’s capital, Abuja. Nigeria moved its administrative capital out of Lagos to Abuja <a href="https://bscholarly.com/why-the-capital-of-nigeria-was-moved-from-lagos-to-abuja/">in 1991</a>. </p>
<p>The goal of the research was to make recommendations for the effective functioning of capital cities. We believe the findings are still relevant.</p>
<p>The study found that Accra was congested because too many facilities and services were concentrated in the city. We conclude that, instead of relocating the capital from Accra, its various roles could be shared among various regional capitals. Accra could keep its political role, but some of its facilities and services should be distributed around the country. </p>
<h2>Accra’s many functions</h2>
<p>Ghana’s capital city has multiple functions: educational, commercial, entertainment and administrative.</p>
<p>As an <a href="https://www.4icu.org/gh/greater-accra/a-z/">educational centre</a>, Accra has about 40 tertiary institutions. The seat of government, parliament house and the supreme court of Ghana are also in Accra, giving it an administrative and political role. The major sporting activities in Ghana are soccer, athletics and boxing. The country’s only boxing arenas are in Accra. The city also has the Ohene Gyan Sports Stadium and the Olympic Stadium (under construction). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ghana’s population by region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Reputable research institutes such as Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research are located in Accra. The headquarters of major religious organisations – such as the Christian Council of Ghana and the Office of the National Chief Imam – are also located here. </p>
<p>Some facilities that could have been located in other cities are all concentrated in Accra. Overall, the city serves as the country’s commercial, manufacturing and communication centre. </p>
<p>This has attracted major private companies to locate their headquarters in the capital. Ghana Stock Exchange, the country’s principal facilitator of the development of the capital market, also has its headquarters in Accra. </p>
<p>The combination of its political role and all the other facilities and services in the city has attracted people from all parts of the country. According to the 2021 Population and Housing Census, the Greater Accra Region is the most populous region in Ghana, with a population of over <a href="https://allafrica.com/stories/202109230279.html">5 million people</a>. The region, with a population density of 1,200 people per square kilometer, is also the <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1275577/population-density-by-region-in-ghana/">most densely populated</a> region in Ghana. </p>
<p>This density has led to traffic congestion and overcrowding. On average, traffic across the major highways in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area <a href="http://mlgrd.gov.gh/images/Ghana_Urban_Forum/er.pdf">grew</a> from 2.5% to 14.8% per annum. </p>
<p>The multi-functional nature of Accra has led to pressure on land resources which has also resulted in encroachment of green areas and wetlands. The result is that parts of the city are unsafe to live in. The perennial floods which claim human lives and destroy properties have been attributed to the city’s <a href="https://www.mwh.gov.gh/addressing-the-increasing-risk-of-perennial-flooding-across-the-country-a-shared-responsibility/">development and spatial planning problems</a>. </p>
<h2>Solutions</h2>
<p>Relocating capital cities does not necessarily solve the problem of congestion in the long term if the fundamental causes of the congestion are not addressed. For example, the relocation of Nigerian’s capital city to Abuja did not solve congestion in Lagos.</p>
<p>We argue that a more feasible option for Accra is to change the role of the city from a multi-functional role to a political role. </p>
<p>National policies should focus on de-concentration by relocating some of the facilities and services that are currently in the capital but do not require direct access to the executive. These may include the headquarters of some government institutions, nongovernmental organisations, universities and research institutes, religious organisations and private companies. </p>
<p>The relocation of the headquarters of the Ghana Cocoa Board from Accra, for example, could be taken into consideration as Accra is not a cocoa producing region. Such an institution could be moved to a place where cocoa is produced. </p>
<p>The headquarters of Ghana National Petroleum Corporation could be moved to the western region of Ghana, where oil is drilled. Universities located in Accra could be encouraged to establish branches in other parts of the country, thus reducing the number of students on the Accra campuses. This would help promote spatial equity in Ghana in terms of geographic access to university education. </p>
<p>There could be incentive packages for institutions to establish their headquarters outside the capital. Those in the capital could be charged a special congestion levy. Finally, there should be a conscious effort to give functional roles to all the 16 regional capitals in Ghana. The functional roles can include commercial capital, defence capital, entertainment capital and sports capital. The decentralisation of facilities and services would help distribute opportunities – and people – across the country.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198179/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Accra could keep its political role while some of its other functions are distributed around the country.Stephen Appiah Takyi, Senior Lecturer, Department of Planning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST)Owusu Amponsah, Senior Lecturer, Department of Planning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1793782022-03-24T19:03:41Z2022-03-24T19:03:41ZWhat’s the best way to parallel park your car? Engineers have the answer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454043/original/file-20220324-19-9phgz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=130%2C0%2C7737%2C5237&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’re driving slowly along a street, looking for a place to park. You come across a long stretch of parallel parking. But to your frustration, the spaces left by other people’s parking efforts are not quite long enough for you to fit. The search continues. </p>
<p>Drawn from our own frustrating experiences with parking, we decided to answer the question once and for all - what’s the best way to parallel park your car? Our <a href="https://findingspress.org/article/33123-parallel-parking-vehicle-alignment-strategies">research</a> has found a simple answer. </p>
<p>You should always park at one end of a parking space, leaving as big a space as possible at the other end. It doesn’t matter which end – just remember to leave yourself room to get out. While this might sound obvious, a quick look at the street outside your home will show many drivers think parking in the middle of the space is best – or just don’t give it much thought at all.</p>
<p>Optimising how we park our cars in cities matters, because free parking spaces are, by their nature, a limited resource. We’ve taken to our cars with a vengeance as the world slowly reemerges from lockdowns. <a href="https://covid19.apple.com/mobility">Mobility data</a> shows our cities are coming back to life, with our travel behaviours changing in turn. </p>
<p>Even though many of us are still <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965856421003219">working from home</a>, those of us commuting are reluctant to <a href="https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/27578">return to public transport</a>. You’ll have already noticed the result based on traffic. The number of cars on the roads of Australian cities has already met or gone past pre-COVID numbers, and so too the parking demand.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Apple Mobility data for Sydney" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Apple Mobility data shows activity has resumed in Sydney, with driving recovering more strongly than public transit or walking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source"> covid19.apple.com/mobility</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How can we all park better?</h2>
<p>Everyone is familiar with marked spaces, where painted lines show you where to park. These help manage our frustrations with unreliable parking, but they are bad for density because every space needs to be able to accommodate a large car. </p>
<p>In our research, we focused on unmarked parallel parking, such as that found on most residential streets. That’s because here we can control exactly where we position our cars. </p>
<p>We tested four strategies drivers can follow in these types of parks: </p>
<ol>
<li>always park as far back as possible</li>
<li>park at either end of the space</li>
<li>park in the middle of the space </li>
<li>randomly park anywhere in the available space. </li>
</ol>
<p>We simulated what would happen in the common situation where demand exceeds supply, in which there is always a car waiting to park, with a driver who is prepared to wait until someone else leaves.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="car looking for park" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hunting for a car park can be a frustrating experience.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The worst strategy for maximising car parks? Parking in the middle of the space. You might find this useful if, say, you wanted to discourage people from parking directly outside your house. Parking in the middle of the available space makes it harder to cram more cars in. </p>
<p>We found parking randomly in a space can produce slightly better outcomes. Many drivers use this strategy subconsciously. </p>
<p>But overall, the best strategy for fitting as many cars into scarce street parking is to park at either end of the space. It doesn’t matter which end you park at, and it doesn’t even matter if you choose the same end as your neighbours. Under this scenario, we could fit the most cars onto any street.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The four parking strategies" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The four parking strategies we tested. Time progresses from bottom to top, with cars leaving and being replaced. Cars are represented by coloured rectangles, with the width of the rectangle the length of the car, and the height of the rectangle how long it was parked for. White represents a gap along the kerb.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also analysed what happens when there’s only a small distance between driveways or intersections. If you live in a street with shorter kerbs, parking at either end of the spot becomes even more beneficial. </p>
<p>How significant is this technique? In many residential areas, you can almost double the number of cars able to fit on the road by parking at the front or back of the available spaces. </p>
<h2>Issues with parking</h2>
<p>Parking is a scarce resource that we need to manage carefully to encourage other modes of transport, such as public and active transport. Storing cars on valuable land is also a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48646186?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">poor use of real estate</a>. If autonomous cars arrive, we might see a future in which cars drive themselves off to remote car parks and free up all of the highly accessible land currently used for street parking.</p>
<p>If we wanted to reduce the demand for parking, we would have to encourage more people to return to public transport through measures such as lowering fares, or increasing the cost of parking or <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-petrol-excise-and-why-does-australia-have-it-anyway-179373">fuel</a>. We could also build extra car parks next to train stations or bus bays. </p>
<p>But given these measures are <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/still-looking-for-a-car-park-2019-election-promises-stalled-20220215-p59wk8.html">unlikely to happen</a> in the near future, we need to make the most of the parking we have. </p>
<p>Until then, the management of on-street parking will remain a vexed issue, particularly in our most congested cities. In Sydney, for instance, <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/barangaroo-public-parking-cut-as-residential-parking-increases-in-latest-proposed-changes-20150326-1m891g.html">local residents and commuters</a> vie with <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/barangaroo-public-parking-cut-as-residential-parking-increases-in-latest-proposed-changes-20150326-1m891g.html">visitors</a> for the right to park in a given street. </p>
<p>As the amount of on-street parking is more or less fixed, we should make the most of the space we’ve got. Next time you come across an unmarked parallel park, try parking at the front or back of the space.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179378/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>On-street parking is an increasingly scarce resource as we take to our cars post-lockdowns. Here’s how to make the most of it.Benjy Marks, Lecturer in Geomechanics, University of SydneyEmily Moylan, Lecturer, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1726672021-12-03T14:42:32Z2021-12-03T14:42:32ZGovernment must back UK train travel or risk long-term retreat to cars<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435326/original/file-20211202-19469-lqcvxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jon Fitton/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s no doubt that the UK’s railways have been hit hard by the pandemic. <a href="https://dataportal.orr.gov.uk/media/2024/station-usage-2020-21-statistical-release.pdf">Recent figures</a> from the Office of Rail and Road show a huge drop in passenger numbers, from April 2020 to March 2021. Over that period numbers fell at some previously busy stations like London Waterloo, by 86%. While numbers at Stratford, in east London, (the UK’s busiest station) fell by 67%. </p>
<p>Passenger numbers did rise over the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/transport-use-during-the-coronavirus-covid-19-pandemic">summer of 2021</a> but the latest government statistics show rail use overall was at about 65-70% of pre-pandemic levels. This overall drop contrasts with the steady growth in rail use <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/942425/rail-factsheet-2020.pdf">seen before COVID</a>, with journeys doubling from 1994-2018. Now, with the announcement of <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/uk-59501192">the omicron</a> variant, some people may shift away from public transport again.</p>
<p>Until train use recovers, a new approach to rail funding is needed. The UK government and devolved administrations must provide more funding and support for rail services and investment, or see long-term increased car use, increased carbon emissions and increased congestion. </p>
<p>Other countries are already revising their rail policies – for example the new German government coalition <a href="https://www.railwaygazette.com/policy/new-era-as-german-coalition-prioritises-rail-spending-over-road/60398.article%20">is committed</a> to investing more on rail than road, and the Austrian government has introduced a <a href="https://www.klimaticket.at/en/%20">“climate ticket”</a>, giving access to all public transport. </p>
<h2>Post-pandemic travel</h2>
<p>The problem for the UK is that commuters are not coming back – at least not five days a week. Working from home, or hybrid working, is now established. <a href="https://wiserd.ac.uk/sites/default/files/documents/Homeworking%20in%20the%20UK_Report_Final_3.pdf">One study showed</a> that nearly 90% of those who worked at home during lockdowns wanted to continue to do so, at least some of the time. These people were concentrated in London and the south east and in more highly paid office jobs in city centres – precisely the people who have been the backbone of rail commuting in the past. </p>
<p>One global estimate suggests a 20% reduction in business travel while other <a href="https://d3cez36w5wymxj.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/10131041/Covid-19-travel-segmentation-8-31-October-analysis.pdf">research</a> highlights people being worried about travelling on crowded trains and buses with others and have switching to cars (<a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/942425/rail-factsheet-2020.pdf">government statistics</a> show that car traffic is almost back to pre-pandemic levels).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A traffic jam." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435328/original/file-20211202-13-1ke0j4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435328/original/file-20211202-13-1ke0j4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435328/original/file-20211202-13-1ke0j4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435328/original/file-20211202-13-1ke0j4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435328/original/file-20211202-13-1ke0j4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435328/original/file-20211202-13-1ke0j4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435328/original/file-20211202-13-1ke0j4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If train services are cut it’s likely that traffic jams will continue to rise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">MagicBones/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even before COVID, the British model of running and funding the railways was under pressure. Privatisation has been highly controversial – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0155998214000416#bibl0005">critics</a> have commented on the extra costs and poor service, and argued for <a href="https://www.transportforqualityoflife.com/u/files/120630_Rebuilding_Rail_Final_Report_print_version.pdf">reform</a>. Stung by poor timetabling and other problems in 2018, the UK government accepted the need for reform. The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/great-british-railways-williams-shapps-plan-for-rail">Williams-Shapps plan for rail</a> proposed major restructuring, with a new “Great British Railways” contracting companies to run services, managing the infrastructure and conducting long-term planning.</p>
<p>This restructuring may cut the costs of running the railways, but it is unlikely to make up lost revenue. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hs2-leeds-branch-cancelled-what-will-this-mean-for-the-north-of-england-expert-qanda-172177">HS2 Leeds branch cancelled: what will this mean for the north of England? – expert Q&A</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>There are various choices the government might make. One is cuts in services, from pre-pandemic levels. For example, there has been a <a href="https://www.southwesternrailway.com/plan-my-journey/timetables/timetable-consultation-december-2022">consultation</a> on the future of services for South Western Railways, which says demand is not coming back so services must be slimmed down. This resulted in a furious <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/london/comments/p4698k/south_western_railway_swr_december_2022_timetable/">backlash</a> from passengers. Some immediate <a href="https://fosbr.org.uk/plans-to-cut-bristol-to-waterloo-service/">cuts</a> have been announced for the Bristol to London Waterloo service via Salisbury.</p>
<p>Another recent government decision is to trim back the plan for more high speed rail in the north of England, again with major <a href="https://inews.co.uk/news/politics/northern-powerhouse-rail-backlash-descends-into-blame-game-as-more-scaled-back-plans-emerge-1304337">public opposition</a>. The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/integrated-rail-plan-for-the-north-and-the-midlands">government has</a> abandoned one leg of its high-speed rail link (HS2).</p>
<p>Even the promised £96bn of rail investment is subject to “individual schemes proceeding subject to future approval at key gateways to ensure ongoing control of costs and value for money”. The lines which have already been scrapped would have created extra capacity for passengers and freight. It is as yet unclear whether the new plans will provide any extra capacity to allow growth.</p>
<p>Increased rail fares are also on the horizon - the government has continued with above-inflation fare increases (RPI+1%), with <a href="https://www.moneysavingexpert.com/news/2021/08/train-passengers-could-be-hit-with-the-largest-fare-rises-in-a-d/">more to come</a>. This contrasts with continued freezing of fuel duty for road transport and <a href="https://inews.co.uk/news/politics/budget-2021-air-passenger-duty-cut-uk-domestic-flights-taxes-cop26-climate-summit-1270580">cutting air passenger duty</a> on domestic flights.</p>
<h2>Climate change risk</h2>
<p>Transport is the <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957887/2019_Final_greenhouse_gas_emissions_statistical_release.pdf">biggest source</a> of UK carbon emissions. Researchers <a href="https://covid19transas.org/at-a-crossroads-travel-adaptations-during-covid-19-restrictions-and-where-next/">argue</a> that what is needed is to cut the miles people drive as well as a transition to zero emission vehicles. So <a href="https://www.creds.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/CREDS-Shifting-the-focus-July2019.pdf#page=47">reducing demand for road transport</a> is critical. </p>
<p>While a lot of travel is short distance, the <a href="https://www.local.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/Professor%20Jillian%20Anable%20and%20Professor%20Greg%20Marsden.pdf">small number of longer journeys</a> account for a large proportion of carbon emissions from surface transport. Rail can play an important role in providing an alternative to car use for these longer journeys – pre-pandemic it <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/national-travel-survey-2019">accounted for</a> 16% of journeys over 50 miles and 25% of journeys between 250 and 350 miles. </p>
<p>But this will require the UK government – especially the treasury – to take a new approach, supporting railways, and public transport generally, as the backbone for a zero carbon transport network. Current policies, with reduced rail services, increased fares and investment uncertainty will clearly be bad for the environment, as well as the economy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172667/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Joseph is visiting professor at the Smart Mobility Unit at the University of Hertfordshire; hee is also a trustee of the Fooundation foor Integrated Transport and chairs the Smart Transport programme at Bauer Media</span></em></p>Until train use recovers, a new approach to rail funding is needed.Stephen Joseph, Visiting Professor, Smart Mobility Research Unit, University of HertfordshireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1721002021-11-19T15:13:22Z2021-11-19T15:13:22ZLorry-driver shortages: how retailers are starting to move more goods by train<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432841/original/file-20211119-15-460med.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/felixstowe-suffolk-uk-june-30-2012-1094523371">Kev Gregory/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK economy has been reliant on carrying goods by <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/815839/domestic-road-freight-statistics-2018.pdf">road for decades</a>. In recent months a lack of HGV drivers has been one of the main reasons for food shortages on <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-58519997">supermarket shelves</a>. Estimates suggest the UK needs <a href="https://www.rha.uk.net/News/News-Blogs-and-Press-Releases/press-releases/detail/driver-shortage-rha-and-freight-industry-write-to-prime-minister-boris-johnson">100,000 more drivers</a>, with 53,000 fewer people doing the job than in 2017, according to the Office for <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/articles/fallinhgvdriverslargestamongmiddleagedworkers/2021-10-19">National Statistics</a>.</p>
<hr>
<iframe id="noa-web-audio-player" style="border: none" src="https://embed-player.newsoveraudio.com/v4?key=x84olp&id=https://theconversation.com/lorry-driver-shortages-how-retailers-are-starting-to-move-more-goods-by-train-172100&bgColor=F5F5F5&color=D8352A&playColor=D8352A" width="100%" height="110px"></iframe>
<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>There are now some signs of a shift to carrying goods by rail, after a period of declining use of trains for freight. The UK government <a href="https://dft-newsroom.prgloo.com/news/freight-train-capacity-doubles-to-port-of-liverpool-thanks-to-gbp-8-3-million-line-upgrade">has just announced</a> a doubling of freight train capacity at the port of Liverpool, while a GB Railfreight service between Liverpool and the East Midlands launched in late 2020 expects to take 20,000 lorry journeys off the roads.</p>
<p>Lorries are generally regarded as <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2015/540338/IPOL_STU(2015)540338_EN.pdf">cost effective</a> compared to rail, particularly for moving items over short distances, such as from regional distribution centres to retail stores. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965856417300186?via%3Dihub#b0015">UK roads</a> offer more direct access to customers as many delivery points are located on the road network but not on a railway line. </p>
<p>But trains offer environmental advantages: research suggests that each freight train <a href="https://www.raildeliverygroup.com/about-us/publications/12853-2021-10-catalysing-a-green-recovery/file.html">removes around 76 lorries</a> from the road. Per tonne of goods moved by rail, there are <a href="https://www.cer.be/sites/default/files/publication/Facts%20and%20figures%202014.pdf">around eight times</a> fewer emissions produced than from road transport. Around 91% of <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/final-uk-greenhouse-gas-emissions-national-statistics-1990-2019">UK emissions</a> originate from road transport, making it the highest contributor to the UK’s <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966692306001207">greenhouse-gas emissions</a>. </p>
<p>One obstacle to expanding rail freight is the investment needed in additional equipment to lift containers on and off the rail network. However, as rail freight increases and infrastructure is in place these costs will come down. Generally <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/552492/rail-freight-strategy.pdf">economies of scale</a> should mean rail freight costs overall will reduce as more companies make the switch.</p>
<p>However, some of the biggest UK retailers are already increasing their use of trains, <a href="https://teesvalley-ca.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Logistics-Brochure.pdf">with ASDA</a> moving clothing from Teesport in North Yorkshire by rail to four clothing distribution centres, with onward journeys from there to stores by road. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/oct/06/tesco-profits-double-as-shelves-stay-stocked-despite-supply-chain-problems">Tesco is</a> using temperature-controlled rail containers to move fresh produce from Spain to Scotland, and plans to increase use of trains, moving from 65,000 to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/oct/06/tesco-profits-double-as-shelves-stay-stocked-despite-supply-chain-problems">90,000 40ft containers</a> by the end of 2021. </p>
<h2>The final mile</h2>
<p>Perhaps rail’s greatest weakness is delivering the final mile of the journey from stations to warehouses or shops. But larger zero-emission electric trucks are becoming more widely available. Bikes can help to cut both <a href="https://www.westminster.ac.uk/news/using-cargo-bikes-for-deliveries-cuts-congestion-and-pollution-in-cities-study-finds">congestion and pollution</a>. DHL is already operating cargo bikes for final mile deliveries in The Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Finland, Germany and Ireland. <a href="https://www.dhl.com/global-en/spotlight/sustainability/urban-logistics-river-boat.html">In London</a>, DHL is using cargo bikes and a Thames river boat service for parcel delivery. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Trucks and cars on a major road." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The HGV driver crisis could be eased by moving more freight on to trains, an expert argues.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/highway-transportation-cars-truck-316733366">TT Studio/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The UK government’s plans for the north of England via the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/4/1662/htm">Northern Powerhouse Partnership</a> included plans to grow freight transport. But a recent announcement that a <a href="https://theconversation.com/hs2-leeds-branch-cancelled-what-will-this-mean-for-the-north-of-england-expert-qanda-172177">high speed rail</a> link to Leeds (HS2) is being scrapped may reduce possibilities to grow regional rail freight by <a href="https://transportforthenorth.com/wp-content/uploads/TfN-final-strategic-transport-plan-2019.pdf">more than 50%</a>. </p>
<p>One of the main problems facing the UK rail freight industry today is the congested network has few gaps in the passenger train schedules for non-stop freight services – a problem that increased capacity created by the fast HS2 rail link would have relieved.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hs2-leeds-branch-cancelled-what-will-this-mean-for-the-north-of-england-expert-qanda-172177">HS2 Leeds branch cancelled: what will this mean for the north of England? – expert Q&A</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>In the short term, more carriages and longer platforms are being considered to increase rail network capacity. More passengers using fewer, longer trains would free up space in the schedule and on the track for more freight trains. </p>
<p>Since 2013 the UK government has also been quietly encouraging a shift to moving goods <a href="https://canalrivertrust.org.uk/news-and-views/news/why-yorkshires-industrial-age-canal-can-help-tackle-the-climate-crisis">by water</a> as a way to achieve its environmental objectives towards net zero. It even offers <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mode-shift-revenue-support-msrs-grant-scheme">grant funding</a> to cover the additional operating costs that might be incurred as a result. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.kelloggs.co.uk/en_GB/our-story/kelloggs-in-the-uk.html">Kellogg’s</a> has moved 2,500 containers a year to the port of Merseyside on the Manchester Ship Canal. This helps remove around 5,000 HGV trips from the road each year.</p>
<p>Both rail and water offer opportunities to reduce the reliance on lorries and to make moving freight in the UK more environmentally friendly, helping the UK to reach net-zero emission targets.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172100/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erica EF Ballantyne receives funding from EPSRC, ESRC, and EU Commission Horizon 2020. She is affiliated with the Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport (UK) and committee member of the South Yorkshire Group and Logistics Research Network. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graeme Heron receives funding from Defra, EU Commission Horizon 2020 He is affiliated with The Chartered Institute of Logistics.& Transport as a Fellow</span></em></p>Increased use of freight trains can ease the HGV driver crisis and improve the air quality, research shows.Erica E.F. Ballantyne, Lecturer in Operations and Supply Chain Management, University of SheffieldGraeme Heron, Senior University Teacher in Operations Management and Continuous Improvement, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1710352021-11-15T14:15:26Z2021-11-15T14:15:26ZWe transformed a London borough into a game to get fewer people travelling by car – here’s what happened<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431519/original/file-20211111-6783-1223osa.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C0%2C5000%2C3323&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Gamification is a promising method for encouraging less car use in urban areas.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In England, <a href="https://sportengland-production-files.s3.eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/active-travel-full-report-evidence-review.pdf?VersionId=XTU9RMd3kz_oamMzJivmIOv9cUG0UUwt">only 37%</a> of adults aged 16 or over travel actively (walk, cycle, scoot or wheel to get from place to place) at least twice a month. We need to find exciting ways to encourage more people to travel actively for the sake of population and planetary health. </p>
<p><a href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmtrans/1487/148704.htm">Active travel</a> can help reduce congestion, air pollution and climate change. However, in the UK – as in many countries across the world – travelling by car remains the dominant social norm. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214140521003054">Our research</a> shows that <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-gamification-can-boost-student-success-81666#:%7E:text=In%20its%20simplest%20form%2C%20gamification,badges%2C%20achievements%20and%20instant%20feedback.">gamification</a> – offering points, badges, prizes or spots on a leaderboard in exchange for participating in specific, non game-related activities – can encourage people to travel actively to school or work. </p>
<p>To test this, we set up a gamification initiative called <a href="https://www.beatthestreet.me/">Beat the Street</a> to see whether it could encourage people in the London borough of Hounslow to travel actively. </p>
<p>During our game, which ran from 18 September to 30 October 2019, residents and visitors to Hounslow could earn points by tapping a card on physical boxes placed throughout the borough. Players were given 10 points each time they touched two boxes consecutively with a card, indicating they had actively travelled between them. And yes, we made sure to remove any obvious cheaters from the game.</p>
<p>At the end of the six-week game, the highest scoring individuals and teams (schools, community groups and workplaces) were rewarded with prizes, such as vouchers for sports equipment, craft materials or books. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three people walk along a street" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431508/original/file-20211111-23-bps72o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431508/original/file-20211111-23-bps72o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431508/original/file-20211111-23-bps72o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431508/original/file-20211111-23-bps72o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431508/original/file-20211111-23-bps72o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431508/original/file-20211111-23-bps72o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431508/original/file-20211111-23-bps72o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many participants reported walking far more than they usually would during the game.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We investigated the impact of this game on active travel by looking at when people played, comparing how active people said they were before and after the game, and using a traffic camera to look for a reduction in motorised vehicles travelling along a frequently congested local road.</p>
<h2>Methods</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>I walked far more than I would normally have walked: about five times as much. I visited roads that I have never walked down before or even didn’t know existed and I have lived in the borough all my life! </p>
</blockquote>
<p>(Male participant, aged 60-69)</p>
<p>Over the course of the game, 28,219 people took part (9.6% of the population of Hounslow). Collectively, they travelled 96,849 miles. </p>
<p>In total, participants recorded 638,697 taps on the 161 “beat boxes” situated throughout the borough. Over half of all these taps were made between 08:00-08:59 and 15:00-15:59, which are typical periods of travel between home and school or work. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A box mounted on a pole" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431505/original/file-20211111-23-1ich74k.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431505/original/file-20211111-23-1ich74k.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431505/original/file-20211111-23-1ich74k.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431505/original/file-20211111-23-1ich74k.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431505/original/file-20211111-23-1ich74k.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431505/original/file-20211111-23-1ich74k.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431505/original/file-20211111-23-1ich74k.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An example of a beat box, which participants tapped with a card.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To look more closely at specific physical activity outcomes, we asked 346 adults to complete a physical activity questionnaire before and after taking part in the game.</p>
<p>These results showed that the proportion of participants who reported being physically inactive (defined as taking part in fewer than <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/832868/uk-chief-medical-officers-physical-activity-guidelines.pdf">30 minutes</a> of activity per week) decreased from 25% pre-game to 18% post-game. And the proportion of participants who reported meeting the World Health Organization’s <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity#">target</a> of 150 minutes of moderate intensity activity a week increased from 62% pre-game to 75% post-game.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It certainly was motivational for the kids, which then motivated me! Once they got into it, they wanted to walk everywhere, and started to refuse to go to school in the car. So we’re walking to school only now! </p>
</blockquote>
<p>(Female participant, aged 30-39)</p>
<p>Next, to provide an objective measure of behaviour change achieved through the game, we observed local traffic through a monitoring camera. We assessed the number of vehicles travelling in both directions along the often-congested Cambridge Road, between 07:00-09:30 and between 14:00-16:30. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A person on a bike reads a map" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431506/original/file-20211111-21-rruxxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431506/original/file-20211111-21-rruxxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431506/original/file-20211111-21-rruxxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431506/original/file-20211111-21-rruxxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431506/original/file-20211111-21-rruxxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431506/original/file-20211111-21-rruxxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431506/original/file-20211111-21-rruxxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Participants in the game overall took part in more physical activity than usual.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The data we collected showed that between the week before and the week following Beat the Street, 1199 fewer cars (a 53% reduction) and 130 fewer vans (also a 53% reduction) travelled along Cambridge Road between 07:00-09:30, and 705 fewer cars (a 34% reduction) and 36 fewer vans (a 20% reduction) travelled along the road between 14:00-16:30.</p>
<p>These findings suggest that turning a whole area of a town or city into an interactive game could be a promising approach to nudge people into travelling by foot, bicycle or wheelchair.</p>
<h2>Implications</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>It was a very nice way to motivate people to walk and also it created a team. Every day it gave you the enthusiasm to get up and walk to raise money for charity.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>(Female participant, aged 70-79)</p>
<p>One of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-a-uk-cycling-and-walking-revolution-wont-reduce-car-travel-144689">major issues</a> faced when attempting to move people away from using cars and towards sustainable transport options is the fact that cars indicate a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0965856404001016">high social status</a>, making many reluctant to get rid of them.</p>
<p>Another problem is the ingrained nature of car use for short journeys, where many people instinctively choose to drive for convenience or just as a habit. This means that many suggested ways to decrease car usage, like increasing taxes on fuel or <a href="https://theconversation.com/london-congestion-charge-what-worked-what-didnt-what-next-92478#">congestion</a>, aren’t usually supported by policymakers, who may fear backlash from interfering with many people’s preferred way of life. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I was choosing to scoot or walk instead of a car ride and I was taking longer ways to get home to be able to add some points.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>(Female participant, aged 30-39)</p>
<p>In light of this, gamification can be used to create an environment where behaviours such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/encouraging-walking-and-cycling-isnt-hard-here-are-three-tried-and-tested-methods-147490">walking, cycling or wheeling</a> to school or work are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264275118300039">viewed more positively</a> than car use. The mass appeal of community-level competitions like these, which reward active travel with points, badges and a higher position on a leader board, may be more effective in shifting the social norms of the communities in which they take place.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171035/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Marc Harris is employed by Intelligent Health, who helped deliver the Beat the Street intervention. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Diane Crone does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research suggests gamifying neighbourhoods could encourage people to travel more actively.Marc Harris, Senior Researcher, Sociology and Philosophy of Sport, Cardiff Metropolitan UniversityDiane Crone, Professor in Exercise and Health, Cardiff Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1710762021-11-08T11:10:45Z2021-11-08T11:10:45ZIndia’s terrible roads: how to build a world-class network and still reach net zero<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430258/original/file-20211104-13-fz0409.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/87244355@N00/376781013/in/photolist-zi6Sn-2i3qNh2-vFEgzX-xJaRYh-35FbqK-e967m-LCSFJ-u85AP-e66Y1-xggde-7FMdGK-khk7k-hZ55Mn-4kQ68q-BTkLg-9MRmA-5bm5MP-27oS3RZ-g5xaR-2mtRd4g-R74R4o-bATEd5-xYytn-q2KP7y-56q4ng-A46y5-4rN9tQ-CXkpY-7e1FHi-9tQ5HC-7sn8Gd-8gPxTr-zAger-yr2fz-ycVBjG-2g2QNin-2kwEQ9K-7gtrhG-4oTUnB-78Rbq4-5KL11v-4vrNau-J1Lz3-at8aCZ-5j35gm-2gXv1m5-2k81QMK-4cUmBp-2gk6rK7-MvbHYq">Alex Graves</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of the keys to China’s economic renaissance over the past couple of decades is often overlooked. Namely, it has built a lot of roads. </p>
<p>China’s highways have more or less tripled from around <a href="https://voxeu.org/article/unbridled-transport-infrastructure-growth-china">50,000km in 2000</a> to <a href="https://www.ceicdata.com/en/china/highway-industry-overview/cn-highway-length-of-highway-expressway">around 160,000km</a> by the end of 2020. This means that in just two decades, China has added highways that are 20% longer than the entire US interstate highway system, and these make up about 40% of all roads in the country. </p>
<p>India, too, <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/729992/india-length-of-national-highways/">has tripled</a> its highways over the same duration, but the network is <a href="https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/100079/">far less impressive</a>. They are lower quality, narrower, less well maintained and only make up a very small part of the total system of roads in the country. </p>
<p>This is arguably one of the reasons why its economy has substantially underperformed China’s over the past 20 years: <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=CN">China’s GDP grew</a> 12-fold to be worth US$14.7 trillion (£10.8 trillion) by 2020, <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=IN">while India’s</a> grew six-fold to be worth US$2.6 trillion over the same period. </p>
<p><strong>China vs India GDP growth (2000-2020)</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graph comparing growth in India and China" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2020&locations=CN-IN&start=2000">World Bank</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So why has India been much poorer at building roads? And with Prime Minister Modi having <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/01/narendra-modi-pledges-india-will-reach-net-zero-emissions-by-2070">just committed</a> to reaching net zero emissions by 2070, is it possible to build roads and decarbonise at the same time?</p>
<h2>India’s road problem</h2>
<p>China’s massive road-building programme is immediately visible to visitors. The pace of investment in the network has accelerated since 2011 – the chart below <a href="https://www.itf-oecd.org/stable-inland-transport-infrastructure-investment-share-gdp-oecd">shows progress</a> over the past decade. Not only that, the <a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/China-to-expand-highway-network-nearly-50-by-2035">Chinese are planning</a> to increase their highway network by another 50% by 2035. </p>
<p><strong>Transport investment in China vs OECD countries (2008-18)</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Chart showing volume of investment in inland transport infrastructure in China vs OECD countries." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=219&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=219&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=219&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Volume of investment in inland transport infrastructure in China (solid blue) vs OECD-30 countries (blue dashes).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.itf-oecd.org/stable-inland-transport-infrastructure-investment-share-gdp-oecd">OECD</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On paper, it looks as though India’s road infrastructure is better. The cumulative road network is <a href="https://www.ibef.org/industry/roads-india.aspx">5.9 million kms</a>, which is longer than China (4.6 million kms), though slightly smaller than the US (6.7 million kms). The density of India’s road network, at 1.62km of roads per square kilometre of land, is much higher than the US (0.68) or China (0.49) – though this is not surprising when you reflect that both these rivals are geographically three times larger than India. </p>
<p><a href="https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/BRS_Final.pdf">However</a>, the quality of India’s road infrastructure is very poor: only 3% of these roads are national highways, and 75% of highways are only two-lane. Roads <a href="https://www.news18.com/news/india/the-single-statistic-that-shows-why-indian-roads-are-getting-more-congested-each-passing-month-2031835.html">are congested</a> and road maintenance is under-funded. At the same time, 40% of the roads are dirt roads, and over 30% of villages have no access to all-weather roads. </p>
<p>Many explanations have been given for India’s inadequate road investment, including <a href="https://www.kearney.com/infrastructure/article/?/a/harnessing-the-opportunities-in-india-s-transportation-infrastructure">lack of funds</a> and poor project management. An <a href="https://www.economist.com/asia/2017/07/27/indias-once-shoddy-transport-infrastructure-is-getting-much-better">Economist article</a> from 2017 blamed a litigious system that makes it hard for the government to requisition land, as well many public-private partnerships stalling.</p>
<p>We recently published <a href="https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/100079/">a paper</a> arguing that India’s political system is another factor. Road-building is jointly the responsibility of the central government and each state. The central government rewards states which are politically aligned with the ruling party, particularly the core supporters.</p>
<p>In addition, road building requires coordination between states and central government to get around obstacles like land acquisition, planning permission and vetting of tenders – all of which can delay projects and lead to huge cost overruns. The need for green transport infrastructure is another issue. All this requires the central government to cooperate with states from across the political spectrum. </p>
<h2>Opportunities and threats</h2>
<p>Investing in road infrastructure can catalyse growth in two ways. Like all <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/k/keynesianeconomics.asp">Keynesian investments</a>, it increases employment, incomes and therefore demand throughout an economy. For a country like India with relatively low incomes and an excess supply of labour, road-building can unlock growth quickly – particularly as a way of recovering from the COVID collapse. As John Maynard Keynes <a href="https://econ.economicshelp.org/2008/07/john-maynard-keynes-great-economists.html#:%7E:text=%22The%20government%20should%20pay%20people,and%20then%20fill%20them%20up.%22&text=The%20point%20is%20it%20doesn,a%20new%20style%20of%20Economist.">famously said</a> of the importance of governments increasing spending during difficult times: “The government should pay people to dig holes in the ground and then fill them up.”</p>
<p>Roads also make economies more productive. They make it easier for people to get to work, for supply chains to function, and for companies to bring goods to market. Roads bring down transport costs, make everyone more confident that things will move from A to B, and reduce the need for companies to store costly inventory to avoid running out of supplies. According to a 2014 <a href="https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/2225">World Bank survey</a>, one in ten Indian firms thought inadequate transportation infrastructure was a major obstacle to their growth.</p>
<p>It is worth pointing out that improvements to India’s roads have already increased productivity for companies over the past two decades – despite the poor quality of the network as a whole. We <a href="https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/100079/">found that</a> a 1% increase in road density raised productivity by about 0.25%. This gives a sense of what could be achieved with greater investment. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Taxi driver looking in rear mirror in traffic" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘We’ll get there yet.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/Itoke5teLE4">Francesco Benvenuto/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Indeed, India is <a href="https://www.fdi.finance/sectors/roads-and-highways">now investing</a> more in its road network for exactly these reasons – though <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-04-15/the-coming-battle-over-building-better-highways">the US</a> and <a href="https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202103/1219328.shtml">China</a> are too. India is planning to construct 40km of highways every day in the current financial year, and intends to increase its highways by a third in the next few years. Given a large pool of unemployed labour, the conditions are ideal to do this. But the worry is that the same old obstacles get in the way: <a href="https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/investment-in-road-infrastructure-is-a-ticket-for-speedy-recovery-of-india/article34043295.ece">a report</a> earlier this year by a parliamentary standing committee suggested that more than 800 road projects had been delayed, for instance. </p>
<p>Then there are carbon emissions, which have the potential to significantly increase both from road-building and increased traffic. Modi’s announcement at COP26 that India would not aim for net zero until 2070 signals that, in the short run, growth is likely to come first – and it is obviously difficult for wealthier nations to argue that India should not have a world-class road network. </p>
<p>Having said that, road-building has to go hand in hand with investing in technology to reduce emissions, including more electric and hybrid vehicles and a charging network to make electric cars viable. This needs to not only be an investment priority for India but for players like the US who have <a href="https://www.indiaspend.com/climate-change/new-india-us-partnership-could-lead-to-more-equitable-climate-action-774560">been working</a> to assist developing countries to decarbonise. </p>
<p>If India is to tap the potential of infrastructure development to stimulate growth, it needs to both make the green transition part of the programme and to look at the obstacles to making road-building succeed. With a state-of-the-art road network, India could achieve so much more.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171076/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>China has given itself a major advantage over India by constructing a massive road network in the past two decades.Uma S Kambhampati, Professor of Economics; Head of School, University of ReadingSubham Kailthya, Teaching Fellow in Economics, University of WarwickLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1671352021-09-17T15:47:13Z2021-09-17T15:47:13ZRoad pricing could help drive down UK emissions – here’s how to make it work<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421672/original/file-20210916-23-j1zytz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Road pricing could be introduced to reduce congestion.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Within the next two decades the UK is set for a <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/sixth-carbon-budget/">total switch</a> from petrol and diesel cars to electric cars, which pay virtually no tax.</p>
<p>To recoup the around £34bn a year currently collected through fuel and vehicle excise duty, one report has recommended that the <a href="https://institute.global/policy/we-need-talk-about-fuel-duty">most equitable way</a> would be a national road pricing system. This would charge drivers for using the roads to help cover the costs of infrastructure as well as driving down air pollution and encourage the use of lower carbon options such as car-sharing and public transport. But how would such a system work?</p>
<p>There are four ways in which <a href="https://institute.global/policy/avoiding-gridlock-britain">road pricing might operate</a>: the first is a flat rate per mile, where drivers are charged according to their driving distance. The second is a flat rate per minute, where drivers are charged according to their driving time. The third is geographic, where drivers are charged at different rates according to the road they are driving on and the fourth way is dynamic, where charges vary according to location, day of the week or time of day. </p>
<p>Here are some of the ways these systems could be introduced:</p>
<h2>Manual and paper-based road pricing</h2>
<p>This includes toll plazas and <a href="https://www.roots.gov.sg/Collection-Landing/listing/1321910">paper permits</a> authorising cars to drive within a certain area, such as the <a href="https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/SIP_777_2004-12-13.html">scheme used in Singapore </a> between 1975 and 1998. </p>
<p>This could also be used when drivers are billed annually based on their mileage or time spent driving if cars were also fitted with timers.</p>
<h2>Automatic Number Plate Recognition</h2>
<p>ANPR combines a camera with <a href="https://medium.com/dataman-in-ai/module-6-image-recognition-for-insurance-claim-handling-part-i-a338d16c9de0">image recognition</a> software to read number plates. It is already widely used in the UK for motorway speed cameras and the London congestion charge.</p>
<p>While ANPR requires no extra hardware in the car, a national roll-out would require cameras to be installed on all included roads – not just motorways and A-roads <a href="https://www.rac.co.uk/drive/advice/cameras/what-is-anpr-and-how-does-it-work/">where most of them currently are</a>. That would be expensive.</p>
<h2>Short-range radio</h2>
<p>Dedicated short-range communications (DSRC) is a <a href="https://www.transportation.gov/content/safety-band">specific band of radio reserved for transportation applications</a>. In a DSRC-based road pricing scheme, data regarding vehicle position is exchanged via radio waves in the specific DSRC band between an in-vehicle communications device and a suitable roadside unit, typically a gantry spanning the width of the road. DSRC supports the current Singaporean <a href="https://www.mot.gov.sg/about-mot/land-transport/motoring/erp">electronic road pricing scheme</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A car using Singapore's road-pricing system" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421614/original/file-20210916-19-1mprnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421614/original/file-20210916-19-1mprnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421614/original/file-20210916-19-1mprnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421614/original/file-20210916-19-1mprnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421614/original/file-20210916-19-1mprnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421614/original/file-20210916-19-1mprnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421614/original/file-20210916-19-1mprnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A car using Singapore’s road-pricing system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">David Sing/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>DSRC <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965856405000479">works well in a small area</a>: the Singapore scheme reports drivers responding to changing prices, including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016604621630031X?via%3Dihub">shifts of up to 20% to buses</a> in rush hours following a marginal S$1 (around £0.54) increase to the toll for a particularly congested road. However, a UK equivalent would require the installation of costly gantries across the country. </p>
<h2>GPS and cellular</h2>
<p>GPS uses satellites that orbit the Earth to triangulate a user’s location, whereas cellular locating technologies use relative network signals between towers in a network to do the same thing. </p>
<p>These technologies can monitor the position of cars equipped with tracking equipment in the same way that smartphone users get directions through <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/01/29/us-smartphone-use/">map-based apps</a>. Cellular and GPS <a href="https://www.agmonitoring.com/blog/industry-news/gps-vs-cellular-locating-technology">have relative trade-offs</a>: GPS location accuracy suffers in urban areas, cellular network coverage doesn’t work as well in rural areas. <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6307871">Hybrid technologies</a> are routinely used to get the best of both worlds, which could potentially support a national road pricing scheme with <a href="https://www.caee.utexas.edu/prof/Kockelman/public_html/TRB19CPtech.pdf">lane-by-lane accuracy</a>.</p>
<p>A GPS/cellular road pricing system could work through drivers’ smartphones. But it would obviously require all drivers to have a smartphone and they would need to be turned on, with location services enabled, whenever the driver took a trip. A workable GPS/cellular road pricing system would require a tracking unit to be fitted to every vehicle. In 2023, the Singaporean system is due to be upgraded to use <a href="https://www.tnp.sg/news/singapore/satellite-based-erp-system-start-middle-2023-lta">GPS communications</a>, so it can cover more roads without the need for more gantries.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Table showing different road pricing technology options" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421618/original/file-20210916-17-17pugjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421618/original/file-20210916-17-17pugjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=171&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421618/original/file-20210916-17-17pugjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=171&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421618/original/file-20210916-17-17pugjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=171&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421618/original/file-20210916-17-17pugjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=215&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421618/original/file-20210916-17-17pugjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=215&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421618/original/file-20210916-17-17pugjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=215&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How road pricing technologies compare.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Dixon</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What is the best option?</h2>
<p>Technology for a national UK road pricing system would need to be able to work over a wide area, including remote parts of the UK. So the only workable options are either manual/paper or GPS/cellular. </p>
<p>A manual or paper-based system where drivers are billed annually according to their mileage would be less intrusive, as no in-car hardware would be required, and could be simpler to understand. But, it would not address – as the current car tax system does not – the variability in the <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.4260">“external costs”</a> of driving.</p>
<p>External costs are those which affect the rest of society and are based on the contribution cars make to <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/">climate change</a>, congestion, <a href="https://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/">air pollution</a>, noise pollution, infrastructure costs and the limits to <a href="https://www.vtpi.org/autodep.pdf">regional economic development</a> that result from car dependency.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-pandemic-could-leave-us-with-congestion-chaos-heres-how-to-avoid-it-165118">The pandemic could leave us with congestion chaos – here's how to avoid it</a>
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<p>UK drivers currently pay only 49% of these costs. <a href="https://institute.global/policy/avoiding-gridlock-britain">Analysis</a> suggests that they vary enormously by location, from 1.3p per km (cost to society) on rural minor roads to 93.1p per km on London A-roads. They also vary by time, from 9.5p per km during weekday off-peak times to 29.5p per km during the weekday morning peak.</p>
<p>The best option for a national scheme with variable prices to reflect the true costs of driving appears to be GPS/cellular. Such a system would be the most equitable way of funding the future of motoring: while encouraging us to shift towards alternatives to cars in cities as is so <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Sector-summary-Surface-transport.pdf">desperately needed</a>. It could also ease the burden on those with less access to alternatives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167135/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Dixon receives funding from the UK Energy Research Centre (UKERC) and the Centre for Research in Energy Demand Solutions (CREDS) -- UK Research & Innovation grant numbers EP/S029575/1 and EP/R035288/1 respectively.</span></em></p>National road pricing systems are being proposed, but what are the options?James Dixon, Research fellow in transport & energy systems, University of Strathclyde Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1584992021-04-08T15:04:20Z2021-04-08T15:04:20ZRoad building is supposed to cut congestion and boost the economy – my research suggests otherwise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394045/original/file-20210408-13-1owlnsw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4896%2C3664&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/little-linford-buckinghamshire-uk-july-21-1457293622">Clive Stapleton/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>British politicians, national and local, tend to like investing in roads. The Treasury believes that the Department for Transport’s approach to economic analysis is sound, and so is willing to award substantial funds. The department is happy to accept them, as are the civil engineering contractors that benefit. </p>
<iframe id="noa-web-audio-player" style="border: none" src="https://embed-player.newsoveraudio.com/v4?key=x84olp&id=https://theconversation.com/road-building-is-supposed-to-cut-congestion-and-boost-the-economy-my-research-suggests-otherwise-158499&bgColor=F5F5F5&color=D8352A&playColor=D8352A" width="100%" height="110px"></iframe>
<p>The most recent result is a <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/951100/road-investment-strategy-2-2020-2025.pdf">£27.4 billion</a> investment programme designed to maintain and enlarge England’s motorways and A-roads over five years. Part of this will involve creating so-called smart motorways, where the hard shoulder is converted into an extra lane for moving traffic and electronic message boards broadcast information to control the speed of drivers and manage incidents. </p>
<p>This innovation has raised <a href="https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8962/">safety concerns</a>, with some worried about the risk of collisions in the event of a breakdown. Elsewhere, the decision to invest in 4,000 miles of road has been criticised for underestimating the associated <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/06/co2-from-englands-road-plan-up-to-100-times-more-than-dft-says">carbon emissions</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An office full of computers depicting roads and traffic data." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394055/original/file-20210408-13-1rksind.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394055/original/file-20210408-13-1rksind.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394055/original/file-20210408-13-1rksind.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394055/original/file-20210408-13-1rksind.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394055/original/file-20210408-13-1rksind.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394055/original/file-20210408-13-1rksind.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394055/original/file-20210408-13-1rksind.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Inside a smart motorway control centre.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_motorway#/media/File:Highways_Agency_Smart_Motorways_control_centre.jpg">Highways Agency/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The government’s defence is that expanding the road network helps reduce traffic congestion and boosts economic growth. I decided to scrutinise these claims by <a href="https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1cqCk3Rd3uuBQe">analysing</a> the outcome of expanding a section of the M25 into a smart motorway in 2014.</p>
<p>For each of these schemes to get the go-ahead, a cost-benefit analysis must confirm that it is good value for money. This is generally provided by transport consultants who operate complex models that require them to estimate many different parameters. The modellers naturally wish to please their clients with their best estimate of value for money. But the resulting optimism bias leads politicians to exaggerate the benefits of adding new road capacity. On this point, the M25 case study shows that the public are being misled.</p>
<h2>A smart decision?</h2>
<p>Highways England, a Department for Transport-owned company responsible for the country’s motorways, published detailed traffic monitoring reports for the first three years after opening a smart motorway scheme between Junctions 23 and 27 of the M25 London orbital route. </p>
<p>The road was enlarged from three to four lanes in each direction. While traffic flowed faster one year after opening, this advantage was lost by year two thanks to the increase in traffic volume, up 16% compared with 7% for other motorways in the region. </p>
<p>Road investment is supposed to benefit the economy by shaving precious minutes off travel time. Traffic models are used to estimate how big time savings are likely to be in order to justify each investment. The model used in the M25 case projected substantial travel time savings worth over £400 million to those travelling for business reasons – both cars and good vehicles. </p>
<p>There were also smaller time savings for local road users, both commuters and those taking short trips. But these were almost entirely offset by increased fuel costs. That’s because these local drivers rerouted to the motorway where there was less traffic to save a few minutes on their journey. Ultimately though, they ended up travelling a greater distance by departing from more direct routes.</p>
<p>The M25 traffic model used to justify the smart motorway investment substantially underestimated this increase in traffic volume, while overestimating the average increase in speed for most drivers, put at about 10 km per hour. The benefit-cost ratio was estimated to be 2.9, that is, £2.90 of economic benefit for every £1 invested. Since the travel time savings didn’t last beyond the first year after opening, the actual benefit-cost ratio was much lower.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two four-lane motorways side by side." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394052/original/file-20210408-15-1yn88pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394052/original/file-20210408-15-1yn88pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394052/original/file-20210408-15-1yn88pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394052/original/file-20210408-15-1yn88pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394052/original/file-20210408-15-1yn88pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394052/original/file-20210408-15-1yn88pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394052/original/file-20210408-15-1yn88pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This stretch of the M25 lost its hard shoulder, creating four lanes of running traffic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_motorway#/media/File:M25_looking_west_from_junction_24_near_Potters_Bar.jpg">Philafrenzy/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While enlarging the motorway was intended to benefit the economy by allowing those travelling for their employer to save time and so be more productive, the extra road capacity was largely taken up by an increase in local road users. Any economic benefit they might have gained by saving a few minutes of travel time was offset by higher fuel costs. </p>
<p>The M25 was created to allow long-distance traffic – for instance, from the Channel ports to the Midlands – to avoid central London. Although local road users inevitably take advantage of the motorway for short trips, sometimes known as “junction hopping”, these reduce the economic benefits and add to carbon emissions and air pollution. </p>
<p>England’s motorways and major roads are under greatest stress around built-up areas, where local and long-distance traffic vie for road space. This is where the government’s new road investment is concentrated. There are ten smart motorway schemes in the current investment programme, with an <a href="https://highwaysengland.co.uk/media/vs3h1jx2/gfd20_0072-economic-analysis-of-rp2-brochure_v4.pdf">average benefit-cost ratio of 2.4</a>. This seems extremely optimistic in light of what happened with the M25.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158499/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Metz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>One more lane won’t fix Britain’s congested motorways.David Metz, Honorary Professor of Transport Studies, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1554732021-03-09T19:07:33Z2021-03-09T19:07:33ZFrom veggie gardening to op-shopping, migrants are the quiet environmentalists<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388421/original/file-20210309-24-1sbzxlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C6%2C4031%2C3011&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The organised environmental movement is largely a <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/environmental-movement-very-white-these-leaders-want-change-that">white</a>, middle-class space. But <a href="https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1806433/Young_Australian_Migrants_and_Environmental_Values_v2.pdf">our research</a> shows migrants care for nature in other ways – including living sustainably in their everyday lives.</p>
<p>This is most obvious on the domestic front. From repurposing goods to keeping vegetable gardens and being careful with electricity use, migrants are highly likely to practise sustainable living – sometimes without even realising it.</p>
<p>In the debate about environmental issues, migrants are often blamed for making the problem worse, such as by adding to <a href="https://www.afr.com/politics/federal/australia-pop-50-million-migration-congestion-fears-also-growing-fast-20181122-h187ze">congestion</a>. It’s important to break this circuit and recognise migrants’ positive contribution to environmental protection.</p>
<p>Migrants can successfully be harnessed to help with environmental causes. Doing this will require both learning from migrants, and helping them feel welcome in the green movement.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Young Asian people collect rubbish" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388426/original/file-20210309-21-19m4tm9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388426/original/file-20210309-21-19m4tm9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388426/original/file-20210309-21-19m4tm9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388426/original/file-20210309-21-19m4tm9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388426/original/file-20210309-21-19m4tm9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388426/original/file-20210309-21-19m4tm9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388426/original/file-20210309-21-19m4tm9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Migrants are keen to help with environmental initiatives, if given the chance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Busting migrant myths</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/young-and-resilient/projects/current_projects/australian_migrants_and_environmental_values">qualitative pilot study</a> sought to provide an in-depth picture of young first- and second-generation Australian migrants who care about the environment.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mark_Johnston8/publication/228871516_Urban_forestry_in_a_multicultural_society/links/02e7e5226f669e80c8000000/Urban-forestry-in-a-multicultural-society.pdf">Research shows</a> ethnic minorities are often <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/%20how-green-groups-became-so-white-and-what-to-%20do-about-it">under-represented</a> in the urban environmental movement. </p>
<p>This can lead to suggestions migrants do not actively care for the environment – either due to apathy, or because they are preoccupied with climbing social and economic ladders in their new country.</p>
<p>But my research found first- and second-generation migrants in Australia care for the environment in particular ways, largely focused on the domestic front. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/4-assumptions-about-gender-that-distort-how-we-think-about-climate-change-and-3-ways-to-do-better-156126">4 assumptions about gender that distort how we think about climate change (and 3 ways to do better)</a>
</strong>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man fixes shoe" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388428/original/file-20210309-15-1nfba01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388428/original/file-20210309-15-1nfba01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388428/original/file-20210309-15-1nfba01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388428/original/file-20210309-15-1nfba01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388428/original/file-20210309-15-1nfba01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388428/original/file-20210309-15-1nfba01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388428/original/file-20210309-15-1nfba01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Migrants, especially those from poor backgrounds, will often fix or repurpose an item rather than dispose of it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>My research team interviewed eight first-generation migrants and nine second- generation migrants in Sydney, aged between 18 and 40 years. The group comprised seven women and ten men, roughly half of whom were parents. </p>
<p>We found the participants actively and consciously carried out environmental care practices, mostly in the domestic sphere. From a young age, first- and second-generation participants continued austerity and waste-consciousness inherited from their parents. These included:</p>
<ul>
<li>recycling and repurposing consumable items</li>
<li>careful water and electricity use</li>
<li>home vegetable gardens and composting</li>
<li>ethical purchase and consumption.</li>
</ul>
<p>Some second-generation migrants said their parents were “accidentally” environmentally friendly. For example, some parents who had experienced financial hardship were frugal with money and goods. Others from an agricultural background remained connected to the land through gardening.</p>
<p>As one second-generation participant from Vietnam observed:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Migrants are often the most environmentally conscious people I know. They’re not purposefully being conscious, but they know about the scarcity of resources and its ingrained into them so it’s part of their lifestyle. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The participant learned sustainable practices from her mother who didn’t have a lot of money. The family’s clothes and homewares came from second-hand stores. Car travel was kept to a minimum and her mother planted many vegetables in her backyard.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-type-of-biodegradable-plastic-will-soon-be-phased-out-in-australia-thats-a-big-win-for-the-environment-156566">A type of ‘biodegradable’ plastic will soon be phased out in Australia. That’s a big win for the environment</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Young boys helping in garden" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388423/original/file-20210309-16-dsdv9q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388423/original/file-20210309-16-dsdv9q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388423/original/file-20210309-16-dsdv9q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388423/original/file-20210309-16-dsdv9q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388423/original/file-20210309-16-dsdv9q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388423/original/file-20210309-16-dsdv9q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388423/original/file-20210309-16-dsdv9q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Migrants often pass sustainable practices to their children.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Outside the home</h2>
<p>Second-generation migrants were much more likely to make the environmentally-motivated choice to become vegan and/or vegetarian. Of the 17 interview participants, five were vegan or vegetarian; all but one were second-generation migrants.</p>
<p>The second-generation migrants were slightly, but not significantly, more engaged with outward forms of environmental activism such as attending protests and marches. </p>
<p>Second-generation migrants said the first generation often eschewed public activism. Reasons for this included language barriers, alternative priorities that come with navigating a foreign country and fears of racism. </p>
<p>Second-generation migrants born in Australia were better equipped to overcome these barriers and felt more comfortable participating in the political sphere. However this group was still ambivalent about, or didn’t prioritise, organised environmental protection.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/everyone-else-does-it-so-i-can-too-how-the-false-consensus-effect-drives-environmental-damage-153305">'Everyone else does it, so I can too': how the false consensus effect drives environmental damage</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Participants – particularly parents – cited the recent Black Summer bushfires as a traumatic reminder of climate change. The tragedy motivated them to practice environmental care such as water conservation.</p>
<p>Just two interviewees, both women, were involved in environmental groups. The others preferred to donate money to environmental causes or sign petitions, usually due to a lack of time. </p>
<p>Other participants sought to influence their family and peers through conversation, work initiatives or buying “green” products. Only three reported being engaged with environmental initiatives of their local councils. </p>
<p>As one first-generation migrant said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>In my council meetings, I’m one of the few migrants … They’re not confident yet about how much information they know and how much they’re missing out on. Even if they want to raise their voice they’re hesitant and worried that they’re saying something wrong.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two women read a document" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388429/original/file-20210309-16-svjk2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388429/original/file-20210309-16-svjk2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388429/original/file-20210309-16-svjk2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388429/original/file-20210309-16-svjk2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388429/original/file-20210309-16-svjk2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388429/original/file-20210309-16-svjk2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388429/original/file-20210309-16-svjk2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Migrants should be supported to understand council initiatives.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>Migrants are already highly engaged with environmentally friendly behaviour at home. The next step is to help them engage with environmental issues more broadly. We suggest the following measures:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>train first-generation migrants to confidently get involved with local council sustainability measures. Councils should also raise awareness of environmental care programs and provide migrants with volunteering opportunities</p></li>
<li><p>raise awareness in the broader community about how migrants can be part of the solution to environmental problems through their daily domestic practices</p></li>
<li><p>use interactive digital tools to engage time-poor migrants</p></li>
<li><p>leverage second-generation migrants to both pass on, and change, their parents’ environmental practices</p></li>
<li><p>identify “<a href="https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/grants/150804-Multicultural-Community-Engagement.pdf">community champions</a>” to act as agents of change in migrant communities. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Our findings suggest migrants are interested in finding new ways to protect the environment. The green movement must help migrants achieve this, by making environmental initiatives safe, welcoming and accessible to them.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The author would like to acknowledge Claudia Sirdah and Nukte Ogun, who helped compile the research upon which this article is based.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155473/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sukhmani Khorana does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Environmentalism is, for the most part, the domain of the white middle class. We must recognise the contributions migrants already make, and how their power can be further harnessed.Sukhmani Khorana, Senior Research Fellow, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1489262020-11-15T18:52:14Z2020-11-15T18:52:14ZCOVID shows working from home the best way to beat congestion<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368951/original/file-20201111-19-ma041d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C36%2C6016%2C3971&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/car-jamming-traffic-jam-1109250887">249 Anurak/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As almost anyone who wastes countless hours stuck in traffic would agree, there’s little more frustrating for workers than starting or ending the day with an overly long commute. But, while we might not like it, more of us are doing it. In 2019, the average daily commute time for Australian metro workers was <a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-city-workers-average-commute-has-blown-out-to-66-minutes-a-day-how-does-yours-compare-120598">66 minutes</a>. Then COVID happened.</p>
<p>Although the pandemic has forced change without choice on almost all of us, there have been some positive unintended consequences. Commuting times are one winner, particularly in larger cities. The increase in working from home turns out to be the best policy lever the transport sector has ever pulled for reducing traffic congestion in our cities. </p>
<iframe title="How avoiding the commute is making us happier" height="122" width="100%" style="border: none;" scrolling="no" data-name="pb-iframe-player" src="https://www.podbean.com/media/player/74h3d-f25c07?from=pb6admin&download=1&version=1&auto=0&share=1&download=1&rtl=0&fonts=Helvetica&skin=1&pfauth=&btn-skin=107"></iframe>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-city-workers-average-commute-has-blown-out-to-66-minutes-a-day-how-does-yours-compare-120598">Australian city workers' average commute has blown out to 66 minutes a day. How does yours compare?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We began looking at the impacts of the increase in working from home on our roads and public transport from March to September. We found a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2020.08.004">10-15% drop in peak-period congestion</a>. That’s similar to traffic during school holidays. </p>
<iframe title="Profile of work days and working from home by state" aria-label="chart" id="datawrapper-chart-AJyqT" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/AJyqT/1/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border: none;" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<iframe title="Profile of work days and working from home by occupation" aria-label="chart" id="datawrapper-chart-1TxZe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/1TxZe/1/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border: none;" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>COVID-19, it turns out, has done something that nobody in government has been able to achieve – cutting road congestion almost overnight. </p>
<h2>For commuters, time is money</h2>
<p>It’s possible to <a href="https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/handle/2123/15314/VTTScar%20Ho%20Mulley%20Shiftan%20Hensher%2028%20Jan%202016.pdf;jsessionid=3A5FEA2C6F7698B4A2FA63FCE2FA5E5B?sequence=2">calculate how much these kinds of shifts are worth</a> to us as a society. If we weren’t stuck in traffic, what else might we do with that time? And just how much is it worth to us? </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Women looking at watch while stuck in traffic" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368952/original/file-20201111-21-2bxzmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368952/original/file-20201111-21-2bxzmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368952/original/file-20201111-21-2bxzmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368952/original/file-20201111-21-2bxzmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368952/original/file-20201111-21-2bxzmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368952/original/file-20201111-21-2bxzmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368952/original/file-20201111-21-2bxzmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">All that time spent stuck in traffic has a cost.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Syda Productions/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Greater Sydney metropolitan area, covering Newcastle to Wollongong, is a good example. From late May 2020, commuting times declined as working from home boomed. We calculate this cut total commuting time costs by 54%, from A$10.5 billion a year to A$5.58 billion. </p>
<p>Naturally, commuters want to know the impact on their own metaphorical hip pockets. In Greater Sydney, we calculate the average annual reduction in time costs per car commuter was A$2,312 as at May 2020. That’s equivalent to A$48.16 per week, or A$9.63 per weekday. </p>
<p>For the public transport commuter, the “time cost” of being stuck in traffic is higher as their commute is often longer. Their time saving is worth A$5,203 per person, an equivalent of A$108.39 per week or A$21.68 per weekday. </p>
<p>It’s all money that could be better spent elsewhere, especially in the current economic environment. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368948/original/file-20201111-16-gcsivk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Chart showing percentage of work days working from home by occupation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368948/original/file-20201111-16-gcsivk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368948/original/file-20201111-16-gcsivk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368948/original/file-20201111-16-gcsivk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368948/original/file-20201111-16-gcsivk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368948/original/file-20201111-16-gcsivk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368948/original/file-20201111-16-gcsivk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368948/original/file-20201111-16-gcsivk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Transport planning priorities will change</h2>
<p>Congestion shows us working from home is changing more than the workplace: it could have profound implications for road investment and transport policy. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2020.07.00">Our data</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2020.08.004">show</a> the increase in working from home is spread evenly across the five weekdays. This is important, since infrastructure and service capacity are typically determined by peak demand. If demand can be flattened, as the data suggest it can be, then the implications for transport planning priorities will be significant.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-more-of-us-work-from-home-after-coronavirus-well-need-to-rethink-city-planning-136261">If more of us work from home after coronavirus we'll need to rethink city planning</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Of course, now that full-time working from home is easing for many, we don’t expect this level of benefit to be sustained. But we believe we’ll still be left with a significant improvement on pre-COVID congestion. Early signs, including from our surveys in September, suggest many people in certain occupations are <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-management-resistance-overcome-working-from-home-may-be-here-to-stay-144850">likely to work from home</a> one to two days a week in the future, with full employer support.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368947/original/file-20201111-22-1j9g4ca.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Chart showing percentage of work days working from home by occupation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368947/original/file-20201111-22-1j9g4ca.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368947/original/file-20201111-22-1j9g4ca.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368947/original/file-20201111-22-1j9g4ca.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368947/original/file-20201111-22-1j9g4ca.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368947/original/file-20201111-22-1j9g4ca.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368947/original/file-20201111-22-1j9g4ca.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368947/original/file-20201111-22-1j9g4ca.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But to really capture the benefits of this welcome shift on our roads, we need governments to play a role. They need to publicly support working from home as a way of reducing pressure on transport networks, especially in our big cities. </p>
<p>2020 has proven traffic congestion can be reduced without building more roads. What’s more, doing so brings other benefits: in addition to myriad environmental benefits, our increased ability to work from home will open up new opportunities for revitalising suburbia. These adjustments align well with the concept of the 20- or 30-minute city, a strategy many Australian city planners are grappling with.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/people-love-the-idea-of-20-minute-neighbourhoods-so-why-isnt-it-top-of-the-agenda-131193">People love the idea of 20-minute neighbourhoods. So why isn't it top of the agenda?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Is there a downside to fewer commutes?</h2>
<p>As more of us spend fewer days commuting, there are risks. For example, we might move more permanently to using private cars for commuting (even once COVID safety issues subside). </p>
<p>If we commute for only three or four days a week, rather than five, we may be more tolerant of the costs associated with driving, such as parking fees and tolls. Even congestion itself may bother us less. </p>
<p>If this occurs, we may have to find other ways to contain this increase in car use if we want to keep those shorter commutes. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cars-rule-as-coronavirus-shakes-up-travel-trends-in-our-cities-142175">Cars rule as coronavirus shakes up travel trends in our cities</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Strategies to limit car use in peak periods</h2>
<p>One option is road-pricing reform – a user-pays system. One <a href="https://imovecrc.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Bibliography-Tackling-road-congestion-David-A-Hensher.pdf">well-researched</a> user charge is to replace vehicle registration charges (in part or in full) with a distance-based charge (cents/km) during periods of heavy congestion – for example, peak periods in cities. </p>
<p>What makes this option appealing is the ability to set charges at a level that leaves most people no worse off financially (the hip-pocket test), while at the same time reducing peak-period car use to improve travel times. We <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11116-013-9473-6">estimate</a> 5-7c/km would be the right price. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-charts-on-why-congestion-charging-is-fairer-than-you-might-think-124894">Three charts on: why congestion charging is fairer than you might think</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11116-013-9473-6">Surveys show</a> over 70% of commuters could switch to other times of the day and still use their cars if keen to avoid the distance-based charge. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11116-013-9473-6">Our modelling</a> suggests this would deliver an 8% improvement in travel times. That’s equivalent to school holiday periods and the shift we’ve seen from the increase in working from home. </p>
<p>It is likely this shift would only increase in a world where working from home means people can work more flexibly.</p>
<p>An alternative strategy to keep congestion low, even if our love for private car travel increases, centres on incentives – rewards similar to those used by supermarkets or airlines. </p>
<p>Why not create incentives like loyalty points for drivers willing to switch to off-peak car use or to public transport? Drivers’ decisions could be tracked via GPS, and resulting reward points converted to cash payments or discounts on travel and other non-transport-related purchases.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-recovery-public-transport-is-key-to-avoid-repeating-old-and-unsustainable-mistakes-138415">Coronavirus recovery: public transport is key to avoid repeating old and unsustainable mistakes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/qDNDox3oPhU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Travel post-COVID-19: alternative views from leading academics.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/aUr3Y5E0x4w?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Travel post-COVID-19: Q&A session.</span></figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148926/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Hensher receives funding from ARC and CRC (iMOVE).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Beck receives funding from CRC iMove.</span></em></p>COVID led to commuting time savings worth over $2,000 a year for each driver and $5,000 per public transport user. But as workplaces reopen, we may need road user charges to keep traffic flowing.David Hensher, Director, Institute of Transport and Logistics Studies, University of SydneyMatthew Beck, Associate Professor in Infrastructure Management, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1384152020-05-25T20:08:32Z2020-05-25T20:08:32ZCoronavirus recovery: public transport is key to avoid repeating old and unsustainable mistakes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335473/original/file-20200516-138624-gua1mo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2174%2C0%2C5793%2C3440&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hazmat-team-protective-suits-decontaminating-public-1678610077">Shuuterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The coronavirus pandemic has affected our cities in profound ways. People adapted by <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/western-australia/we-proved-we-can-work-from-home-why-do-we-need-to-go-back-to-the-office-20200515-p54ti0.html">teleworking</a>, shopping locally and <a href="https://www.apple.com/covid19/mobility">making only necessary trips</a>. One of the many challenges of recovery will be to build on the momentum of the shift to more sustainable practices – and transport will be a particular challenge. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335246/original/file-20200514-77251-rq41e5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335246/original/file-20200514-77251-rq41e5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335246/original/file-20200514-77251-rq41e5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335246/original/file-20200514-77251-rq41e5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335246/original/file-20200514-77251-rq41e5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335246/original/file-20200514-77251-rq41e5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335246/original/file-20200514-77251-rq41e5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335246/original/file-20200514-77251-rq41e5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reductions in trips from January to May, measured by change in trip routing requests.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.apple.com/covid19/mobility">Apple Maps COVID-19 Mobility Trends</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/transport-is-letting-australia-down-in-the-race-to-cut-emissions-131905">Transport is letting Australia down in the race to cut emissions</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>While restrictions are being eased, many measures in place today, including physical distancing and limits on group numbers, will remain for some time. As people try to avoid crowded spaces, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-03-25/coronavirus-is-it-safe-to-take-public-transport/12084418">public transport patronage</a> will suffer. Thousands of journeys a day will need to be completed by other means. </p>
<p>If people <a href="https://www.ny1.com/nyc/all-boroughs/news/2020/05/14/new-yorkers-opt-for-cars-over-public-transport-in-coronavirus-times-">switch from public transport to cars</a>, road congestion will be even worse than before, emissions will soar, air quality will be poor and <a href="https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2020-05-14/traffic-deaths-speeding-los-angeles-coronavirus-pandemic-vision-zero">road safety will suffer</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337237/original/file-20200524-124818-1uyamco.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337237/original/file-20200524-124818-1uyamco.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337237/original/file-20200524-124818-1uyamco.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337237/original/file-20200524-124818-1uyamco.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337237/original/file-20200524-124818-1uyamco.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337237/original/file-20200524-124818-1uyamco.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=588&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337237/original/file-20200524-124818-1uyamco.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=588&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337237/original/file-20200524-124818-1uyamco.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=588&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The capacity of mixed vehicle traffic is much lower than most people realise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/integrating-urban-public-transport-systems-cycling-roundtable-summary_0.pdf">International Transport Forum, OECD. Data from Botma and Papandrecht 1991 and GIZ calculations 2009; CAV = connected and automated vehicles, BRT = bus rapid transit. Source: Synergine for Auckland Transport 2015, adapted from ADB and GIZ 2011; Shladover, Su and Lu 2012</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Re-imagining our cities</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/we-cant-let-coronavirus-kill-our-cities-heres-how-we-can-save-urban-life-137063">Cities are repurposing streets</a> to <a href="https://theconversation.com/physical-distancing-is-here-for-a-while-over-100-experts-call-for-more-safe-walking-and-cycling-space-137374">meet higher demands</a> for <a href="http://www.pedestrian.melbourne.vic.gov.au/">walking</a> and <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/car-parks-out-footpaths-and-cycling-lanes-in-as-city-prepares-for-post-covid-commuters-20200507-p54qrp.html">cycling</a>. </p>
<p>But not everyone can walk or ride a scooter or bike to their destination. Public transport must remain at the heart of urban mobility. </p>
<p>We will have to rethink public transport design to enable physical distancing, even though it <a href="https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/respacing-cities-resilience-covid-19.pdf">reduces capacities</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336897/original/file-20200522-102628-10x5qv8.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336897/original/file-20200522-102628-10x5qv8.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336897/original/file-20200522-102628-10x5qv8.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336897/original/file-20200522-102628-10x5qv8.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336897/original/file-20200522-102628-10x5qv8.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336897/original/file-20200522-102628-10x5qv8.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336897/original/file-20200522-102628-10x5qv8.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336897/original/file-20200522-102628-10x5qv8.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Impact of physical distancing on public transport capacity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/respacing-cities-resilience-covid-19.pdf">International Transport Forum, OECD</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/may/19/public-transport-workers-must-be-protected-from-covid-19-as-passengers-return-union-warns">Public transport drivers</a> need protection. Some responses such as boarding from back doors and sanitising rolling stock are needed but <a href="https://www-bbc-com.cdn.ampproject.org/c/s/www.bbc.com/news/amp/uk-52645366">don’t reduce crowding</a>. Crowding at platforms, bus and tram stops also has to be avoided. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-limit-coronavirus-risks-on-public-transport-heres-what-we-can-learn-from-efforts-overseas-133764">To limit coronavirus risks on public transport, here's what we can learn from efforts overseas</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Crowding on public transport puts lives at risk. A <a href="https://protect-au.mimecast.com/s/B7DqC6X1LXuXlKX5IxBqAZ?domain=linkedin.com">recent study</a> that looked at smartcard data for the Metro in Washington DC showed that, with the same passenger demand as before the pandemic, only three initially infected passengers will lead to 55% of the passenger population being infected within 20 days. This would have alarming consequences. </p>
<p>More measures are needed. There are things we need to stop doing or start doing, and others that need to happen sooner. </p>
<p>Increasing capacities by running more services, where possible, will help. Staggering work hours will reduce peak demand. Transport demand management must also aim to <a href="https://theconversation.com/four-ways-our-cities-can-cut-transport-emissions-in-a-hurry-avoid-shift-share-and-improve-106076">reduce overall need for travel</a> by having people continue to <a href="https://theconversation.com/if-more-of-us-work-from-home-after-coronavirus-well-need-to-rethink-city-planning-136261">work from home</a> if they can.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-more-of-us-work-from-home-after-coronavirus-well-need-to-rethink-city-planning-136261">If more of us work from home after coronavirus we'll need to rethink city planning</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Managing passenger flow and decreasing waiting times will also help avoid crowding. Passenger-counting technologies can be used to monitor passenger load restrictions, control flow and stagger ridership. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/l8X-81tTK2Y?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Passenger-counting technologies can be used to monitor and manage flows.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We need to start trying new solutions using smart technologies. Passengers could use <a href="https://www.illawarramercury.com.au/story/5404102/new-app-showing-empty-train-seats-not-available-on-south-coast-line/">apps</a> that let them find out <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/travel/travel_news/article-6368309/LNER-installs-seat-sensors-train-help-passengers-avoid-standing.html">how crowded a service is</a> before boarding, or to book a seat in advance. </p>
<p>Other solutions to trial include <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/carolinehoward/2020/05/16/thermal-imaging-is-hot-photographs-of-a-fevered-time/?ss=education#2e7346495d69">thermal imaging</a> at train stations and bus depots to identify passengers with fever. There will be many technical and deployment challenges, but trials can identify issues and ease the transition.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336235/original/file-20200520-152292-o03v0k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336235/original/file-20200520-152292-o03v0k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336235/original/file-20200520-152292-o03v0k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336235/original/file-20200520-152292-o03v0k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336235/original/file-20200520-152292-o03v0k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336235/original/file-20200520-152292-o03v0k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336235/original/file-20200520-152292-o03v0k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336235/original/file-20200520-152292-o03v0k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One solution for transport hubs is thermal imaging technology that detects passengers who have a fever.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/recording-thermal-camera-people-city-railway-530560618">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We need to accelerate digitalisation and automation of public transport. This includes solutions for contactless operations, automated train doors and passenger safety across the whole journey. </p>
<p>Public transport also has to be expanded and diversified to be effective in dense areas and deliver social value to residents. In some areas, it may function as a <a href="https://www.transitsystems.com.au/demand-responsive-transport-systems">demand-responsive service</a> and be <a href="https://infrastructuremagazine.com.au/2019/05/06/sa-to-trial-demand-responsive-transport/">more agile</a> in its ability to transport people safely and quickly. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/1-million-rides-and-counting-on-demand-services-bring-public-transport-to-the-suburbs-132355">1 million rides and counting: on-demand services bring public transport to the suburbs</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Improving resilience</h2>
<p>The lessons we have learnt about adapting how we live and work should guide recovery efforts. The recovery must improve the resilience of public transport. </p>
<p>Infrastructure investments, which are crucial for rebuilding the economy, must target projects that protect against future threats. Public transport will need <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-04-19/coronavirus-changing-the-way-we-move-around-our-cities-forever/12158612">reliable financial investment</a> to provide quality of service and revive passenger confidence.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/for-public-transport-to-keep-running-operators-must-find-ways-to-outlast-coronavirus-134224">For public transport to keep running, operators must find ways to outlast coronavirus</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335478/original/file-20200516-138639-6kv0hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335478/original/file-20200516-138639-6kv0hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335478/original/file-20200516-138639-6kv0hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335478/original/file-20200516-138639-6kv0hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335478/original/file-20200516-138639-6kv0hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335478/original/file-20200516-138639-6kv0hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335478/original/file-20200516-138639-6kv0hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335478/original/file-20200516-138639-6kv0hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The pandemic has shown how fragile urban systems like public transport are in the face of acute stresses.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/city-melbourne-vicaustraliamay-25th-2018-crowds-1099621061">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Importantly, the harm this pandemic is causing has not been equitable. The <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2020/03/24/coronavirus-could-hit-worlds-most-vulnerable-people-hardest/">most vulnerable and the most disadvantaged</a> have been hit hardest by both its health and economic impacts. </p>
<p>While many people are able to work from home, staying at home remains a luxury many others cannot afford. People who need to return to work must be able to rely on safe public transport. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whos-most-affected-on-public-transport-in-the-time-of-coronavirus-133429">Who's most affected on public transport in the time of coronavirus?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Building on momentum</h2>
<p>By the time the lockdown is over, many of our old habits will have changed. The <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/f43b8212-950a-11ea-af4b-499244625ac4">notion</a> that we need to leave home to work every day has been challenged. The new habits emerging today, if sustained, could help us solve tricky problems like traffic congestion and accessibility, which have challenged our cities for a long time. </p>
<p>If there’s one principle that should underpin recovery efforts, it should be to make choices today that in future we’d want us to have made. If driving becomes an established new habit, congestion will spike and persist, as will greenhouse gas emissions. Faced with these kinds of challenges, rash “business as usual” measures and behaviours will not protect us from this emergency or future crises. </p>
<p>Cities that seize this moment and boost investment in social infrastructure will enter the post-coronavirus world stronger, more equitable and more resilient. </p>
<p>Let us commit to shaping a recovery that rebuilds lives and promotes equality and sustainability. By building on sustainable practices and a momentum of behavioural change, we can avoid repeating the unsustainable mistakes of the past.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138415/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hussein Dia receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the iMOVE Cooperative Research Centre, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute, Transport for New South Wales, and Scope 3 Pty Ltd.</span></em></p>Some new habits we’ve seen emerging during the pandemic could help us solve tricky problems like traffic congestion, which have challenged our cities for a long time.Hussein Dia, Professor of Future Urban Mobility, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1280222019-11-29T11:22:33Z2019-11-29T11:22:33ZBlack Friday: a logistical nightmare that’s bad for the environment<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304415/original/file-20191129-95264-1htqfb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-two-young-delivery-men-carrying-767179384">Andrey_Popov / Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Black Friday and the ensuing Cyber Monday are once again upon us. Billions will be spent trying to snag a bargain in the approach to Christmas. But as scrutiny turns to whether or not the deals on offer <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/nov/26/black-friday-uk-discounts-genuine-which">are genuine discounts</a>, as opposed to <a href="https://theconversation.com/black-friday-marketing-tricks-and-four-ways-to-stop-yourself-falling-for-them-107327">marketing tricks</a>, spare a thought for the thousands of extra deliveries that will be made and the resulting congestion, CO₂ emissions, and stress that this shopping holiday creates.</p>
<p>The logistics of meeting the rising number of online orders during these seasonal events is incredibly difficult. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/dec/02/argos-shoppers-black-friday-delivery-delays">Big</a> <a href="https://www.thisismoney.co.uk/money/news/article-2865869/Marks-Spencer-beset-delivery-woe-unable-cope-Black-Friday-orders.html">retailers</a> have tried to adopt sales strategies like promises of next-day delivery, only for delays and cancellations to ensue. Logistics companies like Yodel have learnt from past failures and hire thousands of extra delivery drivers <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/18/online-retailers-dream-of-record-christmas">to cope</a>.</p>
<p>Demand for more drivers underscores the highly seasonal nature of shopping, with similar spikes on Mother’s Day, Valentine’s Day <a href="http://ca.reuters.com/article/businessNews/idCAKCN0J126B20141117?pageNumber18=undefined&pageNumber=2&virtualBrandChannel=0&sp=true">and the run up to Christmas</a>. Although the industry is constantly learning from past mistakes to better serve customers, it neglects crucial energy, mobility and health issues. Behind the scenes, the infrastructure that makes all this online shopping possible is huge – the extra delivery vans add to already congested roads, and drivers suffer from stress and tiredness. Seasonal shopping events like Black Friday harm people and the planet. </p>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.demand.ac.uk/situations-sites-sectors/#shopping">two-year research project</a> into the energy and mobility implications of online shopping highlights the need to think about these issues. It was clear from our six focus groups, 34 in-depth household interviews and an online questionnaire of 2,000 people in the UK, that people’s internet shopping habits are still being formed. Online shopping still very much complements – rather than substitutes – shopping trips to a brick-and-mortar store. And this means we don’t have to accept the norms of online shopping as they currently are.</p>
<h2>New expectations</h2>
<p>Hidden behind the millions of online orders expected this holiday season is a huge and complex operation that involves sea, rail, air and road. Distribution and delivery of goods, whether to a shop or home, principally relies on the dominant hub-and-spoke model where a distribution centre or warehouse receives products from many different locations, sorts them and then sends them out for delivery. </p>
<p>One medium-sized business in London recently told us that roughly 75% of the goods received by its front desk in the run up to Christmas were personal parcels. Crucially, in a hub-and-spoke model, not only do these parcels arrive from different vans travelling long distances from different warehouses, but delivery results in travelling on some of the most precious, congested and polluted streets in London – simply to service online shopping preferences.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304417/original/file-20191129-95264-e6rkis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304417/original/file-20191129-95264-e6rkis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304417/original/file-20191129-95264-e6rkis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304417/original/file-20191129-95264-e6rkis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304417/original/file-20191129-95264-e6rkis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304417/original/file-20191129-95264-e6rkis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304417/original/file-20191129-95264-e6rkis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">More deliveries leads to more congestion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/delivery-van-city-1029851113">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The hub-and-spoke model was created before advances in telecommunications, or consumer expectations of expedited delivery. As altering the model is not an easy or quick task, the model will act as a bottleneck for at least the next decade.</p>
<p>Yet alternative delivery options are emerging, with Uber <a href="http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-europe-markets-parcel-idUKKCN0VP1N2">and other start-ups entering the fray</a>. Logistics providers must balance the need to be competitive and make a profit, with customer expectations and demands. In our questionnaire, 21% of those surveyed expected delivery to be cheaper on Black Friday, 55% expected delivery to be the same, and 21% didn’t think about delivery fees for online orders. </p>
<p>When considering their delivery options, few people think about the costs involved for retailers of using delivery companies or for the places that store parcels for pickup. Recent <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/money/shortcuts/2015/jun/30/amazons-prime-now-one-hour-delivery-put-to-the-test">teething problems</a> with Amazon’s next hour delivery promise reveal the difficulties at play. The online retail giant is even developing its own logistics business to try <a href="https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/amazon-making-move-into-350bn-ocean-freight-market-1538435">and improve its delivery capabilities</a>. </p>
<h2>Costs vs benefits</h2>
<p>Yet, is next hour or even next day delivery really necessary? Who defines what is necessary and absorbs the consequences? At this early stage of the next evolution of shopping, it is imperative we consider the benefits and broader societal costs of different shopping and delivery options. Or else we risk hardwiring in a set of expectations at odds with our obligations to cut carbon and improve air quality in cities.</p>
<p>Failed deliveries in the UK have <a href="https://www.parcelandpostaltechnologyinternational.com/features/valuing-home-delivery.html">been estimated at £1.6 billion</a>. Re-delivery also comes <a href="http://trrjournalonline.trb.org/doi/abs/10.3141/2340-08">with environmental impacts</a>. It is also unclear whether online shopping reduces physical household trips to a store. </p>
<p>Evidence from our focus groups suggests many shoppers do a mix of visiting stores before going online to purchase items, with home delivery. The ease of online shopping makes this possible and it generates two trips – one from the customer and one from the delivery vehicle (more with first time failed delivery). While the number of shopping trips has been estimated to have gone <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/457752/nts2014-01.pdf">down by 27% over the last decade</a>, light goods vehicle traffic (which is key to online shopping) <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/487689/annual-road-traffic-estimates-2014.pdf">has grown rapidly at 20%</a>.</p>
<p>Understanding the likely future energy and mobility effects of our shopping habits requires a better appreciation of the complex connections between household, retailer and delivery companies. We argue that this is not a question which we should just leave to the market to resolve.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/128022/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Jones receives funding from Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council EPSRC.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony Whiteing receives funding from Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council EPSRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Greg Marsden receives funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council Energy Programme</span></em></p>Delivery companies are constantly learning from past mistakes to better serve customers, but they neglect crucial energy, mobility and health issues.Ian Jones, Visiting Research Fellow, Institute for Transport Studies, University of LeedsAnthony Whiteing, Senior Lecturer at the Institute for Transport Studies, University of LeedsGreg Marsden, Professor of Transport Governance, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1257182019-11-10T18:55:38Z2019-11-10T18:55:38ZSmart tech systems cut congestion for a fraction of what new roads cost<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298795/original/file-20191027-113980-130djx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Smart transport solutions make better use of existing infrastructure and reduce the need to build expensive new roads. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://stock.adobe.com/ee/images/traffic-lights-on-bridge/544070">AdobeStock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://bigbuild.vic.gov.au/projects">new transport projects</a> governments are constantly announcing are <a href="https://www.macrobusiness.com.au/2019/08/australian-infrastructure-expensive/">expensive</a>. In the recent <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-nsw-election-promises-on-transport-add-up-112531">New South Wales</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-much-will-voters-pay-for-an-early-christmas-eight-charts-that-explain-victorias-transport-election-106782">Victorian</a> elections, the returned state governments’ transport infrastructure promises added up to A$165 billion. What’s mostly missing from the promised transport solutions is smart technology that provides higher benefits at a fraction of the cost – when retrofitting existing roads in particular. The benefit-to-cost ratio can be more than a dozen times greater than for a new road. </p>
<p>Clearly, infrastructure spending helps to drive the economy. These projects also deliver benefits to the community, including increased road safety, shorter travel times and fewer delays. </p>
<p>The economic merit of these projects is usually captured using a benefit-to-cost ratio (BCR). For example, the BCR of the <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/politics/victoria/big-projects-bigger-bills-massive-construction-boom-comes-at-a-cost-20190610-p51w5d.html">A$15.8 billion</a> <a href="https://bigbuild.vic.gov.au/projects/north-east-link">North East Link</a> road project in Melbourne is estimated to be <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/north-east-link-at-risk-of-becoming-financial-disaster-economist-20190726-p52b6a.html">1.25</a> – for every A$1 invested, A$1.25 is returned in benefits to the economy and community. For the Melbourne Metro rail tunnel, a best-case <a href="https://metrotunnel.vic.gov.au/about-the-project/faq">BCR of 3.3</a> has been reported.</p>
<p>But are we getting good value for money? Could cheaper alternatives deliver more benefits? </p>
<h2>Technology offers smarter, cheaper solutions</h2>
<p>Technology offers transport solutions that provide higher benefits at a fraction of the cost of building new infrastructure. Collectively known as <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XOMamTXK5T8">intelligent transport systems</a>, these are widely recognised today as better answers for smart transport outcomes. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/XOMamTXK5T8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Intelligent transport systems can have positive impacts on the safety, efficiency and environmental performance of transport.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/capital-projects-and-infrastructure/our-insights/infrastructure-productivity">comparing</a> different “congestion-busting” options, “building more roads” provides, on average, a BCR of 3.0. This is dwarfed by the much higher BCR values of tech solutions. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300779/original/file-20191107-10952-17um5x0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300779/original/file-20191107-10952-17um5x0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300779/original/file-20191107-10952-17um5x0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300779/original/file-20191107-10952-17um5x0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300779/original/file-20191107-10952-17um5x0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300779/original/file-20191107-10952-17um5x0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300779/original/file-20191107-10952-17um5x0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300779/original/file-20191107-10952-17um5x0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Low_Carbon_Mobility_for_Future_Cities.html?id=g8NIDgAAQBAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y">Source: Low Carbon Mobility for Future Cities: Principles and Applications (Dia, H. ed, 2017), adapted from Infrastructure Productivity: how to save $1 trillion a year (McKinsey, 2013)</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-new-pm-wants-to-bust-congestion-here-are-four-ways-he-could-do-that-102249">Our new PM wants to 'bust congestion' – here are four ways he could do that</a>
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<p><a href="https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/innovation/everydaycounts/edc-1/asct.cfm">Adaptive traffic signal control</a> allows <a href="https://youtu.be/lZtOgqbNMVE">traffic signals</a> to change based on actual traffic demand. This yields, on average, a BCR of 40. </p>
<p>Traffic signals along a route can be coordinated to create “<a href="https://youtu.be/PQ-HBC6QGHo?t=12">green waves</a>” for platoons of vehicles to travel without stopping. These solutions are effective for congested cities that experience rapid traffic growth and changing traffic patterns. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/OSL1dS8rqdk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A simulation of adaptive traffic signals</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.itsinternational.com/sections/nafta/features/integrated-corridor-management-to-enhance-travel-efficiency/">Corridor management systems</a> use technology to control networks of motorways and urban roads. The average BCR is 24.</p>
<p>On <a href="https://www.vicroads.vic.gov.au/traffic-and-road-use/traffic-management/managed-motorways">managed motorways</a>, <a href="https://www.vicroads.vic.gov.au/traffic-and-road-use/traffic-management/managed-motorways/coordinated-ramp-signals">ramp signals</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4aUyMJwZ8_s">variable speed limit signs</a> and <a href="https://www.vicroads.vic.gov.au/traffic-and-road-use/traffic-management/managed-motorways/traveller-information-for-motorists">traveller information systems</a> are <a href="https://youtu.be/iFL2CZfJZD8">proven tools</a> to respond in real time to changing traffic conditions. In <a href="https://www.transmax.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Case-Study_Smart-Motorways-.pdf">one case</a>, a managed motorway reduced travel times by 42% and accidents by 30%. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/pahIsJEFEMU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Active motorway management improves the performance of existing roads.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.vicroads.vic.gov.au/traffic-and-road-use/traffic-management/managed-motorways/lane-and-speed-management-for-incidents">Traffic incident management</a>, which has a BCR of 21, includes technologies that aid quick detection and removal of crashes. They also detect other incidents such as broken-down vehicles or spilled loads that reduce road capacity. The systems rely on smart <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0968090X97000168">software</a> that analyses sensor data in real time. </p>
<p><a href="http://ntimc.transportation.org/Pages/NTIMCPublicationsandProducts.aspx">Benefits</a> include a 40% reduction in time to detect incidents. The technology also <a href="http://ntimc.transportation.org/Documents/Benefits11-07-06.pdf">reduces incident duration by 23%</a> and <a href="https://trid.trb.org/view/481658">road crashes by 35%</a>.</p>
<h2>Combining tech solutions magnifies benefits</h2>
<p>When solutions are combined, benefits are amplified. The <a href="https://sunguide.info/annual-reports/district-six-its-annual-report/">Florida Department of Transportation</a> implements a transport technology program on its networks. The solutions include incident management, ramp signalling, traveller information and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdVDEU5UVb4&feature=youtu.be&t=50">express lanes</a>. Reduced incident duration and traffic delays are among the key benefits. </p>
<p>In 2018, the benefits of this program totalled almost <a href="https://sunguide.info/reports/annual-reports/District-Six-ITS-Annual-Report/2018-District-Six-ITS-Annual-Report.pdf">US$3.1 billion</a> (A$4.5 billion). The costs were <a href="https://sunguide.info/reports/annual-reports/District-Six-ITS-Annual-Report/2018-District-Six-ITS-Annual-Report.pdf">US$70.3 million</a> (A$102 million). That’s a BCR of 43.7. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300555/original/file-20191107-12506-jk28cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300555/original/file-20191107-12506-jk28cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300555/original/file-20191107-12506-jk28cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300555/original/file-20191107-12506-jk28cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300555/original/file-20191107-12506-jk28cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300555/original/file-20191107-12506-jk28cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300555/original/file-20191107-12506-jk28cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300555/original/file-20191107-12506-jk28cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Benefit-cost ratios of transport technology solutions implemented over a decade by Florida Department of Transportation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the UK, the <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/%7E/media/McKinsey/Industries/Capital%20Projects%20and%20Infrastructure/Our%20Insights/Infrastructure%20productivity/MGI%20Infrastructure_Full%20report_Jan%202013.ashx">cost</a> of implementing technology solutions on the <a href="https://www.roads.org.uk/motorway/m42">M42 motorway</a> was US$150 million (A$218 million) and took two years to complete. Widening the road to produce the same outcome would have taken 10 years and cost US$800 million (A$1.16 billion).</p>
<h2>A shift in priorities is needed</h2>
<p>Considerable investment in transport infrastructure is still required. It should be guided by strong business cases and aligned with community values and expectations.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-closer-look-at-business-cases-raises-questions-about-priority-national-infrastructure-projects-94489">A closer look at business cases raises questions about 'priority' national infrastructure projects</a>
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<p>However, technology is getting to the point where it’s making a serious difference in tackling the mega challenges facing our cities. Its role must be prioritised. </p>
<p>The benefits are compelling. Intelligent technology systems improve the use of existing assets and increase their operational life. They enhance traveller experience and reduce reliance on building new roads. And they deliver superior value for money.</p>
<p>But widespread deployment of these technologies is still limited. To spur change and unlock value, we must move beyond a project-by-project approach. </p>
<h2>Learn from the best</h2>
<p>Governments can be guided by <a href="https://itif.org/publications/2010/01/09/explaining-international-it-application-leadership-intelligent">leading nations</a> in this field such as South Korea, Japan and Singapore. Their citizens experience the benefits every day. Smart transport solutions improve their quality of life through easier travel, less congestion and more reliable services. </p>
<p>The recurring policy themes in these countries include a national vision of smart infrastructure and commitment to funding. They prioritise investment in research and trials, standards development and partnerships with industry. These are key factors in the success of their tech-driven transport solutions. </p>
<p>These are the policies and investments Australia should prioritise. They will modernise our transport systems in innovative ways that lift our economy and living standards.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125718/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hussein Dia receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the iMOVE Cooperative Research Centre, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute, and Transport for New South Wales.</span></em></p>Faced with the eye-watering costs of building infrastructure, it makes sense to turn to much more cost-effective smart technology to get traffic flowing.Hussein Dia, Professor of Future Urban Mobility, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1252292019-10-28T00:43:42Z2019-10-28T00:43:42ZThe hidden traffic impacts of private schooling<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298221/original/file-20191023-149555-ldqkhx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5406%2C3493&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The school run for private school students is typically much longer than for government school students.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">kryzhov/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In Australia today, just over <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4221.02018?OpenDocument">40% of secondary school children and almost 30% of primary school children</a> attend a private school. By contrast, in the UK <a href="https://www.spectator.co.uk/2019/06/britain-is-becoming-more-meritocratic-not-less/">only 7% of children are privately educated</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/cities-research-institute/research/transport-group">Our research</a> shows not only do more students travel by car to private secondary schools in Australia, their car trips are almost twice as long as for government school students. As these trips are in peak hour, private schooling has a disproportionate impact on traffic congestion.</p>
<p>Commonwealth subsidies of private schools and their charitable status have underpinned skyrocketing enrolments. Questions over <a href="https://theconversation.com/should-wealthy-private-schools-and-hospitals-have-charity-status-in-australia-73055">whether private schools should pay tax</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/private-schooling-has-little-long-term-pay-off-30303">why they offer questionable graduate outcomes</a>, their tendency towards “<a href="https://theconversation.com/data-shows-white-flight-to-private-schools-979">white flight</a>” and social polarisation, and basic fairness have long been debated. </p>
<p>But what if, in weighing up the pros and cons of private schooling, and in calculating their economic costs versus benefits, we’ve all missed something rather important? Until now, no one has considered the impacts on city traffic. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/children-in-the-car-era-bad-for-them-and-the-planet-105377">Children in the car era: bad for them and the planet</a>
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<p>We’re helping the Queensland government improve its main transport models for Brisbane and southeast Queensland. Experts use these models to assess the best policies and projects to try to save us from congestion and to provide access to the goods, jobs and services we all need in life. </p>
<h2>What did the research find?</h2>
<p>We are looking at how one might better model school travel. To do so we explored the latest data from the <a href="https://www.data.qld.gov.au/dataset?q=household%20travel%20survey&sort=score%20desc%2C%20metadata_modified%20desc">Queensland Household Travel Survey</a>.
The datasets include all the trips to school made by over 3,000 primary and secondary school children. These surveys do not report if the child went to a public or private school. But we used advanced computing methods to match the school trip destinations with a set of known public and private school locations in the South East Queensland region. This created the first set of public-versus-private school trips we know of. </p>
<p>We could then look at the share of trips made by walking, cycling, public transport and car. We were also able to report the distances travelled to the different school types. </p>
<p>We presented our results in Canberra at the <a href="https://www.conferenceco.com.au/2019ATRF/">Australasian Transport Research Forum</a>.</p>
<p>At the primary school level, where fewer children attend private schools and the lower-cost Catholic school system plays a bigger role, the differences are modest. A slightly greater share of children are driven to private schools, but the average distance for those car trips is only around one kilometre more. It’s a problem, but one of similar scale to the unsustainable and unhealthy journeys made to public primary schools across Australia. </p>
<p>At secondary school level, where the non-Catholic independent schools have greater market share, only 1.5% more children are driven to private secondary schools (56.5% to 54.9%) and a few more drive themselves. But the car trips to those schools are almost twice as long as to the public schools. </p>
<p>The private secondary school children are travelling 7.8km each way, on average, to get to and from school. As this is school travel, it happens in the morning peak hour, the worst time for traffic congestion in our cities. Private secondary schooling appears to have a highly disproportionate impact. </p>
<p>The landscape of private schooling in southeast Queensland is problematic. Newer private schools have opened in odd locations on the edges of existing communities, or well beyond the suburban fringe. Even some of the older established <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Public_Schools_Association_of_Queensland">GPS</a> schools (the “elite” ones) are far from public transport. A few offer private buses, but many parents are left with little choice. They have to chauffeur their children. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/factcheck-does-the-average-australian-family-spend-up-to-22-000-every-year-on-transport-64233">FactCheck: does the average Australian family spend up to $22,000 every year on transport?</a>
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<h2>Does the extra car travel matter?</h2>
<p>Education departments probably don’t care. But if governments are focused on reducing congestion, which their transport departments all are, and if they are looking to reduce school-related congestion effects, then private secondary schools are the worst offenders. </p>
<p>We can’t just look to the transport departments to fix such problems. They’re not responsible for creating the unsustainable car-based schooling landscape they somehow must try to serve. </p>
<p>It should also worry us for the individuals involved. Car-based travel is far from optimal for children’s development. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/designing-suburbs-to-cut-car-use-closes-gaps-in-health-and-wealth-83961">Designing suburbs to cut car use closes gaps in health and wealth</a>
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<p>A litany of studies show physically active travel such as walking and cycling, including to and from public transport, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2015-0043">is better for physical and mental health</a>, as well as for social connectedness. The links between <a href="https://doi.org/10.14485/HBPR.2.1.3">children’s physical activity and student learning</a> are also well established.</p>
<p>Given road congestion costs in Australia are expected to exceed <a href="https://www.aaa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/AAA-Congestion-Report-2018-FINAL.pdf">A$30 billion a year by 2030</a>, we suggest the congestion costs of Australia’s private school funding model should be fully calculated, costed and included when we weigh up the costs and benefits. The Commonwealth has options should it wish to tighten up in other ways. This would include not financially supporting any new private schools located far from existing communities or good public transport services.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125229/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Burke receives funding from the Queensland Government Department of Main Roads, the Motor Accident and Insurance Commission, the City of Gold Coast, Transport for NSW, Queensland Airports Limited and the Australian Research Council. He has memberships of voluntary committees with the National Heart Foundation, the Australasian Transport Research Forum and the Pedestrian and Bicycle Transport Institute of Australasia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yiping Yan is the recipient of an embedded work placement at the Queensland Government Department of Transport and Main Roads.</span></em></p>An analysis of trips to school has found the extra time and distance private secondary school students travel is a significant contributor to morning peak-hour congestion.Matthew Burke, Associate Professor, Cities Research Institute, Griffith UniversityYiping Yan, PhD Candidate, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1248942019-10-13T19:02:36Z2019-10-13T19:02:36ZThree charts on: why congestion charging is fairer than you might think<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296576/original/file-20191010-188829-1vo0hj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Peak-time drivers to the CBDs of Sydney and Melbourne typically earn much more than the average worker.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/long-exposure-blurred-vehicle-motion-on-674535700?src=dPG27nyIYh-5-qf5ZsjmXA-1-5">Taras Vyshnya/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Congestion charging should be introduced in Australia’s largest cities, as Grattan Institute’s <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/why-its-time-for-congestion-charging">latest report</a> shows. Our analysis also finds that the people who commute to the Melbourne and Sydney CBDs by driving are two to three times as likely to earn six-figure salaries as other Australian workers.</p>
<p>One of the main concerns about charging drivers who use the busiest roads at the busiest times has been about fairness. But sensible congestion charges could be designed to avoid burdening financially vulnerable people who lack alternatives to using particular roads at busy times.</p>
<p>Congestion charging is gaining traction in cities around the world as a proven method to manage congestion. <a href="https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop08047/02summ.htm">London, Singapore, Stockholm</a> and <a href="https://www.citylab.com/transportation/2015/09/milan-abruptly-suspended-congestion-pricing-and-traffic-immediately-soared/404521/">Milan</a> all have congestion charging schemes. New York City legislators have approved plans to introduce it in <a href="https://www.pri.org/stories/2019-05-30/new-york-city-gets-nations-first-congestion-pricing-plan">Manhattan</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/traffic-congestion-reconsidered-111921">Traffic congestion reconsidered</a>
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<h2>It’s better than building new infrastructure</h2>
<p>Sydney and Melbourne are big, global cities, but with growth and prosperity comes congestion. The solution from the <a href="https://theconversation.com/transport-promises-for-election-2019-the-good-the-bad-and-the-downright-ugly-115138">federal</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-nsw-election-promises-on-transport-add-up-112531">New South Wales</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-much-will-voters-pay-for-an-early-christmas-eight-charts-that-explain-victorias-transport-election-106782">Victorian governments</a> has been to throw money at huge infrastructure projects. Politicians like promising infrastructure because large benefits can be targeted at key voters, while <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/roads-to-riches/">the costs are spread across all taxpayers</a>.</p>
<p>But this means many people are paying to alleviate some people’s congestion. And the relief from new infrastructure tends to be short-lived. In Australia’s fast-growing cities, extra public transport capacity at peak times gets chewed up quickly, while new freeways tend to fill with new traffic soon after opening. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-more-roads-really-mean-less-congestion-for-commuters-39508">Do more roads really mean less congestion for commuters?</a>
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<p>This doesn’t mean governments should stop investing in infrastructure. But it does raise the question of whether spending billions of taxpayer dollars is the best or fairest way to tackle congestion.</p>
<p>We usually think of congestion as a force that slows us down, without thinking about how we slow everyone else around us. Congestion charging fixes this by charging a modest fee to use the busiest roads. Drivers then have to decide whether it’s worth making their trip at that time on that road. </p>
<p>Drivers who need to travel at peak times are always able to do so – they just need to pay a fee. Heavy users will end up paying more for using an in-demand resource. The most flexible drivers will save money by travelling later, or elsewhere, or by another mode. And this means getting out of everybody else’s way.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/city-wide-trial-shows-how-road-use-charges-can-reduce-traffic-jams-86324">City-wide trial shows how road use charges can reduce traffic jams</a>
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<p>Charging is also fairer than the licence-plate approach of Mexico City or Beijing, where cars are banned from driving on certain days depending on their licence plate numbers. These heavy-handed restrictions ignore the fact that people’s travel needs vary from day to day. Why ban a driver on the day of a job interview?</p>
<h2>But what about all the drivers on low incomes?</h2>
<p>It’s fair to ask whether congestion charging will burden the most vulnerable people in society. And the answer depends on the design of the scheme.</p>
<p>First, the people who we should really worry about are those who: are struggling financially; frequently or urgently need to travel on charged roads or to a charged area; and lack good alternatives to driving at that time on those roads.</p>
<p>A sensible congestion charge would target only the busiest roads and areas – think central business districts (CBDs), major freeways and key arterial routes – and only at times of high demand such as peak hour.</p>
<p>So if Sydney or Melbourne were to introduce a peak-period congestion charge around their CBDs, how many vulnerable people would be affected? Hardly any.</p>
<p>Our research shows the drivers who would pay the charge tend to be doing just fine. It’s mostly commuters and people driving as part of their job – think tradespeople and couriers. Those travelling for work could pass the cost on to their customers – every tradie driving to the CBD would face the same charge, so no one would gain or lose a competitive advantage.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-blame-parcel-delivery-vans-for-clogging-up-city-traffic-look-to-the-tradies-123776">Don't blame parcel delivery vans for clogging up city traffic, look to the tradies</a>
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<h2>Most CBD drivers are well-off</h2>
<p>And the CBD commuters? They tend to earn much more than the typical Australian. </p>
<p>Grattan Institute analysis shows most people driving to the Sydney CBD for work each day earn six-figure salaries. Their median income is nearly A$2,500 a week – about A$1,000 a week more than the typical income for full-time workers in Sydney. </p>
<p>It’s a similar story in Melbourne. The median full-time worker driving to the CBD earns nearly A$2,000 a week – about A$650 more than the typical full-time worker in Melbourne.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296601/original/file-20191011-188835-frfve2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296601/original/file-20191011-188835-frfve2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296601/original/file-20191011-188835-frfve2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296601/original/file-20191011-188835-frfve2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296601/original/file-20191011-188835-frfve2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296601/original/file-20191011-188835-frfve2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296601/original/file-20191011-188835-frfve2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296601/original/file-20191011-188835-frfve2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<p>And these CBD commuters are also generally well-served by public transport. The CBD is the most accessible location in Sydney and Melbourne, with multiple train lines and bus or tram routes running through it. </p>
<p>That’s why most people travel to the CBD by public transport. In Sydney, barely one in six full-time CBD workers actually commute by private vehicle. In Melbourne, it’s only a quarter. But these workers typically earn a lot more than the people on CBD-bound buses, trams and trains.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296358/original/file-20191010-188823-11gu703.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296358/original/file-20191010-188823-11gu703.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296358/original/file-20191010-188823-11gu703.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296358/original/file-20191010-188823-11gu703.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296358/original/file-20191010-188823-11gu703.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296358/original/file-20191010-188823-11gu703.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296358/original/file-20191010-188823-11gu703.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296358/original/file-20191010-188823-11gu703.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/why-its-time-for-congestion-charging">Grattan Institute</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Perhaps surprisingly, drivers to the CBD are more likely to come from inner, richer parts of the city – think Mosman and Double Bay, not Penrith or Parramatta. It’s the same in Melbourne: more people drive from Kew and Richmond than Broadmeadows or Dandenong. Even those driving in from lower-income areas typically earn more than most of their neighbours.</p>
<p>This means the number of genuinely disadvantaged people who would be burdened by a congestion charge is small. As for one-off trips to the CBD – maybe for a specialist appointment – these are by definition infrequent and can often be rescheduled to the middle of the day. </p>
<p>State governments should consider discounts for low-income people with impaired mobility. However, wide-ranging exemptions would badly undermine the effectiveness of the congestion charge – <a href="https://www.citylab.com/transportation/2018/04/londons-congestion-charge-needs-updating/557699/">as happened in London</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296357/original/file-20191010-188792-2qbjjm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296357/original/file-20191010-188792-2qbjjm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296357/original/file-20191010-188792-2qbjjm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296357/original/file-20191010-188792-2qbjjm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296357/original/file-20191010-188792-2qbjjm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296357/original/file-20191010-188792-2qbjjm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296357/original/file-20191010-188792-2qbjjm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296357/original/file-20191010-188792-2qbjjm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/why-its-time-for-congestion-charging">Grattan Institute</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Congestion charging is a smarter way to improve Australia’s largest cities and fears that it would be unfair are overblown. It should be the centrepiece of a mixed strategy to tackle congestion. The NSW and Victorian governments should introduce <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7249/mg748jat-metro-mcla.36?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">cordon charging</a> around the CBDs of their capitals within the next five years.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/flexible-working-the-neglected-congestion-busting-solution-for-our-cities-122130">Flexible working, the neglected congestion-busting solution for our cities</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124894/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Grattan Institute began with contributions to its endowment of $15 million from each of the Federal and Victorian Governments, $4 million from BHP Billiton, and $1 million from NAB. In order to safeguard its independence, Grattan Institute’s board controls this endowment. The funds are invested and Grattan uses the income to pursue its activities.</span></em></p>Commuters who drive to and from the CBD typically earn much more than most. Concerns about the fairness of charging drivers who use these busy roads at peak times are overblown.Marion Terrill, Transport and Cities Program Director, Grattan InstituteJames Ha, Associate, Grattan InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1237762019-09-25T20:41:53Z2019-09-25T20:41:53ZDon’t blame parcel delivery vans for clogging up city traffic, look to the tradies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293905/original/file-20190924-51410-1qqku9d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C182%2C1599%2C1015&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Parcel delivery vehicles makeup a small fraction of commercial traffic in our cities.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/amatuerphotographer/2079079910/">Flickr/Andrew Dallos</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A <a href="https://auspost.com.au/business/marketing-and-communications/access-data-and-insights/ecommerce-trends">rise in online shopping</a> is <a href="https://time.com/5481981/online-shopping-amazon-free-shipping-traffic-jams/">often blamed</a> for an increase in the number of parcel delivery vehicles clogging up our busy city roads.</p>
<p>But a <a href="https://diepresse.com/home/motor/nutzfahrzeuge/5691225/Studie_Pakete-besser-als-ihr-Ruf">study we at Vienna University carried out</a> for a European postal service found parcel delivery vehicles made up only a fraction (0.8%) of a city’s traffic flow. Tradespeople and other services were more than seven times more likely to be making up the business traffic.</p>
<p>Yet the claim that parcel delivery plays a significant part in urban road traffic is used <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-42245367">regularly in reports</a>. Hopefully our study can help to change the attitude. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fancy-an-e-change-how-people-are-escaping-city-congestion-and-living-costs-by-working-remotely-123165">Fancy an e-change? How people are escaping city congestion and living costs by working remotely</a>
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<h2>Who’s on our city roads?</h2>
<p>The unfair focus on parcel delivery neglects other commercial sectors using vehicles on a city’s roads for transport and parking. In fact, there is a lack of studies investigating specifically to what extent parcel delivery impacts and contributes to urban road traffic in major cities worldwide.</p>
<p>To examine the true impact of parcel delivery – technically known as CEP for courier, express and parcel deliveries – our team at the Vienna University of Economics in Business was commissioned by the Austrian postal organisation to study the traffic composition in Vienna, Austria, between March and June 2019.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293907/original/file-20190924-51438-1y5rw81.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293907/original/file-20190924-51438-1y5rw81.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293907/original/file-20190924-51438-1y5rw81.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293907/original/file-20190924-51438-1y5rw81.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293907/original/file-20190924-51438-1y5rw81.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293907/original/file-20190924-51438-1y5rw81.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293907/original/file-20190924-51438-1y5rw81.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293907/original/file-20190924-51438-1y5rw81.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Busy traffic in Vienna, Austria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/chagiajose/2476321777/">Flickr/Cha gi Jos</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The goal of the study was to identify the share of parcel delivery and other specific categories of light commercial vehicles used in the city.</p>
<p>The city’s traffic was videoed and manually counted at key times over a 15 week period on main and secondary roads. In addition, we used secondary data from the city of Vienna for validation. </p>
<p>The results showed passenger cars accounted for 86.5% of urban road traffic. The remaining share of light and heavy commercial vehicles comprised 13.5% of traffic.</p>
<p><iframe id="Mbh2L" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/Mbh2L/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Of that, we found parcel delivery vehicles accounted for only 0.8% of the traffic. This clearly contradicts the often-heard and reported claim that they are a main contributor to urban congestion and delays. </p>
<p>Other light commercial vehicles played a much more significant part in urban road traffic.</p>
<p>Tradesmen and technicians had the largest share among light commercial vehicles with 6.0% of traffic. This is more than seven times higher than the share of parcel delivery. </p>
<p>Any transport policies that aim to deal with traffic reduction should consider all vehicle categories and the respective industry specific logistics.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293911/original/file-20190925-51421-11g6ofv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293911/original/file-20190925-51421-11g6ofv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293911/original/file-20190925-51421-11g6ofv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293911/original/file-20190925-51421-11g6ofv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293911/original/file-20190925-51421-11g6ofv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293911/original/file-20190925-51421-11g6ofv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293911/original/file-20190925-51421-11g6ofv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293911/original/file-20190925-51421-11g6ofv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Those tradespeople utes get everywhere.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/9815352@N03/6683869767/">Flickr/Ryan Phillips</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>From Austria to Australia</h2>
<p>Some may argue that European cities differ from Australian cities, but we believe our findings are also relevant to cities here and in other industrialised counties.</p>
<p>For example, Vienna is not that different to Brisbane, in Queensland. Vienna is a city with <a href="https://www.wien.gv.at/english/social/integration/facts-figures/population-migration.html">almost 2 million people</a> – similar to <a href="https://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/UCL301001?opendocument">Brisbane</a> (depending on how you define the area).</p>
<p>Moreover, Vienna’s traffic is - like Brisbane’s - impacted by a significant share of commuters travelling in and out of the city every business day. </p>
<p>Both cities have <a href="https://www.tomtom.com/en_gb/traffic-index/ranking/?country=AU,AT">similar congestion rates</a> – Brisbane 27% and Vienna 25% – and are served by all major local and global parcel delivery companies. </p>
<p>But more importantly, the traffic composition in Austria and Australia’s bigger cities seems to be very similar. Researchers in Melbourne measured the share of light commercial vehicles entering the CBD and found <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042814015158" title="Understanding Last Kilometre Freight Delivery in Melbourne's Central Business District">13.4% cent of the vehicles entering the central business district were light commercial and service vehicles</a>.</p>
<p>This corresponds almost exactly with our Vienna findings. </p>
<h2>Congestion is getting worse</h2>
<p>Traffic is on the rise in many cities around the world, <a href="https://www.aaa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/AAA-Congestion-Report-2018-FINAL.pdf">including here in Australia</a>, which already creates <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-10-15/traffic-congestion-australian-automobile-association-report/10376444">traffic congestion</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293917/original/file-20190925-51452-ws99e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293917/original/file-20190925-51452-ws99e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293917/original/file-20190925-51452-ws99e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293917/original/file-20190925-51452-ws99e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293917/original/file-20190925-51452-ws99e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293917/original/file-20190925-51452-ws99e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293917/original/file-20190925-51452-ws99e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293917/original/file-20190925-51452-ws99e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Traffic in Brisbane and other cities is only getting busier.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/arobrien/3493017965/">Flickr/Andrew O Brien</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One area of growth in Australia is also the <a href="https://www.bitre.gov.au/publications/2018/yearbook_2018.aspx">number of light commercial vehicles</a> on our streets, up from 39.3 billion kilometres travelled in 2008 to 54 billion kilometres in 2018. That means potentially more such vehicles in our cities. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-growth-heat-islands-humidity-climate-change-the-costs-multiply-in-tropical-cities-120825">Urban growth, heat islands, humidity, climate change: the costs multiply in tropical cities</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>When it comes to looking at who needs to do more to try to cut congestion, you need to consider more than just the parcel delivery companies.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.biek.de/download.html?getfile=2326">Studies show</a> that further consolidation efforts within the parcel delivery industry would only lead to a maximum saving of a further 10% of delivery vans, that’s 9 instead of 10 delivery vans on the street. Given they only have a share of 0.8% of total traffic, that would only lead to reduction in traffic of less than 0.1%. </p>
<p>But for tradespeople and technicians, for example, with a share of 6.0% in city traffic, developing better logistics could lead to a greater reduction in the overall traffic in cities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123776/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research was commissioned and funded by the Austrian Post.</span></em></p>Parcel and courier delivery vehicles are often blamed for traffic congestion in our cities. But they’re only a fraction of the traffic caused by tradespeople and other services.David M. Herold, Sustainable Logistics Researcher, Vienna University of Economics and BusinessLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1233542019-09-17T20:30:39Z2019-09-17T20:30:39ZSuperblocks are transforming Barcelona. They might work in Australian cities too<p>The Spanish city of Barcelona has pioneered an innovative approach to managing traffic, freeing up public space and promoting walking and cycling. The “<a href="https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/4/9/18300797/barcelona-spain-superblocks-urban-plan">superblocks</a>” model produces considerable health and economic benefits, according to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412019315223?via%3Dihub">newly published research</a>, and could be applied in Australian cities too. </p>
<p>So how does this model work? Large “superblocks” covering an area of around 400m by 400m are created from residential blocks of 150m by 150m. These residential blocks are currently surrounded by normal busy streets. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292349/original/file-20190913-35615-xmqre8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292349/original/file-20190913-35615-xmqre8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292349/original/file-20190913-35615-xmqre8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292349/original/file-20190913-35615-xmqre8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292349/original/file-20190913-35615-xmqre8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292349/original/file-20190913-35615-xmqre8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292349/original/file-20190913-35615-xmqre8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292349/original/file-20190913-35615-xmqre8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The superblocks model explained.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://prod-mobilitat.s3.amazonaws.com/PMU_Sintesi_Angles.pdf">Urban Mobility Plan of Barcelona 2013-2018</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Outside the superblocks, the city’s normal through traffic is accommodated on streets with a maximum speed of 50km/h. Within the superblocks, cars are banned or restricted to 20km/h, priority is given to walking and cycling, and open space is reclaimed or created from parking. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-traffic-signals-favour-cars-and-discourage-walking-92675">How traffic signals favour cars and discourage walking</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZORzsubQA_M?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In 2016, Barcelona started creating ‘superblocks’ that are transforming life in the affected neighbourhoods.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These priorities accord closely with the goals of growing Australian cities that are struggling to preserve liveability in the face of increasing congestion and density. While current urban designs for new suburbs across Australia are an improvement on post-war suburban residential developments, the results are still unsatisfactory. </p>
<p>Residents of these new outer suburbs typically <a href="https://theconversation.com/living-liveable-this-is-what-residents-have-to-say-about-life-on-the-urban-fringe-111339">depend heavily on cars</a>. They have limited (if any) public transport access and <a href="https://theconversation.com/some-suburbs-are-being-short-changed-on-services-and-liveability-which-ones-and-whats-the-solution-83966">scant opportunity to walk or cycle to local amenities</a>. Urban sprawl means <a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-city-workers-average-commute-has-blown-out-to-66-minutes-a-day-how-does-yours-compare-120598">commuting times and distances continue to increase</a>, <a href="https://www.aaa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/AAA-Congestion-Report-2018-FINAL.pdf">traffic congestion worsens</a> and <a href="https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/resources/transport-climate-change/">transport emissions rise</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(16)30068-X/fulltext">Residents of these suburbs have poorer economic and health outcomes</a> relative to the whole population. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/city-by-city-analysis-shows-our-capitals-arent-liveable-for-many-residents-85676">City-by-city analysis shows our capitals aren’t liveable for many residents</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What are the benefits of superblocks?</h2>
<p>In light of these issues, Mark Stevenson collaborated with researchers from the Barcelona Institute of Global Health to explore the superblocks model and its potential benefits for Australian cities.
Their research, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412019315223?via%3Dihub">published in Environment International</a>, found the associated benefits in Barcelona are considerable. </p>
<p>Premature mortality rates were reduced by about 700 fewer deaths a year and life expectancy increased. This was due to reductions in air pollution, noise and heat, greater access to green space and increased transport-related physical activity.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292375/original/file-20190913-35611-g2qelf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292375/original/file-20190913-35611-g2qelf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292375/original/file-20190913-35611-g2qelf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292375/original/file-20190913-35611-g2qelf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292375/original/file-20190913-35611-g2qelf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292375/original/file-20190913-35611-g2qelf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292375/original/file-20190913-35611-g2qelf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292375/original/file-20190913-35611-g2qelf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Barcelona superblocks model had a number of urban quality goals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://prod-mobilitat.s3.amazonaws.com/PMU_Sintesi_Angles.pdf">Urban Mobility Plan of Barcelona 2013-2018</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The economic effects of transforming the existing urban blocks are also impressive, estimated at €1.7 billion (A$2.7 billion) a year. This benefit mainly comes from increased life expectancy, a 20% reduction in premature mortality and a 13% reduction in overall burden of disease.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/superblocks-barcelonas-car-free-zones-could-extend-lives-and-boost-mental-health-123295">Superblocks: Barcelona's car-free zones could extend lives and boost mental health</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jq2yd4QgL5I?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Barcelona residents talk about their experiences of superblocks.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Could this model work for Australian cities?</h2>
<p>The superblock concept is reminiscent of Griffin’s early <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=0J1kAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT373&dq=early+history+verged+on+the+tragi-farcical&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwirpKCvqtzkAhWV7XMBHRohBDIQ6AEILDAA#v=onepage&q=early%20history%20verged%20on%20the%20tragi-farcical&f=false">Canberra model of self-contained residential development</a>. Traffic was to be routed around neighbourhoods and suburbs rather than through them. </p>
<p>From the perspective of transport sustainability, that <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=IwWODwAAQBAJ&pg=PT70&dq=explicitly+designed+on+the+basis+that+the+car+would+be+the+dominant+form+of+transport&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjh8bfXwtnkAhU98HMBHUbtBSwQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=explicitly%20designed%20on%20the%20basis%20that%20the%20car%20would%20be%20the%20dominant%20form%20of%20transport&f=false">model failed, as the city was designed around the car</a>. As the residential neighbourhoods were also low density, schools and neighbourhood retail hubs felt the effect of ageing families and declining populations. </p>
<p>However, a superblock approach might work with two critical differences. </p>
<p>First, if densities were tripled, this would allow for more population within each neighbourhood. Higher density would support more social and retail infrastructure on a smaller footprint. </p>
<p>Second, if cars were restricted within each superblock and more frequent public transport routed around the outskirts of each, then people could get to services and recreational spaces on foot. The result would be a new, healthier urban dynamic. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-creatives-are-remaking-canberras-city-centre-but-at-a-social-cost-97322">New creatives are remaking Canberra's city centre, but at a social cost</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Our cities are already ‘retrofitting’</h2>
<p>In a <a href="https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=431694382926564;res=IELBUS">case study of Docklands</a> in Melbourne, urban planner Kate Matthews argues along similar lines, but in an inner-urban landscape. She makes the point that the City of Melbourne has retrofitted social infrastructure and open space. An area that was <a href="https://www.themonthly.com.au/issue/2012/april/1336967175/robyn-annear/big-tumbleweed">sterile, wind-swept and cut-off</a> has now become a family-friendly neighbourhood. </p>
<p>The elements for success were that it was walkable, green, safe and had everything you need. Matthews argues that the Docklands experience could be transferred to other centres by applying the following principles:</p>
<ul>
<li>if you build it, they will come</li>
<li>prioritise infrastructure</li>
<li>actively manage traffic</li>
<li>invest in the public realm – streets, squares, parks, green spaces and other outdoor places that everyone can freely access and use.</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/seven-steps-melbourne-can-take-to-regain-its-liveable-city-crown-113726">Seven steps Melbourne can take to regain its 'liveable city' crown</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Some cities and towns – such as the <a href="https://tonsley.com.au/residential/">Tonsley redevelopment</a> in Adelaide, <a href="https://www.mra.wa.gov.au/projects-and-places/claisebrook-village">Claisebrook Village</a> in East Perth, and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/making-developments-green-doesnt-help-with-inequality-104941">Barangaroo</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/move-over-suburbia-green-square-offers-new-norm-for-urban-living-57633">Green Square</a> renewal projects in Sydney – are already well down this path. We need more examples to draw on and learn from. All levels of government should encourage this approach, as the evidence is now there to show that significant health and ultimately financial benefits accrue to the communities that live within them.</p>
<p>Could we also apply these principles to developments in outer growth suburbs? How might this process be managed? And who pays for the up-front investment in the public realm, more frequent public transport and social infrastructure, whether in existing urban areas or new growth suburbs? </p>
<p>These are real questions, but surely none are greater than those we face now. If we commit ourselves to resolving the challenges of designing high-quality, affordable, higher-density urban environments in Australia, the research shows the beneficiaries will not just be ourselves but our children and their children’s health in, importantly, a sustainable future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123354/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Stevenson holds an NHMRC Research Fellowship. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick Love does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Spanish city is remaking urban neighbourhoods by limiting through traffic in superblocks that give priority to pedestrians and street activities, not cars.Patrick Love, Hon Senior Fellow, Transport Health and Urban Design (THUD) Melbourne School of Design, The University of MelbourneMark Stevenson, Professor of Urban Transport and Public Health, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1232952019-09-13T14:04:49Z2019-09-13T14:04:49ZSuperblocks: Barcelona’s car-free zones could extend lives and boost mental health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292421/original/file-20190913-8661-g1qajv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C32%2C5447%2C3604&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Grid, glorious grid. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/nD2WzCZrlLE">Kaspars Upmanis/Unsplash.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-35305586">world’s biggest cities</a> have larger populations and higher economic outputs than some countries. But as they grow in size and complexity, cities are also facing thorny challenges that threaten the health and happiness of residents. Congestion, pollution and a lack of community spaces have become major drags on people’s aspirations and experiences of urban living. </p>
<p>In response, cities must manage their resources and priorities to create sustainable places for visitors and residents, and foster innovation and growth. Enter Barcelona – the capital of Catalonia, in Spain – where a bold stroke of urban planning first introduced “superblocks” in 2016. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292399/original/file-20190913-8661-1k23l3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292399/original/file-20190913-8661-1k23l3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292399/original/file-20190913-8661-1k23l3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292399/original/file-20190913-8661-1k23l3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292399/original/file-20190913-8661-1k23l3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292399/original/file-20190913-8661-1k23l3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292399/original/file-20190913-8661-1k23l3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://eurekalert.org/multimedia/pub/210395.php">ISGlobal.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span>
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<p>Superblocks are neighbourhoods of nine blocks, where traffic is restricted to major roads around the outside, opening up entire groups of streets to pedestrians and cyclists. The <a href="https://ajuntament.barcelona.cat/ecologiaurbana/en/what-we-do-and-why/quality-public-space/superblocks">aim is to</a> reduce pollution from vehicles, and give residents much-needed relief from noise pollution. They are designed to create more open space for citizens to meet, talk and do activities. </p>
<h2>Health and well-being boost</h2>
<p>There are currently only six superblocks in operation, including the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/may/17/superblocks-rescue-barcelona-spain-plan-give-streets-back-residents">first, most prominent one</a> in Eixample. Reports <a href="https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/4/9/18273894/barcelona-urban-planning-superblocks-poblenou">suggest that</a> – despite some early push back – the change has been broadly welcomed by residents, and the long-term benefits could be considerable. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412019315223?via%3Dihub#bb0035">recent study</a> carried out by the Barcelona Institute for Global Health estimates that if, as planned, 503 potential superblocks are realised across the city, journeys by private vehicle would fall by 230,000 a week, as people switch to public transport, walking or cycling. </p>
<p>The research suggests this would significantly improve air quality and noise levels on the car-free streets: ambient levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) would be reduced by a quarter, bringing levels in line with <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health">recommendations</a> from the World Health Organisation (WHO). </p>
<p>The plan is also expected to generate significant health benefits for residents. The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412019315223?via%3Dihub#bb0035">study</a> estimates that as many as 667 premature deaths from air pollution, noise and heat could be prevented each year. More green spaces will encourage people to get outdoors and lead a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3444752/">more active lifestyle</a>. </p>
<p>This, in turn, <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-56091-5_11">helps to reduce obesity and diabetes</a> and ease pressure on health services. The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412019315223?via%3Dihub#bb0035">researchers claim</a> that residents of Barcelona could expect to live an extra 200 days thanks to the cumulative health benefits, if the idea is rolled out across the city. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292403/original/file-20190913-8693-123306r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292403/original/file-20190913-8693-123306r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292403/original/file-20190913-8693-123306r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292403/original/file-20190913-8693-123306r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292403/original/file-20190913-8693-123306r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292403/original/file-20190913-8693-123306r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292403/original/file-20190913-8693-123306r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Space to play.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/WOP-W1Yg6cg">Mosa Moseneke/Unsplash.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span>
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<p>There are expected to be benefits to mental health, as well as physical health. Having access to such spaces can <a href="https://theconversation.com/green-spaces-help-combat-loneliness-but-they-demand-investment-105260">stave off loneliness and isolation</a> – especially among elderly residents – as communities form stronger bonds and become more resilient. </p>
<h2>Stumbling blocks</h2>
<p>It was <a href="http://www.bcnecologia.net/en/team/salvador-rueda">Salvador Rueda</a>, director of the Urban Ecology Agency of Barcelona, who first championed the introduction of superblocks – and <a href="https://www.vox.com/2016/8/4/12342806/barcelona-superblocks">he argues</a> that the idea could be used in any city. Even so, authorities looking to expand the concept in Barcelona or beyond will need to be mindful of some concerns.</p>
<p>Changes like these require capital investment. Even as the car-free streets are transformed with urban furniture and greenery, the remaining major roads will likely have to accommodate <a href="https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/4/10/18273895/traffic-barcelona-superblocks-gentrification">heavier traffic</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292419/original/file-20190913-8682-cd6iox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292419/original/file-20190913-8682-cd6iox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292419/original/file-20190913-8682-cd6iox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292419/original/file-20190913-8682-cd6iox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292419/original/file-20190913-8682-cd6iox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292419/original/file-20190913-8682-cd6iox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292419/original/file-20190913-8682-cd6iox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nothing comes for free.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/zvileve/35444410112/sizes/l">Zvileve/Flickr.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>Further investments in local infrastructure – such as improving surrounding roads to deal with more traffic, or installing smart traffic management system – could be required to prevent serious congestion. Then the question remains, how to finance such investments – a higher tax rate is unlikely to be popular. </p>
<p>What’s more, whenever a location becomes more desirable, it leads to an increase in property demand. Higher prices and rent could create pockets of unaffordable neighbourhoods. This may lead to use of properties for investment purposes and possibly, <a href="https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/4/10/18273895/traffic-barcelona-superblocks-gentrification">displacement of local residents</a>. </p>
<p>It’s also worth noting that Barcelona is an old and relatively well-planned European city. Different challenges exist in emerging global cities across Asia, Africa and Latin America – and in younger cities in the US and Australia. There is a great deal of variation in scale, population density, urban shape and form, development patterns and institutional frameworks across the cities. Several large <a href="https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/33/3/355/3926162">cities in the developing world</a> are heavily congested with uncontrolled, unregulated developments and weak regulatory frameworks. </p>
<p>Replicating what’s been done in Barcelona may prove difficult in such places, and will require much greater transformations. But it’s true that the basic principles of superblocks – that value pedestrians, cyclists and high quality public spaces over motor vehicles – can be applied in any city, with some adjustments. </p>
<h2>Leading the way</h2>
<p>Over the history of human civilisation, great cities have been at the forefront of innovation and social progress. But cities need a robust structure of governance, which is transparent and accountable, to ensure a fair and efficient use of resources. Imposing innovation from the top down, without consultations and buy-in, can go squarely against the idea of free market capitalism, which has been a predominant force for modern economies and can lead push-back from citizens and local businesses. </p>
<p>Citizens must also be willing to change their perspectives and behaviour, to make such initiatives work. This means that “solutions” to urban living like superblocks need to have buy-in from citizens, through continuous engagement with local government officials. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292417/original/file-20190913-8658-1a88qwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292417/original/file-20190913-8658-1a88qwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292417/original/file-20190913-8658-1a88qwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292417/original/file-20190913-8658-1a88qwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292417/original/file-20190913-8658-1a88qwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292417/original/file-20190913-8658-1a88qwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292417/original/file-20190913-8658-1a88qwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A man speaks at a public consultation on the Eixample superblock in Barcelona.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/barcelona_cat/16663574507/">Ajuntament Barcelona/Flickr.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Successful urban planning also needs strong leadership with a clear and consistent vision of the future, and a roadmap of how that vision can be delivered. The vision should be co-developed with the citizens and all other stakeholders such as local businesses, private and public organisations. This can ensure that everybody shares ownership and takes responsibility for the success of local initiatives. </p>
<p>There is little doubt that the principles and objectives of superblocks are sound. The idea has the potential to catch on around the world – though it will likely take a unique and specific form in every city.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123295/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anupam Nanda's research has been sponsored by UK and international public and private funding bodies and companies, including Innovate UK, Research Councils UK, the Real Estate Research Institute in the US, UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office, UK Department of Energy and Climate Change, the Investment Property Forum and the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. He is also on the Board of Trustees of the Reading Real Estate Foundation. </span></em></p>The ‘superblocks’ are expected to have massive benefits for health and well-being – but it takes good governance.Anupam Nanda, Professor of Urban Economics and Real Estate, University of ReadingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1231652019-09-11T20:05:42Z2019-09-11T20:05:42ZFancy an e-change? How people are escaping city congestion and living costs by working remotely<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291449/original/file-20190909-109923-5g118p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Digital communications technology means many high-skill workers don't need to be in the office to do their jobs.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/side-portrait-view-smart-professional-woman-158376815?src=rrkA_7GlI5Uy1_pJYxZrvQ-1-8">MJTH/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many Australians have longed to live outside the city. The treechange and seachange movements – migration from urban areas to rural and coastal towns – have been responsible for much of the <a href="http://www.regionalaustralia.org.au/home/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/2019_RAI_NationalPopulationPlanForRegionalAustralia_Final.pdf">population growth outside urban areas</a> in recent years.</p>
<p>Now a newer migration trend is under way: <a href="https://www.nbnco.com.au/content/dam/nbnco2/documents/Super%20connected%20lifestyle%20locations_nbn%20report_FINAL.PDF">e-change</a>. E-changers are people who move away from the large capital cities to nearby regional and coastal “lifestyle” towns, where they use broadband internet connections to perform work remotely.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-new-seachangers-now-its-younger-australians-moving-out-of-the-big-cities-103762">Meet the new seachangers: now it's younger Australians moving out of the big cities</a>
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<p>A limiting factor for moving to regional areas has always been the lack of high-skill job opportunities. But remote work allows people to have more flexibility in where they live – they can work from anywhere.</p>
<p>Information and communication technology is making this possible for more and more people whose work primarily requires digital connectivity rather than constant physical presence. Email, video conferencing, online project management software and even <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/parmyolson/2013/06/27/rise-of-the-telepresence-robots/#21553286ac03">telepresence robots</a> are all tools that people can use to work remotely outside an office.</p>
<h2>Getting away from the rat race</h2>
<p>Our large capital cities like Sydney and Melbourne are experiencing significant challenges. As they expand outward and increase in density, traffic congestion is intensifying. Despite significant investment in road construction and public transport, Infrastructure Australia this year <a href="https://www.infrastructureaustralia.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-08/Urban%20Transport%20Crowding%20and%20Congestion.pdf">reported</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Road congestion is expected to increase in all Australian cities between 2016 and 2031.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Average daily commutes in Australia’s cities are already at <a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-city-workers-average-commute-has-blown-out-to-66-minutes-a-day-how-does-yours-compare-120598">all-time highs</a>. The results of long commutes include <a href="https://theconversation.com/walking-and-cycling-to-work-makes-commuters-happier-and-more-productive-117819">lower job and life satisfaction</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-city-workers-average-commute-has-blown-out-to-66-minutes-a-day-how-does-yours-compare-120598">Australian city workers' average commute has blown out to 66 minutes a day. How does yours compare?</a>
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<p>Commuting in the city is also a public health hazard. This is because the time spent on transport reduces the time we have for other activities. And activities like exercising, socialising or spending time with our families are important for our well-being.</p>
<p>City <a href="http://theconversation.com/housing-affordability-has-improved-slightly-but-people-on-lower-incomes-will-continue-to-struggle-117898">housing prices are increasingly unaffordable</a>, particularly in well-serviced areas reasonably close to the CBD. Buying a home in suburban Sydney or Melbourne is now <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/901-Housing-affordability.pdf">out of reach</a>for many young people.</p>
<p>E-changers seek the best of both worlds: doing skilled work that has traditionally been available only in the city, while avoiding the congestion and high cost of city living.</p>
<h2>Who are e-changers?</h2>
<p>Obviously, not everyone can work away from their place of employment. Some jobs require people to be physically present all or most of the time.</p>
<p>But for many professional or creative workers in today’s digital economy, being productive doesn’t have to mean being in an office in the city every day.</p>
<p>One of Australia’s most successful new companies – software developer <a href="https://www.atlassian.com/company">Atlassian</a> – is in the midst of a <a href="https://www.afr.com/technology/atlassian-goes-national-in-remote-working-revolution-20190313-h1cbxp">remote working revolution</a>. The tech company <a href="https://stripe.com/au/about">Stripe</a> is also forgoing the traditional office by opening a new employment hub that is <a href="https://stripe.com/gb/blog/remote-hub">entirely remote</a>. These companies recognise that valuable employees shouldn’t need to live in Sydney or Melbourne if they can perform their role while living elsewhere.</p>
<p>However, remote workers need not be completely absent from a workplace. Instead of commuting every day, an employee might come into an office once or twice for face-to-face meetings. They can then work the rest of the week remotely at or near their home.</p>
<p>Flexible work arrangements like this mean a higher quality of life for employees. Cities will also benefit from <a href="https://theconversation.com/flexible-working-the-neglected-congestion-busting-solution-for-our-cities-122130">reduced commuting congestion</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/flexible-working-the-neglected-congestion-busting-solution-for-our-cities-122130">Flexible working, the neglected congestion-busting solution for our cities</a>
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<h2>It doesn’t have to mean working from home</h2>
<p>Remote workers don’t always work from home. Many people find it difficult to mix work and home life in the same physical space. That’s why remote workers often frequent cafes, libraries, satellite offices, or co-working spaces.</p>
<p>Co-working spaces are a multibillion-dollar industry globally and are <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/business/companies/it-will-become-the-norm-co-working-office-space-tipped-to-rise-20190529-p51shw.html">becoming popular</a> in Australia. While mostly still located in cities, co-working spaces are increasingly appearing in <a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-coworking-spaces-cater-to-a-more-diverse-crowd-than-just-young-tech-entrepreneurs-79497">smaller coastal and regional towns</a>. This trend indicates a demand from e-changers to work outside the home.</p>
<p>In the US, towns and small cities outside the large metropolitan areas are <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2018/09/21/7-us-cities-that-will-pay-you-thousands-of-dollars-to-live-there.html">encouraging people to move to their area</a>. They are offering remote workers subsidised housing, free access to co-working spaces and even paying them thousands of dollars in cash as an incentive.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291450/original/file-20190909-109952-1gj4d95.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291450/original/file-20190909-109952-1gj4d95.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291450/original/file-20190909-109952-1gj4d95.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291450/original/file-20190909-109952-1gj4d95.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291450/original/file-20190909-109952-1gj4d95.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291450/original/file-20190909-109952-1gj4d95.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291450/original/file-20190909-109952-1gj4d95.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291450/original/file-20190909-109952-1gj4d95.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Co-working spaces are booming overseas – this one is in Turin, Italy – with some towns and small cities offering free access to attract remote workers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/turin-italy-june-20-2017-physical-666791590?src=38XMZlwzmNhzfeJlB_PIsg-1-1">MikeDotta/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/co-working-spaces-are-part-of-the-new-economy-so-town-planners-better-get-with-the-times-95923">Co-working spaces are part of the new economy, so town planners better get with the times</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Is e-change the future for Australia?</h2>
<p>Reducing the need for people to commute to their place of work every day could be an effective way to ease pressure on our congested city roads and public transport systems.</p>
<p>Remote work allows people to live outside our largest cities, where they’re more likely to be able to buy a home.</p>
<p>As more people adopt an e-change lifestyle, it might help to reinvigorate the economies and civic life of regional and coastal towns.</p>
<p>Making remote work more widely available might also increase workforce participation among groups that aren’t able to commute to an office every day. They include people with caring responsibilities, people with disabilities and those already living in regional areas.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>If you think your organisation would benefit from understanding e-change and remote work, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/andrew-glover-3254">authors</a> would like to hear from you.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123165/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>E-changers are the latest group to move from the big cities to escape high living costs and congestion. But because they remain very productive remote workers some employers are embracing the trend.Andrew Glover, Postdoctoral research fellow, RMIT UniversityTania Lewis, Co-Director of the Digital Ethnography Research Centre and Professor of Media and Communication, RMIT University, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1221302019-09-01T19:48:58Z2019-09-01T19:48:58ZFlexible working, the neglected congestion-busting solution for our cities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290018/original/file-20190829-184196-16zkxh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5130%2C2748&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If more of us were free to work from home, fewer of us would be stuck in traffic.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daria Chichkareva, fkigali/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/traffic-congestion">Traffic congestion</a> is one of the most significant challenges facing our cities. Melbourne’s population is growing by around <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/PrimaryMainFeatures/3218.0?OpenDocument">325 people a day</a> and is <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/booming-melbourne-to-become-nation-s-largest-city-by-2026-20190327-p5186v.html">projected to overtake Sydney’s</a> within a decade. <a href="https://www.aaa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/AAA-Congestion-Report-2018-FINAL.pdf">Identified as the most congested city in the country</a>, this was a factor in Melbourne <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/nation/nation/melbourne-loses-title-of-most-liveable-city/news-story/f5145850143b5801db36c75ed7d73133">losing its seven-year grip on the “world’s most liveable city” title</a> last year.</p>
<p>One obvious solution to traffic congestion, caused mostly by workers commuting to jobs in the city centre during peak hours, might appear to be building more, or bigger, roads. But a less obvious answer, and potentially a more cost-effective one, might be to increase flexible working arrangements. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162518301549">Our research</a> has looked into ways to ease congestion by reducing the need for travel in congested areas in the first place. It shows city workers definitely have an appetite for flexible work hours and practices. </p>
<p>However, many (36%) still can’t or don’t work remotely. Those who do work remotely do so for a small fraction of the week – 1.1 days on average – even though a high percentage of their work tasks can be done anywhere.</p>
<h2>More roads don’t solve the problem</h2>
<p>Traditionally, congestion has simply been accepted as the starting point, with infrastructure being built to accommodate it. However, as a report on <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w15376">US research</a> findings about so-called induced demand <a href="https://www.wired.com/2014/06/wuwt-traffic-induced-demand/">explains</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>If you expand people’s ability to travel, they will do it more. […] Making driving easier means that people take more trips in the car than they otherwise would.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This increase in travel uses up any extra capacity improved infrastructure might bring. As a result, <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w15376">traffic levels and congestion remain constant</a>. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.infrastructureaustralia.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-08/Urban%20Transport%20Crowding%20and%20Congestion.pdf">2019 report</a> from Infrastructure Australia observes that the huge number of road and rail projects in Sydney and Melbourne, both current and planned, will not prevent crippling congestion by 2031.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-more-roads-really-mean-less-congestion-for-commuters-39508">Do more roads really mean less congestion for commuters?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What did the flexible working study find?</h2>
<p>This issue was the motivation for our study into alternative ways to ease congestion. It identified flexible working as one possible solution. </p>
<p>The term <a href="https://www.fairwork.gov.au/employee-entitlements/flexibility-in-the-workplace/flexible-working-arrangements">flexible working</a> refers to arrangements that enable employees to adjust the number of hours they work, the pattern of those hours, or where they work. Flexible working has risen significantly in recent years, with many potential <a href="https://fortune.com/2019/02/20/four-day-work-week-research-benefits/">benefits</a> for both <a href="https://www.recruitment-international.com.au/blog/2018/06/73-percent-of-australian-employees-value-flexible-working-hays-reveals">employees</a> and <a href="https://employsure.com.au/blog/rewarding-retaining-employees-flexible-work-arrangements/">employers</a>. Yet few studies have examined its potential to reduce traffic congestion. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/working-four-day-weeks-for-five-days-pay-research-shows-it-pays-off-100375">Working four-day weeks for five days' pay? Research shows it pays off</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162518301549">study</a>, we surveyed 263 city workers from ten of Melbourne’s biggest employers. We asked them about their commuting habits, existing flexible working arrangements, attitudes toward flexible working and the nature of their work tasks. </p>
<p>We found 64% of workers were already taking advantage of some sort of flexible working arrangements that allowed them to work from a remote location, usually at home, an average of 1.1 days a week. And 83% of them either “liked” or “loved” the ability to do this. </p>
<p>Only 2% said none of their work could be performed from an alternative location. A majority of participants, 58%, indicated they could do at least half their work duties out of the office. Some 30% of the workers indicated 80% or more of their work duties could be performed remotely.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288868/original/file-20190821-170951-a5jci6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288868/original/file-20190821-170951-a5jci6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288868/original/file-20190821-170951-a5jci6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288868/original/file-20190821-170951-a5jci6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288868/original/file-20190821-170951-a5jci6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288868/original/file-20190821-170951-a5jci6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288868/original/file-20190821-170951-a5jci6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288868/original/file-20190821-170951-a5jci6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Breakdown of participants in flexible working survey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162518301549">Author's research</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Technology enables these flexible working opportunities. Laptops, smartphones, high-speed internet and cloud access were highlighted as the must-haves for remote working. </p>
<p>Many of us no longer need to travel to a fixed location to work because the tools of our labour are located there. The tools of our labour are now in our back pockets or work satchels. </p>
<h2>Finland shows what’s possible</h2>
<p>Urban congestion is a growing problem worldwide. Today, <a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html">55% of people live in urban areas, a figure expected to reach 68% by 2050</a>. The use of motor vehicles is also growing rapidly. </p>
<p>But access to flexible working is growing around the world too. </p>
<p>Finland, a <a href="https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20190807-why-finland-leads-the-world-in-flexible-work">pioneer of flexible working practices</a>, recently adopted a new <a href="https://nordiclaw.fi/new-working-hours-act-of-finland-enters-into-force-1-january-2020/">Working Hours Act</a>. It will give a majority of full-time employees the right to decide when and where they work for at least half of their working hours. </p>
<p>A similar flexible working bill was introduced to the UK Parliament in July by Conservative MP Helen Whately. She <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-49003413">said</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The 40-hour, five-day working week made sense in an era of single-earner households and stay-at-home mums, but it no longer reflects the reality of how many modern families want to live their lives.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162518301549">evidence from Melbourne suggests</a> the appetite for, and availability of, flexible working will continue to increase as more people do it and more millennials take up leadership roles. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290005/original/file-20190829-184234-ircnwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290005/original/file-20190829-184234-ircnwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290005/original/file-20190829-184234-ircnwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=614&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290005/original/file-20190829-184234-ircnwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=614&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290005/original/file-20190829-184234-ircnwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=614&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290005/original/file-20190829-184234-ircnwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=772&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290005/original/file-20190829-184234-ircnwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=772&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290005/original/file-20190829-184234-ircnwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=772&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A small reduction in peak-hour commuter numbers could make the difference between being able to squeeze onto a train or not.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/14027144@N00/94288580">Runs With Scissors/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If the 64% of workers who now work remotely 1.1 days a week increased this to five days a fortnight, this could cut the number of daily commuters to Melbourne from <a href="https://www.bitre.gov.au/publications/2011/files/report_125.pdf">572,000</a> to 440,500 a day. If the remaining 36% of workers were also able to work remotely 50% of the time, daily commuter numbers would fall further to around 337,500, a total reduction of 41%. </p>
<p>Even much smaller reductions in commuter numbers could have significant impacts on congestion. An <a href="https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/committees/DBAssets/InquirySubmission/Summary/52831/Sub13%20NRMA.pdf">NRMA submission</a> that advocated flexible working hours and practices to a 2013 NSW parliamentary inquiry noted: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>As a rule of thumb, when traffic on congested roads reduces by 5%, traffic speeds increase 50% (even if this only means going from 20 to 30km/h) […] A small reduction in the amount of passengers during peak hours can sometimes make the difference between being able to squeeze onto a bus or train, or not.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In this era of growing urban congestion, an increase in flexible working practices appears to have serious potential for easing the strain on our roads and transport networks. Isn’t it about time we asked ourselves if we could all be a bit more flexible?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122130/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John L Hopkins does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Two-thirds of surveyed workers work from home one day a week on average, but could do at least half their work out of the workplace. If they commuted less often, congestion could be greatly reduced.John L Hopkins, Theme Leader (Future Urban Mobility), Smart Cities Research Institute, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1176762019-06-03T13:17:23Z2019-06-03T13:17:23ZSome softer solutions to Nairobi’s traffic pollution problem<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276993/original/file-20190529-192428-1rfb5n0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Nairobi is one of the most congested cities in the world</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Billy Miaron/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Rapid urbanisation in Nairobi, Kenya’s capital city, has meant there’s been <a href="https://www.ceicdata.com/en/kenya/road-transport-number-of-motor-vehicles-registered/road-transport-no-of-motor-vehicles-registered">huge growth</a> in the number of vehicles on roads. Today, Nairobi is one of the world’s <a href="https://qz.com/africa/1321403/kenya-nairobi-to-go-car-free-to-beat-traffic-congestion-matatus">most</a> congested cities. </p>
<p>Between 2013 and 2017, <a href="https://www.ceicdata.com/en/kenya/road-transport-number-of-motor-vehicles-registered/road-transport-no-of-motor-vehicles-registered">the number</a> of registered vehicles rose from about 2 million to just under 3 million – an increase of 49% over just four years. Part of this rise can be attributed to “boda bodas” – motorbike taxis – whose numbers have soared. Last year, the number of newly registered bikes <a href="https://www.the-star.co.ke/counties/2018-01-23-newly-registered-boda-bodas-nearly-double-in-10-months/">doubled</a> in just 10 months. </p>
<p>With poor urban infrastructure, a neglect of <a href="http://www.ppmc-transport.org/share-the-road-prioritizing-walking-and-cycling-in-nairobi/">non-motorised transport</a> (like walking and cycling) and a lack of services – like mass transport systems – the city has become congested and polluted. Nairobi loses <a href="https://www.globalgovernmentforum.com/nairobi-civil-servants-to-work-in-shifts-cutting-congestion/">about</a> US$500,000 in productivity every day because of traffic jams.</p>
<p>This <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26381985">undermines</a> urban productivity and health as people spend long periods of time in traffic or walking through congested areas, breathing polluted air. </p>
<p>The amount of pollution particles in the air <a href="https://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/14/9977/2014/">often exceeds</a> the daily guidelines set out by the World Health Organisation. In 2016 for instance, Kenya’s air contained <a href="https://www.atcmask.com/blogs/blog/air-pollution-in-kenya">double</a> the recommended volume of particulate matter for outdoor air pollution. Around 40% of CO₂ emissions <a href="http://data.worldbank.org/country/kenya">were</a> attributed to the transport sector. </p>
<p>Reflecting on previous research and experience, we examined <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325530681_Traffic_pollution_A_search_for_solutions_for_a_city_like_Nairobi">potential</a> solutions to Nairobi’s traffic pollution problem. </p>
<p>Attempts by the government to address the pollution problem are still at an early stage. We suggest a combination of infrastructure, policy, regulatory and softer measures – focused more on the city’s residents’ lived experience and environment – that can provide an effective way to address traffic congestion, and therefore, pollution. </p>
<h2>Nairobi</h2>
<p>The Kenyan government has recognised the congestion problem, and is taking some steps to address it. </p>
<p>It formed the Transport and Urban Decongestion Committee in 2014 and, one year later, it announced that 20% <a href="http://www.fiafoundation.org/blog/2015/april/nairobi-to-invest-in-walking-and-cycling">of all</a> funds allocated to the roads budget would be committed to building non-motorised transport and public transport infrastructure. The idea was to create safe networks of footpaths, cycling lanes and tracks and green areas. </p>
<p>In a bid to further reduce car pollution, a ban on the importation of cars which are more than eight years old is set to begin in <a href="https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/economy/Ban-on-8yearold-second-hand-cars/3946234-4934110-x3qbiez/index.html">July</a>. Older cars tend to be high polluters and are often imported from places – like Japan and Europe – where they no longer meet current emissions guidelines.</p>
<p>All of these actions are happening against the back drop of the <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/glbj/jsm/2016/00000003/00000001/art00003">Metro 2030 strategy</a> – a national strategy which seeks to develop an efficient transport system. A key component of this is the <a href="http://www.starckplus.com/documents/briefing/Bus%20Rapid%20Transit%20(BRT)%20Plus%20System%20for%20the%20Nairobi%20Metropolitan%20Region.pdf">Bus Rapid Transit</a> which could significantly reduce emissions of carbon dioxide in Nairobi.</p>
<p>But these infrastructure projects have been hard to get off the ground. As the Kenya Roads Board stated:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>the transport sector in Kenya combines international quality operators and services, a somewhat run down infrastructure and some inefficient and ineffective institutions.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Solutions</h2>
<p>But there are other easier, shorter term solutions which could also make a contribution to decreasing congestion and traffic pollution in Nairobi.</p>
<p>Temporary and/or permanent vehicle access restrictions could be adopted, in various ways. For example, large goods vehicles and vans could be re-routed away from the city centre during peak hours or the most polluting vehicles be charged for going into certain central zones. </p>
<p>Traffic “calming” measures could be introduced – like 20mph zones or curves in roads – accompanied by behavioural and public education initiatives. This will <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094119013000168">help to</a> lower emissions associated with erratic revving, speeding and associated brake pad and tyre wear. </p>
<p>Junction improvements – like the introduction of “green waves” which allow slower moving vehicles to pass through traffic signals unhindered at lower speeds – can lessen the need for stopping and starting and reduce emissions that are released with heavy braking. Pedestrian and cycle priority at junctions are also essential to balance the demands of motorised and non-motorised traffic. </p>
<p>For pedestrians and cyclists, covered walkways, segregated on- and off-road lanes and continuous pavements could enhance their experience and encourage new adopters of these modes.</p>
<p>There is a need for infrastructure investment to be complemented by policy, legislation and active regulation. Planning would benefit from being less focused on facilitating vehicle access and travel through the city. Instead, it should be people-focused and aimed at improving the social and environmental aspects of sustainability. Political will, private sector commitment and public engagement are all necessary to achieve this goal for Nairobi.</p>
<p><em>Professor Miles Tight and Professor Francis Pope, University of Birmingham, contributed to the research on which this article is based.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117676/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>University of Birmingham received funding from the EPSRC via grant Global Challenges Research Fund IS2016 and IS2017. DFID is also acknowledged for contribution via the East Africa Research Fund (EARF) grant 'A systems approach to Air Pollution (ASAP)'. Fiona Raje received funding through these schemes.</span></em></p>Sustainable and efficient transportation is essential for cities, communities and individuals to thrive.Fiona Rajé, Research Fellow, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1161792019-05-16T20:06:27Z2019-05-16T20:06:27ZOf all the problems our cities need to fix, lack of car parking isn’t one of them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274516/original/file-20190515-60532-1lo0hf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Car parking is such a pervasive feature of our cities that we have become blind to how much space it takes up.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/many-cars-parked-lined-under-trees-1101033989?src=rcX7PVzcE3D_t0-f-oWxLA-1-1">Shuang Li/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Parking is a fiery issue in Australian cities. That’s because cars dominate our cities, supported by decades of <a href="https://theconversation.com/crowded-trains-planning-focus-on-cars-misses-new-apartment-impacts-116514">unbalanced planning decisions</a> favouring space for cars over other land uses or forms of transport. Parking is even an issue in the federal election, with both the <a href="https://theconversation.com/500m-for-station-car-parks-other-transport-solutions-could-do-much-more-for-the-money-114908">Coalition</a> and <a href="https://www.alp.org.au/policies/national-park-ride-fund/">Labor</a> promising to fund more spaces for commuters.</p>
<p>The issue of parking flared up again recently in Melbourne’s inner north. Moreland City Council <a href="https://www.moreland.vic.gov.au/transport-strategy">wants to scrap minimum parking requirements for new apartments</a> around its increasingly dense activity centres. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/crowded-trains-planning-focus-on-cars-misses-new-apartment-impacts-116514">Crowded trains? Planning focus on cars misses new apartment impacts</a>
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<p>Victoria’s planning minister, Richard Wynne, gets the final say on this plan – and it might be a “no”. <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/planning-minister-criticises-council-plan-to-axe-car-parks-20190409-p51chm.html">He said</a> last month the practicalities need more thought and that Moreland must “strike a balance”.</p>
<p>Wynne is right, but not in the way he implies.</p>
<h2>Australian cities are generous to cars</h2>
<p>Minimum parking requirements were introduced across Australia alongside the rise of cars <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-elephant-in-the-planning-scheme-how-cities-still-work-around-the-dominance-of-parking-space-87098">in the 1950s</a>. These set rigid ratios for parking spaces in different types of new developments. </p>
<p>For example, the <a href="https://www.dplh.wa.gov.au/getmedia/5926602c-ab14-46f0-be6f-56dc31c45902/SPP-7-3-R-Codes-Apartments">Western Australia State Planning Policy</a> requires at least at least 0.75–1 parking bay for every one-bedroom dwelling in an apartment building, plus at least one visitor parking space per four dwellings. A <a href="https://walga.asn.au/getattachment/Documents/Cardno_Review-of-LG-Parking-Requirements_Main-Report_vFINAL.PDF.aspx?lang=en-AU">review of parking policy in Western Australia</a> found these requirements are largely based on small, outdated surveys in the United States and do not reflect actual demand for parking in Australia. </p>
<p>A result of these policies is a <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-elephant-in-the-planning-scheme-how-cities-still-work-around-the-dominance-of-parking-space-87098">glut of parking in Australian cities</a>. The local council area of the City of Melbourne has over 215,000 parking spaces. However, 40-60% of households in the area do not own a car and <a href="https://s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/hdp.au.prod.app.com-participate.files/2615/2963/7455/Transport_Strategy_Refresh_-_Background_paper_-_Car_Parking.pdf">around a third of apartment parking spaces are not used</a>.</p>
<p>Removing minimum requirements is an effort by local governments to allow the <a href="https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/building-and-development/urban-planning/melbourne-planning-scheme/planning-scheme-amendments/Pages/amendment-c133-maximum-car-parking-rates.aspx">varying needs of local communities to determine parking outcomes</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-elephant-in-the-planning-scheme-how-cities-still-work-around-the-dominance-of-parking-space-87098">The elephant in the planning scheme: how cities still work around the dominance of parking space</a>
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<h2>But what about tradies, emergency workers, the disabled?</h2>
<p>Often proposed changes to parking are criticised for being unfair to people who may rely on cars. It is great that these questions of equity are raised (including by the planning minister), but some of the common concerns are misplaced. </p>
<p>Firstly, developers are sensitive to market demands and will continue to provide apartments with parking for those who need it. When <a href="https://www.accessmagazine.org/fall-2016/from-parking-minimums-to-parking-maximums-in-london/">London removed minimum parking requirements in 2004</a>, new developments still provided car parks – just at half the previous required rate. </p>
<p>Closer to home, the inner-city councils of <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/parking-requirements-to-be-cut-back-under-new-design-standards-proposed-for-apartments-20140923-10kw9f.html">Sydney</a> and Melbourne have already removed some minimum parking requirements – and many new apartments still provide parking spaces.</p>
<p>Secondly, while apartment dwellers with insufficient off-street parking are often blamed for clogging up on-street parking in residential areas, they are rarely to blame. A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837718309104">recent study in Melbourne</a> found residents of detached houses use 77-84% of on-street parking. Many of them have garages, but choose to use them for storage or living space. </p>
<p>Apartment dwellers were less likely to use on-street parking and more likely to have unused spaces. And more parking in apartment blocks isn’t helping people access our cities, even by car. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/empty-car-parks-everywhere-but-nowhere-to-park-how-cities-can-do-better-99031">Empty car parks everywhere, but nowhere to park. How cities can do better</a>
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<p>Finally, providing more housing options without rigidly attached parking spaces will encourage people who don’t actually need to drive to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352146517306737">choose to drive less or switch to other forms of transport</a>. </p>
<p>Removing minimum parking requirements will not mean that people who need to drive for work, medical or other reasons can’t find homes with parking spaces. Indeed, if we make it easier for those who don’t need to drive to get around in other ways, <a href="https://theconversation.com/crowded-trains-planning-focus-on-cars-misses-new-apartment-impacts-116514">congestion could be eased for those workers who do need a car</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274523/original/file-20190515-60557-1xbt1cb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274523/original/file-20190515-60557-1xbt1cb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274523/original/file-20190515-60557-1xbt1cb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274523/original/file-20190515-60557-1xbt1cb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274523/original/file-20190515-60557-1xbt1cb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274523/original/file-20190515-60557-1xbt1cb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274523/original/file-20190515-60557-1xbt1cb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274523/original/file-20190515-60557-1xbt1cb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Election promises to increase parking at train stations show the car is still seen as the default option for getting to the station.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/melbourne-australia-september-30-2015-commuter-326357468?src=DycdxknjsuSODurggasamQ-1-0">Nils Versemann/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Pro-car planning policies are unfair to those who can’t drive</h2>
<p>Policies that encourage dependence on cars marginalise people who can’t or don’t drive. These groups are often disadvantaged in other ways. For example, people with disabilities tend to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1044207317702070">rely on public transport, not cars, to participate in society</a>. </p>
<p>In Australia, <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4102.0Main+Features40July+2013#missing">households in the most disadvantaged areas</a> are the most likely not to have a car. Older Australians are also less likely to drive. <a href="https://chartingtransport.com/2015/03/09/trends-in-drivers-license-ownership-in-australia/">Rates of driver licence ownership decrease</a> from around the age of 60.</p>
<p>Providing quality public transport and walkable streets – not an oversupply of car parking – is critical to ensure <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0013916512440705">children</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/young-people-want-walkable-neighbourhoods-but-safety-is-a-worry-88081">young</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/eight-simple-changes-to-our-neighbourhoods-can-help-us-age-well-83962">older people</a> and those with <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/public-leaders-network/2016/sep/27/disabled-people-second-class-citizens-public-transport">disabilities</a> can get around independently. </p>
<p>Minimum parking requirements prioritise cars as the default transport option. The results include <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/in-theory/wp/2016/03/03/how-parking-requirements-hurt-the-poor/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.e57f0893f065">increased congestion, urban sprawl and air pollution</a>. </p>
<p>Parking requirements also make apartments less affordable. Land construction costs per parking space average between <a href="https://s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/hdp.au.prod.app.com-participate.files/2615/2963/7455/Transport_Strategy_Refresh_-_Background_paper_-_Car_Parking.pdf">A$50,000 and $80,000, as well as using valuable space at an average of 21 square metres</a>. A parking space is bigger than a bedroom – and <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/business/melbournes-apartment-sizes-face-more-scrutiny-20150414-1mkuj4.html">nearly half the size of a typical new Melbourne apartment!</a>. </p>
<h2>Design cities around people, not cars</h2>
<p>Australian planning policy has favoured cars over other forms of transport for too long. This needs to change if we want our cities to be healthy, liveable and easy to get around for everyone. </p>
<p>Moreland’s plan to scrap minimum parking requirements may sound extreme, but it isn’t going to take existing parking spaces away, or mean all new developments will have zero parking. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/move-away-from-a-car-dominated-city-looks-radical-but-its-a-sensible-plan-for-a-liveable-future-116518">Move away from a car-dominated city looks radical but it's a sensible plan for a liveable future</a>
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<p>The practicalities of on-street parking policy are important, but mandating the supply of more off-street parking <a href="https://theconversation.com/empty-car-parks-everywhere-but-nowhere-to-park-how-cities-can-do-better-99031">isn’t even the best way to meet parking demand</a>. </p>
<p>If we continue to plan our urban areas as if everyone needs a car (or multiple cars) to get around, we will rapidly run out of space. And the space we have left will be unpleasant to spend time in. This means more time spent in traffic for drivers and ugly, hazardous and polluted streets for locals.</p>
<p>Sidestepping this difficult issue in the name of “balance” isn’t fair or practical. Improving public transport in these corridors is in the state’s power and would be a much more constructive response.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116179/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Taylor has consulted on car parking policy for the City of Melbourne and City of Darebin. She has received research funding from the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute (AHURI), the Australian Research Council (ARC), the Department of and the Henry Halloran Trust; the Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning; and the Victorian Planning Authority. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julianna Rozek receives funding from NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Healthy Liveable Communities; The Australian Prevention Partnership Centre; and the Clean Air and Urban Landscape Hub of the National Environmental Science Program.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Clements receives an Australian Postgraduate Award from the Australian Government. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thami Croeser receives funding from RMIT, The Australian Research Council and The European Union. </span></em></p>Australian cities have a glut of parking, even as politicians move to protect parking spaces or promise even more. There are better ways to keep congestion manageable and our cities liveable.Elizabeth Taylor, Senior Lecturer in Urban Planning & Design, Monash UniversityJulianna Rozek, Research Officer, Healthy Liveable Cities Group, Centre for Urban Research, RMIT UniversityRebecca Clements, PhD Candidate, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, The University of MelbourneThami Croeser, Research Officer, Centre for Urban Research, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1122872019-03-13T10:40:53Z2019-03-13T10:40:53ZEscalator etiquette: Should I stand or walk for an efficient ride?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262761/original/file-20190307-82695-1kxrp7h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=21%2C1120%2C2365%2C1485&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The science of getting quickly and safely to the bottom.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/HrBNsh-wzN8">Ryan Tang/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Love them or hate them, traffic laws exist to keep people safe and to help vehicles flow smoothly. And while they aren’t legally enforceable, pedestrian traffic also tends to follow its own set of unwritten rules.</p>
<p>Most pedestrians use walking etiquette as a way to minimize discomfort – “Oops! Sorry to bump you!” – and to improve efficiency – “I want to get there faster!”</p>
<p>Without even thinking about it, you probably abide by the common pedestrian traffic rule that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1068/b2697">faster walkers should move to the inside</a> of a path while slower walkers gravitate to the outside. In the United States, this aligns with street traffic rules, where vehicles pass on the left, while slower vehicles stay in the right lane of the road.</p>
<p>This approach to passing leads to the formation of pedestrian lanes of traffic. While they’re not painted on sidewalks like they are on roadways, these functional lanes can help pedestrians move more comfortably and quickly. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=WKpzzVUAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Human systems engineers like me</a> know that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2010.07.030">pedestrian lanes emerge naturally</a> in crowded environments.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262759/original/file-20190307-82665-182a5tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262759/original/file-20190307-82665-182a5tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262759/original/file-20190307-82665-182a5tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=897&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262759/original/file-20190307-82665-182a5tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=897&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262759/original/file-20190307-82665-182a5tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=897&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262759/original/file-20190307-82665-182a5tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1127&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262759/original/file-20190307-82665-182a5tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1127&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262759/original/file-20190307-82665-182a5tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1127&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Is this the best advice?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/barneymoss/22780643773">Barney Moss</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Within the built environment, designers have used different techniques to encourage particular pedestrian traffic patterns. One example is signs that encourage pedestrians to “stand to the right” on escalators. Riders will use the right half of the step if they are standing and the left half if they’re walking (or running!) to reach the end of the escalator.</p>
<p>But do two lanes of pedestrian traffic on an escalator actually help you reach your destination more quickly? Should there be a walking lane and a standing lane, or should both lanes be used for standing only? One study reported that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02447-9_32">74.9 percent of pedestrians choose to stand</a> on the escalator instead of walking. Should an entire lane of the escalator be left open for a small, impatient proportion of the crowd?</p>
<p>When designers plan spaces such as roads, buildings and corridors, they consider the space needed for each person in the environment. The space needed changes depending on how the space will be used. For a pedestrian, the “buffer zone” describes how much <a href="https://trid.trb.org/view/114653">space a person needs to feel comfortable</a>, and varies by activity. Someone standing needs, on average, a little over three square feet (0.3m²) of space, whereas a <a href="https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/safety/pedbike/98107/section2.cfm">walking pedestrian needs more than eight square feet</a> (0.75m²). That means a constrained space such as an escalator can comfortably hold more than twice the number of standing pedestrians as walking pedestrians.</p>
<p>In London, planners reaped <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/jan/16/the-tube-at-a-standstill-why-tfl-stopped-people-walking-up-the-escalators">a 27 percent increase in the hourly capacity</a> by switching to a “standing only” policy on a typically congested escalator at a subway station. No walking was allowed on the crammed escalator, which allowed more people to move through the station in the same amount of time as before. A highly efficient escalator is one that has the most output – that is, carries the most people to the destination.</p>
<p>But the change was contentious. Social convention in transport has often favored the individual traveler. For example, allowing people to walk up the left does allow some individuals to move faster, even though it reduces the capacity of the escalator and slows down the overall travel time for others. While using one of the escalator lanes for walking can help the walking pedestrian exit more quickly, walkers’ varied speeds relative to the rest of the traffic hinders overall efficiency. To improve the overall system, the system-level efficiency is what should be considered.</p>
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<span class="caption">City walkers become adept at going with the flow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/kevdia/16854049593">Kevin Case/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>Engineers consider a lot of pedestrians in one area a high-density crowd. In these situations, pedestrians tend to walk much slower than when in a low-density or open space. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2010.07.030">This slower pace is caused</a> by both a lack of space, as well as the need for each pedestrian to make more decisions – should I speed up? Slow down? Pass this person? Just wait? The overwhelming number of small decisions can lead to pedestrians behaving like those around them. This literally go-with-the-flow mentality makes walking less mentally fatiguing.</p>
<p>So when people approach an escalator, they’ll often just do what the person immediately ahead of them is doing. If the person in front of them walks, they walk. If the person in front of them stands, they stand. All it takes is someone to start the trend.</p>
<p>Stand on both sides of the escalator. The others will follow. Counterintuitive as it may seem, this one change will help everyone get to the destination faster, especially when things are crowded.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lesley Strawderman receives funding from a variety of organizations, including the National Science Foundation, the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, and the US Department of Transportation. </span></em></p>In many cities, convention holds that there’s a lane for walking and a lane for standing on the escalator. But human systems engineers suggest this isn’t the most efficient option for the system.Lesley Strawderman, Professor of Industrial & Systems Engineering, Mississippi State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1094802019-01-08T14:18:55Z2019-01-08T14:18:55ZNo-deal Brexit scenario would create serious traffic congestion and supply chain chaos<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252846/original/file-20190108-32127-294e34.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=344%2C338%2C4256%2C2724&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Parking lot. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/maidstone-kent-uk-july-2015-operation-1013055424?src=fIyqHIrvSOcwLDfULTBBAw-1-0">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With less than three months until the UK’s planned departure date from the EU, 89 lorries <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-kent-46775722">took part in a test run</a> of Operation Brock – the Department for Transport’s contingency plan to manage the disruption that may be caused at the port of Dover and beyond by a no-deal Brexit. </p>
<p>It’s difficult to see what lessons could possibly have been learned from this test, given it involved a very small number of vehicles, all of which were carefully coordinated and directed to turn around before reaching the port terminal. If anything, the test underscores how ill-prepared the UK is for the logistical consequences of a hard or no-deal Brexit.</p>
<p>As an island nation, the UK is critically dependent on international trade. Together, imports and exports represent about <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/401199/openness-to-trade-exports-plus-imports-as-a-share-of-gdp-ranked-against-major-competitors.pdf">60% of the nation’s gross domestic product</a> (GDP). Over <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/nationalaccounts/balanceofpayments/bulletins/uktrade/october2018">40% of exports</a> from the UK currently go to the 27 other member states of the European Union (the EU27), while over 50% of imports come from the EU. The volume and value of these imports and exports <a href="http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7851/CBP-7851.pdf">continues to grow</a>, as there is more trade between the EU and UK now than at any time in history. In short, the EU is the UK’s most important trading partner. </p>
<h2>Here’s the rub</h2>
<p>As an EU member state, the UK is fully integrated into the single market and customs union. This allows frictionless movement of goods across borders, which has played a key role in the growth of trade between EU member states, including the UK. This, in turn, has helped to create highly integrated pan-EU supply chains in many sectors, as both parts and finished products seamlessly cross international borders within the EU. </p>
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<span class="caption">A smooth operation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/entrance-port-dover-ferry-terminal-large-446650732?src=se6peyXUsiXKx-_AIv_CLg-1-0">S Kozakiewicz/Shutterstock.</a></span>
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<p>In such supply chains - for example, in the automotive sector - parts are often <a href="https://www.economist.com/britain/2018/03/01/what-is-the-eus-customs-union-and-why-is-it-central-to-brexit">shipped back and forth</a> between the UK and the EU27 many times, with few disruptions. This has made manufacturing and distribution more efficient, but it has also led to greater interdependence between operations based in different EU countries.</p>
<p>Brexit threatens to disrupt these supply chains, which depend on tariff-free access and the absence of border checks. This concern was <a href="http://www.cbi.org.uk/news/leaving-eu-would-cause-a-serious-shock-to-uk-economy-new-pwc-analysis/leaving-the-eu-implications-for-the-uk-economy/">widely articulated</a> by business groups and trade associations during the 2016 referendum campaign, and has been <a href="http://www.cbi.org.uk/insight-and-analysis/brexit-sector-cost/">often repeated</a> as the Brexit negotiations have proceeded over the last two years. </p>
<p>The UK government recognises this risk, and has <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-governments-negotiating-objectives-for-exiting-the-eu-pm-speech">expressed its ambition</a> to maintain frictionless trade after Brexit. But it has also recognised that, in the event of no-deal scenario, the EU would likely impose full third-country controls on goods entering the EU from the UK. </p>
<h2>Disruption at Dover</h2>
<p>The impact of a no-deal Brexit would be particularly acute at Dover, given the critical role this port plays in products movements. It is by far the biggest destination in the country for roll on/roll off ferries – those where the cargo is driven on and off in lorries, rather than lifted by cranes – handling almost <a href="https://www.doverport.co.uk/administrator/tinymce/source/Annual%20Reports/Annual%20Report%20and%20Accounts%202017_Web.pdf">3m units of freight</a> annually. Under the current regime, lorries can drive off the ferries and be on the motorway within minutes of arriving in Dover. </p>
<p>At the moment, the paperwork associated with a few hundred lorries bound for non-EU countries from Dover is checked by officials every day. In the event of a no-deal Brexit, the details of goods on the thousands of lorries that travel to or from the EU daily, without needing to supply any customs documentation, would also need to be checked at Dover. </p>
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<span class="caption">We’re going to need a bigger loading bay.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/port-dover-kent-uk-20161018-cross-1059026936?src=se6peyXUsiXKx-_AIv_CLg-1-11">Kelvin Atkins/Shutterstock.</a></span>
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<p>The port of Dover has been warning for some time of serious post-Brexit traffic congestion in the town and on surrounding routes. Richard Christian, the port’s head of policy, reportedly <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/jun/20/port-of-dover-warning-regular-gridlock-congestion-hard-brexit-trade">said in June 2018</a> that there would be “regular gridlock” in Kent in the event of a hard Brexit. Port chiefs at Dover have asserted that a two-minute delay in Dover would lead to <a href="https://fta.co.uk/press-releases/20171010-fta-issues-checklist-for-no-deal-brexit-to-keep-britain-trading">a 17-mile queue</a> of lorries on the M20. </p>
<h2>Project chaos</h2>
<p>This type of disruption to freight traffic travelling via ferries or the channel tunnel is likely to have a profoundly detrimental impact on Britain’s economy. So the DfT developed Operation Brock, to mitigate the risk of cross-channel disruption that may be caused by new post-Brexit border arrangements. </p>
<p>The plan involves lorries being parked at the disused Manston airport site, which has a capacity for around 6,000 vehicles, and then being directed along the A256 towards Dover, to regulate the traffic. The Road Haulage Association (RHA) described the dry run of Operation Brock as “too little, too late”. Its CEO Richard Burnett <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-kent-46775722">said that</a> “this process should have started nine months ago”, and its managing director of policy and public affairs, Rod McKenzie, <a href="https://mobile.twitter.com/RHARodMcKenzie/status/1082365869928394756/photo/1">added that</a> “we are so far behind where we should be with only 59 working days to go”. </p>
<p>Critics might see this as further evidence of “project fear”, but the reality is that the impacts of a no-deal Brexit will be immediately and acutely felt in the hinterland of the key strategic ports, and Dover in particular. The resulting disruption will inevitably have a seriously detrimental impact on the ability of firms to provide products to their customers in a cost-effective and timely manner. </p>
<p>History tells us that business is resilient, and capable of adapting to major shocks, which will no doubt help it to develop long term resolutions to these challenges. But in the short term, it’s difficult to see anything other than serious traffic congestion in the vicinity of the UK’s major ports, with a chaotic impact on the wider logistics networks and supply chains, of which they form a critical part.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109480/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Edward Sweeney does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Operation Brock’s underwhelming test run goes to show how ill-prepared the UK is for a no-deal or hard Brexit scenario.Edward Sweeney, Professor of Logistics and Systems, Aston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1087482018-12-13T05:20:51Z2018-12-13T05:20:51ZWhy cutting Australia’s migrant intake would do more harm than good, at least for the next decade<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250409/original/file-20181213-110228-14gi98y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's easy to blame congestion on immigrants. But it's really jobs that do it. People flock to where the jobs are, whether they are immigrants or not.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s population is among the fastest growing in the OECD with an increase of 1.7 per cent in 2016-17. </p>
<p>In Sydney and Melbourne traffic congestion has become so intolerable many believe a cut to migration would provide time for infrastructure such as roads and trains to catch up. </p>
<p>Net Overseas Migration was 262,000 in 2016-17, one of the highest levels on record. </p>
<p>They are all compelling reasons to cut the size of the migration program, right?</p>
<p>No, not right. Not at all.</p>
<h2>Our migration program is no bigger than it was</h2>
<p>Including the humanitarian movement, the government migration program has been set at a near-constant level of a little over 200,000 since 2011-12. </p>
<p>In 2017-18, although the level set in the budget remained above 200,000, the actual intake was 179,000, including an unusually large intake of refugees mainly from Syria and Iraq. </p>
<p>The combined Skilled and Family Streams fell short of the levels set in the budget by 28,000. The reasons for this shortfall are unclear.</p>
<h2>‘Net overseas migration’ is different to migration</h2>
<p>Net Overseas Migration includes the government program but also other movements in to and out of Australia which both add to and subtract from it. </p>
<p>New Zealand citizens are allowed to enter Australia without restriction. Many people such as international students enter Australia on temporary visas. </p>
<p>Permanent and temporary Australian residents are allowed to leave without restriction. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/factcheck-is-australias-population-the-highest-growing-in-the-world-96523">FactCheck: is Australia's population the 'highest-growing in the world'?</a>
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<p>The net effect of all of these movements can change the recorded “net overseas migration” in ways that are inconsistent with what’s been happening to the migration program.</p>
<p>If, for instance, the Australian economy picked up and fewer Australians decided to leave for better prospects overseas, recorded “net overseas migration” would increase even if the migration program hadn’t.</p>
<p>The two have been moving increasingly independently since mid 2006 when the Australian Bureau of Statistics changed its definition of “resident”, making temporary residents more likely to be counted in the population and their movements counted in net overseas migration.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/international-students-impaled-on-illusory-population-spike-539">International students impaled on (illusory) population spike</a>
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<p>Over the past five years, the number of international students arriving has increased every year but there have been few international student departures.</p>
<p>Inevitably, the departures of students will increase in future years and recorded net overseas migration will fall sharply again. </p>
<p>So, forget the near-record official net overseas migration figure of 262,000 – the underlying level of net overseas migration is more likely to be around 200,000. The underlying level of population growth is about 1.4%, and falling.</p>
<h2>We’ll need strong migration for at least a decade</h2>
<p>A new study by <a href="https://www.ncver.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0026/2141783/Future-job-openings.pdf">Shah and Dixon</a> finds there will be 4.1 million new job openings in Australia over the eight years between 2017 and 2024. </p>
<p>Over two million of these new openings will be due to “replacement demand”, effectively replacing the retirements from the labour force of baby boomers.</p>
<p>There will not be enough younger workers arriving to fill the gap. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/migration-helps-balance-our-ageing-population-we-dont-need-a-moratorium-100030">Migration helps balance our ageing population – we don't need a moratorium</a>
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<p>In the absence of international migration and assuming constant age-specific employment rates, the number of workers under the age of 35 will fall by over half a million between 2016 and 2026, essentially because of the small number of births in the 1990s. </p>
<p>It means that without migration Australia would face a labour supply crunch unlike anything it has ever faced before. </p>
<h2>Slowing or redirecting it won’t slow congestion</h2>
<p>The mismatch of labour demand and supply makes this an extraordinarily bad time to cut migration.</p>
<p>The labour market is at its hottest in Sydney and Melbourne. </p>
<p>Investment contracts involving new employment are signed and the construction of the new transport infrastructure promised in these cities will only increase the demand. </p>
<p>Logic and economic theory tell us that workers move to where the jobs are, and jobs move to where the investors invest. </p>
<p>If, in some way, official migration into Sydney and Melbourne was restricted, the jobs in Sydney and Melbourne would still have to be filled and would go instead to workers moving from the rest of Australia or New Zealand or temporary skilled migrants. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-charts-on-australias-population-shift-and-the-big-city-squeeze-75544">Three charts on Australia's population shift and the big city squeeze</a>
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<p>As a result the restriction would do little to reduce population growth in these cities. It would however, strip other states and territories of the workers they need. It would make the flow of the best and brightest from Adelaide and Perth to Melbourne even bigger.</p>
<p>Diverting, say, 15,000 permanent skilled immigrants away from each of Sydney and Melbourne in 2019-20 would have no impact on transport congestion. </p>
<p>Indeed, it might make it harder to build the required infrastructure, making congestion worse.</p>
<h2>We’ll need it to ease a painful transition</h2>
<p>Migrants will be needed in order to smooth the looming dramatic and uncomfortable changes in the age structure of our population.</p>
<p>Migrants don’t only do this because they are young; they also do it because, before they themselves grow old, they have had children and grandchildren. </p>
<p>Net overseas migration of 200,000 per annum would give us 6.8 million more people of traditional working age by 2051 than would no net migration, but only 400,000 more people aged 65 years and over.</p>
<p>It would place Australia in a better position to support its aged population than any other country in the OECD. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tasmania-cant-only-rely-on-a-growing-population-for-an-economic-boost-91236">Tasmania can't only rely on a growing population for an economic boost</a>
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<p>Official studies by the International Monetary Fund, the Productivity Commission <a href="http://research.treasury.gov.au/external-paper/shaping-a-nation/">and the Treasury</a> find that migration significantly increases income per capita and the government’s budget position.</p>
<p>It does put pressure on Sydney and Melbourne, but some of it can be relieved through diversion of population and investment to the satellites of these cities. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/migration-is-slowing-australias-rate-of-ageing-but-not-necessarily-in-the-regions-94970">Migration is slowing Australia's rate of ageing, but not necessarily in the regions</a>
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<p>This has already been happening in Victoria. Geelong, Ballarat and Bendigo have each jumped into the list of Australia’s top ten urban growth centres. </p>
<p>The growth of Wollongong and Newcastle has been more sluggish but the NSW Premier has recently announced that NSW will be pursuing a strategy of better linkages between Sydney and its satellites.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/108748/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter McDonald is employed by the University of Melbourne and receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>Cutting migration to Australia’s biggest cities would do nothing to ease congestion in those cities and could make it worse.Peter McDonald, Professor of Demography, Centre for Health Policy, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.