tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/cosmetics-industry-33507/articlesCosmetics industry – The Conversation2024-03-22T12:32:08Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2248152024-03-22T12:32:08Z2024-03-22T12:32:08ZWhat’s in tattoo ink? My team’s chemical analysis found ingredients that aren’t on the label and could cause allergies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581794/original/file-20240313-30-tf41i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C17%2C5751%2C3811&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tattoo ink ingredients don't always match what's labeled on the bottle. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CubaTattoos/b36471bdd2ff4e6e8a19a9b9644768d0/photo?Query=tattoo%20ink&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=406&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=0&vs=true&vs=true">AP Photo/Desmond Boylan</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Tattoos are an incredibly common form of permanent self-expression that date back <a href="https://theconversation.com/tattoos-have-a-long-history-going-back-to-the-ancient-world-and-also-to-colonialism-165584">thousands of years</a>. Most tattoo artists follow strict health and sanitation regulations, so you might assume that tattoo inks are carefully regulated, too. </p>
<p>But as work done by <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=F2mp97YAAAAJ&hl=en">my team of chemistry researchers</a> suggests, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.3c05687">up to 90%</a> of tattoo inks in the U.S. might be mislabeled. This isn’t just a case of a missing pigment or a minor discrepancy. These inks contained potentially concerning additives that weren’t listed on the packaging. </p>
<h2>What’s in an ink?</h2>
<p>All inks are made up of one or more pigments, which are molecules that give tattoos their color, and some kind of carrier for that pigment. Before the 20th century, <a href="https://www.trinitybj.com/blog/articles/tattoo-ink-throughout-time">pigments used in tattooing</a> included ash, charcoal, minerals or other natural materials. Around the middle of the 20th century, though, tattoo artists started making their own inks using synthetic pigments and dyes. </p>
<p>Today, nearly all pigments used in tattoos are made of <a href="https://f1000research.com/articles/6-2034/v2">synthetic molecules</a> that allow for bright colors – with the exception of white and black pigments.</p>
<p>In the past few decades, tattoo ink manufacturing has shifted from individual artists making their own to large companies manufacturing inks and selling them to artists. My team wanted to figure out whether these inks contained the ingredients advertised, so we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.3c05687">analyzed 54 tattoo inks</a> from the U.S. market. </p>
<h2>Unlisted ingredients</h2>
<p>More than half the inks my research team analyzed contained unlisted polyethylene glycol, also known as PEG. A variety of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_glycol">medical products</a> contain PEG, including laxatives. It can cause <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/all.14711">allergic reactions</a>, however, and in the case of tattooing, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1739-2">research has suggested</a> that repeated exposure to PEG could lead to kidney failure.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two carbon atoms, with OH groups at each end." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Polyethylene glycol’s chemical structure.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PEG_Structural_Formula_V1.svg">Jü/Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also found <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Propylene-Glycol">propylene glycol</a> in 15 inks, though it wasn’t listed as an ingredient in any of them. Propylene glycol is generally nontoxic and structurally similar to glycerin, which is used to thicken the ink. Even though propylene glycol is safe for most people, some people are highly allergic to it. In fact, it was the American Contact Dermatitis Society’s <a href="https://dermnetnz.org/topics/contact-allergy-to-propylene-glycol">2018 Allergen of the Year</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Three carbon atoms, with OH groups connected to the first and 2nd carbons." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Propylene glycol’s chemical structure.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Propylene_glycol_chemical_structure.png">Edgar181/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>An <a href="https://www.contactdermatitisinstitute.com/pdfs/allergens/Propylene%20glycol.pdf">allergic reaction</a> to propylene glycol can cause a skin rash, itching and blistering. </p>
<p>In several inks, my research team found unlisted ingredients that are common in cosmetics but have not been tested in tattoo inks. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10915810290096513">These include BHT</a>, <a href="https://www.paulaschoice.com/ingredient-dictionary/ingredient-dodecane.html">dodecane</a> and <a href="https://www.webmd.com/beauty/what-to-know-about-phenoxyethanol">2-phenoxyethanol</a>. In low concentrations, 2-phenoxyethanol can be a preservative. But the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-58170-9">Food and Drug Administration has warned</a> that it could get passed to infants through breastfeeding and lead to vomiting and dehydration in babies.</p>
<p>Of the 54 inks we analyzed, 29 reported the correct pigments, while the rest either did not report or reported the wrong pigments. <a href="https://www.kantonslabor.bs.ch/dam/jcr:ba246390-48da-406f-aa4e-9e1b24726a31/JB_Tattoo_PMU_2011_EN.pdf">This is a known</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cod.13913">problem in tattoo inks</a> that ink manufacturers have not yet addressed. </p>
<h2>Pigment concerns</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics10050141">Studies have found</a> that carbon black, the primary black pigment used in tattooing, can be contaminated with some of the same <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon">cancer-causing molecules</a> found in car exhaust and cigarette smoke.</p>
<p>Many red, yellow and orange pigments are azo pigments, which contain two connected nitrogen atoms. These pigments give ink bright, vivid colors, but over time they may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1739-2">break down into carcinogens</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tattoo artist wearing latex gloves holding a tattooing needle inks a geometric design on an arm." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The pigments in many tattoo inks are made up of synthetic molecules.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/InkcarcerationMusicandTattooFestival-Day1/7d0d0d2e40d64d4bbe7a0985aa992734/photo?Query=tattooing&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=382&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=7&vs=true&vs=true">Amy Harris/Invision/AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32020R2081#document1">Regulations in Europe</a> prohibit the use of copper-containing pigment blue 15 and pigment green 7, which my work observed to be the only blue and green pigments in the inks we tested. The EU banned these pigments over concern that their use in hair dyes <a href="https://mobil.bfr.bund.de/cm/349/tattoo-inks-risk-assessment-for-pigment-blue-15-3-and-pigment-green-7.pdf">may cause bladder cancer</a>, though researchers haven’t studied that connection in tattoos yet. </p>
<h2>A new focus on regulation</h2>
<p>The FDA is beginning to pay more attention to what is in tattoo inks. In 2022, Congress passed the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetics-laws-regulations/modernization-cosmetics-regulation-act-2022-mocra">Modernization of Cosmetics Regulation Act, or MoCRA</a>, which gave the FDA expanded authority to regulate tattoo inks. </p>
<p>The FDA is still deciding how to implement MoCRA, but the act will require accurate ingredient labeling and expand the FDA’s authority to recall ink. In the past, tattoo inks have very rarely, and only voluntarily, been recalled because of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1279884">bacterial contamination</a>.</p>
<p>So what does this mean for tattoo clients and artists? Right now, there’s no clear research consensus on whether tattoos are safe or not, as they can cause infection and allergic reactions. Plus, tattoos vary widely in size, color and physical location on the body.</p>
<p>Studies like the one from my lab are an important piece in establishing what is actually in a tattoo, so that researchers can better understand any adverse events, such as long-term allergic reactions, that they might cause.</p>
<p>Understanding what is in ink also helps physicians identify what particular health concerns they should look for in tattooed individuals.</p>
<p>The tattoo-related health issues that researchers <a href="https://www.aerzteblatt.de/int/archive/article/182859">do know about</a> come from unskilled artists following poor sanitation protocols. To prevent potential health concerns, those considering a tattoo can work with an experienced and trained artist who follows best practices for hygiene and tattoo aftercare.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224815/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Swierk receives funding from National Institute of Health, National Science Foundation, and American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund. </span></em></p>Some tattoo inks contain unlabeled materials that can cause allergic reactions.John Swierk, Assistant Professor, Chemistry, Binghamton University, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1713442022-08-30T12:17:29Z2022-08-30T12:17:29ZHow Mary Kay contributed to feminism – even though she loathed feminists<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480473/original/file-20220822-54947-jktayt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C2789%2C1996&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mary Kay Ash's legendary love for the color pink symbolized her determination to be a business success by "thinking like a woman."</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/beautys-big-business-mary-kay-ash-the-originator-and-news-photo/502259765?adppopup=true">Colin McConnell /Toronto Star via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 1963, the same year American businesswoman Mary Kay Ash started her cosmetics company, publisher W.W. Norton <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/powerful-complicated-legacy-betty-friedans-feminine-mystique-180976931/">released “The Feminine Mystique</a> – the book that has since been widely credited with launching the contemporary women’s liberation movement.</p>
<p>Ash loathed the term "feminist” and disliked the movement. In a 1983 Dallas Morning News interview, she dismissed “that foolishness feminists started in the ‘60s” of “trying to act just like a man” by cutting their hair short or lowering their voices.</p>
<p>Yet Ash, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/23/business/mary-kay-ash-who-built-a-cosmetics-empire-and-adored-pink-is-dead-at-83.html">who died in 2001</a>, successfully defied her era’s female gender norms. She turned a few thousand dollars into a multibillion-dollar cosmetics empire and led it for decades. Her sales force grew from fewer than 10 women to tens of thousands.</p>
<p>While researching a book on Ash’s life and work, I’ve learned that many of the Mary Kay saleswomen were comfortable with their era’s vision of femininity and motherhood. Ash’s <a href="https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/the-hot-pink-empire-of-mary-kay-ash/">company motto of “God First, Family Second, Career Third”</a> put them at ease. </p>
<p>American women today owe gratitude to the women’s movement of the 1960s for making issues like equal pay for equal work and sharing household responsibilities part of the national conversation – but also to a Dallas entrepreneur who reveled in the feminine mystique.</p>
<h2>From underpaid saleswoman to CEO</h2>
<p>In 1963, the year Ash founded “Beauty by Mary Kay” in a small Dallas storefront, barely <a href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/LNS11300002">a third of American women were in the workforce</a>. Ash was one of them. She had peddled children’s encyclopedias door to door, and conducted “house parties” - home demonstrations of products that catered to housewives – <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/23/business/mary-kay-ash-who-built-a-cosmetics-empire-and-adored-pink-is-dead-at-83.html">with Stanley Home Goods</a> and other companies. </p>
<p>Ash consistently earned lower wages than her male counterparts, who also passed her by for promotions. When she protested, one common response was to deride her for “thinking like a woman.” Another was that men needed more money because they had families to support. </p>
<p>“I had a family to support too!” <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Mary-Kay-Ash-1981-10-01/dp/B01K175DX0">recalled Ash, a single mother, in</a> her 1981 memoir. So she quit to build a company where there would be no wage gap or male bosses, and women would be rewarded for thinking like women – all while embracing the vision of traditional gender roles that the feminist movement was trying to overturn. </p>
<p>By 1969, the company was earning US$6.3 million in net sales, according to The New York Times. And an article in the Irving Daily News, a Texas newspaper, put the sales force at around 4,000 women from 15 different states.</p>
<p>In 1976, Mary Kay Inc. became the <a href="https://npg.si.edu/exh/journal/ash.htm">first woman-founded and -led company listed</a> on the New York Stock Exchange. </p>
<p>In 1979, glowing coverage on “<a href="https://youtu.be/nrWz_MzKAMk">60 Minutes</a>” prompted nearly 100,000 more women to sign up. The company was grossing over <a href="https://youtu.be/nrWz_MzKAMk">$100 million annually</a> and had a <a href="http://www.marykaymuseum.com/highlight_1970.aspx">global reach</a>, and Ash was named one of the year’s top corporate women in America by <a href="http://3vcm07307bnr2jg8679q77x8-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Mary_KayCosmeticsInc_Corp_PlanningInAnEraofUncertainty.pdf">Business Week</a> magazine.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/nrWz_MzKAMk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The CBS news show “60 Minutes” aired a glowing profile of Mary Kay Ash’s cosmetic company in 1979.</span></figcaption>
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<p>In 1985 Ash and her son <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/23/business/mary-kay-ash-who-built-a-cosmetics-empire-and-adored-pink-is-dead-at-83.html">led a $450 millon deal</a> to buy the company back into private family hands. As of 2021, the company <a href="https://nypost.com/2021/10/02/how-mary-kays-founder-went-from-single-mom-to-billion-dollar-beauty-queen/">reportedly has $3.5 billion in annual revenues</a>. </p>
<h2>The Mary Kay mystique</h2>
<p>Ash rejected feminism but sought to build women’s confidence – something absent in the average housewife’s life, according to “The Feminine Mystique” – as well as their income.</p>
<p>“Here’s a woman who’s never had any praise at all for anything she’s ever done,” Ash <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Mary-Kay-Ash-1981-10-01/dp/B01K175DX0">said in her best-selling memoir</a>. “Maybe the only applause she’s ever had was when she graduated from high school. So we praise her for everything good that she does.”</p>
<p>Based on the interviews I’m doing for my research, this approach worked. </p>
<p>Esther Andrews, a housewife, told me that before she became a Mary Kay saleswoman in 1967, “nobody had ever said that I could be great at anything.” Andrews, who raised three children with her Mary Kay earnings after her husband died, was among the first winners of a pink Cadillac – a company prize for top sellers. The car was both a symbol of her success and a means of mobility few housewives enjoyed at the time. </p>
<p>Andrews’ story reflects that of many I’ve uncovered. From a former waitress and single mom in New Jersey who was able to raise her daughter and purchase her own home to a former housewife in Ohio who has more diamond rings than fingers and funds her family’s European vacations, Mary Kay has changed women’s lives. </p>
<p>Both of these women fought back tears as they shared their career accomplishments with me. Both have been in the company for more than 30 years. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Salespersons from Anhui Province, China, pose for pictures in front of a pink sedan, an award for the best sales team, during the Mary Kay China Leadership Conference on February 20, 2011, in Xiamen, Fujian Province, China." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481609/original/file-20220829-27-801kvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481609/original/file-20220829-27-801kvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481609/original/file-20220829-27-801kvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481609/original/file-20220829-27-801kvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481609/original/file-20220829-27-801kvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481609/original/file-20220829-27-801kvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481609/original/file-20220829-27-801kvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Mary Kay company continues to award top saleswomen with new cars in its founder’s favorite color.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/salespersons-from-anhui-province-of-china-pose-for-pictures-news-photo/109325814?adppopup=true">China Photos/GettyImages AsiaPac via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In her book “In Pink: The Personal Story of a Mary Kay Pioneer Who Made History Shaping a New Path to Success for Women,” homemaker and early Mary Kay recruit <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Pink-Personal-Pioneer-History-Shaping/dp/0985372516">Doretha Dingler remarked that</a> “much more than raising our family income, that kind of earning raised my consciousness” – language echoing that of the era’s feminists.</p>
<h2>Opportunities for women of color</h2>
<p>It wasn’t just middle-class white women who found success in Mary Kay. </p>
<p>In 1975, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9lwEAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA183&dq=ruell%20cone%20mary%20kay&pg=PA183#v=onepage&q=ruell%20cone%20mary%20kay&f=false">Ruell Cone</a>, a Black woman from Atlanta, was the company’s highest-earning saleswoman. She was honored in person by Ash herself before tens of thousands of saleswomen at the company’s annual seminar. </p>
<p>In 1979, Gerri Nicholson told The Record newspaper of Hackensack, N.J., that while she had “a lot of hang-ups” from growing up as an African American in the South, working for Mary Kay “substantially increased my family income” and gave her “a feeling of self-worth.” At that point Nicholson had worked her way up from saleswoman to sales manager, and would go on to become Mary Kay’s <a href="https://www.warrenrecord.com/article_a63211f2-30fa-11ec-9c07-cb0095c02517.html">first Black national sales director</a>.</p>
<p>By 1985, Savvy magazine reported that Mary Kay Inc. could claim more Latina and Black women earning annual commissions of over $50,000 – the equivalent of $137,000 in 2022 – than any other corporation worldwide. </p>
<p>Ash’s elevation of “thinking like a woman” and the company’s acceptance of Black and Latina saleswomen are also forerunners of feminism’s “third wave” in the 1990s. In this era, younger feminists shifted the movement’s focus from equal rights to diversity, embracing gender differences and celebrating femininity in its various forms.</p>
<h2>A ‘pink pyramid scheme’?</h2>
<p>Along with these success stories, the company has faced accusations of exploiting more women than it enriches. A 2012 article in Harper’s Magazine, “The Pink Pyramid Scheme,” <a href="https://harpers.org/archive/2012/08/the-pink-pyramid-scheme/">pointed at unrealized promises of success</a>, saleswomen going into debt to purchase product inventory, and high turnover rates.</p>
<p>I believe these stories are a part of any accurate telling of Mary Kay history. </p>
<p>However, based on my research, a substantial number of the company’s “beauty consultants” say they found camaraderie, <a href="https://hbr.org/2018/08/why-women-stay-out-of-the-spotlight-at-work">recognition</a> and <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/after-two-years-job-womens-confidence-plummets-180955373/">confidence</a> working for Mary Kay, and a female role model in Mary Kay Ash.</p>
<p>These are things working women today <a href="https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2006.22898277">still find elusive</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171344/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cassandra L. Yacovazzi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Ash derided women’s liberation as “that foolishness” – but her success story is very feminist.Cassandra L. Yacovazzi, Assistant Professor of History, University of South FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1639112021-07-15T13:43:34Z2021-07-15T13:43:34ZSouth Africa is rich in plants used for skincare: rural women helped us document some<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410561/original/file-20210709-19-1uk5wjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Castor oil plant is popular in rural South Africa for its medicinal qualities.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/red-castor-bean-pods-on-a-castor-oil-plant-in-easter-island-news-photo/1232679652?adppopup=true">Creative Touch Imaging Ltd./NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People have been using plants in skincare for thousands of years, for cleansing, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/9027603_Plants_Used_in_Cosmetics">perfuming</a>, <a href="https://www.mindbodygreen.com/0-20697/8-homegrown-plants-for-naturally-glowing-skin.html">beautifying</a> and healing. Today, plants <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327132274_The_Use_of_Plants_in_Skin-Care_Products_Cosmetics_and_Fragrances_Past_and_Present">contribute</a> significantly to the <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/585522/global-value-cosmetics-market/">cosmetic</a> (beauty) and cosmeceutical (medicinal) industry, which is worth billions of dollars.</p>
<p>Though orthodox medicine can treat many skin disorders, traditional herbal medicines and cosmetics remain popular especially in rural areas where they are part of people’s culture. </p>
<p>In South Africa, it is <a href="https://www.hst.org.za/publications/South%20African%20Health%20Reviews/18_SAHR_2006-2007_Section%2013.pdf">estimated</a> that about 27 million people still rely partly on traditional medicine. And more than 3,000 indigenous plants have been <a href="https://iks.ukzn.ac.za/sites/default/files/Medicinal%20plant%20harvesting%20sustainability%20and%20cultivation%202018.pdf">reported</a> as having traditional medicinal uses. More than 90 indigenous South African plants have been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0254629911001190">evaluated</a> for their commercialisation potential. Of these traditionally used plants, 32% are traded in “muthi” (traditional medicine) markets and contribute an estimated <a href="https://www.hst.org.za/publications/South%20African%20Health%20Reviews/18_SAHR_2006-2007_Section%2013.pdf">R2.9 billion</a> to the South African economy annually.</p>
<p>Herbal cosmetics remain part of tradition and a modern <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/21/5/559">trend</a> in beauty and fashion. Many people prefer natural products for their personal care because they have <a href="https://www.longdom.org/open-access/herbal-cosmetics-and-cosmeceuticals-an-overview-2329-6836-1000170.pdf">few side-effects</a>. </p>
<p>However, there is limited information available about indigenous knowledge and practices in natural cosmetics and cosmeceuticals in South Africa. Documenting the plants used for these purposes could raise public awareness and encourage innovation to drive the potential market. It may also encourage more research on the potentials for new plant-based products.</p>
<p>We therefore conducted a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0254629918321252?via%3Dihub">study</a> in the Vhembe district of Limpopo province in South Africa. This is an area that is rich in biodiversity and plants with traditional uses. We interviewed 79 women from 16 communities to document the medicinal uses of plants. We also wanted to know how the plants contributed to the socioeconomic lives of the rural women. Our research team comprised botanists, agricultural economists and indigenous knowledge systems experts.</p>
<h2>Commonly used plants</h2>
<p>The ethnobotanical information was collected from February to June 2018. It was based on face-to-face interviews using questionnaires. We asked about the names of local plants used and recorded how they were prepared. We spoke to women who had knowledge of medicinal plants and photographed the plants they mentioned. We later deposited specimens in the herbarium of the South African National Biodiversity Institute and identified the botanical names of the collected plants.</p>
<p>We discovered that the use of plant-based preparations was popular in the Vhembe district. A total of 49 plants belonging to 32 families formed part of the existing recipes for cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. </p>
<p>More than 50% of the plants were recorded for the first time as having these uses. For instance, the leaves of <em>Dicerocaryum zanguebaricum</em> are applied <a href="https://www.ripublication.com/ijac17/ijacv13n3_23.pdf">topically</a> as a substitute for soap, while in other studies they have been noted as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0254629907002141">antibacterial, anti-inflammatory</a> and used for <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Use%20of%20ethnovertinary%20medicinal%20plants%20in%20cattle%20by%20setswana-speaking%20people%20in%20the%20Madikwe%20area%20of%20the%20North%20West%20Province%20in%20South%20Africa&publication_year=2001&author=V.D.%20Merwe&author=D.G.%20Swan&author=C.J.%20Botha">ethno-veterinary medicines</a>.</p>
<p><a href="http://pza.sanbi.org/dicerocaryum-senecioides">Devil’s thorn</a>, <a href="http://redlist.sanbi.org/species.php?species=4063-1">soap bush</a> and <a href="https://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/weeds/key/weeds/Media/Html/Ricinus_communis_(Castor_Oil_Plant).htm">castor oil plant</a> were the most commonly cited plants. Castor oil plant, soap bush and devil’s thorn are sought after for their ability to stop bleeding and speed up wound healing. They are also used to treat burns and alleviate other skin conditions. Several <a href="https://medcraveonline.com/PPIJ/perspective-of-natural-products-in-skincare.html">findings</a> are available for these plants, an indication of their potential as natural-based cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. </p>
<p>The Vhembe women use a variety of equipment and implements. The main tools included the panga and the mortar and pestle – an ancient technology which is still effective for maceration and preparing poultices. No machines were used to produce the herbal extracts. Most of the tools used were homemade; others were purchased from hardware stores.</p>
<h2>Commercial prospects</h2>
<p>Another <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/8/3/51">analysis</a> showed that for every R1.00 that rural women invested in making these products, they could realise an additional R0.28 return. </p>
<p>These findings suggest that the enterprise could improve people’s economic welfare in rural communities. Its economic potential is worth studying in more detail. </p>
<p>Based on our <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/8/3/51">study</a>, plant-based cosmetics and cosmeceuticals are a potentially lucrative business if there is investment in local infrastructure and industrial development in local communities.</p>
<p>Low-cost and value-added products could be part of the development of the <a href="https://www.oecd.org/sti/emerging-tech/34823102.pdf">bio-economy</a>. However, there is a need for more research and innovation to drive product development for local markets. </p>
<p>Government and the private sector should share responsibility in developing local communities by assisting rural women to access credit or loan facilities for manufacturing. </p>
<p>South Africa has several laws and <a href="https://www.gov.za/documents/protection-promotion-development-and-management-indigenous-knowledge-act-6-2019-19-aug">regulations</a> on bio-prospecting. These are aimed at <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-south-africa-is-doing-to-protect-and-share-traditional-medicine-resources-145135">protecting traditional knowledge</a>, biological and genetic resources such as medicinal plants. These regulations are aligned to those of the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf">Convention of Biodiversity</a> and <a href="https://www.cbd.int/abs/doc/protocol/nagoya-protocol-en.pdf">Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing</a>. Both are aimed at sustainable use of natural resources and protecting biological diversity, traditional knowledge and intellectual property rights. These frameworks should be fully implemented at local level for equitable benefit sharing, sustainable use of biological resources and reinforcement of investments in the rural economy in South Africa.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163911/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adeyemi Oladapo Aremu receives funding from the National Research Foundation, Pretoria, South Africa. He is a member of the South African Young Academy of Science (SAYAS) and Young Affiliate of the African Academy of Sciences (AAS).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Tshepiso Ndhlovu received funding from the National Research Foundation Pretoria, South Africa (grant number: UID 105161). He is a member of the Indigenous Plant Use forum (IPUF) and South African Association of Botany (SAAB).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wilfred Otang-Mbeng receives funding from the National Research Foundation (NRF), Pretoria, South Africa (Grant number: UID 105161). He is a member of the Indigenous Plant Use forum (IPUF) and Society for Medicinal Plants and Economic Development (SOMPED)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Abiodun Olusola Omotayo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Traditional herbal medicines and cosmetics remain popular in South Africa especially in rural areas where they are part of people’s culture.Abiodun Olusola Omotayo, Extraordinary Senior Lecturer, Food Security and Safety Niche Area, North-West UniversityAdeyemi Oladapo Aremu, Associate professor, North-West UniversityTshepiso Ndhlovu, Ph.D. candidate in Indigenous Knowledge Systems and lecturer at School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of MpumalangaWilfred Otang-Mbeng, Associate Professor in Botany, University of MpumalangaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/940102018-04-05T10:44:48Z2018-04-05T10:44:48ZWhy are fewer and fewer Americans fixing their noses?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212825/original/file-20180402-189795-aia0jr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The nose isn't going under the knife like it once did.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/medical-nose-care-concept-doctor-climbing-156779312?src=LAq4odgEPzSRK6BIMwFpRg-1-37">Lightspring/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Americans love <a href="https://www.plasticsurgery.org/news/press-releases/new-statistics-reveal-the-shape-of-plastic-surgery">cosmetic surgery</a>.</p>
<p>In 2017 in the U.S., there were 1.8 million plastic surgeries and nearly 16 million nonsurgical procedures, like Botox – about one for every 20 Americans. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/plastic-surgery-growth-statistics-facts-2016-2017-5">US$8 billion industry</a> now has entire <a href="https://www.newbeauty.com">beauty magazines</a> devoted to cosmetic procedures, along with TV shows like “Nip/Tuck” and “Botched” that explore plastic surgery in all its gory glory. There are <a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.hamsoft.face.follow&hl=en">apps</a> for your phone that let you see your face or body modified by surgery and even <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Beautiful-Mommy-Michael-Alexander-Salzhauer/dp/1601310323">children’s books</a> to explain why mommy looks so different now. </p>
<p>As someone who’s written <a href="http://www.beacon.org/American-Plastic-P767.aspx">a book</a> about the economics of plastic surgery, none of this comes as a surprise.</p>
<p>Recently, however, I ran across a statistic that stopped me in my tracks: Americans are no longer obsessed with fixing their noses. In fact, the number of nose jobs, or rhinoplasties, has gone down <a href="https://www.plasticsurgery.org/documents/News/Statistics/2016/plastic-surgery-statistics-full-report-2016.pdf">43 percent</a> since 2000. </p>
<p>Over a decade ago, nearly 400,000 Americans were having their noses made smaller, thinner and more symmetrical; now only about <a href="https://www.plasticsurgery.org/documents/News/Statistics/2016/plastic-surgery-statistics-full-report-2016.pdf">225,000 Americans</a> are doing so each year.</p>
<p>What might explain the overall decline in nose jobs, even as breast implants and tummy tucks are more popular than ever before? </p>
<h2>Why people get plastic surgery in the first place</h2>
<p>This decline is happening despite the fact that rhinoplasty procedures – which cost, on average, around <a href="https://www.plasticsurgery.org/cosmetic-procedures/rhinoplasty/cost">$5,000</a> – have become less painful and more convenient. </p>
<p>In the 20th century, rhinoplasties were usually performed with a hammer and chisel – a bloody, bruising affair. Now noses can be reshaped with a <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/the-nose-job-takes-a-giant-leap-in-new-technology_us_593b8523e4b0b65670e56a95">vibrating crystal</a> that’s able to cut through bone but avoid damaging soft tissue – a method that decreases the pain and recovery time quite significantly. </p>
<p>But pain has never really been part of the equation. If there’s one thing I learned from interviewing over 100 cosmetic surgery patients for my book, it’s that they’re willing to suffer for what they believe will lead to a better life. </p>
<p>Today, <a href="https://www.plasticsurgery.org/documents/News/Statistics/2016/plastic-surgery-statistics-full-report-2016.pdf">92 percent</a> are women, disproportionately white, and mostly members of the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/16/fashion/16skin.html">working and middle classes</a>. They fervently believe that if they look younger, thinner or more attractive, then they’ll be more likely to keep their job or husband (or get a better job or a better husband). </p>
<p>In the end, they’re motivated by a deep desire for a more secure future – which, somewhat paradoxically, compels many of them to take on large amounts of debt to pay for the procedures.</p>
<p>A perfect nose, apparently, is less likely to be viewed as a path to a secure future. </p>
<h2>A historic aversion to ‘ethnic’ noses</h2>
<p>While there’s probably no definitive way to explain the nose job’s decline, the answer could be as plain as the nose on my face. </p>
<p>My nose, not coincidentally, is large, the genetic effect of my Jewish ancestors. Nose jobs were originally performed for people like me – immigrants who were not quite “white” because they didn’t look like Northern Europeans.</p>
<p><a href="http://broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/themes/surgery">In the 1800s</a>, surgeons discovered that if they put their patients under with gas and sterilized their instruments, they could stop people from dying of sepsis. These surgeons soon realized that they could also earn a quick buck by making ethnic immigrants look more American – which really meant looking more like immigrants from Northern Europe.</p>
<p>By the late 1800s, the cosmetic surgery industry had blossomed. <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/titles/6545.html">According to historian Sander Gilman</a>, cosmetic surgery was first used to help Irish and Jewish men. For Irish men, it was their noses, which they viewed as a sign of their “racial degeneracy” and “syphilitic nature.” Jewish men were actually less concerned about their noses and far more worried that their detached earlobes “Africanized” them.</p>
<p>Needless to say, the 20th century shifted which bodies and which parts needed repairing, and the focus turned to women – particularly young, white women. </p>
<p>A kind of beauty capitalism was born, teaching women that if there was something wrong with their bodies, it could be fixed. All they had to do was buy the right lipstick, stick to the newest diet, or surgically alter their bodies – especially their noses. </p>
<p>Breast implants, tummy tucks, buttock implants and <a href="https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/brainstorm/frankengina/26790">vaginoplasty</a> would eventually gain popularity. But for the first several decades of the 20th century, most of the women who filled the offices of cosmetic surgeons wanted their noses fixed.</p>
<h2>Shifting standards of beauty?</h2>
<p>Today’s beauty industry is worth <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/chloesorvino/2017/05/18/self-made-women-wealth-beauty-gold-mine/#5fbe06d62a3a">$445 billion dollars</a>. It mostly teaches women (although increasingly men and even children) that they need to buy things in order to become beautiful.</p>
<p>So why are our natural, imperfect noses all of a sudden more okay? </p>
<p>It could be that the beauty industry has stopped selling us the idea that there is one racial standard for beauty. The sort of racial hierarchy that put Northern European features at the top – and everyone else scrambling to catch up – might be weakening due to demographic and economic changes within a globalized culture.</p>
<p>According to the <a href="http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/03/31/10-demographic-trends-that-are-shaping-the-u-s-and-the-world/">Pew Research Center</a>, by 2055 everyone in the U.S. will be a racial or ethnic minority – there will be no clear majority.</p>
<p>After centuries of worshiping a certain form of <a href="https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2014/05/16/white-as-beautiful-black-as-white/">whiteness as beautiful</a>, future beauty standards might look very different. It’s also possible that as other countries, particularly China, dominate the world economy, those countries will have more of a say in determining what’s beautiful. And popular media is increasingly depicting beautiful characters <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-its-so-important-for-kids-to-see-diverse-tv-and-movie-characters-92576">of all races</a>.</p>
<p>At this point, without interviewing those who go under the knife but refuse to reshape their noses, it’s tough to tell what’s inspired the change.</p>
<p>What I do know is that if the beauty industry can sell us something, it will. In fact, it’s invented <a href="https://galoremag.com/nose-bump-nose-job-reverse-plastic-surgery-unique/">reverse nose jobs</a> for people who are embarrassed that their noses have been modified – and want to make them look “real” again.</p>
<p>So fear not: The industry’s ability to profit off of our anxieties is as strong it’s ever been.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94010/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurie Essig does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People who’ve gotten nose jobs are also trying to revert to a more natural look.Laurie Essig, Director and Professor of Gender, Sexuality, & Feminist Studies, MiddleburyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/787682017-06-06T00:45:22Z2017-06-06T00:45:22ZAustralia will finally ban cosmetic testing on animals<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/172202/original/file-20170605-20578-1rrglfb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In Australia animal testing is currently required for some potentially toxic new cosmetic ingredients.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/90500915@N05/8224204466/">Understanding Animal Research/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last week, a bill was put before the House of Representatives that would ban <a href="http://www.health.gov.au/internet/ministers/publishing.nsf/Content/health-mediarel-yr2017-gillespie031.htm?OpenDocument&yr=2017&mth=06">animal testing of industrial chemicals</a> intended solely for use in cosmetics. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Bills_Legislation/Bills_Search_Results/Result?bId=r5885">proposed bill</a> would affect a wide variety of products: “cosmetics” are legally defined as any substance used on the body, or in the mouth to change its appearance, cleanse it, perfume it or protect it. This includes soaps, shampoos, moisturiser, hair dye, perfumes and deodorants. </p>
<p>It’s difficult to know exactly how many animals will be affected by this ban, as companies do not advertise their use of animal testing and results are often unpublished. It’s likely to be relatively small, but this ban will both improve their lives and be an important international signal.</p>
<p>Cosmetic testing commonly measures the reaction of animals’ skin, eyes and respiratory tracts to high concentrations of certain chemicals. Other tests determine a product’s potential to cause foetal abnormalities, cancer or genetic mutations. </p>
<h2>The global move away from animal testing</h2>
<p>As a practice, it has had a turbulent history. It’s increasingly <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-australia-needs-to-catch-up-on-animal-research-transparency-27169">opposed by the public</a> but many governments – including Australia’s – require animal tests to be conducted for some potentially hazardous new cosmetic ingredients. </p>
<p>Most prominent in this arena is the European Union. After animal testing was first banned in Germany in 1986, it was extended to the entire Union in 2004. In 2009 the <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/cosmetics/animal-testing_en">ban was expanded to include ingredients</a>, not just the finished product. Then imports came under scrutiny, as Japan and the United States are major exporters to the EU, and imports of cosmetic products tested on animals were banned in 2013.</p>
<p>Since that time <a href="http://www.hsi.org/news/press_releases/2016/10/taiwan-bans-cosmetics-animal-testing-072116.html">Israel, India, Norway, New Zealand, South Korea, Turkey, Taiwan and parts of Brazil</a> have all banned testing of cosmetics on animals. However, the Humane Society International estimates that globally around <a href="http://www.hsi.org/issues/becrueltyfree/facts/about_cosmetics_animal_testing.html">100,000-200,000</a> animals are still used annually for this purpose. </p>
<p>The US is considering a ban, which would drastically diminish the market for any manufacturers still using animal testing. Until recently China required all cosmetics to be tested on animals, although this requirement has [now been <a href="http://www.cosmeticsdesign-asia.com/Regulation-Safety/China-ends-animal-testing-on-regular-cosmetics">relaxed</a> for non-specialised cosmetics such as hair, skin and nail care products, perfumes and make-up. </p>
<h2>Australia’s situation</h2>
<p>Until July 2018, animal testing will still be required in Australia for some cosmetic ingredients, as it is considered by the Department of Health to be the <a href="https://www.nicnas.gov.au/news-and-events/Topics-of-interest/subjects/animal-testing-and-cosmetics">best means of testing for potential toxicity</a>. After this time industrial chemicals scheduled for use only in cosmetics <a href="http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Bills_Legislation/Bills_Search_Results/Result?bId=r5885">may not be tested on animals</a>. Chemicals used for other purposes may still be tested on animals, providing a potential loophole for manufacturers. </p>
<p>However, many ingredients have already been extensively tested on animals, and there is no need to repeat this. For others, alternative means of testing are being developed, such as clinical trials on humans and use of skin samples from cosmetic surgery to test penetration levels. </p>
<p>There have been major advances in alternative testing methods in recent years. As well as clinical studies and skin tests, we can, for example, use hen’s eggs to test if a product is <a href="https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/iccvam/docs/protocols/ivocular-hetcam.pdf">likely to irritate human eyes</a>. In future <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/sites/default/files/lst_20140314_0.pdf">differentiated stem cells</a> may be used as well. </p>
<p>Australia already has in place a <a href="https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines-publications/ea28">code of practice</a> for the care and use of animals for scientific purposes. This requires research using animals to be licensed by an authority, usually associated with a university or government services. The committee evaluating applications has to be satisfied that the benefit to humans outweighs the harm to animals. </p>
<p>In the case of cosmetics, the harm to animals is often major and benefit to humans minor. However, my experience is that committees are likely to be persuaded that any government requirement for animal testing should be honoured. </p>
<p>The proposed bill will save animals from the suffering often associated with testing. Although Australia’s cosmetic industry is not large by international standards, it is growing rapidly, particularly in <a href="https://www.austrade.gov.au/International/Buy/Australian-industry-capabilities/consumer-goods">body and hair products, cosmeceuticals, sunscreen and anti-ageing products</a>. </p>
<p>Once this ban passes, it will be noted internationally. This, together with the increasing number of other countries banning all animal testing of cosmetics, suggests an international accord could be possible.</p>
<p>Over the past decade the international <a href="http://www.oie.int/">World Animal Health Organisation</a> – which primarily promotes animal disease control – has assumed responsibility for animal welfare standards worldwide. With 180 member states, it is in a good position to spearhead movement towards an international agreement. It already has a <a href="http://www.oie.int/index.php?id=169&L=0&htmfile=chapitre_aw_research_education.htm">Code of Practice for Use of Animals in Research and Education</a>, which recognises that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Animals should only be used when ethically justified and when no other alternative methods are available. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>This Code includes “harm versus benefit” ethical review, similarly to the existing Australian system, but without the government imperative to encourage or require animal testing. This could be used to deny companies the opportunity to conduct animal trials with cosmetics in countries still using them.</p>
<p>Eventually, it is clear, cosmetics will not be tested on animals anywhere in the world. Australia’s new regulations will be a small but valuable step towards this future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78768/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clive Phillips is on the Scientific Panel for Voiceless. He is a director of Minding Animals International. </span></em></p>A bill has been proposed to ban testing cosmetics on animals in Australia. It will only affect a small number of animals, but it’s an important step towards a global ban.Clive Phillips, Professor of Animal Welfare, Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/707682017-02-16T15:39:45Z2017-02-16T15:39:45ZMakeup isn’t a ‘lie’ for people living with facial disfigurements<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157151/original/image-20170216-12956-1bry7w2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> </figcaption></figure><p>Though it has been used for thousands of years, creating countless trends and spanning numerous civilisations, makeup is still <a href="https://theconversation.com/reaction-to-no-makeup-selfies-reveals-how-most-of-us-really-feel-about-cosmetics-24811">a polarising topic</a>.</p>
<p>At one end of the spectrum, those who can <a href="http://www.teenvogue.com/story/selfie-makeup">upload perfect selfies</a> to social media are commended for their skills. While at the other, those who do not wear it <a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/3am/style/3am-fashion-celebrity-beauty/10-gorgeous-bare-faced-celebs-8734445">are equally praised</a> for bravely being their own “gorgeous, beautiful, individual, unique self” – as <a href="http://www.lennyletter.com/style/a410/alicia-keys-time-to-uncover/">no makeup proponent Alicia Keys puts it</a>.</p>
<p>Yet there is another group who, throughout time, have used makeup for more than just beauty reasons: for those living with disfigured and visibly-different faces, cosmetics provide a defensive barrier against intrusive stares and comments as they go about their day-to-day lives. </p>
<p>Such sensitivity to facial appearance is nothing new; we have been concerned about our looks for thousands of years. In the 11th century, Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg in Germany wrote of his <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ha-8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA94&lpg=PA94&dq=Thietmar+of+Merseberg+ridiculous+broken+nose&source=bl&ots=eFKxBV5Y8x&sig=JHUVpU6Rpzl4V4fcznx8bFTB5LQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjL4MWG5pTSAhWlKsAKHZh2AfgQ6AEIHjAA#v=onepage&q=Thietmar%20of%20Merseberg%20ridiculous%20broken%20nose&f=false">“ridiculous” broken nose</a> and swelling in his cheek. In the 1960s, a writer with muscular dystrophy <a href="http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/978-1-137-54439-1_1/fulltext.html">commented</a> that he thought “a simple facial disfigurement is the worst disability of all – the quickly-suppressed flicker of revulsion is, I am certain, quite shattering”.</p>
<p>For those with facial differences, makeup can be the difference between living and having a life.</p>
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<h2>‘Normal’ beauty</h2>
<p>We are all aware that the idea of “beauty”, and how it is perceived, constantly changes. During the Renaissance <a href="https://sites.eca.ed.ac.uk/renaissancecosmetics/cosmetics-study-day/the-renaissance-makeover/">ivory skin and deep red lips</a> were the go-to look, for example, but by the time of the Victorians,
<a href="http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/the-poisonous-beauty-advice-columns-of-victorian-england">women were encouraged</a> to go for a <a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/objectretrieval/node/111">more subtle style</a>. </p>
<p>Early on, makeup was labelled as a tool to serve female vanity. The Christian preacher Tertullian, who lived during the second and third centuries, <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqh67TAWp-UC&pg=PT1205&lpg=PT1205&dq=%22they+who+rub+their+skin+with+medicaments,+stain+their+cheeks+with+rouge,+make+their+eyes+prominent+with+antimony,+sin+against+HIM.+To+them,+I+suppose,+the+plastic+skill+of+God+is+displeasing!%22&source=bl&ots=pmTQme7jRa&sig=8jtQOxnABuocCnthdiVRjqF63II&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj-xYmVw5TSAhVFKcAKHRRBD1MQ6AEIKjAG#v=onepage&q=%22they%20who%20rub%20their%20skin%20with%20medicaments%2C%20stain%20their%20cheeks%20with%20rouge%2C%20make%20their%20eyes%20prominent%20with%20antimony%2C%20sin%20against%20HIM.%20To%20them%2C%20I%20suppose%2C%20the%20plastic%20skill%20of%20God%20is%20displeasing!%22&f=false">thundered</a>, “they who rub their skin with medicaments, stain their cheeks with rouge, make their eyes prominent with antimony, sin against HIM. To them, I suppose, the plastic skill of God is displeasing!” </p>
<p>The problem, according to Tertullian, was why women would want to paint themselves when they had natural beauty to attract men. He bluntly associates such ornament with prostitution. Fast forward a few centuries, and 17th-century poets like Arthur Dowton were <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SXg7CQAAQBAJ&pg=PT54&lpg=PT54&dq=A+loam+wall+and+a+painted+face+are+one++For+th%27+beauty+of+them+both+is+quickly+gone++When+the+loam+is+fallen+off+then+lathes+appear++So+wrinkles+in+that+face+from+th%27eye+to+th%27ear.++The+chastest+of+your+sex+condemn+these+arts,++And+many+that+use+them,+have+rid+in+carts.&source=bl&ots=K-MSXYM2B4&sig=VbYJOjtxZx6d8cIrrmYIs6gemZI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjzv5S-w5TSAhUqJsAKHYXlAiIQ6AEIHjAA#v=onepage&q=A%20loam%20wall%20and%20a%20painted%20face%20are%20one%20%20For%20th'%20beauty%20of%20them%20both%20is%20quickly%20gone%20%20When%20the%20loam%20is%20fallen%20off%20then%20lathes%20appear%20%20So%20wrinkles%20in%20that%20face%20from%20th'eye%20to%20th'ear.%20%20The%20chastest%20of%20your%20sex%20condemn%20these%20arts%2C%20%20And%20many%20that%20use%20them%2C%20have%20rid%20in%20carts.&f=false">still making the same association</a>, with painted women likely to end up in a cart to the gallows:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A loam wall and a painted face are one
For th’ beauty of them both is quickly gone
When the loam is fallen off then lathes appear
So wrinkles in that face from th'eye to th'ear.
The chastest of your sex condemn these arts,
And many that use them, have rid in carts.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This belief, that makeup hides natural beauty, or <a href="https://www.bustle.com/articles/6925-is-it-unfair-to-men-when-women-wear-a-lot-of-makeup">is a “lie”</a>, is one that still crops up today. And yet both views ignore the fact that makeup products help both men and women lead “normal” lives.</p>
<h2>Changing lives</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2013/01/02/does-makeup-hurt-self-esteem/makeup-can-provide-a-fleeting-confidence-boost-to-some">confidence that makeup can give</a> to those who are facially different should not be underestimated. Whether it is a simple slick of eyeliner, or a fuller coverage, makeup historically has been the difference between countless wearers hiding away and feeling that they could face the world.</p>
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<p>People living with disfigured and visibly-different faces form a substantial minority, for whom cosmetics might provide a defensive barrier against intrusive stares as they go about their day-to-day lives. </p>
<p>However, makeup is not yet the best tool it could be to help those with diffrences. James Partridge – founder of charity Changing Faces, which offers a <a href="https://www.google.co.uk/search?sourceid=chrome-psyapi2&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8&q=changing%20faces%20skin%20camouflage%20clinic&oq=changing%20faces%20skin&aqs=chrome.1.69i57j0l4.3342j0j7">skin camouflage service</a> for people living with scarring or skin conditions that affect their appearance and confidence – has made clear that his work is about building confidence, and yet he has also admitted, that to him coverage “felt it was like wearing a crusty, odd-looking mask that made my face very conspicuous”.</p>
<p>The beauty industry is making moves to celebrate diversity of a kind, but extreme differences – that is to say, those that aren’t simple blemishes or acne scars – are still something to be hidden under coats of concealer and foundation, rather than shown to the world. Even though people like <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-1351435/Acid-attack-victim-Katie-Piper-attacked-going-boy-met-Facebook.html">acid attack victim</a> and popular model Katie Piper have stated that they use makeup as tools to be themselves, not to hide, the beauty business still perpetuates ideals that can only achieved by those without any serious disfigurement.</p>
<p>Will we ever live in a world where all can be comfortable with their appearance, disfigurement or not, makeup user or not? History might not give us the best examples but if we can accept that for some women and men makeup is a necessity, not a tool to deceive, those living with disfigurement may be able to finally feel comfortable in their own skin.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/70768/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patricia Skinner does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>For those with facial conditions and injuries, makeup can be the difference between living and having a life.Patricia Skinner, Professor of History, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/675802016-11-24T07:22:57Z2016-11-24T07:22:57ZTall, pale and handsome: why more Asian men are using skin-whitening products<p>Jose, 19, is a college student in Puerto Princesa City, Philippines. </p>
<p>On a regular school day, after he wakes up, he takes a shower, scrubbing his body using soap made of papaya (<em>Carica papaya</em>), a fruit that’s said to have skin-whitening properties. Afterwards, he applies a facial whitening lotion, and before finally going to school he uses SPF 30 sunscreen, again with whitening properties, on his face and arms. </p>
<p>Jose was one of many young people I met in my ethnographic work as part of the <a href="http://chemicalyouth.org">Chemical Youth Project</a>, a research programme that sought to document and make sense of the different chemicals that young people use in their everyday lives, from cosmetics to cigarettes. </p>
<p>Skin whitening among women <a href="http://pcij.org/stories/the-business-of-beauty/">has long been commonplace in the Philippines</a> and other parts of Asia and the world but, while working on this project, I was struck by the fact that young men too, are using a plethora of whitening products. And that these products have proliferated in various retail outlets, from shopping malls to small <em>sari-sari</em>, or neighbourhood, stores. </p>
<p>But this development is not unique to the Philippines either. A <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijd.12860/full">2015 study</a> found that the prevalence of skin-whitening product use among male university students in 26 low and middle-income countries was 16.7%. The figure was higher in many Asian countries: 17.4% in India, 25.4% in the Philippines, and 69.5% in Thailand. </p>
<p>In the Asia-Pacific region alone, the male cosmetics industry was <a href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/in-asia-mens-skin-care-takes-off-1401320768">estimated at $2.1 billion in 2016</a>. Whiteners are likely to be a significant component of this figure; a <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-4632.2010.04330.x/abstract">2010 study</a> reported that 61% of all cosmetics in India had a whitening effect.</p>
<h2>Views of whiteness</h2>
<p>How do we make sense of this phenomenon? First, it must be pointed that the preference for white skin, even among men, has existed in many parts of Asia since ancient times. </p>
<p>In <a href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/heia/hd_heia.htm">Heian Japan</a> (794 to 1185 AD) and <a href="http://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/china-history/the-ming-dynasty.htm">Ming China</a> (1368–1644), handsome men were described as having <a href="https://books.google.nl/books?id=BQcl4aCkY5MC">white or pale skin</a>. In <a href="https://books.google.nl/books?id=VPj2HIYXjYgC">one undated Philippine epic</a>, the hero covers his face with a shield so that the sun’s rays will not “lessen his handsome looks”.</p>
<p>Researchers have suggested that, in many societies, fair skin was a mark of class distinction. In her <a href="https://books.google.nl/books?id=4jHD4IN-N64C">2012 book Living Color</a>, American anthropologist Nina Jablonski explains: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Untanned skin was a symbol of the privileged class that was spared from outdoor labor … Dark-skinned people were deprecated because they were of the labouring class that worked out in the sun.</p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://books.google.nl/books?id=Dg4_FCU3OEgC">Others have suggested</a> that the association of whiteness with purity became conflated with the idea that white skin signifies spiritual and physical superiority. </p>
<p>Arguably, the colonial encounter lent another meaning to white skin, making it a marker of racial - not just class - distinction. Filipinos, for instance, were commonly referred to by the Americans as their “<a href="https://books.google.nl/books?id=hHzvx94oiUgC">little brown brothers</a>”, signifying an unequal fraternity based on height and skin colour. </p>
<p>But some scholars have also pointed out that many Asian people don’t necessarily aspire for a “Caucasian whiteness”, but a “<a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/410194">cosmopolitan whiteness</a>” that transcends race and signifies mobility across national borders.</p>
<p>Like the emergence of the “<a href="https://books.google.nl/books?id=esgaBgAAQBAJ">metrosexual</a>” (urban men who enjoy interests traditionally associated with women and homosexual men), the rise of male-specific whitening products may be explained by the demographic and social changes that have given rise to the view of the body as, in the <a href="https://books.google.nl/books?id=dfh9mI499IoC">words of UK sociologist Chris Shilling</a>, “a project that should be worked at and accomplished as part of an individual’s self-identity.”</p>
<p>It can also be attributed to <a href="https://www.sugataresearch.com/jp/news/blog/2015/02/16/%E8%8D%89%E9%A3%9F-soushoku-men-and-the-changing-definition-of-masculinity-in-japan/">changing notions of masculinity</a> that are no longer incompatible with the use of cosmetics or beauty products. </p>
<h2>Promises with side effects</h2>
<p>Today, cosmetics companies, through mass-mediated, star-studded advertising, build on these conditions. In India, Bollywood superstar Sharukh Khan <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7010885.stm">made headlines</a> by endorsing “Fair and Handsome” skin whitening cream in 2008. </p>
<p>In South Korea, K-pop superstars <a href="http://blog.euromonitor.com/2013/06/south-korea-largest-market-for-mens-skin-care-globally.html">promote homegrown brands</a> such as <a href="http://www.straitstimes.com/lifestyle/the-rise-of-k-beauty-in-singapore-and-globally">The Face Shop and Etude House</a>, and serve as ambassadors of a Korean male aesthetic: slim, youthful-looking, and fair-skinned.</p>
<p>While it is insightful to look at these historical and global trends, it’s also important to look at the individual users themselves, and the role whitening products play in their lives. </p>
<p>In my fieldwork, I met many young men who were motivated by perceived social and economic gain: 20-year-old call centre agent Edwin wanted to be more attractive to girls. </p>
<p>Jose, for his part, wanted to someday be a flight attendant. He told me, “If you’re fair-skinned, you’re noticeable, and that gives you a advantage.” </p>
<p>Their assumptions find empirical support in studies that suggest men with lighter skin <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/us/28immig.html">are more likely to get higher paying jobs</a>. In environments where young people only have their <a href="http://gas.sagepub.com/content/16/2/175.short">bodies as “capital”</a>, resorting to modification is understandable. </p>
<p>But from a public health perspective, the proliferation of whitening products raises questions of efficacy and safety, particularly in Asian countries without strong regulation. </p>
<p>For all their promised effects, there’s actually <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1529-8019.2007.00144.x/full">no proof that many products actually work</a>, and many of them have potentially grave side effects. Mercury, for instance, is a known toxin but it’s <a href="http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/tests-show-mercury-in-loreal-products-maharashtra-fda-3048779/">still found in skin whitening products in India</a>, even when it has long been <a href="http://www.who.int/ipcs/assessment/public_health/mercury_flyer.pdf">banned in many other countries</a>.</p>
<h2>Is it right?</h2>
<p>Alongside these health concerns, the moral debate continues. By shaping the way people people view their skin – and that of others – will its colour, which is determined by genes, occupation and lifestyle, become another layer of inequality?</p>
<p>And as with any other social issue, there has been dissent. Across Asia, a growing number of voices challenging the “<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00006.x/full">colourism</a>” they have to live with. Blogger Aswasthi Thomas, for instance, <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/im-indian-im-dark-and-i-dont-care_us_5813829be4b096e8706964e9">recently declared</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I’m Indian, I’m dark, and I don’t care.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But what these campaigns sometimes forget is that the quest for distinction through physical appearance is probably as old as humanity itself. And it’s unlikely to go away, especially when it is useful for people in their everyday lives. </p>
<p>Even so, as desires for dermatological perfection become increasingly commodified – and as skin becomes subjected to a host of chemicals – the point about restraint and reflection is well taken.</p>
<p>Indeed, as more and more men and women embrace the idea that “fair is handsome”, we need a deeper conversation about the motivations that underwrite the phenomenon of skin whitening, and the meaning of (un)fair skin.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/67580/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gideon Lasco does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Skin whitening among women has long been commonplace, but now young Asian men too, are using a plethora of whitening products.Gideon Lasco, PhD candidate in Medical Anthropology, Amsterdam Institute for Social Science Research (AISSR), University of AmsterdamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.