tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/marine-economy-19245/articlesmarine economy – The Conversation2023-11-02T19:12:25Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2126902023-11-02T19:12:25Z2023-11-02T19:12:25ZTaming wild northern rivers could harm marine fisheries and threaten endangered sawfish<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556797/original/file-20231031-23-pl3bb0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C0%2C2198%2C1504&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Google Earth Image Landsat/Copernicus</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s tropical northern rivers still run wild and free. These relatively pristine areas have so far avoided extensive development. But this might not last. There are <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/water/policy/national/northern-australia">ongoing scoping studies exploring irrigating agricultural land</a> using water from these rivers.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-023-01238-x">new research</a> in the journal Nature Sustainability shows disturbing the delicate water balance upstream can have major consequences downstream, even hundreds of kilometres away.</p>
<p>Using our latest computer modelling, we found northern water resource development would have substantial effects on prawn, mud crab and barramundi fisheries in the Gulf of Carpentaria. These are valuable Australian marine fisheries which depend on healthy estuaries. Reducing river flows would also disturb mangrove and seagrass habitats and threaten the iconic endangered largetooth sawfish.</p>
<p>Freshwater flows to the sea play a crucial role, boosting the productivity of marine, estuarine and freshwater systems. These complex interactions must be carefully considered in the assessment of future development plans.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556412/original/file-20231029-25-tiz5y6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic illustrating how altering river flow influences downstream estuarine and marine species and habitats" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556412/original/file-20231029-25-tiz5y6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556412/original/file-20231029-25-tiz5y6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556412/original/file-20231029-25-tiz5y6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556412/original/file-20231029-25-tiz5y6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556412/original/file-20231029-25-tiz5y6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556412/original/file-20231029-25-tiz5y6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556412/original/file-20231029-25-tiz5y6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Changing the natural river flow regime has consequences for estuarine and marine species and fisheries.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Chen in Plaganyi et al (2023) Nature Sustainability</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-we-protect-mangroves-we-protect-our-fisheries-our-towns-and-ourselves-214390">If we protect mangroves, we protect our fisheries, our towns and ourselves</a>
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</p>
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<h2>Rivers are our lifeblood</h2>
<p>Worldwide, few wild running rivers remain. Their future is uncertain given <a href="https://turningthetide.watercommission.org/">growing demand for water</a>. </p>
<p>Climate change is putting extra pressure on rivers as temperatures rise, rainfall patterns shift and <a href="https://theconversation.com/marine-heatwaves-are-getting-hotter-lasting-longer-and-doing-more-damage-95637">extreme events</a> become more frequent. </p>
<p>Rivers are the lifeblood of ecosystems and communities. They connect land, estuaries and the sea. But assessments of river developments <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/epdf/10.1126/science.abj4017">often focus narrowly on local effects</a>. They ignore the fact downstream estuaries and marine systems depend on freshwater flows. Few studies have calculated the costs of upstream catchment developments to downstream estuarine and marine ecosystems and fisheries.</p>
<p>We must avoid the <a href="https://theconversation.com/damming-northern-australia-we-need-to-learn-hard-lessons-from-the-south-53885">mistakes made in southern Australia</a> where <a href="https://theconversation.com/excessive-water-extractions-not-climate-change-are-most-to-blame-for-the-darling-river-drying-192621">too much water has been taken out of the system</a> for growing crops. That means carefully evaluating the design of dams or irrigation schemes, considering when, where and how much water should be taken – and the likely trade-offs. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556413/original/file-20231029-25-u36qo0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Photo showing many common banana prawns on a trawler. This is one of several species caught by the Northern Prawn Fishery" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556413/original/file-20231029-25-u36qo0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556413/original/file-20231029-25-u36qo0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556413/original/file-20231029-25-u36qo0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556413/original/file-20231029-25-u36qo0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556413/original/file-20231029-25-u36qo0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556413/original/file-20231029-25-u36qo0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556413/original/file-20231029-25-u36qo0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Yields of common banana prawn vary depending on river flows from multiple catchments.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NPF Industry Pty Ltd, Australian Council of Prawn Fisheries Ltd, Austral Fisheries and Raptis Seafoods</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why should we care about northern rivers?</h2>
<p>Australia’s remote northern rivers are one of the last strongholds for endangered species such as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-endangered-species-largetooth-sawfish-24558">largetooth sawfish</a>. These iconic species are born in estuaries before spending their first few years of life upstream in freshwater rivers. </p>
<p>Flows from these rivers also sustain extensive mangrove forests and seagrass beds. Periodic floods <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-10-30/barramundi-banana-prawns-could-be-threatened-gulf-of-carpentaria/12828280">boost the food supply</a> for many prized marine fisheries such as prawns, barramundi and <a href="https://tinyurl.com/2haudz3t">mud crabs</a>.</p>
<p>The rivers also have <a href="https://indigenousknowledge.unimelb.edu.au/curriculum/resources/indigenous-voices-in-water">cultural significance</a> for Aboriginal people and represent a valuable resource, providing food and supporting livelihoods. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556411/original/file-20231029-27-eror37.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of an endangered largetooth sawfish in shallow water" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556411/original/file-20231029-27-eror37.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556411/original/file-20231029-27-eror37.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556411/original/file-20231029-27-eror37.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556411/original/file-20231029-27-eror37.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556411/original/file-20231029-27-eror37.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556411/original/file-20231029-27-eror37.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556411/original/file-20231029-27-eror37.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Endangered largetooth sawfish are sensitive to changes in river flows.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rich Pillans/CSIRO</span></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/an-el-nino-hit-this-banana-prawn-fishery-hard-heres-what-we-can-learn-from-their-experience-139852">An El Niño hit this banana prawn fishery hard. Here’s what we can learn from their experience</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Using modelling to connect rivers, estuaries and oceans</h2>
<p>We coupled CSIRO’s sophisticated <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/showcase/nawra">river models</a> with our <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2012.00488.x">specially tailored ecosystem models</a> to represent how altering river flows may influence the downstream ecology and fishery yields. </p>
<p>We used catch data from fisheries to analyse how past natural changes in flow influenced catch rates. This was combined with extensive previous research on the biology and ecology of each species to model the dynamics of catchment-to-coast systems. We were particularly interested in the natural life cycles of fish and crustaceans in our unique northern wet-dry tropical rivers and estuaries. We then simulated multiple water resource development scenarios to assess and compare various impacts and ways to reduce them. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547140/original/file-20230908-15-efu6e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two column charts showing risk to key populations and fisheries in the Gulf of Carpentaria from changes in freshwater flows." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547140/original/file-20230908-15-efu6e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547140/original/file-20230908-15-efu6e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547140/original/file-20230908-15-efu6e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547140/original/file-20230908-15-efu6e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547140/original/file-20230908-15-efu6e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=707&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547140/original/file-20230908-15-efu6e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=707&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547140/original/file-20230908-15-efu6e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=707&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We quantified risk to key populations and fisheries in the Gulf of Carpentaria from changes in freshwater flows due to various hypothetical water resource developments (WRD).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Plagányi et al. (2023) Nature Sustainability</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For <a href="https://tinyurl.com/2haudz3t">mud crabs, we linked river flow</a> and other climate drivers to their life cycle and were able to show how past changes in flow could explain the past variation in crab catch, particularly for rivers in which flow was seasonally variable. We could then use this model to predict how crab catch and abundance might change in the future, depending on how much water is removed from rivers and the method of removal.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546574/original/file-20230906-27-vx8vj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Aerial image of an estuary feeding into the Gulf of Carpentaria" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546574/original/file-20230906-27-vx8vj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546574/original/file-20230906-27-vx8vj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546574/original/file-20230906-27-vx8vj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546574/original/file-20230906-27-vx8vj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546574/original/file-20230906-27-vx8vj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546574/original/file-20230906-27-vx8vj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546574/original/file-20230906-27-vx8vj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rivers connect land, estuaries and the sea. Large estuaries feed into the Gulf of Carpentaria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries</span></span>
</figcaption>
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<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-industry-lines-up-to-take-water-from-a-wild-top-end-river-trees-tell-the-story-of-a-much-drier-past-177221">As industry lines up to take water from a wild Top End river, trees tell the story of a much drier past</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Integrated management from catchment to coast</h2>
<p>Our research shows freshwater flows to the sea are crucial for environmentally and economically important species. Any plan to dam or extract freshwater from Australia’s last wild rivers should account for these effects.</p>
<p>Coupling scientific knowledge about marine and freshwater ecosystems with catchment development will improve infrastructure planning and flow management.</p>
<p>This is vital on a dry continent already <a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-weather-caused-by-climate-change-has-damaged-45-of-australias-coastal-habitat-120671">challenged by climate change</a>. Every drop counts.</p>
<p><em>The authors wish to acknowledge Annie Jarrett, Chief Executive Officer of NPF Industry Pty Ltd, which represents Northern Prawn Fishery operators, for her contribution to the research.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212690/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Éva Plagányi acknowledges Annie Jarrett, Chief Executive Officer of NPF Industry Pty Ltd, which represents Northern Prawn Fishery operators, for her contribution to the research.
Éva works for CSIRO and receives research funding from several sources, including the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation (FRDC) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA).
2018-079 Ecological modelling of the impacts of water development in the Gulf of Carpentaria with particular reference to impacts on the NPF was supported by funding from the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation on behalf of the Australian Government</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laura Blamey works for CSIRO, which receives research funding from several source, including the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation (FRDC) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michele Burford works for the Australian Rivers Institute, Griffith University and receives funding from several sources, including the National Environmental Science Program (NESP).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Kenyon works CSIRO, an organisation that receives research funding from several sources, including the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation (FRDC) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA).</span></em></p>Any plan to dam or extract water from some of Australia’s last wild rivers must carefully consider the consequences. Prawn, mud crab and barramundi fisheries could suffer in the Gulf of Carpentaria.Éva Plagányi, Senior Principal Research Scientist, CSIROLaura Blamey, Senior Research Scientist, CSIROMichele Burford, Professor - Australian Rivers Institute, and Dean - Research Infrastructure, Griffith UniversityRobert Kenyon, Marine Ecologist, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2136782023-10-02T14:37:50Z2023-10-02T14:37:50ZNigeria’s new blue economy ministry could harness marine resources - moving the focus away from oil<p><em>Nigeria’s President Bola Ahmed Tinubu announced a new <a href="https://www.channelstv.com/2023/08/16/full-list-of-ministers-and-portfolios/">ministerial portfolio</a> in August: Marine and Blue Economy. This was <a href="https://dailypost.ng/2023/08/22/long-overdue-creation-of-marine-and-blue-economy-ministry-excites-stakeholders/">welcome news</a> as it renewed hope for economic development outside the oil sector. We asked marine sustainability and blue economy <a href="https://iucn.org/our-union/commissions/group/iucn-ceesp-governance-equity-and-rights-thematic-group">expert</a> Isa Olalekan Elegbede to explain how the ministry could benefit Nigeria.</em></p>
<h2>Why has Nigeria established a new ministry for the blue economy?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-030-02006-4_401-1">blue economy</a> is the sustainable use of ocean and coastal resources for economic growth. It <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.00586/full">integrates environmental, social, economic and institutional objectives</a> into the use of marine resources. It <a href="https://blue-economy-observatory.ec.europa.eu/eu-blue-economy-sectors_en">includes a wide range of sectors and resources</a> related to oceans, seas, coasts and waterways.</p>
<p>The ocean economy supports <a href="https://www.oecd.org/ocean/topics/ocean-economy/">90% of global trade</a> and <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/oceans-fisheries-and-coastal-economies">provides millions of jobs</a>. It includes shipping, tourism and offshore energy <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/06/human-impact-ocean-economy/">valued at US$24 trillion</a>. </p>
<p>Marine fisheries and reefs, sea grass and mangroves are worth US$6.9 trillion; trade and transport US$5.2 trillion; and coastline productivity and carbon absorption US$12.1 trillion. </p>
<p>Nigeria’s establishment of a Ministry of Marine and Blue Economy is a strategic move. I believe the ministry will tap the country’s rich marine resources as an element of the national economic framework. </p>
<p>Nigeria’s coastline <a href="https://fcwc-fish.org/other-news/nigerian-navy-at-64-a-sustained-fight-against-maritime-crimes">stretches</a> for 420 nautical miles and covers an exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical miles. Its maritime interests span the Gulf of Guinea, covering roughly 574,800 square nautical miles with a 2,874 nautical mile coastline.</p>
<p>Marine resources can be exploited to create jobs and transform Nigeria into a <a href="https://venturesafrica.com/now-that-nigeria-has-created-a-ministry-of-marine-and-blue-economy/">leader in sustainable marine activities</a>. It will help diversify the country’s oil-based economy as well. <a href="https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2021/07/Blue-Bio-Economy-in-Norway.pdf">Norway</a> is an example of how this has been done successfully.</p>
<h2>What four areas should the ministry focus on?</h2>
<p>Nigeria hopes to generate over <a href="https://punchng.com/what-you-need-to-know-about-ministry-of-marine-and-blue-economy/">US$1.5 trillion annually</a> from exploiting its marine resources. To achieve this, the ministry should do the following:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Create an inclusive committee for effective collaboration among stakeholders and partners. The committee should include scientists, NGOs, youth and traditional communities. Indigenous peoples, persons with disabilities, and the relevant <a href="https://www.legit.ng/politics/1549451-list-ministries-created-by-president-tinubu-ministers/">federal government agencies</a> should not be left out. The committee should advance beyond the scope of the Expanded Committee on Sustainable Blue Economy in Nigeria inaugurated by the former president Muhammadu Buhari.</p></li>
<li><p>Integrate sustainability into policies and strategies. Policies should prioritise sustainable marine resource use. Strategies should focus on sustainable and ethical harvesting, trading, extraction and tourism. Blue economy personnel, unemployed youths and women should be trained. Improved programmes would foster sustainable practices and raise the sector’s contribution to the country’s gross domestic product. </p></li>
<li><p>Sustain investment in ports, transport systems and storage facilities. The same should apply to research and technology. Aquaculture, offshore energy and marine biotechnology should be advanced to increase efficiency and sustainability. Additionally, remote coastal communities should have <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/water/marine-energy-blue-economy">access</a> to resilient and blue renewable energy sources and systems to enhance protection of coastal and ocean resources.</p></li>
<li><p>Check mismanagement. To ensure a sustainable future for all, the government should protect coastal and marine ecosystems. Mismanagement could destabilise the delicate balance of these ecosystems. This is crucial, considering the <a href="https://enveurope.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s12302-021-00502-1">intricate relationship between the blue economy and marine habitats</a>. Neglect puts fish resources at risk and endangers vital sectors like maritime transport, energy and fishing. Cooperation and commitment to stewardship are therefore imperative to maintaining the health and productivity of the oceans.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>What benefits will Nigerians feel if these steps are taken?</h2>
<p>Oil is a key revenue source for the country. But it has led to major environmental problems. Harnessing the blue economy could be a game changer for Nigeria.</p>
<p>First, it could create jobs and generate income from fisheries, aquaculture, tourism, shipping and renewable energy. </p>
<p>Second, a blue economy could mitigate environmental damage as it enables the restoration of marine ecosystems. Unlike oil, fisheries are renewable. Nigeria’s oil-rich Niger Delta has experienced severe environmental harm. A shift to greener energy supplies could make a massive difference.</p>
<p>Third, it creates the opportunity to grow the tourism sector. Seychelles and Mauritius are examples of countries that earn foreign exchange from marine exports and tourism. </p>
<p>Fourth, it could help attract investment to Nigeria’s marine infrastructure, fisheries and technology. </p>
<p>Fifth, it could help decrease regional and social inequalities in coastal communities. </p>
<p>Finally, investment in the blue economy could encourage marine biology, oceanography and marine technology research. This could, in turn, lead to global innovations. </p>
<p>Despite competition from more experienced countries in the marine industry, the blue economy offers Nigeria significant potential. Strategic planning, global partnerships and investment can make it a reality.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213678/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Isa O Elegbede is presently affiliated with the Lagos State University and with many international and local NGOs, such as Geo Blue Planet, IUCN/CEESP/TGER; he is also the president of Sayne Development Foundation and Executive director of Pearlrose Foundation. He has received a fellowship grant from Ocean Frontier institute (OFI) in Canada and several international organisations in the past.</span></em></p>Nigeria’s new marine and blue economy ministry has promise but it must be well run.Isa Olalekan Elegbede, Lecturer, Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-SenftenbergLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2039082023-04-18T20:01:01Z2023-04-18T20:01:01ZA forgotten and neglected ecosystem covers a third of Earth’s coastlines, with a collective value of $500 billion<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521495/original/file-20230418-20-ivxgck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=67%2C40%2C2874%2C1935&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Joe Belanger/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Underwater forests known as kelp have been sustaining people and cultures for millennia. However, most of us are only vaguely aware of the vibrant masses of seaweed hugging the ocean shores around Earth. Furthermore, we don’t realise how valuable and necessary they really are.</p>
<p>In a new study <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37385-0">published today in Nature Communications</a>, we have produced the first global estimate of the economic value of kelp forests – revealing they provide hundreds of billions of dollars in value to humans across the world.</p>
<h2>A human history of kelp</h2>
<p>Along the Pacific, kelp harvest has long played an important role in Asian societies. In Japan, seaweed was among the marine products people could use to pay taxes, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/raq.12524">according to a law code from the year 701</a>.</p>
<p>In Medieval Europe, kelp was used to fertilise soil and increase crop yields, to treat <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/goitre#:%7E:text=Goitre%20is%20an%20enlarged%20thyroid,hard%20to%20breathe%20or%20swallow.">goitre</a>, and was used to fortify building materials <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-4057-4_24">for centuries</a>. In the 21st century kelp forests have become the <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-6910-9_2">main source for alginate</a>, a common food and medical additive.</p>
<p>And throughout this time, kelps have supported <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environmental-conservation/article/kelp-forest-ecosystems-biodiversity-stability-resilience-and-future/105EB05670376912F180E116D64135D6">teeming ecosystems</a> and important <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12483">fisheries</a> of abalone, lobsters and many different types of fishes. Through their prolific productivity, kelp forests <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12601-015-0001-9">draw carbon from the atmosphere</a>, exude oxygen, and help reduce <a href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v531/p155-166/">nutrient pollution in our oceans</a>.</p>
<p>A marine marvel, hidden kelp forests spread across <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327606143_Status_and_Trends_for_the_World%27s_Kelp_Forests">almost one third of our world’s coastlines</a> and lie within 50km of 740 million people. If you live in London, Tokyo, New York, Vancouver, Santiago, Cape Town, Los Angeles or Lisbon, you have one of these ecosystems on your doorstep.</p>
<p>Yet they tend to be forgotten or misunderstood. People often aren’t even aware of a kelp forest, and if they are, they might be most familiar with a pile of decomposing seaweed on the beach after a storm.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521237/original/file-20230417-22-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An underwater view of seaweed in blue water with fishes swimming through" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521237/original/file-20230417-22-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521237/original/file-20230417-22-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521237/original/file-20230417-22-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521237/original/file-20230417-22-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521237/original/file-20230417-22-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521237/original/file-20230417-22-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521237/original/file-20230417-22-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A kelp forest is a rich habitat, a provider of oxygen and a sequester of carbon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Andrew b Stowe/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This disconnect has real-world implications. Despite sitting next to some of the biggest research centres on the planet and likely covering <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/geb.13515">more seafloor than any other biotic habitat</a>, research and conservation of kelp forests is <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jpy.13239">terribly behind</a> other ecosystems.</p>
<p>This knowledge gap impedes desperately needed action and conservation. Kelp populations in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-51114-y">northern California</a>, <a href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v653/p1-18/">Tasmania</a>, and the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0229703">Salish Sea</a> have all but disappeared in living memory. Elsewhere, kelp populations have been <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1606102113">continually declining</a> over the last 50 years.</p>
<p>What we value and how we value it is actually quite a complicated process. And despite the fact we make value judgements over and over each day, we have a really poor understanding of something’s value if it doesn’t have a price tag on it.</p>
<p>Our natural world is perhaps the ultimate value provider – everything we do in our societies is ultimately tied to nature, ecosystems, and a healthy planet. But because these processes and benefits happen with or without humans, they are often taken for granted.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521236/original/file-20230417-24-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A white sandy beach with masses of black seaweed lying in the sun" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521236/original/file-20230417-24-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521236/original/file-20230417-24-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521236/original/file-20230417-24-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521236/original/file-20230417-24-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521236/original/file-20230417-24-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521236/original/file-20230417-24-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521236/original/file-20230417-24-w9r1p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The seaweed we step over on our beaches is just a small fraction of the vibrant kelp ecosystems beneath the waves.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/1Y-x8lPnqDU">Andrew Dawes/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So, what is the ‘value’ of a kelp forest?</h2>
<p>Our research has brought together data from all across our oceans to produce a global estimate of the economic value of kelp forest ecosystems. Looking at six key genera of kelp – <em>Macrocystis</em>, <em>Nereocystis</em>, <em>Laminaria</em>, <em>Saccharina</em>, <em>Ecklonia</em>, and <em>Lessonia</em> – and the potential economic value of the fisheries they support, the carbon they pull from the atmosphere, and the nutrient pollution they remove from the water, we found that kelp forests are valued at US$500 billion per year.</p>
<p>The highest of these values was the removal of excess nitrogen from the water, which can trigger blooms of algae, reduced water quality, and <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/mission-areas/water-resources/science/nutrients-and-eutrophication">ultimately oxygen-depleted dead zones</a>.</p>
<p>A close second was the fisheries values – kelp forests support some of our most iconic fisheries, including lobster and abalone.</p>
<p>Lastly, despite finding the carbon sequestration of kelp forests was comparable to other terrestrial and marine ecosystems, the economic value was much lower, as society has yet to place a high price on carbon. This finding suggests that carbon credits may not be an economic driver of kelp conservation, but kelp forests still play an important role in the blue carbon cycle.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521498/original/file-20230418-14-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An orange fish with a long snout and limbs swimming among kelp" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521498/original/file-20230418-14-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521498/original/file-20230418-14-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521498/original/file-20230418-14-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521498/original/file-20230418-14-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521498/original/file-20230418-14-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521498/original/file-20230418-14-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521498/original/file-20230418-14-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Weedy seadragons are just one of many fishes living in kelp forests.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/johnwturnbull/41749070410/in/album-72157703596928075/">John Turnbull/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The future of kelp</h2>
<p>When nature is treated as a freebie, where we can take what we want and not pay for the damages, this attitude has direct consequences; people and the environment suffer.</p>
<p>First, it can mean that people and government don’t see the value in protecting and restoring ecosystems. Second, development projects are <a href="https://theconversation.com/environment-laws-have-failed-to-tackle-the-extinction-emergency-heres-the-proof-122936">able to destroy nature</a> without compensating for those damages.</p>
<p>Lastly, it leads to poor management. How can we manage something if we cannot quantify it? Imagine if you didn’t know where your bank account was, or how much money was in it.</p>
<p>The battle to save our kelp forests is just getting started, and we need greater action to protect these intrinsically and economically valuable marine ecosystems.</p>
<p>That is why researchers like me have started the not-for-profit <a href="https://kelpforestalliance.com/who-we-are">Kelp Forest Alliance</a>, and have now launched the <a href="https://kelpforestalliance.com/kelp-forest-challenge">Kelp Forest Challenge</a>, a global call to protect and restore 4 million hectares of kelp forest by 2040. This is a call for governments to meet their commitments to the <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/kunming-montreal-global-biodiversity-framework">Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework</a> and act now to save these ecosystems and #HelpTheKelp.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whether-youre-a-snorkeller-or-ceo-you-can-help-save-our-vital-kelp-forests-202620">Whether you're a snorkeller or CEO, you can help save our vital kelp forests</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203908/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aaron Eger is the Founder and Program Director of the Kelp Forest Alliance, a research driven not-for-profit organization. He is also a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the University of New South Wales Sydney. The Kelp Forest Alliance is supported by the Nature Conservancy, The Banner Foundation, the Van Dyson Foundation, and UNSW Sydney.</span></em></p>We cannot afford to ignore kelp – these vibrant underwater forests have sustained people and ecosystems for centuries, and continue to do so today.Aaron Eger, Postdoctoral research fellow, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1868882022-08-01T11:27:06Z2022-08-01T11:27:06ZHow the blue economy will shape the future of Canada’s oceans — and its coastal communities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476348/original/file-20220727-1405-ekc364.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C26%2C2986%2C1971&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Aerial view of salmon fish farms, Grand Manan Island, N.B.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The words “blue economy” will soon shape <a href="https://biv.com/article/2022/03/what-canadians-think-blue-economy">the future of Canada’s oceans</a>, from the fiords and straits of British Columbia to the rugged coastlines of the Atlantic to the vast seascapes of the Arctic. The transformation of Canada’s ocean economies will be felt throughout the country and will set an example for nations around the world. </p>
<p>But what is a blue economy? And what makes it different from business as usual? </p>
<p>The term blue economy was first championed by <a href="https://www.un.org/ohrlls/content/about-small-island-developing-states">small-island developing countries</a>, including Fiji, Bahamas and Palau, to bring more local benefits from ocean industries. Developing a blue economy means establishing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2019.103702">ocean spaces and industries that are socially equitable, environmentally sustainable and economically profitable</a>. </p>
<p>Canada has been a key player in these efforts, including by <a href="https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/campaign-campagne/bec-ceb/index-eng.html">supporting the first global conference on a blue economy</a>, held in Nairobi in 2018 with over 18,000 participants. Now Canada is bringing the blue economy to its own waters. </p>
<p>As researchers at the intersection of ocean resources, justice and policy, we believe that a Canadian blue economy can have huge benefits for all — if done well. At stake are flashpoint issues like oil and gas expansion, aquaculture and the protection of species at risk. More deeply, Canada will have to decide which people and places will benefit from new ocean investment, and who will be impacted. </p>
<h2>Blue economies old and new</h2>
<p>For industries like fisheries, aquaculture, tourism or shipping, achieving blue economies will mean deep transformations to address unsustainable practices, such as pollution or overfishing. New technologies, such as automated and deep-sea vessels, as well as ecological and social research will also be needed, especially for emerging sectors like wave and tidal energy or <a href="https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/">blue carbon</a> — the management of seagrasses, mangroves, marshes and kelp ecosystems for carbon offsetting.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-mangrove-forest-mapping-tool-puts-conservation-in-reach-of-coastal-communities-151458">New mangrove forest mapping tool puts conservation in reach of coastal communities</a>
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<p>But what sets a blue economy apart from business as usual is its focus on social equity and environmental justice. These guiding principles aim to recognize and include all individuals, prioritize the fair sharing of benefits and burdens and protect vulnerable peoples from environmental and economic impacts, natural or human-caused. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A green-hulled fishing boat moving through blue water around a rocky point of land." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476162/original/file-20220726-10636-2pv711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476162/original/file-20220726-10636-2pv711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476162/original/file-20220726-10636-2pv711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476162/original/file-20220726-10636-2pv711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476162/original/file-20220726-10636-2pv711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476162/original/file-20220726-10636-2pv711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476162/original/file-20220726-10636-2pv711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A fishing boat from the Sipekne'katik First Nation prepares for the start of its self-regulated treaty lobster fishery in Saulnierville, N.S., on Aug. 16, 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Andrew Vaughan</span></span>
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<p>Although governments and industry are investing in new technology and research to track habitat and climate, and are aiming for environmental sustainability, these are now hardly ground-breaking commitments. Past ocean development has illustrated that ensuring benefits to frontline communities and marginalized populations, and avoiding harm to these people, will not happen on its own. </p>
<p>There are some good examples in Canada of how this can work well, including the federal government’s <a href="https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/aboriginal-autochtones/action-plan-action/index-eng.html">Integrated Commercial Fisheries Initiatives</a>. In the North, Atlantic and Pacific regions, these programs subsidize and support business capacity and technology for Indigenous-owned companies to invest in fisheries and aquaculture. While working within environmental guidelines, these companies can decide how to run their businesses in ways that fit their cultural as well as business goals. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/conflict-over-mikmaw-lobster-fishery-reveals-confusion-over-who-makes-the-rules-148978">Conflict over Mi'kmaw lobster fishery reveals confusion over who makes the rules</a>
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<p>But our research shows <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03327-3">nations around the world lack the capacity to enable equitable ocean industries</a> and are still struggling to address corruption, human rights and basic infrastructure to build their ocean development plans. Adopting a blue economy approach would change that by first focusing on these basic enabling governance conditions.</p>
<p>For Canada to achieve a blue economy, it would need to develop policy strategies that address complex issues, including Indigenous fishing, ocean conservation, sustainable use, climate change and offshore oil and gas production. Because of their connectivity and role in human relationships, oceans are an important arena where these commitments play out. </p>
<h2>‘Sustainable’ offshore oil?</h2>
<p>The example of offshore oil and gas is a peculiar yet important aspect of Canada’s future blue economy. Under the simplest logic, the production of offshore oil and gas — non-renewable resources — cannot be part of a blue economy approach defined by equity and sustainability. This is clear given the historically <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abc8041">uneven concentration of economic benefits</a> from the oil industry and its <a href="https://www.vox.com/down-to-earth/22708654/oil-spills-wildlife-huntington-beach-california">chronic — and sometimes catastrophic — pollution</a> of local ecosystems. </p>
<p>The inclusion of oil is especially problematic considering its contribution to climate change. Governments can propose arguments and new <a href="https://hbr.org/2022/04/we-need-better-carbon-accounting-heres-how-to-get-there">book-keeping</a> to deflect accountability for downstream emissions linked to their oil and gas production, but global climate, the oceans and people will be impacted nonetheless. </p>
<p>The recent <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/jonathan-wilkinson-offshore-oil-1.6511480">approval of the Bay du Nord offshore oil project in Newfoundland and Labrador</a> illustrates the conflict between blue economy narratives and actions. The project is supported and justified partially because of lower emissions per barrel produced relative to oil production elsewhere. Yet it <a href="https://thenarwhal.ca/bay-du-nord-newfoundland-approved/">ignores the emissions that consumption of the oil itself will generate</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map showing various oil deposits offshore of Newfoundland and Labrador." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476163/original/file-20220726-37535-dxpisq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476163/original/file-20220726-37535-dxpisq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476163/original/file-20220726-37535-dxpisq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476163/original/file-20220726-37535-dxpisq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476163/original/file-20220726-37535-dxpisq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476163/original/file-20220726-37535-dxpisq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476163/original/file-20220726-37535-dxpisq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Bay du Nord project consists of several oil discoveries in the Flemish Pass basin. The Norwegian oil major Equinor made the first discovery in 2013, with several others in the following years. The project will drill for oil in deep sea waters, about 500 kilometres from St. John’s, N.L.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Equinor)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As we argue in a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/su14138132">recent peer-reviewd article</a>, offshore oil and gas production could only be included within a blue economy under the strictest of guidelines: no further expansion of the oil industry could take place; subsidies to the oil sector would have to be redirected to local sustainable industries; and the blue economy plan would have to detail clear strategies, timelines and funding commitments for just transitions away from oil and gas. </p>
<h2>A Canadian blue economy</h2>
<p>According to the most recent federal government report <em><a href="https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/about-notre-sujet/blue-economy-economie-bleue/engagement-paper-document-mobilisation/heard-entendu-eng.html">Engaging on Canada’s Blue Economy Strategy: What we heard</a></em>, Canadians want a new approach to ocean management and development, one that acknowledges and supports traditional relationships and industries and benefits coastal communities even while engaging with new technologies and sectors. Regulations and co-created policies and guidelines will be essential to achieve these goals in ways that are new and not just business as usual. </p>
<p>As Canada and nations across the world work to establish equitable, sustainable and viable blue economies, finding ocean resources will be the easy part. The challenge will be in making sure that these resources benefit frontline coastal communities now and in the future. </p>
<p>Listening to the diverse perspectives of Canadians is a good start that must now be followed with meaningful and ongoing support for truly transformative and equitable ocean policies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186888/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrés M. Cisneros-Montemayor receives funding from Nippon Foundation Ocean Nexus Center. He is on an advisory committee for Fisheries and Oceans Canada's Pacific Integrated Commercial Fisheries Initiative. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leah M. Fusco receives funding from the Nippon Foundation Ocean Nexus Center. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marleen Schutter receives funding from the Nippon Foundation Ocean Nexus Center.</span></em></p>Ocean equity will be the key for achieving blue economies in Canada and the worldAndrés M. Cisneros-Montemayor, Assistant Professor, Resource & Environmental Management, Simon Fraser UniversityLeah M. Fusco, Postdoctoral researcher, Department of Geography, Memorial University of NewfoundlandMarleen Simone Schutter, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/685692016-11-14T21:58:38Z2016-11-14T21:58:38ZUnderwater health check shows kelp forests are declining around the world<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145736/original/image-20161114-21945-wlf6pp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kelps form Australia's neglected Great Southern Reef. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Turnbull</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Kelp forests are declining around the world and in Australia, according to two new studies. </p>
<p>The first, a global study <a href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1606102113">published in the journal PNAS</a>, found that 38% of the world’s kelp forests have declined over the past 50 years. </p>
<p>The second, <a href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1610725113">published in the same PNAS edition</a>, investigated one cause of the declines. Kelp forests in eastern Australia are losing out to tropical species as the seas warm. </p>
<p>Together the studies show that we need local and global solutions to prevent our underwater forests from vanishing. </p>
<h2>Deep trouble</h2>
<p>Satirist Jordan Shanks recently argued that marine biologists may well have <a href="http://www.sbs.com.au/comedy/article/2014/08/15/great-barrier-reef-and-why-marine-biologists-have-worlds-worst-job">the worst job on Earth</a>. Although most people think we spend our days diving in crystal-clear blue waters, spotting whales and sailing into the sunset, this is actually quite far from the truth. </p>
<p>More often than not, our job unfortunately involves documenting the depressing deterioration and decline of precious marine habitats.</p>
<p>While bleaching of coral reefs <a href="http://www.globalcoralbleaching.org/">worldwide</a> has been front and centre in the news over the past year, in fact all of our coastal ecosystems have been affected by human impacts. </p>
<p>One such ecosystem is the underwater forests formed by the large seaweeds known as kelp, which dominate temperate, coastal rocky shores worldwide.</p>
<p>Kelp forests are found in waters off all continents, and around Australia they form the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=clWCpejKrEc">Great Southern Reef</a> which stretches from the Queensland border to near Kalbarri in Western Australia, and contributes more than <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-other-reef-is-worth-more-than-10-billion-a-year-but-have-you-heard-of-it-45600">A$10 billion annually</a> to the Australian economy. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145735/original/image-20161114-21908-1eg2xvw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145735/original/image-20161114-21908-1eg2xvw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145735/original/image-20161114-21908-1eg2xvw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145735/original/image-20161114-21908-1eg2xvw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145735/original/image-20161114-21908-1eg2xvw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145735/original/image-20161114-21908-1eg2xvw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145735/original/image-20161114-21908-1eg2xvw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Although this year’s global coral bleaching event has been most featured in the media, we should be at least equally concerned about the loss of kelp forests in cooler waters.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Clockwise from top left: A. Vergés, Creative Commons, J. Turnbull, A. Vergés</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A health check for global kelp forests</h2>
<p>In the first study, the authors provide the first ever global “health check” for kelp forests. <a href="https://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/projects/12660">A team of international experts</a> compiled and analysed a data set of kelp abundance at more than 1,000 sites across 34 regions around the globe.</p>
<p>While 38% of the world’s kelp forests have declined, it isn’t all bad news. Just over 25% of kelp forests have actually increased in abundance.</p>
<p>But there is another big problem: there are many regions where kelp exists, but we have no data and simply no idea how it’s doing. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145731/original/image-20161114-21922-1h71cqh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145731/original/image-20161114-21922-1h71cqh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145731/original/image-20161114-21922-1h71cqh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145731/original/image-20161114-21922-1h71cqh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145731/original/image-20161114-21922-1h71cqh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145731/original/image-20161114-21922-1h71cqh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145731/original/image-20161114-21922-1h71cqh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A kelp forest in South Africa. The species Ecklonia maxima is one of the few kelps that are expanding its distribution. This species is ‘the giant cousin’ of the common kelp in Australia, Ecklonia radiata.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">T. Wernberg</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unfortunately, Australia’s kelp forests feature heavily among the declining populations. Kelp forests have declined in Western Australia, South Australia, Tasmania and New South Wales. The causes of this loss are diverse, but share a common factor: people. </p>
<p>In Western Australia kelp forests were wiped out during an extreme <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/353/6295/169">marine heatwave</a>, which was probably a consequence of climate change. In <a href="http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps_oa/m360p063.pdf">South Australia</a>, the kelp has succumbed to years of pollution from nutrient-rich wastewater. </p>
<p>And in <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022098111000803">Tasmania</a>, warming has enabled a kelp-eating sea urchin to jump from the mainland and graze on local kelp forests. This was compounded by overfishing of <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/106/52/22341.short">large lobsters</a>, which normally eat the urchins.</p>
<h2>Turning tropical</h2>
<p>The second paper shows that a phenomenon known as “<a href="https://theconversation.com/sydneys-waters-could-be-tropical-in-decades-heres-the-bad-news-31523">tropicalisation</a>” of ecosystems is now threatening kelp forests in New South Wales, and potentially globally.</p>
<p>Tropicalisation occurs as ocean waters warm and tropical species start making a home in habitats previously dominated by cold-water species. In the case of NSW kelp forests, these tropical intruders are herbivorous fishes that eat the kelp – sometimes down to the ground.</p>
<p>Our initial research has shown that, over ten years, lush kelp forests have completely disappeared in some key offshore sites at the <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/marine-protected-areas/marine-parks/solitary-islands-marine-park">Solitary Islands Marine Park</a>. This region is famous for bringing together a unique mosaic of tropical and temperate habitats, but our data clearly shows that tropical species are winning and starting to take over.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145732/original/image-20161114-21948-9hwtl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145732/original/image-20161114-21948-9hwtl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145732/original/image-20161114-21948-9hwtl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145732/original/image-20161114-21948-9hwtl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145732/original/image-20161114-21948-9hwtl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145732/original/image-20161114-21948-9hwtl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145732/original/image-20161114-21948-9hwtl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Screen grabs from Baited Remote Underwater Videos collected by Dr Hamish Malcolm, showing dense kelp beds back in the early 2000s that completely disappeared from 2010 onwards.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hamish Malcolm</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We were able to quantify the year-by-year decline of kelp using a long-term video dataset collected by <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/content/research/staff/hamish-malcolm">Hamish Malcolm</a> from the <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/">NSW Department for Primary Industries</a>.</p>
<p>The video footage revealed not only the gradual decline of kelp, but also helped us identify fish as central culprits behind this disappearance. Between 2002 and 2012, we saw both an increase in the number of fish bite marks on kelp and a clear rise in the abundance of warm-water seaweed-eating species.</p>
<p>We also ran a series of kelp transplant experiments, which identified two warm-water fish species that rapidly consumed transplanted kelp within hours: a rabbitfish and a drummer. </p>
<p>Interestingly, however, the species that we think had the greatest effect, surgeonfish, did not actually feed on the adult kelp. Instead, the surgeonfish rapidly consumed smaller carpet-forming seaweeds. This suggests these “tropicalising” fishes maintain deforested reefs by removing kelp while they are tiny, before they start making large fronds. </p>
<p>These NSW findings are by no means an isolated phenomenon. Voracious consumption by invading warm-water fish have also been linked to the loss or failure to recover of kelp forests in Japan and in <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-marine-heatwave-has-wiped-out-a-swathe-of-was-undersea-kelp-forest-62042">Western Australia</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tzVsxdZC8ho?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Frenzied feeding on transplanted kelp by a school of rabbitfish (Siganus fuscescens) is only briefly interrupted by a large predator in the Solitary Islands, eastern Australia.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What can we do?</h2>
<p>Both studies found a net decline in the abundance of kelp forests, from both local (nutrients, fishing) and global (ocean warming and its effects) effects of humans. If we want to arrest these declines, action is therefore required at both local and global scales. </p>
<p>Locally, water quality around some major cities has been improved. When coupled with active restoration efforts of damaged seaweeds, this can lead to conservation success stories like the return of <a href="http://www.operationcrayweed.com">crayweed</a> forests to Sydney. <a href="https://theconversation.com/marine-reserves-help-fish-resist-climate-change-invaders-20960">Marine reserves</a>, where fishing is prohibited, can also reduce the ability of warm-water species to colonise cooler habitats.</p>
<p>But of course, ultimately, global action is needed to prevent further climate change impacts. That includes reduction in our greenhouse gas emissions, in <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-can-stop-greenhouse-gas-emissions-by-2050-heres-how-44175">Australia</a> and around the world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68569/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adriana Vergés receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Steinberg receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Wernberg receives funding from The Australian Research Council and The Hermon Slade Foundation. </span></em></p>Cool-water kelp forests are being eaten by tropical species moving south on warming waters.Adriana Vergés, Senior Lecturer in marine ecology, UNSW SydneyPeter Steinberg, Director of SIMS and Co-director of CMB, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, UNSW SydneyThomas Wernberg, ARC Future Fellow in Marine Ecology, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/562982016-03-27T21:46:50Z2016-03-27T21:46:50ZNew laws for the high seas: four key issues the UN talks need to tackle<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116300/original/image-20160324-28192-911fo1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The oceans are teeming with life and potential – but the high seas are still largely ungoverned.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Les Watling/NOAA</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>United Nations negotiations begin today in New York on the elements of an <a href="https://theconversation.com/historic-un-talks-could-save-the-high-seas-56449">international agreement</a> to govern the conservation and sustainable use of the high seas.</p>
<p>Every country will have a seat at these <a href="http://www.un.org/depts/los/biodiversity/prepcom.htm">inaugural negotiations</a> on conservation beyond their borders. More than half of the world’s ocean lies outside national jurisdictions, and this vast wilderness is the legal equivalent of the Wild West.</p>
<p>Nations and corporations look beyond national boundaries for deep-sea minerals, new drug compounds and, of course, for fish to catch. Tensions can arise when these commercial interests overlap with one another, or with conservation efforts.</p>
<p>The new laws about to be agreed, under the existing <a href="http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf">UN Convention on the Law of the Sea</a>, will aim to improve the current fragmented and industry-based governance of the high seas. Universal, coherent and sustainable regulations will be crucial to protect wildlife in the waters beyond national jurisdiction.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116301/original/image-20160324-28215-14acb3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116301/original/image-20160324-28215-14acb3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116301/original/image-20160324-28215-14acb3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116301/original/image-20160324-28215-14acb3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116301/original/image-20160324-28215-14acb3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116301/original/image-20160324-28215-14acb3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116301/original/image-20160324-28215-14acb3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">More than 50% of the global ocean lies in areas beyond national jurisdiction (light blue). The ‘high seas’ and international seabed area lie beyond the exclusive economic zone (dark blue) and extended continental shelf (not shown).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pauly D. and Zeller D. (Editors), 2015. Sea Around Us Concepts, Design and Data (seaaroundus.org).</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On the high seas, conserving wildlife will have a host of knock-on benefits, from climate stability to sustained productivity of fisheries and other ecosystems. </p>
<p>The exquisite diversity of marine life in the remote oceans fills some with wonder and inspires others with its potential. Discoveries such as <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-03-06/octopus-caspar-the-friendly-ghost-spottedi-n-the-pacific/7224226">Casper the “ghost octopus”</a> show that we are finding new things all the time. </p>
<p>Beyond the simple fact of new and interesting species, the ocean’s wildlife also delivers essential global ecosystem services and the promise of new resources, like the breast cancer treatment inspired by the <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101130/full/468608a.html">deep-sea sponge <em>Halichondria okadai</em></a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6rWHuwWJv3c?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Our knowledge of the genetic library of deep-sea organisms is growing every day, with new discoveries of biodiversity, like Casper the octopus. Source: NOAA Okeanos Explorer, February 2016.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The need for new laws</h2>
<p>With so much value in the oceans, this new global agreement is <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-a-global-conservation-agreement-for-the-high-seas-24797">urgently needed</a> to safeguard marine biodiversity in areas that are currently under-protected. These threats include climate change, <a href="https://theconversation.com/ocean-acidification-the-forgotten-piece-of-the-carbon-puzzle-50247">ocean acidification</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/eight-million-tonnes-of-plastic-are-going-into-the-ocean-each-year-37521">plastic pollution</a>, noise, existing offshore mining and new activities such as marine geoengineering. The cumulative effect of these threats calls for caution in industrialising the deep.</p>
<p>In an area where no country has jurisdiction, will adversarial international power relations apply, or will countries be able to work together to protect the global commons? </p>
<p>Here are the key questions and challenges for negotiators to consider as they develop these historic laws:</p>
<p><strong>Protected areas and no-fishing zones</strong></p>
<p>Area-based management includes tools like marine protected areas and spatial restrictions on fishing. A key challenge for negotiators will be balancing existing rights to navigate, fish and research with competing uses and the responsibility to protect the marine environment. </p>
<p>Will there be sufficient political will from supportive states (the European Union; the 134 members of the G77; and Mexico, Australia and New Zealand) to make the laws strong enough? Or will commercial interests drive the negotiations? </p>
<p><strong>Environmental impact assessments</strong></p>
<p>Activities in the deep sea have the potential to cause grave damage to wildlife diversity. We still have much to learn about the impacts of such activities on marine ecosystems. How will these impacts be assessed and acted upon in the global wild west? </p>
<p>To sustain the integrity of ocean ecosystems and our food security, firm limits need to be put on human activities. The new laws need to require industries to prove that their activities have no significant adverse impacts.</p>
<p><strong>Marine genetic resources</strong></p>
<p>The genetic libraries of deep-sea organisms and the complex chemicals they produce could hold cures for diseases or inspire biotech breakthroughs. Research and innovation will be crucial if we are to benefit fully from marine genetic resources. But access to the remote deep sea is currently limited to a few countries with the requisite money and resources. </p>
<p>For industry, legal certainty is vital to investment. There is a legal gap relating to how the benefits of discoveries and commercial applications from biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction can be shared. Delegations are divided on how to share the benefits but even the most reluctant states (the United States, Canada and Russia) have agreed to negotiate on alternatives to unilateral use and benefit.</p>
<p><strong>Sharing expertise</strong></p>
<p>Rich countries have a huge head start over poor ones in making best use of the oceans. So it will be important to strengthen developing nations’ capacity in marine science and technology, legal and technical expertise, <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/351/6278/1148.full">monitoring and surveillance</a>, and enforcement of regulations. This will require building on existing networks and international scientific bodies such as the UN’s <a href="http://ioc-unesco.org/">Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116296/original/image-20160323-28182-1dzn7gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116296/original/image-20160323-28182-1dzn7gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116296/original/image-20160323-28182-1dzn7gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116296/original/image-20160323-28182-1dzn7gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116296/original/image-20160323-28182-1dzn7gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116296/original/image-20160323-28182-1dzn7gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116296/original/image-20160323-28182-1dzn7gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Industrialising the deep poses threats to fragile deep-sea ecosystems.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Les Watling/NOAA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is uncharted territory. By the end of negotiations in 2017 there must be alignment between the competing interests of nations and of non-state actors such as corporations. States must also decide who, how and what governance authority or arrangements will implement the new laws that will hold people accountable for their actions on the high seas, without undermining existing laws and frameworks. </p>
<p>This week’s summit in New York represents the first step in a unique opportunity to deliver a legacy that sustains the critical ecosystems of the open oceans – something that is vital for all of us.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56298/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Harriet Harden-Davies receives scholarships through the Australian Postgraduate Award and the University of Wollongong Global Challenges Program.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Genevieve Quirk receives the Australian Postgraduate Scholarship and the Global Challenges Scholarship.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robin Warner does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The open oceans are the world’s “wild west”, falling outside any nation’s jurisdiction. UN negotiations are aiming to draft new laws for the high seas.Harriet Harden-Davies, PhD Candidate in Oceans Law and Policy, University of WollongongGenevieve Quirk, PhD Candidate, University of WollongongRobin Warner, Chair professor, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/482292015-10-22T02:15:25Z2015-10-22T02:15:25ZHow a small office in Jamaica might be our best hope for regulating deep sea mining<p>Mining the deep oceans for minerals may soon become a reality. The deep seabed holds untapped deposits of minerals such as gold, copper, cobalt, and rare earth elements. Although mining has not yet started, exploration work for these deposits <a href="https://theconversation.com/deep-sea-mining-coming-soon-to-an-ocean-near-you-6565">is underway across the world’s oceans</a>, and we are seeing momentum towards the development of a new industry with the first <a href="http://www.asia.deepsea-mining-summit.com/">Asia-Pacific Deep Sea Mining Summit</a> held in Singapore in September.</p>
<p>While this emerging industry could provide access to important raw materials, <a href="https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/maritimeforum/sites/maritimeforum/files/FGP96656_DSM_Final_report.pdf">the risks involved are many</a>. Mining up to 6 km below the ocean surface has never been done before. It will interfere with fragile ecosystems and unique biodiversity in the deep oceans. Deep seabed mining is likely to involve the <a href="http://gsd.spc.int/dsm/public/files/meetings/TrainingWorkshop4/UNEP_summary.pdf">destruction of habitat</a> and damage to the fauna associated with mineral deposits, such as cold-water coral and sea life around hydrothermal vents.</p>
<p>The mining process is also likely to create massive sediment plumes that could lead to alterations in the seabed and water column communities and affect food availability. The distance that plumes will travel is not known.</p>
<p>Perhaps the most problematic factor is our lack of knowledge of the potential environmental effects, particularly any cumulative effects with other ocean uses or multiple mining operations in an area. As a <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/publications/living-blue-planet-report-2015">recent WWF report</a> underlines, data on marine ecosystems remains limited. In fact, the deep sea is the <a href="http://www.coml.org/policy-report">largest and least known</a> ecosystem on the planet.</p>
<h2>Who regulates seabed mining?</h2>
<p>To minimise these risks and uncertainties, we need a strong regulatory framework.</p>
<p>So who is able to regulate this emerging industry? The answer depends on where the deposits are located.</p>
<p>Under international law of the sea, states have jurisdiction over resources in the water, seabed and subsoil within 200 nautical miles (370 km) of their coast. A state’s rights over the seabed can reach further if it makes a claim to jurisdiction over an extended continental shelf. Seabed mining within these zones is regulated by each coastal state itself, although some states are only just starting to regulate this emerging industry.</p>
<p>Most mineral resources are, however, likely to be located on the vast international seabed, beyond national jurisdiction. This international seabed covers roughly half of Earth’s surface, and is subject to a <a href="http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm">unique legal regime</a> based on the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.</p>
<p>When the Convention was negotiated, states agreed that the international seabed and its mineral resources form part of the “common heritage of mankind”. The aim was to ensure that the mineral wealth of the deep sea would be shared among all, rather than being exploited by a few technologically advanced states that have the capacity to recover minerals from several kilometres’ depth.</p>
<p>To this end, the Convention established the <a href="https://www.isa.org.jm/">International Seabed Authority</a> (ISA), headquartered in Jamaica. The ISA is a small but powerful institution that regulates and administers all seabed mining on the international seabed on behalf of everyone. The ISA has so far approved 27 exploration contracts for public and private entities, covering a total of some 1.28 million square km.</p>
<p>The vast majority of these exploration contracts were issued in the past four years, during which the emerging seabed mining industry has <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-the-next-mining-boom-on-the-ocean-floor-13177">rapidly gained momentum</a>. Against the background of this “<a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/mar/02/underwater-gold-rush-marine-mining-fears-ocean-threat">gold rush</a>”, the ISA is now developing a regulatory framework for commercial-scale seabed mining. This is proving a considerable challenge.</p>
<h2>The need for a public debate on seabed mining</h2>
<p>Many questions remain unanswered. Will the regulations foresee a staged approach, first trialling mining on a small scale to assess the environmental impacts before authorising large-scale operations? What level of harm to marine ecosystems is deemed acceptable by the public? How will it be ensured that mankind as a whole can benefit from the use of the international seabed? What level of returns will the ISA receive from the mining operations?</p>
<p>We currently have the chance to set in place environmental and social safeguards before commercial deep seabed mining starts. To make the most of this opportunity, though, we need a robust public debate about the risks, benefits, and regulatory parameters of seabed mining.</p>
<p>But the challenge is that deep seabed mining is not yet widely discussed. The ISA remains a little-known institution, despite regulating and controlling access to raw material on half of the planet’s surface.</p>
<p>Greater awareness and engagement will be critical to arrive at a strong regulatory framework for this new use of our oceans in a way that benefits all mankind.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/48229/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aline Jaeckel has received funding from UNSW and the Law Society of NSW for research regarding the international legal framework for seabed mineral mining in areas beyond national jurisdiction.</span></em></p>Mining the deep oceans for minerals may soon become a reality, but the risks involved are many. So who is able to regulate this emerging industry?Aline Jaeckel, Casual Academic, PhD Candidate, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/457192015-08-18T20:33:32Z2015-08-18T20:33:32ZThe challenge of managing Earth’s new economic frontier: our oceans<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/92035/original/image-20150817-5114-1pd61o1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Expect to see more ships on the horizon, as global shipping booms. But how well are we measuring and governing what happens at sea?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/72562013@N06/9373770625/in/photolist-fhk2qV-fhk21V-fhzhBh-fi1RkW-fi1Bm1-7Syrfy-4AD9NA-fSbTeX-nefoQB-vPrc2j-2JkLqF-fSbEMS-fhzgkG-qQyfHa-vNuYRW-kb7iFa-fi1C2y-fSbu6y-iv6V4t-r7TW21-pAxGWn-6VDbAj-frYmVX-97WYGV-fSbyyG-wUzae8-wLsgZp-wK6EMy-6MRkgd-e4XLjs-dGftAZ-c1amqf-gKrFKi-7TkEBo-58tWa-DVbqh-ofdYcB-odtHS1-kb6wwK-e4VWRu-kb9a9Y-7cVzuD-dbR9jT-dGkKHy-awbN9-qXKu4p-dGfvU6-dGkVjA-7cVzr4-5J3sZP">Chris Phutully/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Amid growing demand for seafood, gas and other resources drawn from the world’s oceans, and growing stresses from climate change, we examine some of the challenges and solutions for developing “<a href="https://theconversation.com/marine-science-challenges-for-a-growing-blue-economy-22845">the blue economy</a>” in smarter, more sustainable ways.</em></p>
<p>As the world’s land-based economies struggle with annual rates of <a href="http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG/countries?display=graph">around 2% growth</a> in Gross Domestic Product, the global marine economy – now increasingly being talked about as “<a href="https://theconversation.com/marine-science-challenges-for-a-growing-blue-economy-22845">the blue economy</a>” – is a bright light on the horizon.</p>
<p>New developments in marine industries range from diversification in aquaculture to the new technologies of marine bio-technology and pharmaceuticals, marine renewable energy such as wind and wave power, and deep sea mining. </p>
<p>The European Commission has a <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy/blue_growth/">“blue growth” strategy</a>, recognising that those marine industries are growing at a faster rate than those on Europe’s land mass. And in areas such as south east Asia, the oceans contribute directly to the wellbeing of hundreds of millions of people. </p>
<p>In Australia, a <a href="http://www.aims.gov.au/docs/media/latest-news/-/asset_publisher/EnA5gMcJvXjd/content/11-august-a-vision-in-blue-ten-year-plan-for-science-helping-drive-australia-s-growing-blue-economy">new national report</a> forecasts marine industries’ contribution to Australia’s Gross Domestic Product will grow three times faster in the next decade than the rest of the economy – doubling from A$47.2 billion a year to about A$100 billion in 2025.</p>
<p>As researchers from <a href="http://www.economistinsights.com/sustainability-resources/analysis/blue-economy">The Economist Intelligence Unit</a> recently concluded:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>As a setting for global trade and commerce, and as a significant source of food and energy, the ocean’s contribution is already important. This century, it is likely to become an economic force.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But those researchers also noted many <a href="http://www.economistinsights.com/sites/default/files/Blue%20Economy_briefing%20paper_WOS2015.pdf">challenges</a> ahead, including “how to create predictable cash flows for investors behind the valuable ecosystem services offered by the ocean”.</p>
<p>The consensus is that going from the ocean economy to the emerging blue economy will take time. But there are still major questions about the blue economy we need to answer – including how to define, measure and govern it, especially when so much of the world’s ocean lies beyond national borders. </p>
<h2>‘The blue economy’ still isn’t clearly defined</h2>
<p>If you Google the term “the blue economy”, the first search result you’re likely to see is not about oceans at all; instead, it will takes you to <a href="http://www.theblueeconomy.org/Home.html">Gunter Pauli’s work on ecological innovation</a>, with no sea on the horizon.</p>
<p>But among the marine community and increasingly in <a href="https://innovationxchange.dfat.gov.au/project/innovating-blue-economy">government</a> and global business circles, there has been a shift from talking about “the ocean economy” to “the blue economy”.</p>
<p>While there is still no broad agreement on what that means, The Economist recently adopted this working definition:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A sustainable ocean economy emerges when economic activity is in balance with the long-term capacity of ocean ecosystems to support this activity and remain resilient and healthy.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Economic growth is not enough; we also need to do a better job of sustainably managing ocean resources.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/7NqhVbCtqNk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A snapshot of some of the challenges ahead for the blue economy, from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There have been several drivers behind that shift. The past decade has seen the incorporation of green accounting concerns about the sustainable development arising through the United Nations’ <a href="https://theconversation.com/rio-20-take-science-seriously-and-change-the-process-7804">Rio 20+</a> process. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/SSF-Seesion-1-Blue-Economy-Issues-Note.pdf">Small islands</a>, such as Seychelles and Mauritius, have led the way in calling for the use of marine resources and eco-system services to be sustainable. Internationally, new approaches to environmental accounting have been developing.</p>
<p>This need for greener and more sustainable marine activities has also been influenced by climate change. In amongst approaches involving ecosystem values lurks the longstanding need to control the impacts from marine industries, such as overfishing and <a href="https://theconversation.com/whose-job-is-it-to-clear-up-all-the-rubbish-floating-in-the-oceans-25082">pollution</a>. Controlling industry is necessary – and to do so, having a good understanding of the economics matters.</p>
<p>Yet marine economists have been concerned for some time that the frameworks for measuring the ocean economy are not in place. </p>
<p>For a start, what are we measuring? Whose job is it to measure it? Who has the vision for the future of the blue economy? How do we get the private sector to invest? And is there a governance framework that will support private investment in ocean or “blue” industries? </p>
<h2>Opportunities and challenges for south east Asia</h2>
<p>Together with economic growth and long-term environmental sustainability, social equity is another crucial consideration – particularly in booming regions such as south east Asia, with so many coastal communities dependent on the ocean.</p>
<p>So where is the blue economy going in this region?</p>
<p>Any country looks at what their comparative advantage may be in benefiting from the sea. For example, Malaysia’s economic strength has been shipping, due to its location beside the Strait of Malacca. </p>
<p>In China there are already an estimated <a href="http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2010/indexeh.htm">32.7 million jobs</a> or more than 4.15% of total national employment in “ocean-related sectors”. Interestingly, The Economist’s recent report refers to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2013.05.008">9 million direct jobs</a> in China’s core “major ocean industries”.</p>
<p>That’s a good illustration of why it’s so important to be clear about what we’re measuring when talking about the blue economy. In this case, the Chinese government’s higher figure factors in additional jobs in support areas (such as the scientific, research, education and ocean management service sectors), ocean-related enterprises (businesses with economic and technical links to marine industries), plus indirect and induced employment.</p>
<p>Seaweed is just one of China’s many marine exports. It supplies <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3720e/i3720e01.pdf">13.5 million tonnes of seaweed</a> a year for gels, hydrocolloids and alginates to the global food industry. </p>
<p>China has a clear comparative advantage in bio-technology, genetic improvement of seaweeds and development of marine pharmaceuticals. But its “blue economy” challenges include reducing coastal pollution so that it can maintain and increase the sustainable value of marine industries. </p>
<h2>Opportunities and challenges for Australia</h2>
<p>What about Australia? Well, with production of 2,000 tonnes of seaweed a year, the world is not depending on exports from us. Yet in several corners of the country (including <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/local/stories/2014/09/21/4091941.htm">South Australia</a> and <a href="http://smah.uow.edu.au/smfc/UOW106517.html">Wollongong</a>, a few seaweed experimental enterprises are developing niche opportunities.</p>
<p>However, there are much bigger industries at work along our coastline. For instance, earlier this year the Reserve Bank of Australia said that <a href="http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/bulletin/2015/mar/pdf/bu-0315-4.pdf">liquified natural gas</a> was expected to become Australia’s second largest commodity export (after iron ore) by 2018. It’s also been predicted that port visits by ships to Australia will <a href="https://bitre.gov.au/publications/2010/stats_008.aspx">double by 2030</a>. </p>
<p>Tourism is another good example of the opportunities – and challenges – that lie ahead.</p>
<p>Speaking to a Chinese delegate at a recent blue economy workshop, I mentioned a luxury resort being built by a Chinese entrepreneur on Australia’s Gold Coast, which is expected to bring in <a href="http://www.couriermail.com.au/business/china-property-giant-wanda-to-fly-in-tourists-and-potential-buyers-to-queenslands-glitter-strip/story-fnihsps3-1227453100506">30,000 Chinese tourists</a> a year.</p>
<p>As a lady well across her national statistics, the delegate replied, “Actually, last year we only had 1.2 million people going abroad … not that many when you consider our population” (1.3 billion).</p>
<p>But does Australia have a framework to support such rapidly increasing use of our national biodiversity? Or are we just “the lucky country”, with offshore gas for exports and beaches to attract tourists? Can we be more than a quarry and holiday destination for the world?</p>
<p>Like so much about the blue economy, those are questions we’re yet to clearly answer.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/45719/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alistair McIlgorm works for the Australian National Centre for Ocean Resources and Security (ANCORS) at the University of Wollongong. He has been Director of Dominion Consulting Pty Ltd since 1997. He has recently received funding from the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, the Department of Industry NSW (Fisheries), the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) and the David and Lucille Packard Foundation. He has been invited to speak on the Blue Economy and review studies by the Chinese Government State Oceans Administration, the Indian Government Ministry of External Affairs and Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), Manila, Philippines. He is on the Editorial Board of the Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics, Monterey, US.</span></em></p>As the world’s land-based economies struggle with around 2% GDP growth, the global marine economy – often talked about as “the blue economy” – is a bright light on the horizon.Alistair McIlgorm, Professor of Marine Economics, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.