tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/media-literacy-35193/articlesMedia literacy – The Conversation2024-03-12T03:25:40Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2255532024-03-12T03:25:40Z2024-03-12T03:25:40ZYes, Kate Middleton’s photo was doctored. But so are a lot of images we see today<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581154/original/file-20240312-26-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=425%2C221%2C2598%2C1694&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation/Instagram/X</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Rumours and conspiracies have been <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/28/style/princess-kate-middleton-health.html">swirling</a> following the abdominal surgery and long recovery period of Catherine, Princess of Wales, earlier this year. They intensified on Monday when Kensington Palace released a photo of the princess with her three children.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/C4U_IqTNaqU","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>The photo had clear signs of tampering, and international wire services <a href="https://apnews.com/article/kate-princess-photo-surgery-ca91acf667c87c6c70a7838347d6d4fb">withdrew the image</a> amid concerns around manipulation. The princess later <a href="https://twitter.com/KensingtonRoyal/status/1767135566645092616">apologised for any confusion</a> and said she had “experimented with editing” as many amateur photographers do.</p>
<p>Image editing is extremely common these days, and not all of it is for nefarious purposes. However, in an age of rampant misinformation, how can we stay vigilant around suspicious images?</p>
<h2>What happened with the royal photo?</h2>
<p>A close look reveals at least eight inconsistencies with the image. </p>
<p>Two of these relate to unnatural blur. Catherine’s right hand is unnaturally blurred, even though her left hand is sharp and at the same distance from the camera. The left side of Catherine’s hair is also unnaturally blurred, while the right side of her hair is sharp.</p>
<p>These types of edits are usually made with a blur tool that softens pixels. It is often used to make the background of an image less distracting or to smooth rough patches of texture.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At least eight logical inconsistencies exist in the doctored image the Prince and Princess of Wales posted on social media.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/C4U_IqTNaqU/">Photo by the Prince of Wales/Chart by T.J. Thomson</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Five of the edits appear to use the “clone stamp” tool. This is a Photoshop tool that takes part of the same or a different image and “stamps” it onto another part.</p>
<p>You can see this with the repeated pattern on Louis’s (on the left) sweater and the tile on the ground. You can also see it with the step behind Louis’s legs and on Charlotte’s hair and sleeve. The zipper on Catherine’s jacket also doesn’t line up.</p>
<p>The most charitable interpretation is that the princess was trying to remove distracting or unflattering elements. But the artefacts could also point to multiple images being blended together. This could either be to try to show the best version of each person (for example, with a smiling face and open eyes), or for another purpose.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1767135566645092616"}"></div></p>
<h2>How common are image edits?</h2>
<p>Image editing is increasingly common as both photography and editing are increasingly becoming more automated.</p>
<p>This sometimes happens without you even knowing.</p>
<p>Take HDR (high dynamic range) images, for example. Point your iPhone or equivalent at a beautiful sunset and watch it capture the scene from the brightest highlights to the darkest shadows. What happens here is your camera makes multiple images and automatically stitches them together to make an image <a href="https://www.adobe.com/creativecloud/photography/hub/guides/what-is-hdr-photography.html">with a wider range of contrast</a>.</p>
<p>While face-smoothing or teeth-whitening filters are nothing new, some smartphone camera apps apply them without being prompted. Newer technology like Google’s “Best Take” <a href="https://blog.google/products/photos/how-google-photos-best-take-works/">feature</a> can even combine the best attributes of multiple images to ensure everyone’s eyes are open and faces are smiling in group shots.</p>
<p>On social media, it seems everyone tries to show themselves in their best light, which is partially why so few of the photos on our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15551393.2020.1862663">camera rolls</a> make it onto our social media feeds. It is also why we often edit our photos to show our best sides.</p>
<p>But in other contexts, such as press photography, the <a href="https://www.ap.org/about/news-values-and-principles/telling-the-story/visuals">rules are much stricter</a>. The Associated Press, for example, bans all edits beyond simple crops, colour adjustments, and “minor adjustments” that “restore the authentic nature of the photograph”.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-images-that-show-wartime-photographs-can-have-greater-impact-than-the-written-word-216508">Three images that show wartime photographs can have greater impact than the written word</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Professional photojournalists haven’t always gotten it right, though. While the majority of lens-based news workers adhere to ethical guidelines like those published by the <a href="https://nppa.org/resources/code-ethics">National Press Photographers Association</a>, others have let deadline pressures, competition and the desire for exceptional imagery cloud their judgement.</p>
<p>One such example was in 2017, when British photojournalist Souvid Datta admitted to <a href="https://time.com/4766312/souvid-datta/">visually plagiarising</a> another photographer’s work within his own composition. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"859824132258537472"}"></div></p>
<p>Concerns around false or misleading visual information are at an all-time high, given advances in <a href="https://theconversation.com/nine-was-slammed-for-ai-editing-a-victorian-mps-dress-how-can-news-media-use-ai-responsibly-222382">generative artificial intelligence (AI)</a>. In fact, this year the World Economic Forum named the risk of misinformation and disinformation as the world’s greatest <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2024/01/ai-disinformation-global-risks/">short-term threat</a>. It placed this above armed conflict and natural disasters.</p>
<h2>What to do if you’re unsure about an image you’ve found online</h2>
<p>It can be hard to keep up with the more than <a href="https://theconversation.com/3-2-billion-images-and-720-000-hours-of-video-are-shared-online-daily-can-you-sort-real-from-fake-148630">3 billion photos</a> that are shared each day.</p>
<p>But, for the ones that matter, we owe it to ourselves to slow down, zoom in and ask ourselves a few simple <a href="https://www.aap.com.au/factcheck-resources/how-we-check-the-facts/">questions</a>:</p>
<p>1. Who made or shared the image? This can give clues about reliability and the purpose of making or sharing the image.</p>
<p>2. What’s the evidence? Can you find another version of the image, for example, using a <a href="https://tineye.com/">reverse-image search engine</a>?</p>
<p>3. What do trusted sources say? Consult resources like <a href="https://www.aap.com.au/factcheck/">AAP FactCheck</a> or <a href="https://factcheck.afp.com/">AFP Fact Check</a> to see if authoritative sources have already weighed in.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/deepfakes-how-to-empower-youth-to-fight-the-threat-of-misinformation-and-disinformation-221171">Deepfakes: How to empower youth to fight the threat of misinformation and disinformation</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225553/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>T.J. Thomson receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He is an affiliate with the ARC Centre of Excellence for Automated Decision Making & Society. Thomson collaborated with the Australian Associated Press in 2021 to produce fact-checking resources for its "Check the Facts" campaign.</span></em></p>The Princess of Wales is caught in a social media storm after the release of a clearly edited photo. But image editing is increasingly common, and your phone can even do it without you knowing.T.J. Thomson, Senior Lecturer in Visual Communication & Digital Media, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2238292024-02-22T13:44:03Z2024-02-22T13:44:03ZHow you can tell propaganda from journalism − let’s look at Tucker Carlson’s visit to Russia<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577087/original/file-20240221-18-sh4e18.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=114%2C0%2C1196%2C867&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tucker Carlson at a Moscow grocery store, praising the bread.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://tuckercarlson.com/tc-shorts-moscow-grocery-story/">Screenshot, Tucker Carlson Network</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Tucker Carlson, the conservative former cable TV news pundit, recently <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-68223148">traveled to Moscow to interview</a> Russian dictator Vladimir Putin for his <a href="https://tuckercarlson.com/">Tucker Carlson Network, known as TCN</a>.</p>
<p>The two-hour interview itself proved dull. Even Putin found Carlson’s <a href="https://www.politico.eu/article/vladimir-putin-tucker-carlson-soft-interview/">soft questioning “disappointing</a>.” Very little from the interview was newsworthy. </p>
<p>Other videos Carlson produced while in Russia, however, seemed to spark far more <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/16/business/media/tucker-carlson-putin-navalny.html">significant commentary</a>. Carlson marveled at the beauty of <a href="https://twitter.com/TuckerCarlson/status/1757901280830505037">the Moscow subway</a> and <a href="https://tuckercarlson.com/tc-shorts-moscow-grocery-story/">seemed awed by the cheap prices</a> in a Russian supermarket. He found the faux McDonald’s – rebranded “Tasty-period” – <a href="https://tuckercarlson.com/tc-shorts-russias-version-of-mcdonalds/">cheeseburgers delicious</a>.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08821127.2007.10678081">scholar of broadcast propaganda</a>, I believe Carlson’s work provides an opportunity for public education in distinguishing between propaganda and journalism. Some Americans, primarily Carlson’s fans, will view the videos as accurate reportage. Others, primarily Carlson’s detractors, will reject them as mendacious propaganda. </p>
<p>But closely considering these categories, and evaluating Carlson’s work in context, might deepen public understanding of the distinction between journalism and propaganda in the American context. </p>
<h2>Promoting authoritarians</h2>
<p>Carlson’s ability to secure the Putin interview was commendable. Interviewing dictators – <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/12/31/pol-pot-interview-turns-into-90-minute-lecture/82248268-f801-4a46-90e0-c961fef31505/">even the most murderous ones</a>, such as Cambodia’s Pol Pot – can represent a significant journalistic achievement. </p>
<p>Yet, Carlson’s listless approach to the Russian dictator, who <a href="https://www.miragenews.com/full-text-transcript-of-tucker-carlson-putin-1171489">droned on endlessly</a>, proved a wasted opportunity. Despite Carlson’s passivity, the interview did, in fact, reveal aspects of Putin’s intentions likely unknown to many Americans. For example, <a href="https://www.wnyc.org/story/navalny-putin-russia-ukraine">Putin blamed Poland for provoking Hitler’s attack on the country in 1939, which sparked World War II</a> – a statement at odds with the facts. He also seemed to signal his desire to <a href="https://www.wnyc.org/story/navalny-putin-russia-ukraine">attack Poland, or another neighbor</a>, in the near future. Had Carlson’s trip concluded with the interview, it might have been judged journalistically worthwhile.</p>
<p>Yet, that’s not what Carlson did. </p>
<p>Producing a travelogue, Carlson toured Moscow and made videos extolling the glories of Russian society, culture and governance. The Moscow subway impressed him, while the low prices in a Russian supermarket “radicalized” him “against our American leaders.” </p>
<h2>‘Classic case of propaganda’</h2>
<p>There are numerous ways to evaluate the truthfulness of Carlson’s reports.</p>
<p>For example, if things are as copacetic in Russia as Carlson claims, then emigration out of the country should be minimal, or at least normal. Yet, since the 2022 Ukraine war mobilization, Russians have <a href="https://home.treasury.gov/news/featured-stories/sanctions-and-russias-war-limiting-putins-capabilities">fled their country in historically high numbers</a>. </p>
<p>Even those cheap supermarket prices Carlson loved are a mirage. They exist only through subsidies, and with Russia’s <a href="https://carnegieendowment.org/politika/90753">continued devaluation of the ruble in</a> 2024, combined with a planned huge increase in military spending, Russia’s government <a href="https://carnegieendowment.org/politika/90753">continues to make every Russian poorer</a> to fund its war. </p>
<p>In other words, what’s cheap to Carlson is expensive and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/europe/putin-russian-inflation-could-near-8-this-year-2023-12-14/">getting more expensive for almost all Russians</a>. This trend will continue in 2024, as Putin recently <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/europe/putin-russian-inflation-could-near-8-this-year-2023-12-14/">projected Russia’s inflation rate to be 8%</a> in 2024 – more than double <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-01-10/us-inflation-is-set-to-fade-in-2024-as-goods-prices-keep-falling">the projection for the United States</a>. In fact, a <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/europe/putin-russian-inflation-could-near-8-this-year-2023-12-14/">Russian citizen complained</a> directly to Putin in December 2023 about the price of eggs, and Putin <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/europe/putin-russian-inflation-could-near-8-this-year-2023-12-14/">uncharacteristically apologized</a>.</p>
<p>But research shows that fact-checking Carlson’s claims <a href="https://theconversation.com/fact-checking-may-be-important-but-it-wont-help-americans-learn-to-disagree-better-174034">is not likely to change</a> many people’s opinions. We know most people don’t appreciate being told their preferred information is inaccurate, and when untruthful reports accord with their perception of reality, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9548403/">they’ll believe them</a>. </p>
<p>Instead of categorizing Carlson’s Russia videos as “reporting,” “journalism,” “information” or “fake news,” we could define it instead as a classic case of propaganda. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577091/original/file-20240221-22-re1ejc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Screenshot of a headline that says 'Tucker Carlson: Moscow ‘so much nicer than any city in my country’'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577091/original/file-20240221-22-re1ejc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577091/original/file-20240221-22-re1ejc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=125&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577091/original/file-20240221-22-re1ejc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=125&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577091/original/file-20240221-22-re1ejc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=125&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577091/original/file-20240221-22-re1ejc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=157&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577091/original/file-20240221-22-re1ejc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=157&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577091/original/file-20240221-22-re1ejc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=157&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A headline from The Hill about Carlson’s Moscow visit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://thehill.com/homenews/media/4465352-tucker-carlson-moscow-putin/">Screenshot, The Hill</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Emotionally potent oversimplifications’</h2>
<p>Propaganda is communication designed to bypass critical and rational examination in order to provoke intended emotional, attitudinal or behavioral responses from an audience.</p>
<p>Public understanding of propaganda usually links it to lying, but that’s not quite correct. While some propaganda is mendacious, the most effective propaganda will interlace carefully selected verifiable facts with emotional appeals. </p>
<p>For an average American, those Russian supermarket prices really were cheap. But that’s a selected truth presented without context essential for understanding. </p>
<p>Theologian Reinhold Niebuhr once described propaganda in a democracy as “<a href="https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/984945-rationality-belongs-to-the-cool-observer-but-because-of-the">emotionally potent oversimplifications</a>” peddled to the masses, and that’s precisely what Carlson’s videos seem to provide. </p>
<p>That Carlson has evolved into a propagandist is not surprising. In 2022, The New York Times analyzed his Fox News broadcasts between 2016 and 2021. The paper concluded that Carlson’s program became <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/04/30/us/tucker-carlson-tonight.html">far less interested in rational dialogue and critical exchange</a> – by interviewing people who disagreed with him – as it evolved into <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/04/30/us/tucker-carlson-tonight.html">a monologue-driven format</a> in which Carlson preached often <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/04/30/us/tucker-carlson-tonight.html">factually dubious</a> assertions to his audience. </p>
<p>At one time, early in his career, Carlson <a href="https://www.cjr.org/the_profile/tucker-carlson.php">demonstrated significant journalistic talent</a>, especially in magazine feature writing. But his dedication to accuracy – and even basic truth-telling – was exposed as a sham <a href="https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2023/05/all-the-texts-fox-news-didnt-want-you-to-read.html">when his texts</a> from the Dominion voting machine lawsuit were revealed and illustrated <a href="https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2023/05/all-the-texts-fox-news-didnt-want-you-to-read.html">his mendacity</a>.</p>
<h2>Distinguishing between Gershkovich and Carlson</h2>
<p>Carlson is not <a href="https://theconversation.com/normalizing-fascists-69613">the first American reporter</a> to travel to a foreign dictatorship and <a href="https://theconversation.com/hitler-at-home-how-the-nazi-pr-machine-remade-the-fuhrers-domestic-image-and-duped-the-world-47077">produce propaganda in the guise of journalism</a>. </p>
<p>The New York Times’ Walter Duranty <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/05/08/1097097620/new-york-times-pulitzer-ukraine-walter-duranty">infamously ignored</a> the Stalin dictatorship’s horrific starvation of millions of Ukrainians in the 1930s. The Times’ Berlin correspondent Guido Enderis specialized in “<a href="https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/history/articles/new-york-times-nazi-correspondent">puffy profiles of leading Nazis</a>” while whitewashing the regime’s <a href="https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/history/articles/new-york-times-nazi-correspondent">more evil aspects</a> in the mid-1930s. </p>
<p>More recently, correspondent Peter Arnett was <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/media-jan-june03-arnett_03-31">fired from NBC News</a> for appearing on state-controlled Iraqi TV in 2003 and praising the success of “<a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/media-jan-june03-arnett_03-31">Iraqi resistance</a>” at the outset of the U.S.-Iraq war. Although Arnett’s comments did not originally appear on NBC, they were rebroadcast widely. </p>
<p>But what makes Carlson’s actions particularly galling to some was that his propaganda appeared while Wall Street Journal reporter Evan Gershkovich remains imprisoned by Putin’s regime for alleged spying, but which was really accurate reporting from Russia. When Carlson questioned Putin about Gershkovich, the dictator replied that <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/putin-says-swap-deal-free-wsj-reporter-gershkovich-might-be-possible-2024-02-09/">a prisoner exchange might be negotiated</a>.</p>
<p>Ultimately, the distinction between journalism and propaganda is the difference between Gershkovich and Carlson. </p>
<p>Gershkovich sits in a Russian prison for investigating the truth about Putin’s Russia in service to the American public and his employer. Carlson flies around the world <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2022/02/01/tucker-carlson-hungary-orban-00004149">praising authoritarian leaders</a> such as Hungary’s Viktor Orban, while “rooting” for dictators like Vladimir Putin when they attack their neighbors. “<a href="https://www.vox.com/2019/11/26/20983778/tucker-carlson-rooting-for-russia-ukraine-invasion-america-first">Why shouldn’t I root for Russia? Which I am</a>,” he said in 2019 about the Ukraine-Russian conflict. </p>
<p>To expose abusive governmental power and hold it accountable “<a href="https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/declaration-transcript">to the opinions of mankind</a>” is literally written in America’s Declaration of Independence. To travel abroad praising dictatorships for their subways and cheeseburgers while ignoring their murderousness, and to return “radicalized … against our leaders” because foreign supermarket prices are low, is certainly not journalism. It is propaganda.</p>
<p>Carlson’s videos may have one beneficial result: If enough Americans learn from them how to detect propaganda and distinguish it from ethical and professional reporting, then perhaps Carlson unintentionally provided a valuable media literacy service to the nation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223829/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael J. Socolow does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Tucker Carlson’s sycophantic interview with Russian dictator Vladimir Putin, and his subsequent praise for Russia’s subways, supermarkets and cheeseburgers, was not journalism. It was propaganda.Michael J. Socolow, Professor of Communication and Journalism, University of MaineLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2168812023-11-09T13:35:21Z2023-11-09T13:35:21ZPeople dig deeper to fact-check social media posts when paired with someone who doesn’t share their perspective – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557913/original/file-20231106-17-n1jqco.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=83%2C114%2C6532%2C4511&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Joining up with someone who holds a different perspective influences your take on online posts.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-woman-using-mobile-phone-in-the-coffee-shop-royalty-free-image/1470012550">Frazao Studio Latino/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People fact-checked social media posts more carefully and were more willing to revise their initial beliefs when they were paired with someone from a different cultural background than their own, according to a study my collaborators <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YtF6xwMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Michael Baker</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=FOyLCpwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Françoise Détienne</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=2W7uROIAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">I</a> recently published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1295130/abstract">Frontiers in Psychology</a>.</p>
<p>If you’re French, you’re less likely than an English person to believe a tweet that claims Britain produces <a href="https://x.com/thetimes/status/758297392533889025?s=20">more varieties of cheese</a> than France. And if you’re English, you’re more likely than a French person to believe a tweet that claims only <a href="https://x.com/TheLocalFrance/status/603789583470469120?s=20">43% of French people shower daily</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"758297392533889025"}"></div></p>
<p>More intriguingly, when pairs of English and French people fact-checked such tweets together, how they did so and the extent to which they revised their initial beliefs depended on whether they were “matched” or “mismatched” for cultural identity. We found French-French and English-English pairs focused on confirming evidence and stuck to their initial beliefs, whereas English-French pairs engaged in deeper searches and revised their beliefs in line with evidence.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/i-went-down-the-rabbit-hole-to-debunk-misinformation-heres-what-i-learned-about-big-ben-and-online-information-overload-154923">Misinformation on social media</a> is one of the greatest challenges of our time. It contributes to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aau4586">political polarization</a>, affects people’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.008">voting, vaccination and recycling</a> behavior, and is often <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9443-y">believed long after it’s been corrected</a>.</p>
<p>In recent weeks, misinformation about the Israel-Hamas war has reached <a href="https://www.cip.uw.edu/2023/10/20/new-elites-twitter-x-most-influential-accounts-hamas-israel/">unprecedented levels</a> and is fanning ethnic, religious and <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-10-17/israel-hamas-war-is-stoking-tensions-in-europe-where-communities-are-on-edge#xj4y7vzkg">political tensions worldwide</a> – including on <a href="https://apnews.com/article/israel-hamas-war-college-free-speech-543aff623d5f54ad6529fe598ae48271">U.S. campuses</a>. </p>
<p>To address the misinformation challenge, researchers need to understand better how people process online information. In addition to contributing to such understanding, our findings suggest that bringing together people from opposing sides to fact-check contentious social media posts might improve their media literacy and their ability to engage in civil discourse.</p>
<p>Bringing together people from opposing sides of a conflict to jointly fact-check social media posts isn’t likely to be easy. In times like these, it’s hard even to get them into the same room to speak directly to each other rather than <a href="https://twitter.com/ZZZZZZZZZZZack/status/1714755322798117269">hurling slogans</a> – <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/12/nyregion/columbia-university-israel-hamas-protests.html">and worse</a> – at each other. Nevertheless, because publicly funded educational institutions are committed to promoting informed debate and preparing the nation’s future citizens, my colleagues and I believe they remain some of the most <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/students/free-speech/2023/10/20/campus-leaders-promote-open-dialogue-israel-hamas-war">promising places to try</a> this approach.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>In future studies, we plan to focus on topics that are more controversial than cheese or personal hygiene to see whether the moderating effect of mismatched pairs still applies.</p>
<p>For example, we could present Israeli and Palestinian pairs with social media posts about the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ahli_Arab_Hospital_explosion">explosion at the al-Ahli hospital on Oct. 27, 2023</a> - an event so contentious that The New York Times is <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/03/briefing/gaza-hospital-explosion.html">still struggling to explain</a> its <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2023/10/23/gaza-hospital-new-york-times-00122986">initial attribution</a> of the explosion to an Israeli bomb rather than an Islamic Jihad missile.</p>
<p>Observing how matched and mismatched pairs fact-check such posts would shed light on how a tweet’s contentiousness affects people’s ability to fact-check it effectively. In particular, when the stakes are higher with regard to people’s identities, do mismatched pairs still outperform matched pairs, or does the content’s contentiousness obstruct effective collaboration?</p>
<h2>How we do our work</h2>
<p>Much misinformation research has focused on <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11100460">who believes it</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559">how it spreads</a>. Few studies have examined the actual <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104395">processes by which people assess</a> what they read online.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"603789583470469120"}"></div></p>
<p>Our approach to studying people’s deliberations about online information is to create experimental situations in which such deliberations are natural and observable. In this study, we designed a novel research setup based on the fact that sharing and discussing social media posts with others is an everyday activity.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216881/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eli Gottlieb does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new study unexpectedly found a way to help people assess social media posts with less bias and more care – pairing them up with partners who have a different perspective.Eli Gottlieb, Senior Fellow in Education and Human Development, George Washington UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2154272023-10-22T19:00:58Z2023-10-22T19:00:58ZYoung Australians increasingly get news from social media, but many don’t understand algorithms<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554449/original/file-20231018-29-9et1az.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5991%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/multiethnic-little-pupils-watching-video-on-smartphone-in-classroom-5905507/">Katerina Holmes/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Adults might assume young people are not engaged in current affairs. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://researchdirect.westernsydney.edu.au/islandora/object/uws:72608/">our survey</a> reveals most Australian children and teenagers have a significant interest in the news. There has, however, been a drop in interest from <a href="https://theconversation.com/less-than-half-of-australian-adults-know-how-to-identify-misinformation-online-156124">our 2020 survey</a>, done at the start of COVID. </p>
<p>Our research also shows children and teenagers increasingly get news from social media but many do not understand how <a href="https://360info.org/ubiquitous-and-mysterious-algorithms-are-ruling-our-lives/">algorithms select the news</a> they see.</p>
<p>This suggests there needs to be more focus on teaching media literacy in schools.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/less-than-half-of-australian-adults-know-how-to-identify-misinformation-online-156124">Less than half of Australian adults know how to identify misinformation online</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Our study</h2>
<p>In June, we asked 1,064 children and teens (aged eight to 16) from around Australia how they access and consume news media. This repeats earlier surveys we did in <a href="https://theconversation.com/most-young-australians-cant-identify-fake-news-online-87100">2017</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/less-than-half-of-australian-adults-know-how-to-identify-misinformation-online-156124">2020</a>.</p>
<p>When asked about the news they accessed yesterday, most young people (83%) said they had received it from at least one source. One third (33%) used three or more sources.</p>
<p>There has been a drop in young people’s news engagement since the 2020 survey, which was conducted at the end of the Black Summer bushfires and the start of COVID. In 2020, 88% of young people had consumed news from at least one source and they were getting news more frequently from family, friends, teachers and television. </p>
<p>This decline mirrors <a href="https://apo.org.au/sites/default/files/resource-files/2023-06/apo-nid322606_1.pdf">a 2023 survey</a> on Australian adults, which suggests people increase their news consumption during major national events. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A graphic showing where survey respondents get news from. It says 50% of respondents got news from family and 29% from friends." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554650/original/file-20231019-29-yu4zzd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554650/original/file-20231019-29-yu4zzd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554650/original/file-20231019-29-yu4zzd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554650/original/file-20231019-29-yu4zzd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554650/original/file-20231019-29-yu4zzd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554650/original/file-20231019-29-yu4zzd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554650/original/file-20231019-29-yu4zzd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Where do children and teenagers (aged eight to 16) get their news from? News and Young Australians in 2023.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Where do children and teens get their news from?</h2>
<p>Family and friends were the top sources of news for young people, with survey respondents also reporting high levels of trust in these sources. </p>
<p>But social media is an increasingly important source of news, moving ahead of television for the first time for teenagers. Almost four in ten children (37%) and more than six in ten teens (63%) say they often or sometimes get news from social media. This compares to 39% of children and 41% of teens who often or sometimes get news from live TV. </p>
<p>Interestingly, when young people were asked about getting news on social media, only a small proportion (4-20% depending on the platform used) said they intentionally use social media to find or get news. Instead, they mostly report encountering news while they are using social media for other purposes. </p>
<p>When using social media to get news, half the children in our survey said they preferred YouTube, followed by TikTok (21%) and Facebook (13%). Teenagers preferred YouTube (31%), TikTok (24%) and Instagram (19%).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A graphic showing the preferred news sources for kids and teens." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554653/original/file-20231019-25-5xld23.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554653/original/file-20231019-25-5xld23.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554653/original/file-20231019-25-5xld23.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554653/original/file-20231019-25-5xld23.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554653/original/file-20231019-25-5xld23.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554653/original/file-20231019-25-5xld23.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554653/original/file-20231019-25-5xld23.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">News and Young Australians in 2023.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Knowledge of algorithms</h2>
<p>Given so many young people regularly get news on social media – and this increases sharply as they enter their teen years — it is surprising only 40% of young people aged 12-16 years are familiar with the term “algorithm” in relation to news.</p>
<p>Technology companies – such as Google and TikTok – <a href="https://innovating.news/article/algorithms-quality-news/#:%7E:text=In%20addition%20to%20news%20organizations,public%2C%20in%20turn%2C%20relies%20on">use algorithms</a> to select news based on what they think users will like. This can skew the news people consume.</p>
<p>Just over half (56%) of the group who had heard of the term algorithm in relation to news viewed algorithms as a helpful tool that enhances the relevance of news to them. However, only 27% of this group trusted algorithms to curate balanced and accurate news.</p>
<p>This suggests there is an important opportunity for parents, educators and news organisations to increase young people’s understanding of how algorithms are used to deliver news online.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An infographic showing young people trust their families most as a source of news." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554659/original/file-20231019-19-mhmgwv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554659/original/file-20231019-19-mhmgwv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554659/original/file-20231019-19-mhmgwv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554659/original/file-20231019-19-mhmgwv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554659/original/file-20231019-19-mhmgwv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554659/original/file-20231019-19-mhmgwv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554659/original/file-20231019-19-mhmgwv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">News and Young Australians in 2023.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What about school?</h2>
<p>The lack of awareness about the role algorithms play in delivering online news suggests children are not getting sufficient media literacy education in school.</p>
<p>Only one in four young people (24%) said they’d had a lesson at school in the past year to help them work out if news stories are true and can be trusted – and this is the same for children and teenagers.</p>
<p>Less than one third (29%) of respondents reported they had been taught how to create their own news story in the past year</p>
<h2>What happens when young people are engaged?</h2>
<p>We divided our respondents into five groups based on their level of engagement with news.</p>
<p>Young people with the highest level of engagement with news were four times more likely to report they often or sometimes ask critical questions about the news they consume than those with the lowest level of interest in news (76% versus 18%). </p>
<p>These critical questions include “how are different groups of people likely to respond to this news story?”, “how are people, places or ideas being presented in this news story?” and “what technologies were used to produce and share this news?”</p>
<p>Young people with a high level of engagement with news are also more likely to take actions that will help them to avoid misinformation. For example, they are six times more likely to report checking multiple sources to verify news when compared with young people with a low level of interest in news (63% versus 10%). </p>
<p>This suggests news engagement is linked to many positive outcomes that may help young people to avoid misinformation.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/most-young-australians-cant-identify-fake-news-online-87100">Most young Australians can’t identify fake news online</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What now?</h2>
<p>The shift in young people’s news engagement toward social media highlights the need for consistent media literacy education across Australia. </p>
<p>This can help young people learn more about social media business models, visual modes of communication (particularly video), methods for identifying misinformation, privacy settings and how algorithms work. </p>
<p>This kind of education will help young people to grow up being engaged but critical news consumers and citizens. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/instagram-is-the-home-of-pretty-pictures-why-are-people-flocking-to-it-for-news-144079">Instagram is the home of pretty pictures. Why are people flocking to it for news?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215427/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research was supported by two grants: one from the Museum of Australian Democracy (MoAD) and another
from Meta Australia. Meta did not have any input into the research design, methodology, analysis or findings. MoAD
provided some initial feedback on the survey design.
Tanya Notley is Deputy Chair of the Australian Media Literacy Alliance. She receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Dezuanni receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sora Park receives funding from Australian Research Council and Creative Australia. </span></em></p>Family and friends were the top news sources for children and teens. But young people are also regularly getting news from social media.Tanya Notley, Associate Professor in Digital Media, Western Sydney UniversityMichael Dezuanni, Professor, Queensland University of TechnologySora Park, Professor of Communication, News & Media Research Centre, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2122322023-10-03T14:37:00Z2023-10-03T14:37:00ZAI-generated misinformation: 3 teachable skills to help address it<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/ai-generated-misinformation-3-teachable-skills-to-help-address-it" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>In my digital studies class, I asked students to pose a query to ChatGPT and discuss the results. To my surprise, some asked ChatGPT about my biography. </p>
<p>ChatGPT said I received my PhD from two different universities, and in two different subject areas, only one of which represented the focus of my doctoral work. </p>
<p>This made for an entertaining class, but also helped illuminate a major risk of generative AI tools — <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/06/28/1075683/humans-may-be-more-likely-to-believe-disinformation-generated-by-ai/?gad=1&gclid=EAIaIQobChMI-sSc7ICFgQMVhzWtBh3ingghEAAYASAAEgI3ZPD_BwE">making us more likely to fall victim to persuasive misinformation</a>. </p>
<p>To overcome this threat, educators need to teach skills to function in a world with AI-generated misinformation.</p>
<h2>Worsening the misinformation problem</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="Two youth seen looking at a smartphone." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550434/original/file-20230926-25-kdb3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550434/original/file-20230926-25-kdb3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550434/original/file-20230926-25-kdb3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550434/original/file-20230926-25-kdb3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550434/original/file-20230926-25-kdb3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=820&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550434/original/file-20230926-25-kdb3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=820&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550434/original/file-20230926-25-kdb3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=820&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We should expect to see more attempts by conspiracy theorists and misinformation opportunists to employ AI to fool others for their own gain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Generative AI stands to make our existing problems separating evidence-based information from misinformation and disinformation even more difficult than they already are. </p>
<p>Text-based tools like ChatGPT can create convincing-sounding academic articles on a subject, complete with citations <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/08/technology/ai-chatbots-disinformation.html">that can fool people without a background in the topic of the article</a>. <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/generative-ai-custom-disinformation/">Video-, audio- and image-based AI</a> can successfully spoof people’s faces, voices and even mannerisms, to create apparent evidence of behaviour or conversations that never took place at all. </p>
<p>As AI-created text and images or videos are combined to create bogus news stories, we should expect to see more attempts by <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3593013.3594067">conspiracy theorists and misinformation opportunists to employ these to fool others for their own gain</a>. </p>
<p>While it was possible before generative AI was widely accessible for people to create fake videos, news stories or academic articles, the process took time and resources. Now, convincing disinformation can be created much more quickly. New opportunties are yielded <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2023/06/PI_2023.06.21_Best-Worst-Digital-Life_2035_FINAL.pdf">to destabilize democracies around the world</a>.</p>
<h2>New critical thinking applications needed</h2>
<p>To date, a focus of teaching critical media literacy both at the public school and post-secondary levels has been asking students to <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-critical-thinking-isnt-enough-to-beat-information-overload-we-need-to-learn-critical-ignoring-198549">engage deeply with a text and get to know it well so they can summarize it, ask questions about it and critique it</a>. </p>
<p>This approach will likely serve less well in an age where AI can so easily spoof the very cues we look to in order to assess quality.</p>
<p>While there are no easy answers to the problem of misinformation, I suggest that teaching these three key skills will better equip all of us to be more resilient in the face of these threats:</p>
<h2>1. Lateral reading of texts</h2>
<p>Rather than reading a single article, blog or website deeply upon first glance, we need to prepare students with a new set of filtering skills often called <a href="https://time.com/5362183/the-real-fake-news-crisis/">lateral reading</a>. </p>
<p>In lateral reading, we ask students to search for cues before reading deeply. Questions to pose include: Who authored the article? How do you know? What are their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21746">credentials and are those credentials related to the topic being discussed</a>? What claims are they making and are those claims well supported in academic literature? </p>
<p>Doing this task well implies the need to prepare students to consider different types of research. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A youth seen holding a smartphone." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550435/original/file-20230926-17-qdr7pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550435/original/file-20230926-17-qdr7pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550435/original/file-20230926-17-qdr7pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550435/original/file-20230926-17-qdr7pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550435/original/file-20230926-17-qdr7pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550435/original/file-20230926-17-qdr7pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550435/original/file-20230926-17-qdr7pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lateral reading means searching for clues before reading deeply.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. Research literacy</h2>
<p>In much popular imagination and everyday practice, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2012/12/06/teachers-say-that-for-students-today-research-googling/">the concept of research has shifted to refer to an internet search</a>. However, <a href="https://theuniguide.com.au/campus/theres-more-to-good-research-than-a-google-search">this represents a misunderstanding of what distinguishes the process of gathering evidence</a>. </p>
<p>We need to teach students how to distinguish <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21746">well-founded evidence-based claims from conspiracy theories and misinformation</a>. </p>
<p>Students at all levels need to learn how to evaluate the quality of academic and non-academic sources. This means teaching students about research quality, journal quality and different kinds of expertise. For example, a doctor could speak on a popular podcast about vaccines, but if that doctor is not a vaccine specialist, or if the total body of evidence doesn’t support their claims, it doesn’t matter how convincing those claims are. </p>
<p>Thinking about research quality also means becoming familiar with things like sample sizes, methods and the scientific process of peer review and falsifiability.</p>
<h2>Technological literacy</h2>
<p>Many people don’t know that AI isn’t actually intelligent, but instead is made up of <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3442188.3445922">language- and image-processing algorithms that recognize patterns and then parrot them back to us in a random but statistically significant way</a>. </p>
<p>Similarly, many people don’t realize that the content we see on social media is dictated by algorithms that <a href="https://siderius.lids.mit.edu/engagement-maximizing-social-media-algorithms-how-platforms-shape-what-you-think/">prioritize engagement, in order to make money for advertisers</a>. </p>
<p>We rarely stop to think why we see the content we’re being shown through these technologies. We don’t think about who creates the technology and how biases of programmers play a role in what we see. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/push-for-ai-innovation-can-create-dangerous-products-186101">Push for AI innovation can create dangerous products</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>If we can all develop a stronger critical orientation to these technologies, following the money and asking who benefits when we’re served specific content, then we will become more resistant to the misinformation that is spread using these tools. </p>
<p>Through these three skills: lateral reading, research literacy and technological literacy, we will be more resistant to misinformation of all kinds — and less susceptible to the new threat of AI-based misinformation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212232/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jaigris Hodson receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada's (SSHRC) Canada Research Chairs program</span></em></p>Teaching students how to assess digital content can involve looking for clues about text origins, understanding the process of gathering and assessing evidence and grasping how content is generated.Jaigris Hodson, Associate Professor of Interdisciplinary Studies, Royal Roads UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1928032022-11-28T13:32:28Z2022-11-28T13:32:28ZHow can you tell if something is true? Here are 3 questions to ask yourself about what you see, hear and read<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494543/original/file-20221109-24-smerzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5751%2C3819&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Emotions can get in the way of knowing what’s true.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/girl-lying-on-bed-at-night-and-using-a-mobile-phone-royalty-free-image/1213627011">Elva Etienne/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>How can I tell if what I am hearing is true? – Adam, age 10, Maui, Hawaii</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>Have you ever heard a story so exciting you wanted to share it right away? Something like a shark swimming up a flooded highway?</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1575245113387024384"}"></div></p>
<p>An image that seems to show just that was shared by many people after Hurricane Ian struck Florida in 2022. It was also <a href="https://twitter.com/dalysshanson/status/901949237306515457?s=20&t=l_bsAXkKKIVmp_XwGWGkyw">widely shared after Hurricane Harvey</a> hit Houston, Texas, in 2017. It’s a fake – a flooded highway image combined with one of a great white shark. The fact-checking website <a href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/shark-street-hurricane/">Snopes found it circulating as far back as 2011</a> after Hurricane Irene slammed Puerto Rico.</p>
<p>Truth can be tricky to determine. Every message you read, see or hear comes from somewhere and was created by someone and for someone. </p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=XV5-t-YAAAAJ">I teach media literacy</a>, which is a way to think about <a href="https://mediaeducationlab.com/what-media-literacy-0">information you get in the messages you receive via media</a>. You might think media means the news, but it also includes TikTok posts, television, books, advertisements and more. </p>
<p>When deciding whether to trust a piece of information, it’s good to start with three main questions – who said it, what evidence did they give and how much do you want to believe it? The last one might seem a little strange, but you’ll see why it’s important by the end.</p>
<h2>Who said it?</h2>
<p>Let’s say you’re really excited about a game that’s coming out later this year. You want to be the first to learn about the new creatures, characters and game modes. So when a YouTube video pops up saying, “GAME COMING TWO WEEKS EARLY,” you can’t wait to watch. But when you click, it’s just a guy making predictions. Do you trust him?</p>
<p>A source is where information comes from. You get information from sources every day – from teachers, parents and friends to people you’ve never met on news sites, fan channels and social media. You probably have sources you trust and ones you don’t. But why? </p>
<p>Would you trust your history teacher to tell you something about history? Probably, because they have a college degree that says they know their stuff. But what if your history teacher told you a fact about science your science teacher said was untrue? You’d probably be better off going with the science teacher for your science facts. Just because a source is trustworthy in one subject doesn’t mean they’re trustworthy in every subject. </p>
<p>Let’s go back to the YouTuber. If you’ve watched him for a while and he’s reliably correct, that’s a good start. At the same time, make sure you don’t confuse his having an opinion with <a href="https://games.abc.net.au/education/interactive-lessons/fact-opinion-analysis/">actually having knowledge</a>. Just because you like a source doesn’t make it trustworthy.</p>
<p>This is true for websites, too. When a site grabs your attention, take a second to check the source at the top. Some fake sites use names that sound trustworthy – like “Boston Tribune” instead of “Boston Globe” or “www.cbs.com.co” instead of “www.cbs.com.” You can click the “About” page to see where they’re really coming from, use <a href="https://www.snopes.com/news/2016/01/14/fake-news-sites/">lists of known fake sites</a> and <a href="https://www.iste.org/explore/Digital-and-media-literacy/Top-10-sites-to-help-students-check-their-facts">other fact-checking resources</a> to avoid getting played.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490701/original/file-20221019-13-hjntlz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5991%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Boy in baseball cap looking at his phone outside on street corner." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490701/original/file-20221019-13-hjntlz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5991%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490701/original/file-20221019-13-hjntlz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490701/original/file-20221019-13-hjntlz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490701/original/file-20221019-13-hjntlz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490701/original/file-20221019-13-hjntlz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490701/original/file-20221019-13-hjntlz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490701/original/file-20221019-13-hjntlz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Don’t believe everything you see.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/asian-teenage-boy-playing-with-cellphone-outdoors-royalty-free-image/1345235981">imtmphoto/iStock/Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s the evidence?</h2>
<p>Evidence is what you show when someone says “prove it!” It’s the details that support what a source is saying. </p>
<p>Primary sources – people or groups who are directly involved with the information – are best. If you want to learn about the release of a new game, the company’s official accounts or channels would be primary sources. </p>
<p>Secondary sources are one step removed – for example, news stories based on primary sources. They aren’t as strong as primary sources but are still useful. For example, most news on <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1FLlHr38_bI">gaming site IGN</a> is based on information from game company sources, so it’s a good secondary source. </p>
<p>Can a blogger or YouTuber be a secondary source? If their claims start by referencing primary sources like “Electronic Arts says,” that’s good. But if they start with “I think” or “There’s a lot of buzz,” be careful.</p>
<h2>Do you want to believe it?</h2>
<p>Emotions can get in the way of knowing what’s true. Messages that make you feel strong emotions – especially ones that are funny or make you angry – are the most important ones to check, but <a href="https://www.middleweb.com/34145/how-media-appeals-to-our-emotions/">they’re also the hardest to ignore</a>.</p>
<p>Advertisers know this. Many ads try to be funny or make the things they’re selling look cool because they want you to focus on how you feel rather than what you think. And being older doesn’t mean you’re automatically better at spotting false information: 41% of 18-to-34-year-olds and 44% of adults 65 and older <a href="https://newslit.org/tips-tools/did-you-know-oldest-youngest-fake-news/">admitted to having fallen for a fake news story</a> in a 2018 study. Other research showed adults over 65 were seven times as likely to <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aau4586">share articles from fake sites</a> as younger people were.</p>
<p>So if you’ve been eagerly waiting for that new game, and somebody posts a video that says it’s coming out early, your wanting it to be true can make you ignore your common sense – leaving you open to being fooled. </p>
<p>The best question you can ask yourself when you’re thinking about a message is, “Do I want to believe this?” If the answer is yes, it’s a good sign you should slow down and check the source and evidence more closely.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192803/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bob Britten does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What’s true and what’s not? An expert in media literacy explains how to evaluate information.Bob Britten, Teaching Associate Professor of Media, West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1887842022-11-03T12:00:03Z2022-11-03T12:00:03ZUnderstanding how news works can short-circuit the connection between social media use and vaccine hesitancy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484650/original/file-20220914-1856-q5p409.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C5854%2C3908&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Media literacy can help you tell the difference between real and false news.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/worried-senior-woman-browsing-bad-news-at-internet-royalty-free-image/1344763798">Zbynek Pospisil/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em> </p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>People who consume a lot of news on social media are more likely to be skeptical of COVID-19 vaccines and also more hesitant about getting vaccinated, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.900386">according to our newly published research</a>. But we found that social media users with higher levels of news literacy have more confidence in COVID-19 shots.</p>
<p>Other research has found that heavy reliance on social media <a href="https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v8i2.3219">exposed individuals to misinformation related to COVID-19</a>, especially on the efficacy of vaccines.</p>
<p>In the thick of the pandemic in 2020, we measured how skeptical social media users were about the development of a safe and effective COVID-19 vaccine and how likely they would be to get the shot if it were available.</p>
<p>We also assessed participants’ news literacy by asking nine questions that tested how much they knew about how journalism works – for example, identifying which outlets did their own reporting as opposed to aggregating news, and which publications were for-profit. You can take the quiz to <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/2320/News_Quiz_3.pdf?1663776067">test your own level of media literacy</a>.</p>
<p>In our study, participants with low levels of news literacy, which meant correctly answering only three of the nine questions on average, were more likely to be vaccine hesitant than those with moderate (four to six correct answers) or high (seven or more correct answers) levels of news literacy.</p>
<p>We infer that mis- and disinformation about the efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines that spreads via social media transforms into vaccine hesitancy, especially among people who are less savvy about distinguishing real from false news. Our conclusion fits with other researchers’ finding that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2019.1637445">enhancing media literacy</a> is an effective intervention against misinformation.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>During the pandemic, people relied heavily on social media for recreation, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-00857-8">stress</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.635546">reduction</a> and coronavirus-related news.</p>
<p>For instance, a 2021 report by Pew Research Center found <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/08/24/about-four-in-ten-americans-say-social-media-is-an-important-way-of-following-covid-19-vaccine-news/">about half of Americans relied on social media for news about COVID-19</a>. As a result, social media users were exposed to misinformation about the coronavirus at the same time <a href="https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v8i2.3219">skepticism of scientists and public health institutions</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01211-3">related to COVID-19</a> was on the rise. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1805871115">Health misinformation</a> on social media can also lead people to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211008817">develop false beliefs about public health interventions</a> such as vaccines. </p>
<p>Despite the mass availability of vaccines in the United States, <a href="https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#vaccinations_vacc-people-additional-dose-totalpop">only 49% of the population</a> had completed the primary COVID-19 series and gotten a booster shot as of Oct. 19, 2022. A March 2022 study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7112e2">unvaccinated people were 12 times more likely to be hospitalized</a> than those who were vaccinated. </p>
<p>Vaccination helps mitigate the harmful effects of COVID-19. Anything that erodes confidence in the shot matters for public health.</p>
<h2>What other research is being done</h2>
<p>One important line of work investigates who is likely to be susceptible to COVID-19 misinformation. For instance, one 2020 study found that heavy users of social media who are also politically conservative are more likely to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.201199">susceptible to misinformation related to COVID-19</a> than those who are not conservative.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic reads 'Fact: Taking a hot bath does not prevent the new coronavirus disease. Taking a hot bath will not prevent you from catching COVID-19. Your normal body temperature remains around 36.5°C to 37°C, regardless of the temperature of your bath or shower. Actually, taking a hot bath with extremely hot water can be harmful, as it can burn you...'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Myth busting via infographics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FACT-_Taking_a_hot_bath_does_not_prevent_COVID-19.svg">World Health Organization</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Researchers have also tested ways to reduce COVID-19 misconceptions. In one instance, the World Health Organization designed and publicized shareable infographics debunking various coronavirus myths. A study showed exposure to infographics <a href="https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2702.203139">lowered belief in the particular COVID-19 myth</a> being targeted. The effect was the same whether the graphic was shared by the World Health Organization or by an anonymous Facebook user.</p>
<h2>How we do our work</h2>
<p>Our study relied on online survey data collected in the U.S. at two different times – once in late September 2020 and then four weeks later, just before the U.S. presidential election. Our initial sample of 2,000 participants was selected to closely match the entire U.S. population in age, gender distribution and political affiliation. Participants were rated high, moderate or low for both COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and media literacy based on our questionnaire. </p>
<p>The follow-up sampled 673 participants. Checking up on our participants a month later allowed us to confirm their beliefs were consistent on more than one occasion.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188784/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Researchers identified a connection between low levels of media literacy and COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in people who consume their news via social media.Muhammad E. Rasul, Doctoral Student and Provost's Research Fellow, University of California, DavisJaeho Cho, Professor of Communication, University of California, DavisSaifuddin Ahmed, Assistant Professor of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1897302022-09-12T16:41:22Z2022-09-12T16:41:22ZHow fake science websites hijack our trust in experts to misinform and confuse<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483536/original/file-20220908-2774-wek486.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=245%2C0%2C3396%2C2152&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fake science websites are dressing up their content as verified and authoritative.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/male-caucasian-farmer-biologist-white-protective-1754747408">M_Agency/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The scientific method is rigorous. Claims and premises are supported with evidence. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-to-trust-and-not-to-trust-peer-reviewed-science-99365">peer review system</a> is designed to ensure that research is scrutinised by experts before publication. And whenever researchers lack certainty, they’ll emphasise that “further research is necessary” to land on the truth.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, fake science websites are learning to appear equally rigorous in order to trick their audiences into believing fringe, debunked and bogus theories. These websites seek to take advantage of our <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11229-019-02210-z">trust in experts</a>, and the methods we use to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-spot-bogus-science-stories-and-read-the-news-like-a-scientist-133828">verify information</a>, to lend authority to anti-science positions. </p>
<p>Some even hyperlink to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/aug/10/predatory-publishers-the-journals-who-churn-out-fake-science">fake science</a> published in what appear to be peer-reviewed journals but are in fact open access publishers who will accept anything submitted, provided their fees are paid. </p>
<p>Research shows that the anti-science movement is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1286457920301581">escalating and globalising</a>. In a <a href="https://www.poynter.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/A-Global-Study-on-Information-Literacy-1.pdf">recent global survey</a>, almost 50% of respondents said they see false or misleading information online every day. Over half of those who shared such information did so because they thought it was true at the time. </p>
<p>Fake science that masquerades as trustworthy and authoritative information is harder to spot. But by understanding the methods fake science websites are using, we can adjust our verification techniques to ensure we don’t fall for their deception.</p>
<h2>Source material</h2>
<p>Fake science websites use extensive <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17524032.2018.1527378">hyperlinking</a> to facilitate the appearance of trustworthiness. Hyperlinks act as <a href="https://mediarep.org/bitstream/handle/doc/3258/NECSUS_2_1_2013_83-112_Niederer_Global_Warming_.pdf?sequence=8">visual markers of credibility</a>, appearing to connect content to a source. The mere presence of a link can provide readers with a sense that a particular claim is verified and that the author has done their research.</p>
<p>You’ll know from your own browsing that checking every hyperlink to read and evaluate the information cited requires effort. For those who are not well-versed in scientific principles, methodology and analytical techniques, it is even more demanding. For convenience, we often trust the presence of a link or citation as proof that the information expressed is credible. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-spot-bogus-science-stories-and-read-the-news-like-a-scientist-133828">How to spot bogus science stories and read the news like a scientist</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Repeated posts also add to the appearance of credibility. Research has found that virtually any claim uttered by a contrarian scientist, whether it challenges the consensus on anthropogenic climate change or calls into question individual scientists, immediately gets <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203876213-19/climate-change-denial-riley-dunlap-aaron-mccright?context=ubx&refId=8528df14-28d1-4b3d-8a97-f88ec2960818">picked up and shared</a> through the climate change blogosphere.</p>
<p>This content is copied from one site to another until dozens of websites feature the same information. The aim is not only to increase the content’s visibility, but also to ensure search engine results pages are populated with the same <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17524032.2018.1527378?scroll=top&needAccess=true">repeated content</a>. </p>
<p>Readers who attempt to verify information through “<a href="https://purl.stanford.edu/yk133ht8603">lateral reading</a>”, or opening a series of tabs to read a selection of different articles, may come across several pages of results that appear to corroborate what they read on a single fake science website. Research has found <a href="https://www.poynter.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/A-Global-Study-on-Information-Literacy-1.pdf">24% of people</a> say they use this verification technique. Fake science articles also hyperlink to this repeated content, increasing the likelihood that readers will see it as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ref/10.1080/17524032.2018.1527378?scroll=top">legitimate</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A magnifying glass on a laptop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483537/original/file-20220908-18-49d3q0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483537/original/file-20220908-18-49d3q0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483537/original/file-20220908-18-49d3q0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483537/original/file-20220908-18-49d3q0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483537/original/file-20220908-18-49d3q0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483537/original/file-20220908-18-49d3q0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483537/original/file-20220908-18-49d3q0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Lateral reading’ may present web users with more of the same misinformation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/selective-focus-on-keyboard-magnifier-searching-494287042">silvabom/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many fake science websites never actually produce any original articles. They regurgitate anything that supports their position in order to make that position more visible, hoping that web users won’t have time to figure out that a single article has been copied dozens of times.</p>
<h2>Manufacturing doubt</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://blackwells.co.uk/bookshop/product/9781408824832?gC=5a105e8b&gclid=Cj0KCQjw9ZGYBhCEARIsAEUXITVMnFRmL-tLKIDh8E_eboqI45UF9fB9OFfW5tyND90tPwrb0i2AT5IaAtcMEALw_wcB">manufacturing of doubt</a> is another common strategy used across many anti-science positions. Research has shown that <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203876213-19/climate-change-denial-riley-dunlap-aaron-mccright?context=ubx&refId=8528df14-28d1-4b3d-8a97-f88ec2960818">the tobacco industry</a> engaged with this strategy to cast doubt on links between smoking and cancer. The same strategy is now used to downplay the climate crisis.</p>
<p>Due to the sheer weight of scientific evidence of anthropogenic global warming, fake science websites avoid outright climate denial and instead critique climate concerns as overblown and climate policies as extreme. The objective is not to invalidate the position but to foster doubt about the reality of climate change. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ipcc-the-dirty-tricks-climate-scientists-faced-in-three-decades-since-first-report-145126">IPCC: the dirty tricks climate scientists faced in three decades since first report</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>To this end, articles again create the illusion of scientific rigour by referring to a selected body of evidence which is often <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-spot-bogus-science-stories-and-read-the-news-like-a-scientist-133828">misinterpreted</a> or not peer-reviewed. Meanwhile, research that confirms the severity of the climate crisis is labelled “climate alarmism” and dismissed as “doom mongering”.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/kJzkXfxpJfs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The strategies formerly used by the tobacco industry are now applied to climate science.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Spotting fake science</h2>
<p>Fake science websites aggressively share their articles, encouraging web users to do the same, so it’s likely that they will appear in your social media or search engine feed. They’re easy to spot if you know what to look out for.</p>
<p>First, check the hyperlinks used in the article. Fake science websites will direct you to websites that aren’t reputable, to websites that aren’t relevant, or to articles identical to the one you’re reading. </p>
<p>You can also copy and paste part of a suspect article into a search engine to check how often it has been reposted. Genuine science and research is reposted on reputable websites, but fake science will be copied among a series of websites you’ve never heard of.</p>
<p>If you’re still in doubt about an article’s legitimacy, visit a website that is dedicated to unpacking misinformation and bias, such as <a href="http://mediabiasfactcheck.com/">mediabiasfactcheck.com</a>, where you can check if a website is known to feature fake science.</p>
<p>Ultimately, fake science websites can only assume the appearance of credibility. They’re hoping that web users won’t have the time or the skills to discover that what they’re reading lacks scientific proof. With that in mind, digging a little deeper can help us expose sham science from legitimate, expert sources.</p>
<p><em>This article has been amended to clarify that the research cited on how many people sometimes check information they read online on other websites relied on self-reporting.</em></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/social-media-and-society-125586" target="_blank"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479539/original/file-20220817-20-g5jxhm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=144&fit=crop&dpr=1" width="100%"></a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189730/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Isobelle Clarke receives funding from the Leverhulme Trust, the Economic Social and Research Council and Trinity College London. </span></em></p>Bogus science articles are attempting to take advantage of our trust in experts.Isobelle Clarke, Leverhulme Trust Early Career Research Fellow, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1853382022-06-29T14:34:42Z2022-06-29T14:34:42ZMedia literacy education in South Africa can help combat fake news - here’s what’s needed<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469987/original/file-20220621-21-9ncabz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A teacher conducts a lesson under a tree in Limpopo Province. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sandile Ndlovu/Sowetan/ Gallo Images /Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Online platforms are replete with examples of false information – from WhatsApp messages punting some miraculous cure for COVID, to social media posts claiming a politician said something they didn’t. </p>
<p>It’s increasingly common in South Africa. <a href="https://theconversation.com/study-sheds-light-on-scourge-of-fake-news-in-africa-106946">More than 75% of South Africans</a> say they regularly come across political news they think is false. <a href="https://danimadrid.net/research/2021_how-do-african-audiences-engage-with-disinformation-what-do-they-know-about-fact-checking.pdf">Eight out of 10 South Africans</a> believe that disinformation (or “fake news”) is a problem or a serious problem in the country. </p>
<p>Researchers and policy makers have been working on strategies to counter disinformation for years. Some policymakers have suggested <a href="https://www.poynter.org/ifcn/anti-misinformation-actions/">new regulations</a> or <a href="https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/code-practice-disinformation">pressuring technology companies to do more</a>. These actions often raise the question of <a href="https://en.unesco.org/publications/balanceact">how to balance</a> free speech and regulation.</p>
<p>Another option is to increase the <a href="https://edmo.eu/media-literacy/the-importance-of-media-literacy-in-fighting-disinformation/">levels of media literacy among citizens</a>. Media literacy refers to the ability to read media texts critically, understanding the relationship between media and audiences, and knowing how media production processes work. In different parts of the world, research has shown that making people more media literate can help reduce the <a href="https://ssir.org/articles/entry/strengthen_media_literacy_to_win_the_fight_against_misinformation">spread of disinformation</a>.</p>
<p>We recently worked with <a href="https://africacheck.org/">Africa Check</a>, the largest fact-checking organisation in Africa, to map out the status of media literacy teaching in five South African provinces.</p>
<p>In a <a href="http://disinfoafrica.org/2022/06/01/an-assessment-of-media-literacy-and-fact-checking-training-needs-in-south-african-schools-and-universities/">new report</a>, we describe which media literacy skills are and are not taught in high schools and universities, and what is stopping schools and educators from teaching them. </p>
<p>The research is part of a larger project to develop resources for media literacy in the country.</p>
<p>We found that South Africa lacks a comprehensive national media literacy programme. Often it comes down to individual teachers and schools to make learners more media literate.</p>
<p>Some skills are taught in different subjects, such as life orientation, technology, language, or history. This means media literacy content is fragmented, diffused, and limited. Learners are taught how to use the media, how to stay safe online and how to produce media content, but much less focus falls on how to fact-check and verify the media.</p>
<p>Only one of the provinces we surveyed, the Western Cape, tried to implement a module on online safety for grades 8 to 12 in 2020 <a href="https://africacheck.org/">in partnership with Google</a>. Its adoption across schools was limited because of the COVID outbreak in the same year.</p>
<h2>The study</h2>
<p>Our report is the first in South Africa to survey educators at both schools and universities about their views on the need to teach media literacy to combat the spread of disinformation online. The findings are based on the responses to an online survey provided by 281 educators. We also organised focus groups and conducted interviews with policymakers, educators, and media professionals. </p>
<p>We asked them how effective media literacy programmes are, what is currently being taught at schools, and what challenges they see in the implementation thereof.
We also explored the digital skills levels of teachers and learners, and impediments in the way of broader digital access. </p>
<p>Our research found that educators in South Africa agreed with the statement that news literacy is important to democracy and that increasing the amount of time spent teaching media literacy would help reduce the amount of disinformation circulating in schools (and online, in general). </p>
<p>A life orientation teacher that we talked to said teaching media literacy was “essential” because </p>
<blockquote>
<p>we’re dealing with everyday real situations, and the kids can’t identify what’s real and what’s fake, because they don’t know it. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>All the stakeholders included in our study, from educators at different levels of their career to policymakers and professional media researchers, agreed on the importance of media literacy. But they had different views on what exactly should be taught. </p>
<p>For example, high school educators were more inclined to introduce learners to how to use different media devices, find reliable information sources and be aware of their online behaviour. University lecturers focused more on how to access and critically evaluate information gleaned from the media. </p>
<p>Online safety also featured high on the list of important subjects to cover among high school teachers. One reason for this might be that students often face online harassment and bullying, “catfishing” (<a href="https://theconversation.com/have-you-caught-a-catfish-online-dating-can-be-deceptive-109702">people using false online profiles</a>) scams and similar problems. </p>
<p>Teachers are the first line of defence when dealing with those issues in schools. Over 90% of teachers we surveyed said they had seen instances of learners sharing misinformation and rumours as the image below shows.</p>
<iframe title="Unsafe online behaviours in South African high schools" aria-label="Bar Chart" id="datawrapper-chart-0eHYC" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/0eHYC/2/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border: none;" width="100%" height="241"></iframe>
<h2>Inequities in access and bureaucratic processes</h2>
<p>We found that media literacy training in high school is impeded by several factors. Of these, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468227622000989">inequities</a> in access to digital devices and online resources is the most significant. Access to the internet is possible at most schools. But access at home is not equally widespread. Because teaching media literacy skills often involves the use of digital devices and access to the internet, these inequities are an important hurdle.</p>
<p>Other impediments include the bureaucratic processes surrounding the implementation of new curricula in South African schools, lack of time and materials, and the linguistic diversity across the country’s schools, which would require the development of media literacy materials in different languages. </p>
<p>One final impediment is the lack of training of educators on the tools and skills needed to be media literate. We found widespread agreement that not all teachers are well enough equipped with media literacy skills. Two in five high school teachers think they lack the proper training.</p>
<iframe title="Reasons for not teaching more media literacy skills in South African high schools" aria-label="Bar Chart" id="datawrapper-chart-a3PUE" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/a3PUE/1/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border: none;" width="100%" height="364"></iframe>
<p>Most of the problems we identified appeared to occur across the five provinces surveyed in the report. </p>
<h2>A way forward</h2>
<p>We make several recommendations on how to increase the amount of media literacy taught in South African schools. </p>
<p>First, we caution against one-size-fits-all approaches. These are bound to fail because of differences in access and resources across schools. Care should also be taken to develop materials in the language most commonly used by learners. Materials should also be age-appropriate and with reference to actual lived experiences of the communities where they will be used.</p>
<p>Second, media literacy teaching materials should have a strong focus on mobile phones as vehicles for delivery, due to their <a href="https://www.icasa.org.za/uploads/files/State-of-the-ICT-Sector-Report-March-2020.pdf">prevalence </a> across the country.</p>
<p>Third, given the bureaucratic impediments to developing and rolling out media literacy curricula countrywide, departments of education in each province should be engaged in media literacy curriculum planning. </p>
<p>Finally, involving educators and fact-checking organisations, which are at the forefront of the fight against disinformation, should also be a priority.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185338/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dani Madrid-Morales received funding for this project from the U.S Embassy in South Africa. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Herman Wasserman received funding for this project from the U.S. Embassy in South Africa.</span></em></p>South Africa has no comprehensive national media literacy programme. Often it comes down to individual teachers and schools to make learners more media literate.Dani Madrid-Morales, Lecturer in Journalism, University of SheffieldHerman Wasserman, Professor of Media Studies in the Centre for Film and Media Studies, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1856662022-06-24T11:53:22Z2022-06-24T11:53:22ZMisinformation will be rampant when it comes to COVID-19 shots for young children – here’s what you can do to counter it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470619/original/file-20220623-51620-sao1c0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Talking about vaccines with trusted health care providers and with family can help wade through the sea of information – and misinformation. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/pediatrician-with-girl-in-clinic-during-covid-19-royalty-free-image/1318834248?adppopup=true">Morsa Images/DigitalVison via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention endorsed both the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines for <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2022/s0618-children-vaccine.html">all children ages 6 months to 5 years</a> on June 18, 2022, it opened the door for <a href="https://theconversation.com/at-last-covid-19-shots-for-little-kids-5-essential-reads-185007">nearly 20 million children to get vaccinated</a>.</p>
<p>While this news comes as a relief to many parents who have been anxiously waiting to get their young children vaccinated, a May 2022 survey found that the majority of parents with children under 5 <a href="https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/poll-finding/kff-covid-19-vaccine-monitor-february-2022/">feel they don’t have enough information</a> about the safety and efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines for this age group. About 40% also said that information from federal health agencies, such as the CDC and the Food and Drug Administration, about vaccines for this age group was confusing.</p>
<p>This is particularly concerning because confusing messaging from public health agencies opens the door for anti-vaccine activities on social media that target vulnerable parents.</p>
<p>We are a team of <a href="https://www.pediatrics.pitt.edu/people/maya-indira-ragavan-md-mph-ms">medical</a> and <a href="https://publichealth.pitt.edu/home/directory/jaime-sidani">public health</a> professionals at the University of Pittsburgh. We have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.03.003">extensive experience</a> researching <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-wHMfaIAAAAJ&hl=en">vaccine misinformation on social media</a> and <a href="https://www.pediatrics.pitt.edu/about-us/diversity-equity-and-inclusion/community-and-culture/pittsburgh-community-vaccine;%20https://grants.nih.gov/grants/forms/biosketch.htm">working with community partners</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.08.021">address vaccine hesitancy</a>, counter misinformation and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=8RBqepAAAAAJ&cstart=20&pagesize=80&citation_for_view=8RBqepAAAAAJ:TQgYirikUcIC">promote vaccine equity</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/yhsLob344MY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Social media is a ripe breeding ground for vaccine misinformation.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Through this work, we have seen and studied the ways that anti-vaccine activists on social media target vulnerable parents who are trying to navigate the challenges of digesting health information to make appropriate choices for their children.</p>
<h2>Social media and vaccine misinformation</h2>
<p>Anti-vaccine activists are a small but vocal group. According to research conducted by the nonprofit Center for Countering Digital Hate, <a href="https://www.counterhate.com/disinformationdozen">just 12 social media accounts</a> – the “disinformation dozen” – are <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/05/13/996570855/disinformation-dozen-test-facebooks-twitters-ability-to-curb-vaccine-hoaxes">behind the majority</a> of anti-vaccine posts on Facebook. Studies also show that only <a href="https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0396">about 2% of parents</a> reject all vaccines for their children. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-007609">A larger group</a>, or about 20% of parents, can more accurately be described as vaccine hesitant, which means they are undecided about having their children receive vaccines <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules/hcp/imz/child-adolescent.html">as recommended by the U.S. Centers for Disease and Control and Prevention</a>. </p>
<p>When it comes to COVID-19 shots, as of May 2022 about 20% of parents with children ages 6 months to 5 years said they would <a href="https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/poll-finding/kff-covid-19-vaccine-monitor-february-2022/">get their child vaccinated right away</a>. Another 25% said they would wait to see how the vaccine is working, and 35% said they would definitely not get their child vaccinated.</p>
<p>It can be difficult for parents to sort through the large amount of information available about COVID-19 vaccines – both true and untrue. In their search for answers, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2019.09.009">some parents turn to social media platforms</a>. The problem is, these parents are often targeted by anti-vaccine activists who are better organized and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2281-1">more skilled at tailoring their messages</a> to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.03.003">varied concerns of people who are vaccine hesitant</a> than are pro-vaccine activists. </p>
<p>Social media, in particular, has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30565-X">a primary vehicle</a> for the spread of misinformation. Although sometimes misinformation is blatantly false, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.03.009">other times it is more like a game of telephone</a>. A kernel of truth gets modified slightly as it is retold, which ends up becoming something untrue. Unfortunately, exposure to COVID-19 misinformation has been shown to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01056-1">reduce people’s intent to get vaccinated</a>.</p>
<h2>Addressing parents’ vaccine concerns</h2>
<p>So how can pediatricians and other health care professionals empower parents to feel confident in the choice to get their children vaccinated for COVID-19? </p>
<p>The answer may lie in working with communities to promote the vaccine as trustworthy instead of simply asking communities to trust it. We are part of the Pittsburgh Community Vaccine Collaborative, which is a community-academic partnership that seeks to ensure equitable access to the COVID-19 vaccines. Through that effort, we have focused on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/15248399211029954">building trustworthiness of the vaccines</a> and of the providers and health systems that are offering the vaccines in their communities. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/03/13/amid-coronavirus-threat-americans-generally-have-a-high-level-of-trust-in-medical-doctors/">Health care providers are a trusted source of information</a> for COVID-19 vaccine information, but they are not the only sources. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2017.1394533">Research has found</a> that it is important to lean on the expertise and voices of community partners, community health workers and religious leaders.</p>
<p>Our research suggests that pediatricians and public health professionals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.08.021">can effectively use social media</a> to promote vaccination and provide families with reputable scientific information to address their questions and concerns. Results of a survey that was <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2019.09.009">published in Academic Pediatrics</a> found that 96% of parents used social media. Of those, 68% reported using it for health information.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://kidspluspgh.com/">a pediatric group</a> we partner with <a href="https://people.com/human-interest/dr-todd-wolynn-takes-on-anti-vaxxers-science-singing-silly/">uses comedy combined with information</a> to combat myths and answer questions about the COVID-19 vaccines. </p>
<iframe src="https://www.tiktok.com/embed/v2/6940691573801749765?lang=en-US" style="border:0;width:100%;min-height:825px;" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00099228211046499">Research shows</a> that parents who report high COVID-19 vaccine intention for themselves also report high COVID-19 vaccine intention for their children. Therefore, talking about vaccines as a family may be helpful in combating misinformation around the COVID-19 vaccine. In addition, parents who have had their children vaccinated can use social media to share their experiences and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2021.109979">make it feel more normal</a> and accepted among their peers.</p>
<p>We have also learned that promoting <a href="https://www.commonsensemedia.org/news-and-media-literacy/what-is-media-literacy-and-why-is-it-important">media literacy</a>, which encourages people to question the media information they come into contact with, can empower parents to sift through the “<a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic">infodemic</a>” of COVID-19 vaccine information. </p>
<p>While social media platforms have announced policies of removing vaccine misinformation, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306288">research suggests</a> this is not always effective at reducing the influence of such misinformation. Learning how to find the source of a piece of information and thinking about who are the intended targets may help people determine whether the information is true or distorted.</p>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>Addressing COVID-19 vaccine misinformation can feel overwhelming. The <a href="https://www.aap.org/en/">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> has <a href="https://healthychildren.org/English/tips-tools/ask-the-pediatrician/Pages/when-can-children-get-the-COVID-19-vaccine.aspx;%20https://www.healthychildren.org/English/news/Pages/aap-applauds-approval-of-safe-effective-covid-19-vaccines-for-children-ages-6-months-and-older.aspx">helpful information for parents</a> to support making decisions around the COVID-19 vaccine. Parents can also have conversations with their children about media literacy and evaluating information. And they can talk to their children – especially adolescent-age children – about how getting the COVID-19 vaccine can protect them and others. </p>
<p>For questions around COVID-19 vaccines for children of all ages, we recommend you talk with your pediatrician or another health care provider. During that visit, you can also make sure your child is up to date on other vaccines, as <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6919e2">studies have shown</a> that vaccine rates for routine childhood vaccines have decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>
<p>Increasing COVID-19 vaccine rates for children is important to promote their health and wellness, as well as to move closer to ending the pandemic. </p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of <a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-vaccines-for-children-how-parents-are-influenced-by-misinformation-and-how-they-can-counter-it-173212">an article originally published</a> on Dec. 15, 2021.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185666/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jaime Sidani receives funding from the Richard King Mellon Foundation, the American Heart Association, and the National Institutes of Health. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Beth Hoffman receives funding from the Richard King Mellon Foundation and the National Institutes of Health</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maya Ragavan currently received funding from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. She received funding from a National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences KL2 and an Allegheny County Health Department grant. </span></em></p>With COVID-19 shots finally available for infants and preschoolers, knowing how to combat misinformation on social media and elsewhere could be more important than ever.Jaime Sidani, Assistant Professor of Public Health, University of PittsburghBeth Hoffman, Postdoctoral Associate in Behavioral and Community Health Sciences, University of PittsburghMaya Ragavan, Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1787732022-03-16T17:08:56Z2022-03-16T17:08:56ZBoth facts and fake news about the Russian invasion of Ukraine are spread on social media<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451786/original/file-20220314-26-1ukve6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C0%2C3500%2C2331&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Social media has allowed fake news about the Ukraine invasion to proliferate.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 175px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/both-facts-and-fake-news-about-the-russian-invasion-of-ukraine-are-spread-on-social-media" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>As the story goes, in the 1780s, a former lover of the Empress of Russia wanted to impress her with his efforts to build empire in what would later become part of Ukraine. Grigory Potemkin had workers <a href="https://www.cnn.com/style/article/potemkin-village-gregor-sailer/index.html">build a façade showing a prosperous village along the riverbanks</a>, visible from passing boats, disassembling and reassembling it further up the river as Catherine the Great sailed by. </p>
<p>A “Potemkin village” has become shorthand for a false veneer designed to hide the truth, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199794577.003.0004">but historians tell us the original story doesn’t hold up to scrutiny</a>. In a sense, it’s fake news, 1700s style. </p>
<p>The region is once again the subject of a false front. Social media platforms shield falsehoods behind the trappings of “authenticity,” as especially highlighted by the proliferation and dissemination of information about the Russian invasion of Ukraine. And just like Potemkin’s villages, if we don’t examine what lies behind these façades, we risk missing the truth.</p>
<p>Videos circulating on TikTok show people fleeing and soldiers fighting to the sounds of gunfire, but it was later revealed that <a href="https://www.politifact.com/article/2022/mar/04/russia-invades-ukraine-misinformers-exploit-tiktok/">over 13,000 videos use exactly the same audio</a> with different visuals. In another example, 20 million people viewed footage of a paratrooper during the conflict, only for a reporter to find it was originally posted in 2016.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1496897223237554177"}"></div></p>
<p>A video clip showing a Top Gun-style aerial dogfight went viral, with over two million views less than three weeks after it was posted. In it, a hotshot Ukrainian pilot nicknamed “The Ghost of Kyiv” in a MIG-29 shoots down a Russian SU-35. According to PolitiFact.com, a non-profit fact-checking project by the Poynter Institute, <a href="https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2022/feb/28/facebook-posts/ghost-kyiv-clip-video-game-not-video-fighting-ukra/">the clip was from a free online videogame called <em>Digital Combat Simulator</em></a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/SBBJ_JzV8u4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">This video circulated as scenes from the Russian invasion of Ukraine, but it came from a free online game.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the same time as falsehoods spread behind the façade of authenticity, social media is being used to tell stories from ground zero. This content empowers those affected by the conflict to tell stories from their perspective, without the clipped tones of a news anchor.</p>
<p>Ukrainians <a href="https://hyperallergic.com/713932/as-russia-invades-ukraine-tiktokers-are-documenting-the-war/">listening to bombs fall</a>; a child <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/03/08/ukraine-girl-frozen-let-go-idina-menzel/">singing Disney songs in a bunker</a>; a soldier in <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@alexhook2303/video/7063830345262648581">full battle-armour moonwalking to “Smooth Criminal”</a>; a <a href="https://nypost.com/2022/03/07/ukrainian-girl-goes-viral-on-tiktok-documenting-life-during-wartime/">teenager drying her hair in a bomb shelter</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fake-viral-footage-is-spreading-alongside-the-real-horror-in-ukraine-here-are-5-ways-to-spot-it-177921">Fake viral footage is spreading alongside the real horror in Ukraine. Here are 5 ways to spot it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The pursuit of authenticity</h2>
<p>There is a value placed on authenticity, and the characteristics of amateur videos posted online present like the unfiltered truth: shaky cameras, bad lighting, patchy audio. These traits, which can be the hallmark of a real dispatch from the front, also make them easy to simulate.</p>
<p>Media literacy programs teach all of us how to <a href="https://en.ccunesco.ca/blog/2018/11/fighting-fake-news">identify and combat fake news online</a>. Responsible social media users are supposed to check sources, search for corroborations from trusted parties, check time-stamps and assess whether the content is too good — or bad — to be true.</p>
<p>But the design of social media platforms ends up discouraging these behaviours. TikTok, Instagram Reels, Snapchat Spotlight and YouTube Shorts favour ultra-short videos. These videos don’t lend themselves to deep engagement: we watch, experience a few seconds of emotional impact and keep scrolling on. These platforms are also how news circulates — as people look for information about the Russian invasion, <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/culture/infinite-scroll/watching-the-worlds-first-tiktok-war">videos and information circulate online on social media</a>.</p>
<iframe src="https://www.tiktok.com/embed/v2/7069213297735650566?lang=en-US" style="border:0;width:100%;min-height:825px;" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<h2>Holding on to attention</h2>
<p>Social media sites encourage sharing and re-posting, which means the original source of a clip is hard to track down. The platforms are designed to <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-44640959">keep users on-site and in front of advertisers for as long as possible</a>. Opening extra tabs to cross-check information is just not part of the experience, which helps false information spread.</p>
<p>This in turn leads to another danger: that we start to <a href="https://points.datasociety.net/you-think-you-want-media-literacy-do-you-7cad6af18ec2">doubt everything we see</a>, convinced that everything is opinion and biased, and simply someone’s point of view. Both situations are dangerous to the functioning of civil society.</p>
<p>So what can be done? We need more human-level moderators at the platforms to take down demonstrably false or harmful content fast. And as crises happen around the world, these moderators will need <a href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/facebook-ignore-political-manipulation-whistleblower-memo">regional knowledge and language expertise</a>.</p>
<p>While this will be more expensive than the algorithmic approaches the platforms prefer, it will need to become part of the cost of doing business. We need governments to collaborate in establishing regulations, fines and other forms of accountability at a scale that forces the platforms to change.</p>
<h2>Ongoing efforts</h2>
<p>There have been <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/16/tech/senators-kids-social-media/index.html">some attempts</a> <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/8503534/social-media-influenced-government-regulation/">to regulate content</a> <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-47056761">to protect children</a>, but more international co-operation is needed.</p>
<p>Media literacy programs need to teach a healthy dose of skepticism to audiences of all ages, yet they also need to make clear that doubting everything can be just as dangerous.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-vladdy-daddy-to-fake-tiktoks-how-to-guide-your-child-through-ukraine-news-online-177813">From 'Vladdy daddy' to fake TikToks: how to guide your child through Ukraine news online</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>To help social media fulfil the promise of the early days of the internet as a pro-social communications tool that brings us together and lets us share our individual stories — we need governments, companies and individuals to take responsibility.</p>
<p>If we want to see the truth behind the Potemkin Village, we can’t keep moving past — we have to slow down and look at things more closely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178773/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Lachman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Increased media literacy education and government regulations are necessary to combat fake information on social media platforms.Richard Lachman, Director, Zone Learning & Associate Professor, Digital Media, Toronto Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1736362022-01-13T19:48:45Z2022-01-13T19:48:45ZIn a pandemic, ignoring science affects everyone. Citizenship education can help ensure that doesn’t happen<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439270/original/file-20220104-25-1doptb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3443%2C2117&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Disregard for public health, like protests at hospitals challenging vaccine passports, seen at this event in September 2021 in Toronto, show schools need to expand how they teach what it means to be a responsible global citizen. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Chris Young </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since early 2020, our way of life has changed dramatically. COVID-19 has transformed how we study, learn and work — even how we shop, eat and gather.</p>
<p>Throughout the pandemic, <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/health-professionals/public-health-measures-mitigate-covid-19.html">Canada has implemented individual and community-based measures</a> to protect its citizens. While <a href="https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/cot2021-report1-final_corrected-ap-19.pdf?sfvrsn=6f378628_0">most Canadians have trusted and listened to the scientists and public health experts</a>, too many have ignored the science — <a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-freedom-rallies-actually-undermine-liberty-heres-why-161863">protesting mask wearing, social distancing and vaccination</a>.</p>
<p>Those who have failed to comply with these protocols have prolonged the pandemic and put their fellow citizens at risk. This troubling issue requires attention and future action, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-021-09594-2">including addressing it through education</a>. </p>
<h2>Responsible citizenship and education</h2>
<p>Responsible citizenship is fundamental in a democratic society — and with it comes the responsibility to not engage in behaviour that endangers the health and well-being of neighbours. </p>
<p>Noted professors of citizenship education, Joel Westheimer and Joseph Kahne, tie <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102%2F00028312041002237">good citizenship</a> to an active democratic citizenry. They stress the importance of teaching about following the law and becoming a personally responsible citizen, engaging in civic affairs and becoming a participatory citizen, and challenging social inequities by becoming a justice-oriented citizen.</p>
<p>In recent years, as a result of growing global challenges — such as <a href="https://globecit.com/global-citizenship-in-a-covid-19-world/">poverty, hunger, public health and climate change</a> — the concept of responsible citizenship has expanded to include <a href="https://journals.sfu.ca/jgcee/index.php/jgcee/article/view/213/443">global belonging and commitment</a>. </p>
<p>Global citizenship seeks to <a href="https://teachingsocialstudies.org/2021/08/05/global-citizenship-education-and-liberal-democracy/">unite people within and across countries in common cause to bridge national divides to address seminal challenges facing the world</a>. Global citizenship in many ways seeks to fulfil the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals">United Nations Sustainable Development Goals</a> designed to confront pressing global issues. </p>
<p>In schools, “<a href="https://en.unesco.org/themes/gced">global citizenship education</a>” aims to provide students with the knowledge, skills and values to become responsible citizens and learn to address a range of generational challenges. Schools in several countries, <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.5038/2577-509X.4.2.1121">including Canada, have started to recognize the importance of these educational goals</a>. Several provinces, such as Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Nova Scotia, Ontario and Québec, have <a href="https://www.unicef.ca/sites/default/files/imce_uploads/UTILITY%20NAV/TEACHERS/DOCS/GC/ChartingGlobalEducationinElementarySchools.pdf">integrated global citizenship education into their social studies curricula</a> in the past few decades. </p>
<p>Canadian intergovernmental bodies representing every provincial ministry of education, including the <a href="https://www.cmec.ca/en/">Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC)</a>, have emphasized the importance of global citizenship education among other priorities. In its recent <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5af1e87f5cfd79c163407ead/t/5e20d79f9713f543996da6ad/1579210656022/Pan-Canadian+Systems-Level+Framework+on+Global+Competencies_EN.pdf"><em>Pan-Canadian Systems-Level Framework on Global Competencies</em></a>, CMEC laid out six global competencies for students: global citizenship and sustainability; critical thinking and problem solving; innovation, creativity and entrepreneurship; learning to learn and to be self-aware and self-directed; and collaboration. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man in a face mask walks past a wall spraypainted with 'covid is a lie' and 'the news is the virus.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440782/original/file-20220113-19-m8eif3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440782/original/file-20220113-19-m8eif3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440782/original/file-20220113-19-m8eif3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440782/original/file-20220113-19-m8eif3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440782/original/file-20220113-19-m8eif3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440782/original/file-20220113-19-m8eif3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440782/original/file-20220113-19-m8eif3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">After the COVID-19 pandemic, curriculum should engage students in discussions about how responses to public health messaging interact with being a responsible global citizen.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Graham Hughes</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Contemplating post-pandemic citizenship</h2>
<p>Despite these curricular trends, issues that have come to light in the pandemic have shown that the goals of global citizenship education must adapt. </p>
<p>These include the disregard for public health protocols, the undermining of science, the spread of misinformation and the lack of concern for others (particularly for seniors, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/aging/covid19/covid19-older-adults.html#:%7E:text=Older%20adults%20are%20more%20likely,60s%2C%2070s%2C%20and%2080s.">who are more likely to get very ill with COVID-19</a>, and for those with underlying health conditions).</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-urgent-need-for-media-literacy-in-an-age-of-annihilation-117958">The urgent need for media literacy in an age of annihilation</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It is increasingly important that the next generation of Canadian students learn how to navigate the many increased challenges of a post-COVID-19 world. Research from the Center for Global Development noted that “<a href="https://www.cgdev.org/blog/the-next-pandemic-could-come-soon-and-be-deadlier">the next pandemic could be much sooner and more severe than we think</a>.” </p>
<p>In light of the lessons of COVID-19, schools across Canada should consider offering a social studies elective course that emphasizes post-pandemic values, including commitment to public health, empathy and compassion, self-sacrifice and a co-operative spirit. Such a “post-pandemic citizenship” education could help prepare the next generation of Canadians to promote the kind of values sometimes lacking during the pandemic. </p>
<h2>Health literacy, compassion</h2>
<p>First, the course should include issues of public health. It could, for example, use online tools and platforms to teach students <a href="https://www.who.int/activities/improving-health-literacy">health literacy</a>. As noted by the World Health Organization, health literacy implies equipping people to “play an active role in improving their own health, engage successfully with community action for health, and push governments to meet their responsibilities in addressing health and health equity.”</p>
<p>Researchers from the Healthy Schools Lab at the University of Alberta noted that when education went online due to pandemic closures, provincial guidelines for at-home learning <a href="https://hslab.ca/2020/03/24/health-and-physical-education-in-the-midst-of-a-pandemic">did not include a focus on health and physical education</a>.</p>
<p>The course also could examine how other countries handled COVID-19 and prior epidemics or ask students to devise a plan for combating the next pandemic. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Students standing in a hallway in face masks." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439747/original/file-20220106-12389-1tsh5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439747/original/file-20220106-12389-1tsh5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439747/original/file-20220106-12389-1tsh5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439747/original/file-20220106-12389-1tsh5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439747/original/file-20220106-12389-1tsh5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439747/original/file-20220106-12389-1tsh5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439747/original/file-20220106-12389-1tsh5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students should have the opportunity to devise plans to combat pandemics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Second, there should be an emphasis on empathy and compassion, including its impact on positive health outcomes. In Canada, there have been efforts to impart empathy in the classroom and these efforts should continue. For example, Canadian educator Mary Gordon founded <a href="https://rootsofempathy.org/">Roots of Empathy</a> more than two decades ago. This program seeks to <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/articles/2017-12-20/canadian-classroom-program-aims-to-teach-children-compassion">develop students’ emotional and social competencies, resulting in less aggression and bullying</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/strong-relationships-help-kids-catch-up-after-6-months-of-covid-19-school-closures-145085">Strong relationships help kids catch up after 6 months of COVID-19 school closures</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Self and community interest</h2>
<p>At the same time, the course should stress self-sacrifice. From reviewing case studies on those who disregarded public health recommendations at the expense of others, to debating situations where <a href="https://doi.org/10.22381/KC83202012">collective responsibility should transcend individual self-interest</a>, these lessons can be instructive. </p>
<p>For instance, the Winnipeg School Division recently released an <a href="https://www.winnipegsd.ca/page/8804/education-for-sustainable-development">Education for Sustainable Development Plan</a> to teach students about collective responsibility in such areas as human rights, environmental protection and reducing poverty. </p>
<p>Studies of collective responsibility should include examining issues around equity due to the <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/corporate/publications/chief-public-health-officer-reports-state-public-health-canada/from-risk-resilience-equity-approach-covid-19.html">disproportionate impact of the pandemic on marginalized communities in Canada</a>. </p>
<p>Studying documents like the <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/how-rights-protected/guide-canadian-charter-rights-freedoms.html">Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms</a> also can shed light on the critical role of government mitigation strategies in supporting the collective dignity and rights of citizens. </p>
<h2>Collective good at stake</h2>
<p>By embracing a co-operative spirit, students can appreciate local examples of community involvement, or consider when public and private sector institutions should collaborate for the good of society at home and abroad. </p>
<p>For instance, <a href="https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/stories-histoires/2021/education_covid-19.aspx?lang=eng">Toronto’s Bloorview School Authority, which provides school programs to children with special needs who are undergoing intensive therapies, has partnered with UNICEF Canada</a> to raise funds for necessary school equipment for students in Malawi. A Bloorview teacher noted that the project, known as <a href="https://www.unicefusa.org/mission/protect/education/kids-need-desks-kind">Kids in Need of Desks</a>, helps students understand what it means to be global citizens in a pandemic. This is even as they deal with their own learning disruptions due to COVID-19 while managing other challenges.</p>
<p>This is just a starting point. Over time, Canadian schools will need to continue to re-examine and rewrite social studies curricula to groom the next generation of citizens for a post-pandemic world. The collective good and responsible citizenship are at stake.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173636/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Evan Saperstein does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The failure to observe public health protocols during the pandemic requires attention and action. Revitalizing global citizenship education in schools should be part of addressing the problem.Evan Saperstein, Postdoctoral Fellow, Citizenship Education and History Teaching Research Lab, Université de MontréalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1732122021-12-15T13:29:27Z2021-12-15T13:29:27ZCOVID-19 vaccines for children: How parents are influenced by misinformation, and how they can counter it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436843/original/file-20211210-68670-uw0s95.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=43%2C0%2C5699%2C3828&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Health care providers are just one trusted source of information for parents on the safety of COVID-19 vaccines for children.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/doctor-explaining-report-on-tablet-computer-to-royalty-free-image/961221674?adppopup=true"> Cavan Images/Cavan via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2021/s1102-PediatricCOVID-19Vaccine.html">COVID-19 vaccines became available</a> for children ages 5 to 11 in early November 2021, many families have been lining up to get their school-age kids vaccinated prior to holiday travel and gatherings.</p>
<p>As of Dec. 14, <a href="https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#vaccination-demographics-trends">5.6 million U.S. children ages 5 to 11</a> – or about 19% of this age group – have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine. And 2.9 million, or about 10% of this age group, are fully vaccinated. </p>
<p>However, the <a href="https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/press-release/following-an-early-period-of-high-demand-vaccination-for-children-ages-5-11-has-significantly-slowed/">pace has begun to slow</a>. Vaccination rates in this age group <a href="https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/an-update-on-vaccine-roll-out-for-5-11-year-olds-in-the-u-s/">vary widely across the country</a>, and the U.S. is still far from reaching a threshold that would help keep COVID-19 infections in check. </p>
<p>We are a team of <a href="https://www.pediatrics.pitt.edu/people/maya-indira-ragavan-md-mph-ms">medical</a> and <a href="https://publichealth.pitt.edu/home/directory/jaime-sidani">public health</a> professionals at the University of Pittsburgh. We have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.03.003">extensive experience</a> researching <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-wHMfaIAAAAJ&hl=en">vaccine misinformation on social media</a> and <a href="https://www.pediatrics.pitt.edu/about-us/diversity-equity-and-inclusion/community-and-culture/pittsburgh-community-vaccine">working with community partners</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.08.021">address vaccine hesitancy</a>, counter misinformation and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=8RBqepAAAAAJ&cstart=20&pagesize=80&citation_for_view=8RBqepAAAAAJ:TQgYirikUcIC">promote vaccine equity</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman with a frustrated expression looking at her smartphone while sitting on couch at home." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When parents turn to social media to find information about COVID-19 vaccinations for children, they can become easy targets for misinformation spread by anti-vaccine activists.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/frustrated-and-depressed-young-brunette-woman-is-royalty-free-image/1329809753?adppopup=true">Povozniuk/iStock/Getty Images Plus via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Through this work, we have seen and studied the ways that anti-vaccine activists on social media target vulnerable parents who are trying to navigate the challenges of digesting health information to make appropriate choices for their children.</p>
<h2>Social media and vaccine misinformation</h2>
<p>Anti-vaccine activists are a small but vocal group. According to research conducted by the non-profit Center for Countering Digital Hate, <a href="https://www.counterhate.com/disinformationdozen">just 12 social media accounts</a> – the “disinformation dozen” – are <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/05/13/996570855/disinformation-dozen-test-facebooks-twitters-ability-to-curb-vaccine-hoaxes">behind the majority</a> of anti-vaccine posts on Facebook. Studies also show that only <a href="https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0396">about 2% of parents</a> reject all vaccines for their children. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-007609">A larger group</a>, or about 20% of parents, can more accurately be described as vaccine hesitant, which means they are undecided about having their children receive vaccines <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules/hcp/imz/child-adolescent.html">as recommended by the U.S. Centers for Disease and Control and Prevention</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/poll-finding/kff-covid-19-vaccine-monitor-october-2021/">With regard to COVID-19 vaccines specifically</a>, as of October 2021, about one-third of parents with children ages 5 to 11 years said they would get their child vaccinated right away. Another one-third said they would wait to see how the vaccine is working, and the last one-third said they would definitely not get their child vaccinated. </p>
<p>It can be difficult for parents to sort through the large amount of information available about COVID-19 vaccines – both true and untrue. In their search for answers, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2019.09.009">some parents turn to social media platforms</a>. The problem is, these parents are often targeted by anti-vaccine activists who are better organized and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2281-1">more skilled at tailoring their messages</a> to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.03.003">varied concerns of people who are vaccine hesitant</a> in comparison to pro-vaccine activists. </p>
<p>Social media, in particular, has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30565-X">a primary vehicle</a> for the spread of misinformation. Although sometimes misinformation is blatantly false, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.03.009">other times it is more like a game of telephone</a>. A kernel of truth gets modified slightly as it is retold, which ends up becoming something untrue. Unfortunately, exposure to COVID-19 misinformation has been shown to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01056-1">reduce people’s intent to get vaccinated</a>.</p>
<h2>Addressing parents’ vaccine concerns</h2>
<p>So how can pediatricians and other health care professionals empower parents to feel confident in the choice to get their children vaccinated for COVID-19? </p>
<p>The answer may lie in working with communities to promote the vaccine as trustworthy instead of simply asking communities to trust it. We are part of the Pittsburgh Community Vaccine Collaborative, which is a community-academic partnership that seeks to ensure equitable access to the COVID-19 vaccines. Through that effort, we have focused on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/15248399211029954">building trustworthiness of the vaccines</a> and of the providers and health systems that are offering the vaccines in their communities. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/03/13/amid-coronavirus-threat-americans-generally-have-a-high-level-of-trust-in-medical-doctors/">Health care providers are a trusted source of information</a> for COVID-19 vaccine information, but they are not the only sources. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2017.1394533">Research has found</a> that it is important to lean on the expertise and voices of community partners, community health workers and religious leaders.</p>
<p>Our research suggests that pediatricians and public health professionals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.08.021">can effectively use social media</a> to promote vaccination and provide families with reputable scientific information to address their questions and concerns. Results of a survey that was <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2019.09.009">recently published in Academic Pediatrics</a> found that 96% of parents used social media. Of those, 68% reported using it for health information.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://kidspluspgh.com/">a pediatric group</a> we partner with <a href="https://people.com/human-interest/dr-todd-wolynn-takes-on-anti-vaxxers-science-singing-silly/">uses comedy combined with information</a> to combat myths and answer questions about the COVID-19 vaccines. </p>
<iframe src="https://www.tiktok.com/embed/v2/6940691573801749765?lang=en-US" style="border:0;width:100%;min-height:825px;" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Social media is also an effective way to reach adolescents who can decide for themselves if they want <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00333549211048784">to get a COVID-19 vaccine</a> without their parents’ consent (<a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/90671596/can-teens-get-vaccinated-without-their-parents-consent-it-depends-on-where-they-live">in some cities and states</a>). Adolescents may also be able to influence their parents. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00099228211046499">Research shows</a> that parents who report high COVID-19 vaccine intention for themselves also report high COVID-19 vaccine intention for their children. Therefore, talking about vaccines as a family may be helpful in combating misinformation around the COVID-19 vaccine. In addition, parents who have had their children vaccinated can use social media to share their experiences and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2021.109979">make it feel more normal</a> and accepted among their peers.</p>
<p>We have also learned that promoting <a href="https://www.commonsensemedia.org/news-and-media-literacy/what-is-media-literacy-and-why-is-it-important">media literacy</a>, which encourages people to question the media information they come into contact with, can empower parents to sift through the <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic">“infodemic”</a> of COVID-19 vaccine information. While social media platforms have announced policies of removing vaccine misinformation, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306288">research suggests</a> this is not always effective at reducing the influence of such misinformation. Learning how to find the source of a piece of information and thinking about who are the intended targets may help people determine whether the information is true or distorted.</p>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>Addressing COVID-19 vaccine misinformation can feel overwhelming. The <a href="https://www.aap.org/en/">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> has <a href="https://healthychildren.org/English/tips-tools/ask-the-pediatrician/Pages/when-can-children-get-the-COVID-19-vaccine.aspx">helpful information for parents</a> to support making decisions around the COVID-19 vaccine. Parents can also have conversations with their children about media literacy and evaluating information. And they can talk to their children – especially adolescent-age children – about how getting the COVID-19 vaccine can protect them and others. </p>
<p>Increasing COVID-19 vaccine rates for children and young people is important to promote their health and wellness, as well as to move closer to ending the pandemic. </p>
<p>[<em>Too busy to read another daily email?</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-toobusy">Get one of The Conversation’s curated weekly newsletters</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173212/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jaime Sidani receives funding from the Richard King Mellon Foundation, the American Heart Association, and the PittCATS Clinical Scholars program, funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Beth Hoffman receives funding from The Richard King Mellon Foundation and the National Institutes of Health.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maya Ragavan receives funding from the National Institutes of Health (through an institutional KL2) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. </span></em></p>Pediatricians and other health care providers can take some concrete steps toward building trust and counteracting anti-vaccination misinformation.Jaime Sidani, Assistant Professor of Public Health, University of PittsburghBeth Hoffman, Postdoctoral Associate in Behavioral and Community Health Sciences, University of PittsburghMaya Ragavan, Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1561242021-04-13T20:09:17Z2021-04-13T20:09:17ZLess than half of Australian adults know how to identify misinformation online<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393033/original/file-20210401-15-25g6o5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/senior-woman-using-tablet-pc-computer-373093321">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For most of us, it’s hard to imagine a media-free day.</p>
<p>Understanding what’s happening in the world, maintaining our social media profiles, staying in touch with family, being entertained, making new friends, engaging with governments, and with our democracy, are all activities that usually require media participation.</p>
<p>To do these activities regularly and effectively, we need to have at least a moderate level of media literacy.</p>
<p>Media literacy is about more than having a set of technical skills and knowledge about media. It is also about the ability to critically engage with media: to discern fact from fiction, decide which digital technologies and platforms to use and which to avoid, and to critique the power and influence media and technology companies have.</p>
<p>We carried out a <a href="https://westernsydney.edu.au/ics/news/report_adult_media_literacy_in_australia">national survey</a> of 3,510 Australian adults to investigate their media literacy. We believe this is the first nationally representative survey to investigate the media literacy needs, attitudes and experiences of adult Australians. </p>
<p>We found most Australian adults have a low level of confidence in their media abilities including in areas such as checking if information online is true and checking if a website can be trusted.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/theres-no-such-thing-as-alternative-facts-5-ways-to-spot-misinformation-and-stop-sharing-it-online-152894">There's no such thing as 'alternative facts'. 5 ways to spot misinformation and stop sharing it online</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This is a problem because people who are less adept at critically engaging with media are more vulnerable to influence from manipulative actors. Lower levels of media ability will result in fewer opportunities to participate in society socially and economically.</p>
<h2>Lack of confidence for basic media tasks</h2>
<p>Overall, we found Australian adult media literacy is low. Most adults had either no or a low level of confidence in ten out of 12 media abilities we listed. </p>
<p>While most people felt confident in their ability to perform a basic online search, far fewer were confident they could verify if information is true or not. And even fewer were confident they could create or edit media such as videos and photos. </p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="kaZqE" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/kaZqE/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>Our survey also showed many people lacked the ability to safely navigate online environments: less than half (45%) of Australian adults had a high level of confidence in their ability to change the privacy settings on social media. And only 39% said they were confident they knew how to identify misinformation. </p>
<p>Even fewer adults (35%) were confident they knew what to do when they were harassed online and only a quarter (26%) were confident they could make sense of the terms and conditions of social media platforms. </p>
<p>Older Australians, people who have a lower level of education and people living in a low income household were far more likely to have a lower media ability. This is also true for people living with a disability or in a regional area.</p>
<h2>Limited sources of support</h2>
<p>We also found 30% of adults had received no help from any of the eight sources of support we listed which would help them analyse, use or create media. This included help from schools, friends, family and libraries.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/3-ways-to-help-children-think-critically-about-the-news-131454">3 ways to help children think critically about the news</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Among those who have access to support, the most common source they turned to was online resources (45%) followed by friends (42%) and family (41%). </p>
<p>Those with a low level of education were the least likely to have had any support to help them with media participation.</p>
<h2>Strong support for media literacy education in schools</h2>
<p>Four out of five Australians (81%) said children should receive media literacy education in school. </p>
<p>This significant level of support indicates people believe formal education should play a more central role in the development of media literacy.</p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="VEyxn" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/VEyxn/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>But we found schools are not currently fulfilling this need. Only 14% of adults said they had received media literacy support in primary school, 22% received support in secondary schools and 25% received support via tertiary education. </p>
<p>Even for younger adults aged 18-24, schools were far from being a consistent source of media literacy support. Slightly more than half of this group (57%) reported having received media literacy support in high school, while 32% received support in primary school.</p>
<h2>Thriving in a digital world</h2>
<p>Misinformation has become one of the great challenges of our time. We have witnessed misinformation influence elections, threaten public health and safety and hamper democratic processes. </p>
<p>Most Australians (67%) said knowing how to recognise and prevent the flow of misinformation was extremely important or very important to them.</p>
<p>Yet our findings suggest some Australians are more likely to be vulnerable to the harms associated with misinformation. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fake-news-was-a-thing-long-before-donald-trump-just-ask-the-ancient-greeks-155867">Fake news was a thing long before Donald Trump — just ask the ancient Greeks</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>While most Australians said it was important to think critically about the media they consumed, those with lower educational attainment and lower household income were less likely to believe this was important. </p>
<p>Those who have had access to more sources of media literacy support over their lifetime tended to place greater importance on critical thinking skills when using media (78% for those with two or more sources of support) compared with those who didn’t receive any support (55%).</p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="vxgEk" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/vxgEk/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>A lack of media literacy will contribute to increasing levels of social, cultural and economic exclusion for individuals, families and groups. In addition, a lack of media literacy may exacerbate the potential for broader social divisions and threats to our democracy due to the influence of misinformation.</p>
<p>Despite this, there is no federal funding or a national policy to advance media literacy in Australia. Given what is at stake, the responsibility for being media literate should no longer be simply left for people to work out for themselves.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/156124/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The report this article describes is part of the Media Literacy in Australia research project, which is administered by Western Sydney University. Initial support for this research project was made possible through a grant from Facebook received by the National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE) located in the United States, a partner on the project. Facebook did not have any input into this research project’s design, methodology, analysis, or findings.
Tanya Notley receives funding from the National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE), a not-for-profit organisation located in the United States. She also receives funding from the Australian Research Council.
Tanya Notley is the Deputy Chair of the Australian Media Literacy Alliance (AMLA), whose primary goal is to develop and promote a government-endorsed national media literacy strategy for Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Dezuanni receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the National Association for Media Literacy Education. He is a member of the Australian Media Literacy Alliance organising committee. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sora Park receives funding from Australian Research Council, Social Science Research Council, Google News Initiative, Australian Communications & Media Authority and National Association for Media Literacy Education.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Chambers does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The first nationally representative survey to investigate the media literacy needs, attitudes and experiences of Australian adults shows they need more help with understanding media.Tanya Notley, Senior Lecturer in Digital Media, Western Sydney UniversityMichael Dezuanni, Associate professor, Creative Industries Faculty, Queensland University of TechnologySimon Chambers, Research Assistant, Western Sydney UniversitySora Park, Lead Author of Digital News Report: Australia 2020, Associate Dean of Research, Faculty of Arts & Design, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1528942021-01-17T23:56:15Z2021-01-17T23:56:15ZThere’s no such thing as ‘alternative facts’. 5 ways to spot misinformation and stop sharing it online<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379158/original/file-20210117-21-zuadds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=183%2C22%2C4743%2C3379&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The blame for the recent assault on the US Capitol and President Donald Trump’s broader dismantling of democratic institutions and norms can be laid at least partly on misinformation and conspiracy theories. </p>
<p>Those who spread misinformation, like Trump himself, are exploiting people’s lack of media literacy — it’s easy to spread lies to people who are prone to believe what they read online without questioning it. </p>
<p>We are living in a dangerous age where the internet makes it possible to spread misinformation far and wide and most people lack the basic fact-checking abilities to discern fact from fiction — or, worse, the desire to develop a healthy skepticism at all. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/stopping-the-spread-of-covid-19-misinformation-is-the-best-2021-new-years-resolution-152739">Stopping the spread of COVID-19 misinformation is the best 2021 New Year’s resolution</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Journalists are trained in this sort of thing — that is, the responsible ones who are trying to counter misinformation with truth. </p>
<p>Here are five fundamental lessons from Journalism 101 that all citizens can learn to improve their media literacy and fact-checking skills:</p>
<h2>1. Distinguishing verified facts from myths, rumours and opinions</h2>
<p>Cold, hard facts are the building blocks for considered and reasonable opinions in politics, media and law. </p>
<p>And there are no such things as “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VSrEEDQgFc8">alternative facts</a>” — facts are facts. Just because a falsity has been repeated many times by important people and their affiliates does not make it true.</p>
<p>We cannot expect the average citizen to have the skills of an academic researcher, journalist or judge in determining the veracity of an asserted statement. However, we can teach people some basic strategies before they mistake mere assertions for actual facts. </p>
<p>Does a basic internet search show these assertions have been confirmed by usually reliable sources – such as non-partisan mainstream news organisations, government websites and expert academics?</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1338522387298607107"}"></div></p>
<p>Students are taught to look to the URL of more authoritative sites — such as .gov or .edu — as a good hint at the factual basis of an assertion. </p>
<p>Searches and hashtags in social media are much less reliable as verification tools because you could be fishing within the “bubble” (or “echo chamber”) of those who share common interests, fears and prejudices – and are more likely to be perpetuating myths and rumours. </p>
<h2>2. Mixing up your media and social media diet</h2>
<p>We need to be break out of our own “echo chambers” and our tendencies to access only the news and views of those who agree with us, on the topics that interest us and where we feel most comfortable. </p>
<p>For example, over much of the past five years, I have deliberately switched between various conservative and liberal media outlets when something important has happened in the US. </p>
<p>By looking at the coverage of the left- and right-wing media, I can hope to find a common set of facts both sides agree on — beyond the partisan rhetoric and spin. And if only one side is reporting something, I know to question this assertion and not just take it at face value. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1350876807428452354"}"></div></p>
<h2>3. Being skeptical and assessing the factual premise of an opinion</h2>
<p>Journalism students learn to approach the claims of their sources with a “healthy skepticism”. For instance, if you are interviewing someone and they make what seems to be a bold or questionable claim, it’s good practice to pause and ask what facts the claim is based on.</p>
<p>Students are taught in media law this is the key to the <a href="https://www.lawhandbook.org.au/2020_11_02_04_defences_to_defamation/">fair comment defence</a> to a defamation action. This permits us to publish defamatory opinions on matters of public interest as long as they are reasonably based on provable facts put forth by the publication.</p>
<p>The ABC’s Media Watch used this defence successfully (at <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/episodes/obrien-v-the-abc/9972872">trial</a> and <a href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/cases/nsw/NSWCA/2017/338.html">on appeal</a>) when it criticised a Sydney Sun-Herald journalist’s reporting that claimed toxic materials had been found near a children’s playground.</p>
<p>This assessment of the factual basis of an opinion is not reserved for defamation lawyers – it is an exercise we can all undertake as we decide whether someone’s opinion deserves our serious attention and republication.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/teaching-children-digital-literacy-skills-helps-them-navigate-and-respond-to-misinformation-145988">Teaching children digital literacy skills helps them navigate and respond to misinformation</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4. Exploring the background and motives of media and sources</h2>
<p>A key skill in media literacy is the ability to look behind the veil of those who want our attention — media outlets, social media influencers and bloggers — to investigate their allegiances, sponsorships and business models. </p>
<p>For instance, these are some key questions to ask:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>who is behind that think tank whose views you are retweeting?</p></li>
<li><p>who owns the online newspaper you read and what other commercial interests do they hold?</p></li>
<li><p>is your media diet dominated by news produced from the same corporate entity? </p></li>
<li><p>why does someone need to be so loud or insulting in their commentary; is this indicative of their neglect of important facts that might counter their view? </p></li>
<li><p>what might an individual or company have to gain or lose by taking a position on an issue, and how might that influence their opinion? </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Just because someone has an agenda does not mean their facts are wrong — but it is a good reason to be even more skeptical in your verification processes.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-it-so-hard-to-stop-covid-19-misinformation-spreading-on-social-media-134396">Why is it so hard to stop COVID-19 misinformation spreading on social media?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>5. Reflecting and verifying before sharing</h2>
<p>We live in an era of instant republication. We immediately retweet and share content we see on social media, often without even having read it thoroughly, let alone having fact-checked it. </p>
<p>Mindful reflection before pressing that sharing button would allow you to ask yourself, “Why am I even choosing to share this material?” </p>
<p>You could also help shore up democracy by engaging in the fact-checking processes mentioned above to avoid being part of the problem by spreading misinformation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152894/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Pearson has received funding from various media organisations for training services and has held ARC grants. He is a life member of the Journalism Education and Research Association of Australia.</span></em></p>Those who spread misinformation are exploiting people’s lack of media literacy. These tools from journalism can help you fact-check what you read.Mark Pearson, Professor of Journalism and Social Media, Griffith Centre for Social and Cultural Research, Griffith University, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1437772020-10-22T17:03:44Z2020-10-22T17:03:44ZComics can teach readers how to identify fake news<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364642/original/file-20201021-19-xgpfda.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C0%2C6247%2C3592&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Graphic narratives can be a great tool to teach media literacy.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>At this point, most of us know the drill when it comes to COVID-19: proper hand hygiene, mask wearing and social distancing.</p>
<p>But does setting fire to cell towers make your list? Probably not. A conspiracy theory linking 5G mobile technology to the COVID-19 outbreak has ignited fears worldwide, prompting just <a href="https://globalnews.ca/video/6947087/conspiracy-theorists-burn-5g-towers-claiming-link-to-covid-19">this response</a> from a few individuals in Québec, who set ablaze <a href="https://montreal.ctvnews.ca/two-arrested-after-two-more-quebec-cell-towers-go-up-in-flames-1.4928666">seven mobile towers</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cell-tower-vandals-and-re-open-protestors-why-some-people-believe-in-coronavirus-conspiracies-138192">Cell tower vandals and re-open protestors — why some people believe in coronavirus conspiracies</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Although such destructive responses are rare, thousands of digital consumers have absorbed aspects of this falsehood, pushing fringe beliefs into the mainstream despite refutations from the World Health Organization and <a href="https://www.cwta.ca/blog/2019/08/08/setting-the-record-straight-on-5g-wireless-rf-safety/">multiple agencies in Canada and the United States</a>. What started as a conspiracy turned into a real crisis for <a href="https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/half-of-canadians-say-governments-are-hiding-something-about-covid-19-poll">the people who immediately believed what they’d heard</a>.</p>
<p>My research focuses on critical media studies and ideological representations in news and popular culture. I regularly offer workshops to schools and community groups that engage the public in contemporary media literacy issues. My book, <a href="https://btlbooks.com/book/wont-get-fooled-again"><em>Won’t Get Fooled Again: A Graphic Guide To Fake News</em></a>, helps readers identify the underlying purpose of the messages they receive and learn how to do basic research before accepting the validity of what’s being presented to them.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CAX4jKygkeA","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Dealing with fake news</h2>
<p>Fake news is an <a href="https://nationalpost.com/pmn/news-pmn/canada-news-pmn/fake-news-creates-serious-issues-for-battling-pandemic-chief-public-health-doc-says">increasingly pressing problem</a>. In fact, a <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/fake-news-facebook-twitter-poll-1.5169916">2019 poll</a> found 90 per cent of Canadians reported falling for false information online.</p>
<p>As consumers, we need to learn how to filter content and become our own educators, editors and fact-checkers to ensure the information we act upon is trustworthy. In a <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/radio/spark/when-it-comes-to-covid-19-social-media-fills-a-gap-left-by-scientists-and-it-s-a-problem-says-sociologist-1.5608911">constantly changing informational</a> and political environment, it’s no wonder we often struggle to separate fact from fiction.</p>
<p>Research indicates people create misinformation for two primary reasons: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2018.1556314">money</a> and <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w23089">ideology</a>.</p>
<p>Articles, videos and other forms of content can generate large amounts of money for the websites that host these pieces. Most of their income comes from clicks on advertisements, so the more people who visit their sites, the better chances they have of boosting ad revenue. This feedback loop has led many publishers to lean on false information to drive traffic.</p>
<p>The threshold for making believable fake news has fallen as well. A conspiracy theorist, for example, can create a web page using a professional template with high-quality photos in just a few clicks. Once the content has been added, sharing it on Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and other platforms requires even less effort.</p>
<p>These misinformation and fake-news campaigns <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/facebook-news-group-bot-posting-1.5029780">amplify and circulate through false digital accounts</a> using <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/5879364/social-media-bots-alberta-federal-election/">automated programs known as bots</a> that use certain keywords to influence and impact conversations among like-minded clusters of people. The results can foment discord on hot-button Canadian policy issues — like <a href="https://www.nationalobserver.com/2019/09/05/news/international-media-spread-two-fake-stories-about-canadian-immigration-its-weird">immigration</a> and <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/2349786/no-canada-doesnt-spend-more-on-refugees-than-pensioners/">refugees</a> — possibly disrupting <a href="https://www.cigionline.org/articles/fake-news-threatens-canadas-federal-election">election outcomes</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364643/original/file-20201021-23-7dto98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A page with six comic book panels showing an exchange about news." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364643/original/file-20201021-23-7dto98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364643/original/file-20201021-23-7dto98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=881&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364643/original/file-20201021-23-7dto98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=881&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364643/original/file-20201021-23-7dto98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=881&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364643/original/file-20201021-23-7dto98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1108&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364643/original/file-20201021-23-7dto98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1108&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364643/original/file-20201021-23-7dto98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1108&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Focus groups with students informed the content for ‘Won’t Get Fooled Again,’ a graphic narrative teaching media literacy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Alan Spinney)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Generating anxiety and undermining truth</h2>
<p>Canadians are expressing anxiety about the social impact of fake news, with 70 per cent fearing it could <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/elections-canada-social-media-monitoring-findings-1.5444268">affect the outcome of a federal election</a>. The Pew Research Center warns that fake news may even <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2020/02/21/concerns-about-democracy-in-the-digital-age/">influence the core functions of the democratic system</a> and contribute to “truth decay.”</p>
<p>Dubious and inflammatory content can undermine the quality of public debate, promote misconceptions, foster greater hostility toward political opponents and <a href="https://democracy.arts.ubc.ca/2018/01/18/fake-news/">corrode trust in government and journalism</a>.</p>
<p>The effects of misinformation have been evident throughout the COVID-19 epidemic, with <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-factcheck-coronavirus-mask-efficacy/partly-false-claim-wear-a-face-mask-covid-19-risk-reduced-by-up-to-98-5-idUSKCN2252T6">many citizens confused as to whether a mask will decrease the chances of spreading the infection</a>. Similar tactics are being levelled against <a href="https://www.cosmopolitan.com/politics/a32729926/george-floyd-protest-fake-rumors-debunked/">Black Lives Matter protesters</a>, such as <a href="https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2020/jun/02/facebook-posts/black-lives-matter-activists-are-not-planning-riot/">labelling them all as rioters</a> when videos and photos show most behaving peacefully.</p>
<p>Conspiracy theories about the “Chinese virus,” amplified by politicians in <a href="https://www.thestar.com/politics/federal/2020/04/23/does-she-work-for-canada-or-for-china-conservative-mps-attack-on-dr-theresa-tam-draws-no-comment-from-andrew-scheer.html">Canada</a> and the <a href="https://thehill.com/changing-america/respect/diversity-inclusion/489464-trumps-use-of-the-term-chinese-virus-for">U.S.</a>, have <a href="https://www.rappler.com/world/us-canada/coronavirus-fueling-anti-asian-hate-crimes-canada">fanned the flames of anti-Asian sentiments following the spread of COVID-19</a>. Data from law enforcement and Chinese-Canadian groups has shown an increase in anti-Asian hate incidents in Canada <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/7033253/coronavirus-asian-racism-crisis-canada/">since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/anti-asian-racism-during-coronavirus-how-the-language-of-disease-produces-hate-and-violence-134496">Anti-Asian racism during coronavirus: How the language of disease produces hate and violence</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Who and how to trust</h2>
<p>Aside from a few social media platforms that identify misleading content and provide a brief explanation, most information online or in print can appear factual. So how can we figure out which sources to trust?</p>
<p>As a sociologist who focuses on critical media studies, I formed focus groups and collected input from my students to create a resources to guide readers through identifying fake news. While regulation and legislation are part of the solution, experts agree we must take swift action to teach students <a href="https://www.scetv.org/stories/education/2020/why-verification-might-be-most-important-word-you-teach-your-students-2020">how to seek verification before acting on fake news</a>. </p>
<p>In my findings, students identified several reasons why media outlets post or re-publish fake news, including making mistakes, being short-staffed, not fact-checking and actively seeking greater viewership by posting fake news.</p>
<p>The students pointed to holistic media literacy and critical thinking training as the best responses. This finding runs counter to <a href="https://www.niemanlab.org/2017/09/adding-a-disputed-label-to-fake-news-seems-to-work-a-little-but-for-some-groups-it-actually-backfires/">the tactics currently used</a> by publishers and tech companies to label or “fact-check” disputed news.</p>
<p>One student summarized this mindset best: “As citizens and consumers, we have a responsibility to be critical. Don’t accept stories blindly. Hold those in power responsible for their actions!”</p>
<p>Getting multiple perspectives is a great way to expand our digest of viewpoints. Once we can see a story from more than one angle, separating truth from falsehood becomes much simpler.</p>
<p>At this point, I transitioned from recording perceptions of fake news to determining how to identify it. Providing students with information about the nature and agendas of fake news, in an immersive format, seemed to be a key step in engaging and cultivating their critical literacy capabilities. Information delivery was a key consideration.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364644/original/file-20201021-21-knelgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A page with six comic book panels showing an exchange about news." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364644/original/file-20201021-21-knelgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364644/original/file-20201021-21-knelgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=881&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364644/original/file-20201021-21-knelgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=881&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364644/original/file-20201021-21-knelgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=881&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364644/original/file-20201021-21-knelgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1107&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364644/original/file-20201021-21-knelgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1107&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364644/original/file-20201021-21-knelgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1107&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Graphic narratives can help communicate complex and multiple ideas at the same time, such as research skills and mcivic rights.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Alan Spinney)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Illustrating the narratives</h2>
<p>Researchers have shown <a href="http://www.scottmccloud.com/2-print/1-uc/index.html">graphic narratives can accelerate cognition by focusing the reader’s attention on crucial information</a>. Images <a href="https://www.upress.state.ms.us/Books/T/The-System-of-Comics">clarify complex content</a>, especially for <a href="https://www.literacyworldwide.org/blog/literacy-now/2015/08/12/comic-books-as-models-for-literacy-instruction">visual learners</a>. Comic books require readers to create meaning using <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/graphic-encounters-9781441126412/">multiple factors that helps develop a complex, multi-modal literacy</a>.</p>
<p>A major goal of my book involves unpacking the motivations behind the news we consume. Consider why a particular person was interviewed: Who do they represent? What do they want us to believe? Is another point of view missing?</p>
<p><a href="https://btlbooks.com/book/wont-get-fooled-again"><em>Won’t Get Fooled Again: A Graphic Guide to Fake News</em></a> is the culmination of my research and the insights drawn from media literacy scholarship. This guide helps readers understand what fake news is, where it comes from, and how to check its accuracy.</p>
<p>If there’s one habit my students and I hope everyone will develop, it’s this: pause before sharing news on social media. Double-check anything that immediately sparks anger or frustration and, remember, fake news creators want a reaction, not thoughtful reflection.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143777/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erin Steuter receives funding from Mount Allison University President’s Research and Creative Activity Fund.</span></em></p>Delivering media literacy in a comics format can help readers develop the skills to identify fake news and counter its effects.Erin Steuter, Professor of Sociology, Mount Allison UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1459832020-09-28T19:36:27Z2020-09-28T19:36:27ZFox News uses the word ‘hate’ much more than MSNBC or CNN<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359900/original/file-20200924-17-1km323d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C51%2C1440%2C773&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tucker Carlson is a big fan of the phrase 'they hate.' Usually, he's talking about Democrats.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jp71VWgqURQ">YouTube</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>`Fox News is up to five times more likely to use the word “hate” in its programming than its main competitors, <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/1255/Hate_on_Fox_News_draft_report_9-28-20.pdf?1601308357">according to our new study of how cable news channels use language</a>. </p>
<p>Fox particularly uses the term when explaining opposition to Donald Trump. His opponents are said to “hate” Trump, his values and his followers. </p>
<p>Our research, which ran from Jan. 1 to May 8, 2020, initially explored news of Trump’s impeachment. Then came the coronavirus. As we sifted through hundreds of cable news transcripts over five months, we noticed consistent differences between the vocabulary used on Fox News and that of MSNBC.</p>
<p>While their news agendas were largely similar, the words they used to describe these newsworthy events diverged greatly. </p>
<h2>Fox and hate</h2>
<p>For our study, we analyzed 1,088 program transcripts from the two ideologically branded channels – right-wing Fox and left-wing MSNBC – between 6 p.m. and 10:59 p.m.</p>
<p>Because polarized media diets <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-partisan-pandemic-do-we-now-live-in-alternative-realities-140290">contribute to partisan conflict</a>, our quantitative analysis identified terms indicating antipathy or resentment, such as “dislike,” “despise,” “can’t stand” and “hate.” </p>
<p>We expected to find that both of the strongly ideological networks made use of such words, perhaps in different ways. Instead, we found that Fox used antipathy words five times more often than MSNBC. “Hate” really stood out: It appeared 647 times on Fox, compared to 118 on MSNBC. </p>
<p>Fox usually pairs certain words alongside “hate.” The most notable was “they” – as in, “they hate.” Fox used this phrase 101 times between January and May. MSNBC used it just five times. </p>
<p>To put these findings in historic context, we then used the <a href="https://blog.gdeltproject.org/gdelt-2-0-television-api-debuts/">GDELT Television database</a> to search for occurrences of the phrase “they hate” on both networks going back to 2009. We included CNN for an additional comparison. </p>
<p>We found Fox’s usage of “they hate” has increased over time, with a clear spike around the polarizing 2016 Trump-Clinton election. But Fox’s use of “hate” really took off when Trump’s presidency began. Beginning in January 2017, the mean usage of “they hate” on the network doubled. </p>
<p><iframe id="v0I03" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/v0I03/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>‘Us’ versus ‘them’</h2>
<p>So who is doing all this hating – and why – according to Fox News? </p>
<p>Mainly, it’s Democrats, liberals, political elites and the media. Though these groups do not actually have the same interests, ideology or job description, our analysis finds Fox lumps them together as the “they” in “they hate.”</p>
<p><iframe id="WYK4i" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/WYK4i/6/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>As for the object of all this hatred, Sean Hannity, Tucker Carlson and other Fox hosts most often name Trump. Anchors also identify their audience – “you,” “Christians” and “us” – as the target of animosity. Only 13 instances of “they hate” also cited a reason. Examples included “they can’t accept the fact that he won” or “because we voted for [Trump].”</p>
<p><iframe id="bGe9m" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/bGe9m/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Citing liberal hate as a fact that needs no explanation serves to dismiss criticism of specific policies or events. It paints criticism or moral outrage directed at Trump as inherently irrational. </p>
<p>For loyal Fox viewers, these <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/culture/archive/2020/09/fox-news-trump-language-stelter-hoax/616309/">language patterns construct a coherent</a> but potentially dangerous narrative about the world. </p>
<p>Our data show intensely partisan hosts like Hannity and Carlson are <a href="https://api.gdeltproject.org/api/v2/tv/tv?format=html&startdatetime=20170101000000&last24=yes&query=%22they%20hate%22%20(station:CNN%20OR%20station:FOXNEWS%20OR%20station:MSNBC%20)%20&mode=showchart">more likely than other Fox anchors to use “they hate”</a> in this way. Nevertheless, the phrase permeates Fox’s evening programming, uttered by hosts, interviewees and Republican sources, all <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/06/24/right-wing-websites-are-demonizing-antifa-heres-how-they-portray-threat/">painting Trump critics not as legitimate opponents but hateful enemies working in bad faith</a>. </p>
<p>By repeatedly telling its viewers they are bound together as objects of the contempt of a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2018.1548412">powerful and hateful left-leaning “elite</a>,” Fox has constructed two <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2017.1336779">imagined communities</a>. On the one side: Trump along with good folks under siege. On the other: nefarious Democrats, liberals, the left and mainstream media.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v1i1.96">Research confirms</a> that repeated exposure to polarized media messages can lead news consumers to form firm opinions and can foster what’s called an <a href="https://thedecisionlab.com/biases/in-group-bias/">“in-group” identity</a>. The us-versus-them mentality, in turn, deepens feelings of antipathy toward the perceived “out-group.”</p>
<p>The Pew Research Center reports an increasing tendency, especially among Republicans, to <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2019/10/10/partisan-antipathy-more-intense-more-personal/">view members of the other party as immoral and unpatriotic</a>. Pew also finds <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/08/five-facts-about-fox-news/">Republicans trust Fox News more than any other media outlet</a>.</p>
<p>Americans’ <a href="https://www.journalism.org/2020/01/24/u-s-media-polarization-and-the-2020-election-a-nation-divided/">divergent media sources</a> – and specifically Fox’s “hate”-filled rhetoric – aren’t solely to blame here. Cable news is part of a <a href="https://www.moreincommon.com/media/0fmblxb3/the-perception-gap.pdf">larger picture</a> of <a href="http://www.apsanet.org/portals/54/Files/Task%20Force%20Reports/Chapter2Mansbridge.pdf">heightened polarization</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0261379415001857">intense partisanship</a> and <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/us-policy/2020/09/11/coronavirus-relief-congress-economy/">paralysis in Congress</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359901/original/file-20200924-14-11jn5sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Screenshot of Sean Hannity on Fox News with text reading 'Hate & Hysteria' across the Democratic donkey symbol" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359901/original/file-20200924-14-11jn5sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359901/original/file-20200924-14-11jn5sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359901/original/file-20200924-14-11jn5sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359901/original/file-20200924-14-11jn5sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359901/original/file-20200924-14-11jn5sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359901/original/file-20200924-14-11jn5sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359901/original/file-20200924-14-11jn5sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sean Hannity portrays criticism of Donald Trump as hate-based.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C49DUbjCqO8">YouTube/Fox News</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Good business</h2>
<p>Leaning into intense partisanship has been good for Fox News, though. In summer 2020 <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/fox-news-ratings-most-watched-channel-summer-2020-primetime-2020-9?r=DE&IR=T">it was the country’s most watched network</a>. But using hate to explain the news is a dangerous business plan when shared crises <a href="http://ftp.zew.de/pub/zew-docs/dp/dp20023.pdf">demand Americans’ empathy, negotiation and compromise</a>. </p>
<p>Fox’s talk of hate undermines <a href="https://voxeu.org/article/civic-capital-and-social-distancing">democratic values like tolerance</a> and reduces <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/the-paradoxical-role-of-social-capital-in-the-coronavirus-pandemic">Americans’ trust of their fellow citizens</a>. </p>
<p>This fraying of social ties helps explain America’s failures in managing the pandemic – and bodes badly for its handling of what seems likely to be a chaotic, divisive presidential election. In pitting its viewers against the rest of the country, Fox News works against potential solutions to the the very crises it covers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/145983/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The conservative cable news channel particularly favors the term when explaining opposition to Donald Trump. This framing of the news can lead Fox viewers to see the world as us versus them.Curd Knüpfer, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Freie Universität BerlinRobert Mathew Entman, J.B. and M.C. Shapiro Professor Emeritus of Media and Public Affairs, George Washington UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1442612020-09-02T12:21:18Z2020-09-02T12:21:18ZHow to read coronavirus news and learn what you actually need to know about staying safe in the pandemic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355573/original/file-20200831-20-3tp9yh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C2995%2C1985&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The news helps people navigate a complex and changing pandemic world. But they may not always remember what they need to. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Virus-Outbreak-Business-Fallout/ebe4500425c1429cbe29601c05463310/10/0">AP Photo/Damian Dovarganes</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With COVID-19, a news story that may be 100% accurate can still unintentionally mislead readers about the greatest threats of the pandemic. The unintended outcome results from a lesson taught to every journalism student: Use “real people” to “humanize” the news. </p>
<p>The “real person” in COVID-19 stories may be <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/children-and-the-virus-as-schools-reopen-much-remains-unknown-about-the-risk-to-kids-and-the-peril-they-pose-to-others/2020/08/09/e40f0862-d81e-11ea-930e-d88518c57dcc_story.html">a mom</a> concerned about her child getting sick in the classroom, used as an example in an article about schools reopening. It may be the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/11/us/virus-young-deaths.html">the family member</a> of a person who died from COVID-19, who gives a moving account for a story about the virus’s effects on young adults.</p>
<p>News is about people, so it makes sense to highlight real-life stories. Viewers and readers relate <a href="https://www.americanpressinstitute.org/journalism-essentials/makes-good-story/good-stories-prove-relevance-audience">more to personal tales than they do to dry statistics</a>.</p>
<p>But one person’s experience is, well, one person’s experience. <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Exemplification-in-Communication-the-influence-of-Case-Reports-on-the-Perception/Zillmann-Brosius/p/book/9780805828115">Media studies research</a> suggests readers should not be unduly swayed by one person’s tale of woe – or joy – because examples don’t necessarily represent the whole. </p>
<h2>Harrowing, memorable and incomplete</h2>
<p>Six million Americans have <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/us/coronavirus-us-cases.html">contracted the coronavirus</a>, experiencing radically differing symptoms, illnesses and outcomes. So terrifying individual tales in a news story can’t tell people all they need to know.</p>
<p>For example, National Public Radio recently did a piece on <a href="https://www.npr.org/transcripts/900710151">people recovering very slowly from the coronavirus</a>. The gut-wrenching story told first-person accounts of two women who continue to suffer months after getting the virus. </p>
<p>The interview was harrowing – enough to scare one into wearing a mask at all times – and memorable. But most people will not become COVID-19 “<a href="https://theconversation.com/im-a-covid-19-long-hauler-and-an-epidemiologist-heres-how-it-feels-when-symptoms-last-for-months-143676">long haulers</a>.” Evidence suggests it takes <a href="https://www.webmd.com/lung/covid-recovery-overview#2">usually two weeks</a> to recover from mild cases and six weeks from serious cases. </p>
<p>While scientists don’t yet fully understand COVID-19, the <a href="https://www.webmd.com/lung/covid-recovery-overview#1">overall recovery rate</a> from the virus is between 97% and 99.75%. </p>
<p>NPR included information on typical illness length in its story on COVID-19 long haulers. But the two women’s horrific accounts are what many listeners will likely recall – and tell others about.</p>
<p>Another exemplification that could lead people to misunderstand pandemic risk is the story of <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/07/12/south-carolina-reports-first-coronavirus-death-child-under-5/5423730002/">the first child under age 5</a> to die from the virus, in South Carolina. Distributed nationally by the Associated Press, this piece ran in local papers across the U.S. It would naturally have parents concerned.</p>
<p>Yet <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/covid-data/investigations-discovery/hospitalization-death-by-age.html">the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> says children so young are nine times less likely to die from COVID-19 than young adults and 270 times less likely than people in their 50s. </p>
<p>This information was not included in the story, potentially skewing parents’ thinking when it comes to decisions about everything from play dates to school attendance.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355578/original/file-20200831-18-hq5ltd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A very young child is nasal swabbed for coronavirus by a health professional in a mask and face shield" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355578/original/file-20200831-18-hq5ltd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355578/original/file-20200831-18-hq5ltd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355578/original/file-20200831-18-hq5ltd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355578/original/file-20200831-18-hq5ltd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355578/original/file-20200831-18-hq5ltd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355578/original/file-20200831-18-hq5ltd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355578/original/file-20200831-18-hq5ltd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Young children are extremely unlikely to die from COVID-19.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/the-numbers-are-low-until-its-your-child-the-coronavirus-can-be-deadly-for-children-too/2020/04/21/0f5ab28a-83e9-11ea-ae26-989cfce1c7c7_story.html">AP Photo/Elaine Thompson</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Anecdotal evidence is…anecdotal</h2>
<p>This problem goes beyond coronavirus coverage. </p>
<p>Another common tactic in the news business is the “anecdotal lead” – the short story that starts a news article or TV news broadcast, meant to grab attention. For example, <a href="https://losangeles.cbslocal.com/2020/06/01/santa-monica-owner-defends-his-store-with-guns-amid-looting/">one widely reported anecdote</a> during the anti-racism protests following the police death of George Floyd was a store owner in Santa Monica, California, who protected his liquor store from looting in June by standing out front with an assault rifle.</p>
<p>Be wary of such opening anecdotes. </p>
<p>The Santa Monica snapshot, while true, is not indicative of how <a href="https://theconversation.com/federal-agents-sent-to-kenosha-but-history-shows-militarized-policing-in-cities-can-escalate-violence-and-trigger-conflict-143579">unrest across the nation</a> is playing out. Most protests are <a href="https://theconversation.com/black-lives-matter-movement-uses-creative-tactics-to-confront-systemic-racism-143273">peaceful</a>, and when looting breaks out business owners generally leave <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/at-george-floyd-protests-police-and-protesters-try-to-stop-looting-11591377543">armed defense to the police</a>. Some press charges against those who damage their property. Other small business owners have <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/minneapolis-businesswoman-stands-protesters-even-after-her-store-burned-down-n1226731">fed, protected and joined peaceful protesters</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355580/original/file-20200831-25-rb6c5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Chef Oji Abbot sits outside his restaurant and another Black-owned business, both of which feature anti-racism messaging" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355580/original/file-20200831-25-rb6c5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355580/original/file-20200831-25-rb6c5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355580/original/file-20200831-25-rb6c5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355580/original/file-20200831-25-rb6c5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355580/original/file-20200831-25-rb6c5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355580/original/file-20200831-25-rb6c5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355580/original/file-20200831-25-rb6c5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many small business owners, like Oji Abbott of Washington, D.C., supported recent anti-racism protests.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/oji-abbott-chef-o-sits-in-front-of-his-restaurant-oohhs-and-news-photo/1221108523?adppopup=true">Brendan Smialowski / AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>All those stories are told in the media, too. Yet Brian Dunning, <a href="https://skeptoid.com/">executive director of Skeptoid Media</a>, which produces a podcast dedicated to debunking bad science, said the opening anecdote is usually what readers and viewers remember from a news story – not so much the bigger picture it is supposed to convey. </p>
<p>The human brain is “hard-wired to think anecdotally,” <a href="http://aejmc.org/events/sanfrancisco20/keynote/">said Dunning in a recent interview</a> with a group of journalism educators.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-memories-are-formed-and-retrieved-by-the-brain-revealed-in-a-new-study-125361">Science backs this up</a>. Research into cognitive processing finds that people consume information constantly, and their brains eventually get so full that only a few scant details can be recalled. </p>
<p>“So most news story content is never adequately processed and quickly forgotten,” write Stanely J. Baran and Dennis K. Davis in a primer on <a href="https://global.oup.com/ushe/product/mass-communication-theory-9780190942793">mass communication</a>. “Even when we do make a more conscious effort to learn from news, we often lack the information necessary to make in-depth interpretations of content.”</p>
<h2>The big pandemic puzzle</h2>
<p>Despite the foibles of human memory, journalists still gravitate toward “the intriguing case report” and the “exemplar-laden account,” explain researchers Dolf Zillman and Hans Bernrd Brosius in their 2000 book “<a href="https://www.routledge.com/Exemplification-in-Communication-the-influence-of-Case-Reports-on-the-Perception/Zillmann-Brosius/p/book/9780805828115">Exemplification in Communication</a>.” </p>
<p>There’s a simple reason: It sells.</p>
<p>“Journalism dedicated to unexemplified, abstract accounts of phenomena, no matter how reliable and effectively informative, has rarely, if ever, been considered a winning formula,” say Zillman and Brosius.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>The real-person story is not useless. It can help people understand today’s complicated world of deadly pandemics, civil unrest and economic devastation. </p>
<p>But examples are only part of a bigger picture that may well be abstract, nuanced and ever-changing. </p>
<p>The wise news consumer will consider each example as just one piece of the pandemic puzzle as they make daily decisions to keep themselves healthy and their families safe.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/144261/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas J. Hrach does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Journalists use real people’s stories to ‘humanize’ the news. But these tales – whether harrowing or heartwarming – can be misleading about the pandemic’s greatest threats.Thomas J. Hrach, Associate Professor, Department of Journalism and Strategic Media, University of MemphisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1440792020-08-19T04:32:00Z2020-08-19T04:32:00ZInstagram is the home of pretty pictures. Why are people flocking to it for news?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353338/original/file-20200818-18-wcobwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=33%2C8%2C5162%2C2950&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We know Instagram is the most influential app when it comes to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/may/03/how-instagram-changed-our-world">lifestyle</a> and <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/culture/decade-in-review/the-age-of-instagram-face">beauty</a> trends. </p>
<p>But recent research shows increasing numbers of people are also going to Instagram for their news. A report by the <a href="http://www.digitalnewsreport.org/survey/2020/overview-key-findings-2020/">Reuters Institute</a> found the use of Instagram for news has doubled across all age groups since 2018. </p>
<p>It is now <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-53050959">set to overtake Twitter</a> as a news source in the coming year, with younger people in particular embracing Instagram for their news. </p>
<h2>What is ‘Insta’?</h2>
<p>Instagram is a social media platform where users post photos with captions, with an estimated <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/325587/instagram-global-age-group/#:%7E:text=Instagram%20users,91%20million%20Instagram%20users%20each">one billion active users</a> around the world.</p>
<p>The Reuters report found Instagram reaches 11% of people of all ages for news, based on survey results for 12 countries, including Australia.</p>
<p>But the embrace of the platform for news is particularly pronounced for young people. For example, in April, 24% of 18-24 year olds in the United Kingdom used Instagram to find out about COVID-19. This compares with 26% in the United States. </p>
<p>Australians were not polled for this particular question, but a <a href="https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/1717875/News_and_Young_Australians_in_2020_web.pdf">2020 Australian study</a> of school students found 49% of teenagers surveyed got their news from Instagram. </p>
<p>Instagram is certainly viewed as a <a href="https://observer.com/2018/10/facebook-loses-young-adults-instagram-record-year/">younger person’s platform</a>, as opposed to Facebook, which is seen to be for <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/feb/12/is-facebook-for-old-people-over-55s-flock-in-as-the-young-leave">older people</a>. Those between 18 and 34 make up <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/325587/instagram-global-age-group/#:%7E:text=Instagram%20users,91%20million%20Instagram%20users%20each">about 63 per cent</a> of Instagram users worldwide.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CDmO4LQqaFg","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Instagram users can receive news stories and updates by following another user and then seeing what they post by scrolling through their feed. Alternatively, users can search via a hashtag. </p>
<h2>Why are young people choosing Instagram for news?</h2>
<p>Those under <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/articles/millennials-digital-natives/">about 35</a> have grown up with mobile and social media as the norm. So it follows they interact with news and current events in a radically different way from previous generations, or even news consumers a decade ago. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-live-in-an-age-of-fake-news-but-australian-children-are-not-learning-enough-about-media-literacy-141371">We live in an age of 'fake news'. But Australian children are not learning enough about media literacy</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Recent <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15205436.2019.1702216?casa_token=iFutc2L1JsYAAAAA%3A_UPV52PlZLABKce0Q1-Du4qhmBGfm0ghxeQ5t4kIGWN-YSuZKKC31kT3cQ-MadyS_yqYgpWiMPDu">research suggests</a> young people think that rather than going to dedicated sources for their news - like a newspaper or TV bulletin - the news will come to them. So, important information “finds them” anyway, through their general media use, peers and social connections.</p>
<p>Another key difference with older news consumers is that younger people are “<a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/work-in-progress/2010/07/03/the-shift-from-consumers-to-prosumers/#7d6f718d33df">prosumers</a>”. Not only do they read the news, they can actually produce it and join in what’s trending. Sometimes, this may be by simply sharing a post with extra commentary and opinion. At other times, users might take an image or video and edit it in order to make and share <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-are-memes-20789">a meme</a> that relates to the content.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/B-UaC1hpiq0","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Order in a chaotic world</h2>
<p>Amid global chaos and uncertainty, Instagram offers up the world as a stable, structured, and highly stylised.</p>
<p>Instagram is less chaotic than other social media platforms because of the actual interface design. That is, the focus is almost purely on aesthetics - on the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/21670811.2015.1034526?j">beauty and impact</a> of the image using filters and tools. This type of media consumption soothes instead of provoking anxiety. In some senses, it simplifies and streamlines the chaos of the world.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman's hands holding a smart phone with Instagram images." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353538/original/file-20200819-24-hlki6d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353538/original/file-20200819-24-hlki6d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353538/original/file-20200819-24-hlki6d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353538/original/file-20200819-24-hlki6d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353538/original/file-20200819-24-hlki6d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353538/original/file-20200819-24-hlki6d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353538/original/file-20200819-24-hlki6d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Instagram has a simple interface, built for mobile use.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Instagram’s ability to simplify and “organise” the world resonates with another finding of the Reuters report - Instagram has become even more important with younger groups for accessing news about COVID-19. </p>
<h2>The power of influencers</h2>
<p>Instagram is home to “<a href="https://www.marieclaire.com.au/australian-influencers-instagram">influencers</a>” - high-profile users who are considered to be style and opinion leaders. While they can influence the <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/culture/annals-of-inquiry/a-history-of-the-influencer-from-shakespeare-to-instagram">products we buy</a>, or the places we travel to, they can also influence <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21670811.2018.1423625">the information we consume</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CAx6acSJtAa","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>This becomes even more important in times of crisis. It is comforting to seek out narratives or perspectives from people we know and trust. </p>
<p>In the case of news media, Instagram gives young people what feels like a direct and personal line to their role models. In this respect, so does Twitter, but again, the interface of Instagram is simpler. On Instagram, what might be complex and confusing issues are condensed down to images. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316940455_The_News_User_on_Social_Media_A_comparative_study_of_interacting_with_media_organizations_on_Facebook_and_Instagram">Recent research</a> also suggests Instagram users prefer “lighter” and “less-demanding” types of interaction with online news. </p>
<h2>What does this mean for news consumption?</h2>
<p>The implications of the move towards “Insta-news” are complex. One concern is the way people can curate their own reality, because they can shape their feed so they only see what they want. They can unfollow or block what they do not like.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pivot-to-coronavirus-how-meme-factories-are-crafting-public-health-messaging-135557">Pivot to coronavirus: how meme factories are crafting public health messaging</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In some senses, this can sense of control is positive. However, this also means people are essentially constructing what they want the world to look like. This leads to “<a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0266382117722446?casa_token=2ayQdG9GskoAAAAA%3ArSCq4yOZ5x33tVexv0EX4jPRqQ7SNCK7z8Pfm42ooHea4Y_VdILuTGVEe7lC3CqJg8Cv1QM9mOx43g">filter bubbles</a>”, where people become “cut off” from other, perhaps more challenging, ideas. </p>
<p>Western culture is essentially “<a href="https://philpapers.org/rec/RUKOOT">ocularcentric</a>”. In other words, we are obsessed with images. And we are more likely to <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=QxdperNq5R8C&oi=fnd&pg=PT183&dq=ways+of+seeing&ots=ji48ctGUJk&sig=FNW4yQfS9bwpQzllU-8FtoTcHCw#v=onepage&q=ways%20of%20seeing&f=false">believe things we can see</a>. As a result, news consumers may be less inclined to challenge or critique what they see on Instagram. Even though they need to be doing this online more than ever. </p>
<p>The dangers of <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/instagram-fake-followers/">fake followers</a>, fake accounts and <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2020/03/27/finding-the-truth-about-covid-19-how-facebook-twitter-and-instagram-are-tackling-fake-news/#6f15cc7a1977">fake news</a> are already well-known on social media. Last year, Institut Polytechnique de Paris researchers found <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/8958763?casa_token=DxSybG1jEU8AAAAA:VzKELC-P3OB7AQsy9xtBxSUhwBPrX1uMg5YOqDGe5k3Wa1_qepvrC3fMPGCLw-MkCJwJY76w">4,000 fake accounts</a> in a targeted sample on Instagram.</p>
<h2>Good-looking news in a hostile world</h2>
<p>For young people seeking solace from the hostility and pressure of news events, Instagram provides a space filled with good-looking visual stimulation, often from people they like and trust. </p>
<p>And as the Reuters report noted - Instagram may not be everything. Social media are generally used “in combination” with other types of news information. </p>
<p>But as increasing numbers of people turn to Instagram for their news, the question remains: is this the news they need, or simply the news they want to see? </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pastel-colours-and-serif-fonts-is-annastacia-palaszczuk-trying-to-be-an-instagram-influencer-143996">Pastel colours and serif fonts: is Annastacia Palaszczuk trying to be an Instagram influencer?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/144079/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Laura Glitsos has received funding from the WA Department of Arts and Culture.</span></em></p>Amid global chaos and uncertainty, Instagram offers up the world as stable, simple and good-looking. No wonder it is set to overtake Twitter as a news source.Laura Glitsos, Lecturer in Arts and Humanities, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1427082020-07-29T18:33:11Z2020-07-29T18:33:11ZHow to protect yourself from media manipulation on energy issues and other contentious matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350047/original/file-20200728-29-19anb64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=28%2C66%2C6190%2C4082&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pipe for the Trans Mountain pipeline is unloaded in Edson, Alta., in June 2019. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jason Franson</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When my kids were little, we would play a game during the TV commercials. </p>
<p>What was the main message, I would ask. To whom was it targeted? Did you find it convincing? Why or why not? </p>
<p>I hoped this would encourage critical thinking, build some awareness of unscrupulous messaging and wrest them from the grips of a consumer culture. Without realizing it, I was teaching them about “media frames.”</p>
<p>Frames are selective storylines intended to sway decision-makers or public opinion, often with provocative words or images. The power of framing comes from defining the terms of a debate without the audience realizing it has occurred. </p>
<p>Being aware of frames reduces our vulnerability to them. Once we can recognize frames and framing techniques, they lose their power, and we can focus on the arguments, not the frame. </p>
<h2>Manipulative or responsible?</h2>
<p>“<a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/06/us/what-is-defund-police-trnd/index.html">Defund the Police</a>” is a recent example of a frame that targets racially motivated police brutality and advocates for moving a portion of police budgets to other arenas, such as mental health care. The original premise of this frame was that some police tasks should be managed by social workers or through community-building initiatives in a new model of public safety. </p>
<p>The frame was co-opted by self-professed “law-and-order” advocates to suggest the “defunders” were violent anarchists who wanted to abolish the police, threatening public safety and leading to widespread unrest. Another group adopted the defund frame with an eye to removing policing altogether, weakening its original intent and fuelling the “law-and-order” counter-frame. </p>
<p>Frames work by activating or “priming” already held feelings, ideas and values. When they have broad appeal, we see them as common sense. The “law-and-order” counter-frame builds on a deeply rooted common-sense frame that sees <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-652-x/89-652-x2015007-eng.htm">police as protectors</a>. </p>
<p>People skilled in the art of shaping frames can define situations, set the terms of debates, strategically mobilize supporters, hobble opponents and ultimately determine outcomes. Framing can be manipulative and unethical, necessary and responsible, brilliant and dangerous. </p>
<h2>‘Anti-petroleum extremists’</h2>
<p><a href="https://viurrspace.ca/handle/10613/5402">My research on contentious energy conflicts on Canada’s West Coast</a> found no frame was more influential in advancing a conflict narrative than one I labelled “anti-petroleum extremists.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Protesters hold signs and bang drums" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350043/original/file-20200728-19-e7wmdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350043/original/file-20200728-19-e7wmdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350043/original/file-20200728-19-e7wmdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350043/original/file-20200728-19-e7wmdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350043/original/file-20200728-19-e7wmdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350043/original/file-20200728-19-e7wmdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350043/original/file-20200728-19-e7wmdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A protester holds up a ‘Stop Harper’ sign during a rally to show opposition to the Enbridge Northern Gateway pipeline in Vancouver, B.C., in June 2014.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It originated in a <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/radicals-working-against-oilsands-ottawa-says-1.1148310">2012 media firestorm over the Enbridge Northern Gateway pipeline</a>, simmered its way through some seven years of conflict over the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/timeline-key-dates-history-trans-mountain-pipeline-1.4849370">Trans Mountain Pipeline expansion</a> and is still present in <a href="https://www.web24.news/u/2020/06/alberta-government-investigation-extended.html">news releases from the Alberta government</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-urgent-need-for-media-literacy-in-an-age-of-annihilation-117958">The urgent need for media literacy in an age of annihilation</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Rather than raise awareness of <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/b-c-pipeline-bombings-3-years-old-with-no-charges-laid-1.985126">bombings targeting B.C. gas pipelines</a> and other <a href="https://www.statewatch.org/media/documents/news/2015/feb/can-2014-01-24-rcmp-anti-petroleum-activists-report.pdf">violent events affecting and threatening people in Canada’s oil and gas industry</a>, former prime minister Stephen Harper’s Conservative government advanced a frame that portrayed pipeline opponents as <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/radicals-working-against-oilsands-ottawa-says-1.1148310">foreign-funded radicals who were unfairly trying to stop major projects no matter what the cost to Canadian families</a>. </p>
<p>The frame was <a href="https://www.policyalternatives.ca/publications/monitor/government%E2%80%99s-anti-terror-laws-target-anti-pipeline-foes">amplified by anti-terrorism legislation suggesting pipeline protesters threatened national security</a>, documents such as <a href="https://www.statewatch.org/media/documents/news/2015/feb/can-2014-01-24-rcmp-anti-petroleum-activists-report.pdf">RCMP intelligence reports</a> that suggested protesters were under surveillance and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/academics-open-letter-calls-for-moratorium-on-political-tax-audits-1.2765967?cmp=rss">widespread audits of environmental organizations</a>. </p>
<h2>Framing techniques</h2>
<p>At least <a href="https://www.edx.org/course/framing-how-politicians-debate">five framing techniques</a> were used to create the “anti-petroleum extremists” frame. </p>
<ol>
<li><p>Identity: “Us-versus-them” frames characterize a situation to be more about the players and less about the issues. Blame was squarely placed on a stereotypical <em>them</em> with moral indignation and an intent to legitimize action to end the perceived injustice. </p></li>
<li><p>Hot values: Like all contentious frames, “anti-petroleum extremists” was embedded in “<a href="https://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/article/appreciating-values-diversity-environment-versus-economy-conflicts/">hot values</a>” more than “cold” information such as industry statistics or even “warm” stories about resource-dependent families.</p>
<p>For example, fossil fuels may be valued as sources of great wealth and progress, or derided as threats to clean air and water and planetary stability. In a framing contest, frames attached to strong values will trounce ones that are technical or narrative.</p></li>
<li><p>Masculinity: Under this frame, leadership is about decisiveness, power and strength. In feminine frames, it’s about bridging differences, establishing relationships and questioning one’s own position. </p></li>
<li><p>Breaking the monopoly on emotion: By describing <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/radicals-working-against-oilsands-ottawa-says-1.1148310">environmentalists as “foreign-funded</a>,” the Harper government hijacked a common anti-oilsands frame, namely that foreign wealth had tremendous influence over Canadian energy and environmental policies. </p></li>
<li><p>Villain, victim and hero: The Harper government portrayed itself as heroic, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/radicals-working-against-oilsands-ottawa-says-1.1148310">protecting the Canadian public and important investors</a> from villanous extremists. Protesters had a similar frame, where the heroes were reasonable people with legitimate concerns safeguarding a sustainable future.</p></li>
</ol>
<h2>‘No choice’</h2>
<p>As the Harper government <a href="http://www.theharperdecade.com/blog/2015/4/18/the-erosion-of-environmental-protection-and-public-environmental-information">weakened environmental laws</a> and legal decisions failed to provide relief, many people began to feel like they were running out of options. This helped spur a “<a href="https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/green-party-leader-elizabeth-may-arrested-in-anti-pipeline-protest-1.3856341">no choice</a>” frame.</p>
<p>Many “no choice” advocates <a href="https://thetyee.ca/Opinion/2015/02/12/Toolkit-for-Change/">did not see themselves as extremist</a> and felt they — not only the environment — were under assault, transforming the frame into an identity frame. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A group of people carrying flags and a banner walk down a street" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350046/original/file-20200728-13-1e0s8mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350046/original/file-20200728-13-1e0s8mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350046/original/file-20200728-13-1e0s8mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350046/original/file-20200728-13-1e0s8mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350046/original/file-20200728-13-1e0s8mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350046/original/file-20200728-13-1e0s8mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350046/original/file-20200728-13-1e0s8mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People leave the site of a blockade in the Mohawk community of Kahnawake, Que., in March 2020, where they were to showing their support for Wet'suwet'en hereditary chiefs in British Columbia who are opposed to the construction of a liquid natural gas pipeline through their traditional territory.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Ryan Remiroz</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For Indigenous people opposed to the project, the “anti-petroleum extremists” frame was another intolerable affront to First Nations and territories overly consumed by development. </p>
<p>For some other research participants, there was a sense that <em>Canadianism</em> was under attack. </p>
<p>The “no choice” frame became linked to a hot values frame with villain, victim, hero properties called “restoring democracy” in the lead up to the 2015 federal election. In this frame, moral justice trumped legal justice, since legislators and regulators were seen as aligned with industry and not worthy of trust. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-could-power-a-new-green-movement-by-talking-about-energy-change-132906">We could power a new green movement by talking about energy change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>“Restoring democracy” would become the most prominent frame in mainstream news, and it was this frame to which Liberal Prime Minister Justin Trudeau first responded, promising <a href="https://ipolitics.ca/2016/08/15/trudeau-government-unveils-environmental-assessment-review-panel/">extensive opportunities for public input</a>. </p>
<h2>Building frame literacy</h2>
<p>Powerful players in government and industry have ample resources and experience with media messaging. To help level the playing field, I challenge you to identify frames in media. </p>
<p>Are they being used to some political advantage? What values are evident? Are there counter-frames? What framing techniques are used? </p>
<p>Are the frames in non-profit, industry or government media? Are they in mainstream news? How frequently are you seeing them in each type of media? </p>
<p>Is there an emerging “no choice” frame, signalling a social tipping point? </p>
<p>As you build frame literacy, you will protect yourself from media manipulation — and likely have a little fun.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142708/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Holly Clermont received funding from SSHRC. </span></em></p>Villain, victim or hero? It all depends on who’s telling the story. When an audience is aware of how a story is framed, it can focus on the arguments, not the frame.Holly Clermont, Post-doctoral fellow, Environment, Community and Health Observatory, University of Northern British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1413712020-07-05T19:50:32Z2020-07-05T19:50:32ZWe live in an age of ‘fake news’. But Australian children are not learning enough about media literacy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345232/original/file-20200702-111242-1rhskok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C5892%2C3871&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Today we release the findings from our <a href="https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/1717875/2020_News_and_Young_Australians_v2.pdf">new research</a> into how young Australians consume and think about news media.</p>
<p>Following a summer of bushfires and during the COVID-19 pandemic, young people have told us they consume news regularly. But they also say they can find it frightening and many don’t ask questions about the true source of the information they are getting. </p>
<p>To our surprise, despite widespread concern about “<a href="https://theconversation.com/fake-news-is-poison-for-the-body-politic-can-it-be-stopped-69136">fake news</a>” and a growing body of evidence about the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-battle-against-disinformation-is-global-129212">reach and impact of misinformation</a>, many young people are also not getting formal education about news media at school. </p>
<h2>Our research</h2>
<p>In February and March 2020, we conducted an online survey of young people’s media use and education. We used a nationally representative sample of more than 1,000 young Australians aged between eight and 16 years. </p>
<p>In our results, we refer to two age categories for analysis: children (8 to 12) and teens (13 to 16).</p>
<p>This repeats and extends a similar survey <a href="https://theconversation.com/most-young-australians-cant-identify-fake-news-online-87100">we did in 2017</a>.</p>
<h2>Where do young people get their news?</h2>
<p>To provide a snapshot of news consumption, we asked young Australians where they got news stories from on the previous day.</p>
<p>We found a clear majority of young people do consume news directly from news sources or they hear about it from people they know and trust. </p>
<p>We found 88% had heard about news events from at least one source, up 8% on 2017. Family were by far the most common source. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345226/original/file-20200702-111298-1dfi4ip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345226/original/file-20200702-111298-1dfi4ip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=921&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345226/original/file-20200702-111298-1dfi4ip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=921&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345226/original/file-20200702-111298-1dfi4ip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=921&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345226/original/file-20200702-111298-1dfi4ip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1157&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345226/original/file-20200702-111298-1dfi4ip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1157&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345226/original/file-20200702-111298-1dfi4ip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1157&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">News and Australian Children in 2020</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>For young people, news is social</h2>
<p>A striking finding is news consumption has become more social - obtained either through someone they know or social media. </p>
<p>The day before the survey, 70% of young people received news from family, teachers or friends (up 13% from 2017), while 29% got their news from social media (up 7%). </p>
<p>As with 2017, the news consumption practices of children and teenagers are quite different. The greatest difference is in their use of online media, including social media, to get news stories. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/social-media-platforms-need-to-do-more-to-stop-junk-food-marketers-targeting-children-140772">Social media platforms need to do more to stop junk food marketers targeting children</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>While 43% of teens got news from social media the day before the survey, only 15% of children did this. However, the use of social media to get news stories has increased for both age groups when compared with 2017 (it increased 8% for teens and 5% for children).</p>
<p>Young people’s socially orientated news consumption means they will have different experiences and expectations of news media and this may challenge the expectations of older generations. </p>
<p>For example, socially acquired news may not prioritise impartiality or objectivity in the same way traditional news media does. Trust in a source may be developed using different criteria.</p>
<h2>What are young people learning at school?</h2>
<p>To understand what young people are learning about news media, we asked about young people’s critical engagement with news and the opportunities they have been given to create their own stories in the classroom.</p>
<p>Just one in five young Australians said they had a lesson during the past year to help them decide whether news stories are true and can be trusted. This result was the same for both children and teens. While this figure increased by 3% for children, there was a 4% drop for teens when compared with 2017. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345236/original/file-20200702-111374-158681j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345236/original/file-20200702-111374-158681j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345236/original/file-20200702-111374-158681j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345236/original/file-20200702-111374-158681j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345236/original/file-20200702-111374-158681j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345236/original/file-20200702-111374-158681j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345236/original/file-20200702-111374-158681j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The majority of surveyed young people said they did not have lessons about fake news in the past year.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There was also a drop in the number of young people who said they had had lessons to help them create their own news stories. When it came to teens, 26% had these lessons (down 4% on 2017). For younger children, 29% had these lessons (down 8%). </p>
<h2>Information is not being challenged</h2>
<p>This lack of news media literacy education in classrooms is troubling. </p>
<p>The number of young people who agree they know how to tell fake news from real new stories increased only marginally from 2017, moving from 34% to 36%. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/most-young-australians-cant-identify-fake-news-online-87100">Most young Australians can’t identify fake news online</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This very small increase is surprising, given the considerable amount of attention given to this issue by <a href="https://www.skynews.com.au/details/_6142423186001">politicians</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2020/feb/07/how-to-stop-spread-of-fake-news-oliver-burkeman">media outlets</a> over the past few years. </p>
<p>Of further concern, our survey finds a large number of young Australians do not challenge the news they consume, even as they get older. </p>
<p>For example, 46% of young people who get news stories from social media, say they give very little or no attention to the source of news stories found online – this result was the same for children and for teens.</p>
<h2>Adults need to talk to kids about news</h2>
<p>When asked how they feel when they consume news media, the majority of young Australians surveyed reported they often or sometimes feel afraid, angry, sad or upset. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345225/original/file-20200702-111298-1fqllls.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345225/original/file-20200702-111298-1fqllls.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345225/original/file-20200702-111298-1fqllls.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345225/original/file-20200702-111298-1fqllls.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345225/original/file-20200702-111298-1fqllls.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345225/original/file-20200702-111298-1fqllls.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345225/original/file-20200702-111298-1fqllls.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">News and Australian Children in 2020</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is possible recent large-scale events such as the summer bushfires and COVID-19 pandemic account for some of these strong responses. </p>
<p>However, they also demonstrate the need for adults to be aware of the impact of news on young people, and to initiate supportive conversations about news. </p>
<p>We also believe these findings suggest media literacy efforts need to take place at home as well as school, with more resources to help parents ensure their children’s news interactions are safe and beneficial. </p>
<h2>Why aren’t students learning more about media?</h2>
<p>It is not fully clear why Australian students are not receiving widespread critical news literacy education. But <a href="https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/1689447/Teaching_Media_Literacy_web_version.pdf">our related research</a> finds that while most teachers believe it’s important to support student’s news media literacy, there are many barriers that prevent them from doing this. </p>
<p>These include timetable constraints, an overloaded curriculum, a lack of time for planning and a lack of appropriate training and support. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-help-kids-navigate-fake-news-and-misinformation-online-79342">How to help kids navigate fake news and misinformation online</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These barriers must be addressed if teachers are to equip young Australians with the critical skills they need to engage with news media effectively and to discern trustworthy news from disinformation. </p>
<h2>Our findings are not all bad news</h2>
<p>As we noted above, young people reported more engagement with news in 2020 than in 2017, either directly through news media or through friends, family and teachers. </p>
<p>In addition, 49% agree following the news is important to them and 74% say news makes them feel smart or knowledgeable. </p>
<p>Our findings do suggest, however, there is an urgent need for policy makers and education authorities to increase their efforts around young people’s learning about media.</p>
<p>We believe young people should be receiving specific education about the role of news media in our society, bias in the news, disinformation and misinformation, the inclusion of different groups, news media ownership and technology. </p>
<p>Only then will news play a positive role in young people’s lives and continue to do so in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/141371/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tanya Notley receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Museum of Australian Democracy, the National Association for Media Literacy (NAMLE) in the United States and Google Australia. She is Deputy Chair of the Australian Media Literacy Alliance. The research informing this article is an extension of research supported by Crinkling News in 2017. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Dezuanni receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the National Association for Media Literacy (NAMLE) in the United States, the Museum of Australian Democracy and Google Australia. The research informing this article is an extension of research supported by Crinkling News in 2017. </span></em></p>Young people report consuming news makes them feel smart. But many say they pay little attention to the source of the information they are getting.Tanya Notley, Senior Lecturer in Digital Media, Western Sydney UniversityMichael Dezuanni, Associate professor, Creative Industries Faculty, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1396102020-06-24T12:18:10Z2020-06-24T12:18:10ZHow fake accounts constantly manipulate what you see on social media – and what you can do about it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342464/original/file-20200617-94044-chkdii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C6000%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">All is not as it appears on social media.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/07/us/politics/russia-facebook-twitter-election.html">filadendron/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter and Instagram started out as a way to connect with friends, family and people of interest. But anyone on social media these days knows it’s increasingly a divisive landscape. </p>
<p>Undoubtedly you’ve heard reports that hackers and even foreign governments are using social media to manipulate and attack you. You may wonder how that is possible. As a professor of computer science who <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=HC021GgAAAAJ">researches social media and security</a>, I can explain – and offer some ideas for what you can do about it. </p>
<h2>Bots and sock puppets</h2>
<p>Social media platforms don’t simply feed you the posts from the accounts you follow. They use <a href="https://blog.hootsuite.com/facebook-algorithm/">algorithms to curate</a> what you see based in part on “likes” or “votes.” A post is shown to some users, and the more those people react – positively or negatively – the more it will be highlighted to others. Sadly, lies and extreme content often garner more reactions and so <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559">spread quickly and widely</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342981/original/file-20200619-43220-jsqrf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342981/original/file-20200619-43220-jsqrf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342981/original/file-20200619-43220-jsqrf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342981/original/file-20200619-43220-jsqrf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342981/original/file-20200619-43220-jsqrf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342981/original/file-20200619-43220-jsqrf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342981/original/file-20200619-43220-jsqrf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342981/original/file-20200619-43220-jsqrf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A 2018 file photo showing a business center building in St. Petersburg, Russia, known as the ‘troll factory,’ one of a web of companies allegedly controlled by Yevgeny Prigozhin, who has reported ties to Russian President Vladimir Putin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Election-2018-Russian-Meddling/91870df003cc492494b575682ef911c0/3/0">AP Photo/Dmitri Lovetsky</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But who is doing this “voting”? Often it’s an army of accounts, called bots, that do not correspond to real people. In fact, they’re controlled by hackers, often on the other side of the world. For example, researchers have reported that <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/05/21/1002105/covid-bot-twitter-accounts-push-to-reopen-america/">more than half of the Twitter accounts discussing COVID-19 are bots</a>.</p>
<p>As a social media researcher, I’ve seen <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2789187.2789206">thousands of accounts with the same profile picture</a> “like” posts in unison. I’ve seen <a href="https://medium.com/@geoffgolberg/twitter-looks-the-other-way-as-trumps-tweets-amplified-by-artificial-network-ce90f119e2d5">accounts post hundreds of times per day</a>, far more than a human being could. I’ve seen an account claiming to be an “All-American patriotic army wife” from Florida post obsessively about immigrants in English, but whose account history showed it used to post in Ukranian. </p>
<p>Fake accounts like this are called “<a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3308560.3317598">sock puppets</a>” – suggesting a hidden hand speaking through another identity. In many cases, this deception can easily be revealed with a look at the account history. But in some cases, there is a big investment in making sock puppet accounts seem real. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342841/original/file-20200618-41209-16ye3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342841/original/file-20200618-41209-16ye3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342841/original/file-20200618-41209-16ye3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342841/original/file-20200618-41209-16ye3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342841/original/file-20200618-41209-16ye3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342841/original/file-20200618-41209-16ye3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=668&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342841/original/file-20200618-41209-16ye3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=668&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342841/original/file-20200618-41209-16ye3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=668&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Now defunct, the ‘Jenna Abrams’ account was created by hackers in Russia.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/chrisladd/2017/11/20/jenna-abrams-is-not-real-and-that-matters-more-than-you-think/#7449caed3b5a">Jenna Abrams, an account with 70,000 followers</a>, was quoted by mainstream media outlets like <a href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/jenna-abrams-russias-clown-troll-princess-duped-the-mainstream-media-and-the-world">The New York Times</a> for her xenophobic and far-right opinions, but was actually an invention controlled by the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/02/russia-troll-farm/553616/">Internet Research Agency</a>, a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/07/us/politics/russia-facebook-twitter-election.html">Russian government-funded troll farm</a> and not a living, breathing person. </p>
<h2>Sowing chaos</h2>
<p>Trolls often don’t care about the issues as much as they care about <a href="https://medium.com/dfrlab/trolltracker-twitters-troll-farm-archives-d1b4df880ec6">creating division and distrust</a>. For example, researchers in 2018 concluded that some of the most influential accounts on both sides of divisive issues, like <a href="https://twitter.com/katestarbird/status/954804195269361664">Black Lives Matter and Blue Lives Matter</a>, were controlled by troll farms. </p>
<p>More than just fanning disagreement, trolls want to encourage <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2020/06/biden-ukraine-recordings-oan/612454/">a belief that truth no longer exists</a>. Divide and conquer. Distrust anyone who might serve as a leader or trusted voice. Cut off the head. Demoralize. Confuse. Each of these is a devastating attack strategy. </p>
<p>Even as a social media researcher, I underestimate the degree to which my opinion is shaped by these attacks. I think I am smart enough to read what I want, discard the rest and step away unscathed. Still, when I see a post that has millions of likes, part of me thinks it must reflect public opinion. The social media feeds I see are affected by it and, what’s more, I am affected by the opinions of my real friends, who are also influenced. </p>
<p>The entire society is being <a href="https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/ira-political-polarization/">subtly manipulated</a> to believe they are on opposite sides of many issues when <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559">legitimate common ground exists</a>. </p>
<p>I have focused primarily on U.S.-based examples, but the same types of attacks are playing out around the world. By turning the voices of democracies against each other, authoritarian regimes may begin to look preferable to chaos. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342984/original/file-20200619-43209-yibf92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342984/original/file-20200619-43209-yibf92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342984/original/file-20200619-43209-yibf92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342984/original/file-20200619-43209-yibf92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342984/original/file-20200619-43209-yibf92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342984/original/file-20200619-43209-yibf92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342984/original/file-20200619-43209-yibf92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342984/original/file-20200619-43209-yibf92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Founder and CEO of Facebook Mark Zuckerberg in Brussels, Feb. 17, 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/founder-and-ceo-of-us-online-social-media-and-social-news-photo/1201476988">Kenzo Tribouillard/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Platforms have been slow to act. Sadly, misinformation and disinformation drives usage and is <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-knows-it-encourages-division-top-executives-nixed-solutions-11590507499">good for business</a>. Failure to act has often been justified with concerns about <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/facebook-and-the-free-speech-excuse">freedom of speech</a>. Does freedom of speech include the right to create 100,000 fake accounts with the express purpose of spreading lies, division and chaos? </p>
<h2>Taking control</h2>
<p>So what can you do about it? You probably already know to check the sources and dates of what you read and forward, but common-sense media literacy advice is not enough. </p>
<p>First, use social media more deliberately. Choose to catch up with someone in particular, rather than consuming only the default feed. You might be amazed to see what you’ve been missing. Help your friends and family find your posts by using features like pinning key messages to the top of your feed. </p>
<p>Second, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-01107-z">pressure social media platforms</a> to remove accounts with clear signs of automation. Ask for more controls to manage what you see and which posts are amplified. Ask for more transparency in how posts are promoted and who is placing ads. For example, complain directly about the Facebook news feed <a href="https://www.facebook.com/help/contact/268228883256323">here</a> or tell <a href="https://www.house.gov/representatives/find-your-representative">legislators</a> about your concerns. </p>
<p>Third, be aware of the trolls’ favorite issues and be skeptical of them. They may be most interested in creating chaos, but they also show clear preferences on some issues. For example, trolls want to <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/05/21/1002105/covid-bot-twitter-accounts-push-to-reopen-america/">reopen economies</a> quickly without real management to flatten the COVID-19 curve. They also clearly supported <a href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/ryanhatesthis/mueller-report-internet-research-agency-detailed-2016">one of the 2016 U.S. presidential candidates</a> over the other. It’s worth asking yourself how these positions might be good for Russian trolls, but bad for you and your family. </p>
<p>Perhaps most importantly, use social media sparingly, like any other addictive, toxic substance, and invest in more real-life community building conversations. Listen to real people, real stories and real opinions, and build from there.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklysmart">You can get our highlights each weekend</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139610/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeanna Matthews received a 2018-2019 Magic Grant from the Brown Institute (Columbia University/Stanford University). She was a fellow at Data and Society, a research institute in Manhattan, from 2017 to 2018 and is still an affiliate there.
</span></em></p>A social media researcher explains how bots and sock puppet accounts manipulate and polarize public debate.Jeanna Matthews, Full Professor, Computer Science, Clarkson UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1329062020-04-20T21:32:37Z2020-04-20T21:32:37ZWe could power a new green movement by talking about energy change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328860/original/file-20200418-152591-1upwz5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=41%2C359%2C3329%2C2053&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ron Lamb installed solar panels to power his irrigation systems on the family farm near Claresholm, Alta.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jeff McIntosh)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>What’s your energy story?</p>
<p>Everyone has energy stories, whether they’re about a relative working on an oil rig, a parent teaching a child to turn the lights off or a mid-winter power outage. </p>
<p>When I teach students about energy literacy in my education courses at the University of British Columbia, or in the public workshops I lead as a <a href="https://sustain.ubc.ca/teaching-applied-learning/sustainability-fellowships">sustainability fellow</a> at the <a href="https://sustain.ubc.ca/research/research-collections/centre-interactive-research-sustainability">Centre for Interactive Research on Sustainability</a>, I begin by asking students to talk about their energy stories. People may not realize it at first, but our experiences with energy are integral to the stories that bind us in our human struggles for survival. </p>
<p>By contrast, if I mention climate change, some students shift in their seats and cross their arms. It’s as though they are instantly <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-challenging-politics-of-climate-change/">closed to a discussion</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/O1VGxag9vo8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Video on how cultures and economies based on fossil fuel energy (petrocultures) can transition to new forms of energy, with Imre Szeman,
professor of communication arts at the University of Waterloo
and co-director of the petrocultures research group at University of Alberta.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many people are shocked when they see how the objects and encounters in their lives are built upon <a href="https://unfccc.int/news/fossil-fuels-are-biggest-part-of-global-ecological-footprint">finite and polluting forms of fossil fuel energy (oil, gas, coal)</a>. This can range from the <a href="https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/2019/09/12/fast-facts-about-fast-fashion/">clothes we wear</a> and the transport we use to the medical supplies we depend upon. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-the-rise-and-fall-of-oil-in-popular-culture-68751">Friday essay: the Rise and Fall of oil in popular culture</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The challenge we face is transitioning from a fossil fuel-based culture to one built on renewable energy. As our society transitions to new forms of energy, our social and cultural stories will also change. </p>
<h2>Words and stories matter</h2>
<p>My <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Ecological-Exile-Spatial-Injustice-and-Environmental-Humanities-1st-Edition/Gladwin/p/book/9781138189683">research in arts and humanities education</a> explores how people experience <a href="https://blog.oup.com/2017/08/valuing-ecological-futures/">language and narrative, and how these impact people’s understanding and decisions about their environmental futures</a>. </p>
<p>Whether consciously or not, people draw on the tools of storytelling through language, narrative and imagination to understand problems.</p>
<p>Focusing our communication and language on energy transition could help overcome the <a href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/Social-Scientists-Seek-Ways/131780">social impasse we’ve reached in addressing climate change</a>. Scientists can clearly prove the existential threats of climate change and the link to fossil fuel energy. But they have less success at <a href="https://www.eesi.org/articles/view/whats-wrong-with-the-way-we-communicate-climate-change">educating and communicating</a> with specific groups to produce social action. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-explained-why-are-climate-change-skeptics-often-right-wing-conservatives-123549">Climate explained: Why are climate change skeptics often right-wing conservatives?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Part of the reason for this is that climate change has become a weapon in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/dec/20/conservative-groups-1bn-against-climate-change">divisive political wars</a> waged over who controls the narrative in media or society. Facts and evidence have yet to sway segments of the public toward effective climate action. Public sentiment often <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01541/full">relies more on beliefs</a> reinforced by messaging from <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/04/how-corporate-lobbyists-conquered-american-democracy/390822/">corporate lobbyists</a> or political pundits than on evidence. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328855/original/file-20200418-152576-y0wpok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328855/original/file-20200418-152576-y0wpok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328855/original/file-20200418-152576-y0wpok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328855/original/file-20200418-152576-y0wpok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328855/original/file-20200418-152576-y0wpok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328855/original/file-20200418-152576-y0wpok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328855/original/file-20200418-152576-y0wpok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An offshore wind turbine is towed to Talisman Energy’s Beatrice wind farm demonstration project 25 kilometres off the east coast of Scotland, July 2007.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(MARKETWIRE PHOTO/Talisman Energy Inc.)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Making sense of reality</h2>
<p>If we start to communicate and educate about energy transition through our interconnecting and overlapping stories, then we could avoid polarizing climate change and publicly shaming those who deny it. </p>
<p>One of the under-used tools in overcoming the impasse involves language and literacy. How can we educate ourselves about the primary cause of climate change — fossil fuel energy — while also collaborating through our overlapping energy stories? </p>
<p><a href="https://georgelakoff.com/">George Lakoff</a>, professor emeritus of cognitive science and linguistics at University of California, Berkeley, has been looking at ways of using language in politics and society for decades. In his books <em><a href="https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/M/bo24837087.html">Moral Politics</a></em> and <em><a href="https://www.chelseagreen.com/product/the-all-new-dont-think-of-an-elephant/">Don’t Think of an Elephant</a></em>, Lakoff discusses how the political divide is associated with differing values more than with disagreement over facts and logic. </p>
<p>Based upon <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/feb/01/george-lakoff-interview">cognitive research</a>, Lakoff explains how people see the world in mental structures called frames, and these frames create or make sense of reality. He argues that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17524030903529749">how we “frame” the environment matters</a> to how <a href="https://citizensclimatelobby.org/americas-linguistics-how-we-talk-about-climate-change-politics-morals/">people understand it</a>.</p>
<p>Today, the framing of climate change has become heavily associated with ideological frames. Talking about energy might just get us beyond the impasse.</p>
<h2>Appreciative inquiry</h2>
<p>“<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l3RjC5vllZ4">Appreciative inquiry</a>” is an educational approach using dialogue and storytelling in a collaborative way. Appreciative inquiry looks at possibilities based upon big-picture thinking by sharing stories instead of critique. Rather than focusing on the deficit model of problem solving, appreciative inquiry encourages listening to other experiences to learn and foster positive growth. </p>
<p>Moving away from <a href="https://time.com/5651393/why-your-brain-cant-process-climate-change/">abstract concepts of climate change</a> and over to concrete ideas of energy change allows conversations to unfold, particularly those about how we collectively live with energy in our daily lives. People know how much it costs to fill the truck, what the electrical bill costs each month or why we need forms of fuel to cook our food. </p>
<p>Energy stories also involve environmental threats that impact human lives such as through polluted air or water contamination. Energy realities connect to our human stories. </p>
<h2>Shifting the conversation</h2>
<p>Talking about how <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/green-energy-economy-1.5143757">energy transition</a> would improve socio-economic conditions for people working in energy sectors could offer a common language across political divides. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KEeH4EniM3E">Renewable energy</a> can employ people working in <a href="https://thetyee.ca/News/2019/07/31/Alberta-Strong-Economy-Transition/">Alberta’s oil patch</a>, <a href="https://renews.biz/57584/aberdeen-marks-spot-for-oil-and-gas-transition/">Scotland’s offshore oil fields</a> or <a href="https://www.iatp.org/blog/201902/clean-power-plan-and-equitable-energy-transition-rural-america">West Virginia’s coal sector</a>. It can also also <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/benefits-renewable-energy-use">contribute to local economies and improve public health and the environmental conditions</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/clean-energy-can-advance-indigenous-reconciliation-83343">Clean energy can advance Indigenous reconciliation</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Energy transition also increases opportunities of energy sovereignty for <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/first-nations-renewable-energy-projects-1.4348595">Indigenous people</a> and other historically marginalized communities.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/p7xnzGPTk2c?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Power to the People, hosted by Melina Laboucan Massimo, explores the renewable energy revolution empowering Indigenous communities across Canada and globally.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In this model of energy transition, people have <a href="http://powertothepeople.tv/about/">control over energy sources</a> in ways they often didn’t with fossil fuels. This shift in the story creates sustainable low-carbon futures without erasing people’s histories in the process. </p>
<p>In order to break the gridlock of social division in public discourse, let’s share the story of energy change. Shifting the conversation to energy doesn’t ignore the reality of climate change. It only reframes the story.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/132906/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Derek Gladwin has received funding before from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p>Talking about energy transitions could help overcome the impasse we seem to have reached on climate change.Derek Gladwin, Assistant Professor, Language & Literacy Education, and Sustainability Fellow, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1316662020-03-02T16:18:58Z2020-03-02T16:18:58ZYoung people are taking sex-ed into their own hands on YouTube<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317843/original/file-20200228-24701-7mt8rx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C1720%2C1303&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many young women and girls who make YouTube videos about sexual consent also examine larger cultural, legal and political contexts. Here, YouTuber Laci Green. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(YouTube/Laci Green)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sex education in Canadian schools continues to be highly politicized and young people are paying the price. </p>
<p>In Québec, for example, the <a href="http://www.education.gouv.qc.ca/en/teachers/dossiers/sexuality-education/">provincial sexual health curriculum has shifted a few times in the last couple of decades</a>, often leaving teachers and schools <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.243-C01">confused about the approach and the implementation guidelines</a>. In Ontario, sexual health curriculum is also at the mercy of the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sex-education-ontario-canada-curriculum-1.4786045">province’s political climate</a>. </p>
<p>In many Canadian classrooms, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2011.615606">factors like inadequate teacher training and discomfort</a> impact what topics are addressed or avoided. Unfortunately, these circumstances mean that youth may not get the information they need to engage in healthy, positive sexual relationships. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, sexual health resources flourish online. Studies show that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2013.823899">many youth seek out information about sexuality in digital spaces</a>. Within today’s participatory social media platforms and networks, many of these resources are produced by youth, for youth. Young girls and women specifically are taking sex education into their own hands. </p>
<p>As a doctoral student at McGill University and a sex education practitioner, I have had the privilege of studying how young YouTubers use their media to talk to their audiences about sexual violence and sexual consent, both in my own dissertation <a href="https://doi.org/10.3167/ghs.2017.100204">and in collaborative research</a>. In these studies, I looked at a mix of YouTube videos and vlogs (or video logs) from <a href="https://youtu.be/v7IL1gLZbR8">youth of all genders</a>, aged between 14 and 30 years old. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/TD2EooMhqRI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Laci Green video.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Female YouTubers as sex educators</h2>
<p>The YouTubers in my study, including celebrity vloggers like <a href="https://www.youtube.com/channel/UChZUCgX-hBXDpnpB8O1XQbA">Meghan Hughes</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/user/lacigreen">Laci Green</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/user/hannahgirasol">Hannah Witton</a>, tackle many facets of sexual consent and sexual violence in their videos. They move beyond the oversimplified “no means no” and “yes means yes” messaging that permeates <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2017.1393407">consent education</a>. </p>
<p>Many of the young women and girls in my samples not only define sexual consent and sexual assault, but also frame these concepts within the larger cultural, legal and political contexts in which they exist. </p>
<p>This is important; examining sexual violence from these broad lenses helps spotlight rape myths and victim blaming. Helping youth recognize the impacts of sexual violence and the underlining societal beliefs and structures that sustain it is a positive step towards fostering a consent culture.</p>
<p>I found that young women and girls are taking to YouTube for many reasons, notably, to express themselves, to educate, respond to others, share their narratives and promote social change. Within their videos, several of the YouTubers in my studies actively encourage their audiences to respect sexual consent, to support survivors and to fight rape culture — for example, by how they vote. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2016.1211511">Similar to young feminist activists in other online spaces</a>, these YouTubers are positioning themselves as agents of change and using their vast networks to make a difference (some have hundreds of thousands of subscribers). Audiences listening to YouTube videos can therefore learn how about the skills and knowledge they need to engage in healthy relationships, and more broadly, to help prevent sexual violence.</p>
<p>I found that these girls and young women address sexual consent and sexual violence in creative and engaging ways. In their videos, they use emotional narratives, snappy media effects, music, examples that resonate with youth realities and informal language. </p>
<p>Their production choices lend to an authentic and conversational feel. In many ways, these videos offer a form of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476416644977">sex edutainment</a>, combining educational elements with entertainment, to attract young YouTube audiences.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/vWU4bDYgwD8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Pillow Talk video.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>YouTube pitfalls</h2>
<p>There are several benefits to learning about sexuality on YouTube: there is a large selection of videos, audiences can watch them 24/7 and there are opportunities for dialogue. However, accessible features also open doors to potential harmful rhetoric. </p>
<p>I found that some YouTubers (male and female) perpetuate harmful stereotypes and misinformation about survivors and sexual violence. Trolls often showed up in the comments. In fairy tales, trolls lurk under bridges waiting for victims they can eat — in the digital spaces I studied, many hid under the cape of free speech and openly mocked female YouTubers, women in general and feminists. </p>
<p>This was not a surprise; it’s well known that the internet can be a dangerous space for women and girls. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1215/9781478002772">Sarah Banet-Weiser</a>, professor of media and communications at the London School of Economics, correctly describes popular feminism and misogyny as warring ideologies, with digital spaces being one of their battlegrounds. YouTube is no exception.</p>
<p>Viewers should also be aware of the corporate nature of YouTube. As researcher and lecturer Sophie Bishop points out in her study of beauty vloggers, YouTube’s “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856517736978">algorithmic political economy</a>” means the platform will prioritize videos deemed more commercially viable. Some celebrity YouTubers are financially supported by companies, while others are looking for sponsorship — both of which may affect video content and performance. The algorithms also mean a diversity of voices may be left out. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/h6sk1usAu00?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Meghan Hughes video.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Supporting youth</h2>
<p>Parents can can help youth navigate the messages they see on YouTube and elsewhere. You and your child can also play an important role in sexual violence prevention and the promotion of consent culture in the following ways:</p>
<p><strong>Ask and listen.</strong> Show interest in what youth are are watching, without judgement. Taking the time to listen to them describe the spaces that they occupy can help build the trust needed to talk to them about the messages they consume. </p>
<p><strong>Practise critical media literacy skills with your kids.</strong> We cannot control what is said on the internet; however, we can teach youth to be critical of media messages and to be responsible content producers. <a href="https://mediasmarts.ca/">MediaSmarts</a> has tip sheets for parents. </p>
<p><strong>Address the trolls.</strong> Youth already know about trolls. However, it may be helpful to discuss with them how to deal with hateful online comments. There is no best solution: <a href="https://mediasmarts.ca/sites/mediasmarts/files/publication-report/full/young-canadians-online-hate.pdf">learning more about it may be a good first start</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Be prepared for conversations about sexuality and sexual violence.</strong> If you are comfortable talking about consent, have <a href="https://canadianwomen.org/blog/five-ways-parents-can-teach-healthy-relationship-skills/">open, non-judgmental conversations</a>. If you aren’t comfortable talking about sexuality or consent, or you are aware that your views may not be healthy, help your child find resources (such as <a href="https://goaskalice.columbia.edu/">GoAskAlice</a> or <a href="https://amaze.org/">Amaze</a>) and someone they trust that they can talk to (a family member, or friend or a local community organization). </p>
<p><strong>Teach yourself and be prepared to “unlearn.”</strong> Rape myths, victim blaming and other harmful views of survivors are perpetuated across all types of media and platforms. <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/page/dispelling-myths-about-sexual-assault">Learn about them</a> and reflect on the ways that you can cultivate positive values and beliefs that support healthy relationships and consent culture. </p>
<p>Keep an open mind: this may require questioning your own attitudes, assumptions and behaviours. Your conversations may lead into the social and cultural realities youth are navigating every day.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/131666/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chloe Krystyna Garcia's doctoral research was primarily funded through the Fonds de Recherche du Quebec and the IMPACTS: Collaborations to Address Sexual Violence Partnership Project. She was also the 2018-2019 recipient of the Jackie Kirk Fellowship. </span></em></p>Parents can play an important role helping youth navigate the messages they see on YouTube about sexual consent.Chloe Krystyna Garcia, Instructor, Integrated Studies in Education, McGill UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1307672020-02-26T14:02:08Z2020-02-26T14:02:08Z4 ways to protect yourself from disinformation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316660/original/file-20200221-92507-195ans7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C150%2C7692%2C4453&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How can you tell the news from the noise?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/group-people-screaming-megaphones-scared-guy-645904165">pathdoc/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You might have fallen for someone’s attempt to disinform you about current events. But it’s not your fault. </p>
<p>Even the most well-intentioned news consumers can find today’s avalanche of political information difficult to navigate. With so much news available, many people consume media in an automatic, unconscious state – similar to knowing you drove home but <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/mental-mishaps/201404/the-dangers-going-autopilot">not being able to recall</a> the trip.</p>
<p>And that makes you more susceptible to accepting false claims.</p>
<p>But, as the 2020 elections near, you can develop habits to exert more conscious control over your news intake. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=7cJhUEkAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">I teach</a> these strategies to students in a course on media literacy, helping people become more savvy news consumers in four simple steps. </p>
<h2>1. Seek out your own political news</h2>
<p><a href="https://apnews.com/cb267c9c0acf32dd40a64177b9c53136">Like most people</a>, you probably get a fair amount of your news from apps, sites and social media such as Twitter, Facebook, Reddit, Apple News and Google. You should change that.</p>
<p>These are technology companies – not news outlets. Their goal is to <a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-quit-facebook-but-dont-trust-it-either-93776">maximize the time you spend on their sites</a> and apps, generating advertising revenue. To that end, their algorithms use your browsing history to show you news you’ll agree with and like, keeping you engaged for as long as possible.</p>
<p>That means instead of presenting you with the most important news of the day, social media feed you what they think will hold your attention. Most often, that is <a href="https://theconversation.com/facebook-algorithm-changes-suppressed-journalism-and-meddled-with-democracy-119446">algorithmically filtered</a> and may deliver politically biased information, <a href="https://theconversation.com/misinformation-and-biases-infect-social-media-both-intentionally-and-accidentally-97148">outright falsehoods</a> or material that you have seen before.</p>
<p>Instead, regularly visit <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/berlinschoolofcreativeleadership/2017/02/01/10-journalism-brands-where-you-will-find-real-facts-rather-than-alternative-facts/">trusted news apps and news websites</a> directly. These organizations actually produce news, usually in the spirit of serving the public interest. There, you’ll see a more complete range of political information, not just content that’s been curated for you.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316629/original/file-20200221-92502-1lj4407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316629/original/file-20200221-92502-1lj4407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316629/original/file-20200221-92502-1lj4407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316629/original/file-20200221-92502-1lj4407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316629/original/file-20200221-92502-1lj4407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316629/original/file-20200221-92502-1lj4407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316629/original/file-20200221-92502-1lj4407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316629/original/file-20200221-92502-1lj4407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If there are numbers, check the math yourself.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/math-simple-equation-on-chalk-board-113762158">Picsfive/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. Use basic math</h2>
<p>Untrustworthy news and political campaigns often use statistics to make bogus claims – rightfully assuming most readers won’t take the time to fact-check them. </p>
<p>Simple mathematical calculations, which scholars call <a href="https://brilliant.org/wiki/fermi-estimate/">Fermi estimates</a> or rough guesstimates, can help you better spot falsified data.</p>
<p>For instance, a widely circulated meme falsely claimed <a href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/immigrant-homicides-us/">10,150 Americans were “killed by illegal immigrants” in 2018</a>. On the surface, it’s hard to know how to verify or debunk that, but one way to start is to think about finding out how many total murders there were in the U.S. in 2018.</p>
<p>Murder statistics can be found in, among other places, the <a href="https://www.fbi.gov/services/cjis/ucr/">FBI’s statistics on violent crime</a>. They estimate that in 2018 there were <a href="https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2018/crime-in-the-u.s.-2018/topic-pages/murder">16,214 murders</a> in the U.S. If the meme’s figure were accurate, it would mean that nearly two-thirds of U.S. murders were committed by the “illegal immigrants” the meme alleged.</p>
<p>Next, find out how many people were living in the U.S. illegally. That group, most news reports and estimates suggest, numbers <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/12/5-facts-about-illegal-immigration-in-the-u-s/">about 11 million</a> men, women and children – which is only 3% of the country’s <a href="https://www.census.gov/popclock/">330 million people</a>. </p>
<p>Just 3% of people committed 60% of U.S. murders? With a tiny bit of research and quick math, you can see these numbers just don’t add up.</p>
<h2>3. Beware of nonpolitical biases</h2>
<p>News media are often accused of catering to people’s political biases, favoring either liberal or conservative points of view. But disinformation campaigns exploit less obvious cognitive biases as well. For example, humans are biased to <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/09/cognitive-bias/565775/">underestimate costs or look for information that confirms what they already believe</a>. One important bias of news audiences is a preference for simple soundbites, which often fail to capture the complexity of important problems. <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1703.09398">Research</a> has found that intentionally fake news stories are more likely to use <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1703.09398">short, nontechnical and redundant language</a> than accurate journalistic stories.</p>
<p>Also beware of the human tendency to believe what’s in front of your eyes. Video content is perceived as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1077699018785890">more trustworthy</a> – even though <a href="https://www.cnn.com/interactive/2019/01/business/pentagons-race-against-deepfakes/">deepfake videos</a> can be very deceiving. Think critically about how you <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-019-00068-5">determine something is accurate</a>. Seeing – and hearing – should not necessarily be believing. Treat video content with just as much skepticism as news text and memes, verifying any facts with news from a trusted source.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/cQ54GDm1eL0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">You won’t – and shouldn’t – believe what Barack Obama says in this video.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Think beyond the presidency</h2>
<p>A final bias of news consumers and, as a result, news organizations has been a shift toward <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055418000965">prioritizing national news</a> at the expense of local and international issues. Leadership in the White House is certainly important, but national news is only one of four categories of information you need this election season.</p>
<p>Informed voters understand and connect issues across four levels: personal interests – like a local sports team or health care costs, news in their local communities, national politics and international affairs. Knowing a little in each of <a href="https://archives.cjr.org/reconstruction/the_reconstruction_of_american.php">these areas</a> better equips you to evaluate claims about all the others. </p>
<p>For example, better understanding trade negotiations with China could provide insight into why workers at a nearby manufacturing plant are picketing, which could subsequently affect the prices you pay for local goods and services.</p>
<p>Big businesses and powerful disinformation campaigns heavily influence the information you see, creating personal and convincing false narratives. It’s not your fault for getting duped, but being conscious of these processes can put you back in control.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=youresmart">You can read us daily by subscribing to our newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130767/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Stoycheff does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As the 2020 elections near and disinformation campaigns ramp up, an expert on media literacy offers advice you can use to develop habits to exert more conscious control over your news intake.Elizabeth Stoycheff, Associate Professor of Communication, Wayne State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.