tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/metaliteracy-19302/articlesMetaliteracy – The Conversation2017-01-05T01:40:03Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/708282017-01-05T01:40:03Z2017-01-05T01:40:03ZThe challenge facing libraries in an era of fake news<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151784/original/image-20170104-18641-7jvsy1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How can students think critically about information in today's age?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ubclibrary/3027724237/in/photolist-5BxSW2-9SDfbm-a2gD6J-7utwti-9KeTKL-9sCHMM-boQts3-DKZasF-eg72Ac-DUePJi-o4K58D-DRVcEd-cKqgvS-4au42c-f8ES9q-drFH5g-54NAiU-vssxe-7km7dz-ei9WPX-7km7kR-9KeTHq-69B5XV-4rKLhT-3nhMyr-65hDDs-7km7sD-9KeTMA-7kq1dW-xYyhHA-7km7fX-9KeTyb-eg74Yx-6M551E-6Df4tn-om85Ef-7km7Zi-5UmnyJ-abChhc-5AHaV8-6M58zs-7km7Ea-9SAogg-4kM9om-7xysnv-7km7qv-9U4aZR-853eYn-7km7nZ-bepB2k">UBC Library Communications/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine, for a moment, the technology of 2017 had existed on Jan. 11, 1964 – the day Luther Terry, surgeon general of the United States, released <a href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/access/NNBBMQ.pdf">“Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the United States</a>.” </p>
<p>What would be some likely scenarios?</p>
<p>The social media noise machine explodes; conservative websites immediately paint the report as a nanny-government attack on personal freedom and masculinity; the report’s findings are hit with a flood of satirical memes, outraged Facebook posts, attack videos and click-bait fake news stories; Big Tobacco’s publicity machine begins pumping out disinformation via both popular social media and pseudoscientific <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v534/n7607/full/534326a.html">predatory journals</a> willing to print anything for a price; Republican presidential candidate Barry Goldwater characterizes “Smoking and Health” as a “communist-inspired hoax.” </p>
<p>Eventually, the Johnson administration distances itself from the surgeon general’s controversial report.</p>
<p>Of course none of the above actually occurred. While Big Tobacco spent decades doing all that it could <a href="https://www.industrydocumentslibrary.ucsf.edu/tobacco/about/history/">to muddy the waters</a> on the health impacts of smoking, in the end scientific fact triumphed over corporate fiction. </p>
<p>Today, thanks to responsible science and the public policies it inspired, only <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/adult_data/cig_smoking/">15 percent of adults in the United States smoke</a>, down from <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/tables/trends/cig_smoking/">42.4 percent in 1965</a>. </p>
<p>One might ask: Would it have been possible to achieve this remarkable public health victory had today’s social media environment of fake news and information echo chambers existed in 1964?</p>
<p>Maybe not. As a long-time academic librarian, I have spent a good part of my career teaching college students to think critically about information. And the fact is that I watch many of them <a href="http://www.chronicle.com/article/At-Sea-in-a-Deluge-of-Data/147477/">struggle with the challenges</a> of discovering, internalizing, evaluating and applying credible information. For me, the recent spate of stories about large segments of the population falling for fake news stories was no surprise. </p>
<p>Making sense of information is hard, maybe increasingly so in today’s world. So what role have academic libraries played in helping people make sense of world bursting at the seams with information? </p>
<h2>History of information literacy</h2>
<p>Since the 19th century, academic librarians have been actively engaged in teaching students how to negotiate increasingly complex information environments.</p>
<p>Evidence exists of library instruction <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1300/J120v24n51_06?needAccess=true">dating back to the 1820s</a> at Harvard University. Courses on using libraries emerged at a number of colleges and universities after the Civil War. Until well into the 20th century, however, academic librarians largely gave library building tours, and their instruction was aimed at mastery of the local card catalog. </p>
<p>Beginning in the 1960s, academic librarians experienced a broadening of their role in instruction. This broadening was inspired by a number of factors: increases in the sheer size of academic library collections; the emergence of such technologies as microfilm, photocopiers and even classroom projection; and such educational trends as the introduction of new majors and emphasis on self-directed learning. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151783/original/image-20170104-29222-1owie8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151783/original/image-20170104-29222-1owie8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151783/original/image-20170104-29222-1owie8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151783/original/image-20170104-29222-1owie8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151783/original/image-20170104-29222-1owie8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151783/original/image-20170104-29222-1owie8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151783/original/image-20170104-29222-1owie8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An elementary school librarian in the 1980s.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/10557450@N04/6137779949/in/photolist-amnJ9e-rrYwZ-6a6KDC-59ETo4-7WVtQd-7WVGZs-59K6n5-7WVwyC-7WSbfB-7WVpTU-59ETMT-7WVx9C-59EUAv-fgT6M-6NQpXX-9VMjyw-4ffJXB-FK8jV-3wC3S-7WSeze-59ES9x-7WSe1F-7WVyNW-7WVDQG-9M74Yg-7WVqYW-4bWhEj-59K7vA-7ymzhM-48S29c-7WVvv3-7WSnUi-ayq6ZQ-7WSop2-7WVESq-rg31q-7WVFs7-7WSswV-59K4Zs-HU6Vv-7WSjva-7WSoUK-4LNixX-a3jKwV-p8w8Y7-7WVuUj-dckosA-7WSgfg-7WVAG3-7WSk3g">theunquietlibrarian</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>The new instructional role of academic librarians was notably reflected in the coining of the phrase <a href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED100391.pdf">“information literacy” in 1974 by Paul G. Zurkowski,</a> then president of the Information Industry Association. </p>
<p>Rather than being limited to locating items in a given library, information literacy recognized that students needed to be equipped with skills required to identify, organize and cite information. More than that, it focused on the ability to critically evaluate the credibility and appropriateness of information sources. </p>
<h2>Changes in a complex world</h2>
<p>In today’s digital world, information literacy is a far more complex subject than it was when the phrase was coined. Back then, the universe of credible academic information was analog and (for better or worse) handpicked by librarians and faculty. </p>
<p>Students’ information hunting grounds was effectively limited to the campus library, and information literacy amounted to mastering a handful of relatively straightforward skills, such as using periodical indexes and library catalogs, understanding the difference between primary and secondary sources of information, and distinguishing between popular and scholarly books and journals. </p>
<p>Today, the situation is far more nuanced. And not just because of the hyperpartisan noise of social media. </p>
<p>Thirty or 40 years ago, a student writing a research paper on the topic of acid rain might have needed to decide whether an article from a scientific journal like Nature was a more appropriate source than an article from a popular magazine like Time. </p>
<p>Today’s students, however, must know how to distinguish between articles published by genuine scholarly journals and those churned out by look-alike predatory and <a href="http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/27383/title/Elsevier-published-6-fake-journals/">fake journals</a> that falsely claim to be scholarly and peer-reviewed.</p>
<p>This is a far trickier proposition. </p>
<p>Further complicating the situation is the relativism of the postmodern philosophy underpinning much of <a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/truth/#SH5a">postmodern scholarly thinking</a>. Postmodernism rejects the notion that concepts such as truth and beauty exist as absolutes that can be revealed through the work of creative “authorities” (authors, painters, composers, philosophers, etc.). </p>
<p>While postmodernism has had positive effects, it has simultaneously undermined the concept of authority. If, as postmodernist philosophy contends, truth is constructed rather than given, what gives anyone the right to say one source of information is credible and another is not? </p>
<p>Further complicating the situation are serious questions surrounding the legitimacy of mainstream scholarly communication. In addition to predatory and fake journals, recent scandals include researchers <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182327/">faking results</a>, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2015/07/08/fraudulent-peer-review-strikes-another-academic-publisher-32-articles-questioned/?tid=a_inl&utm_term=.cbea77b40176">fraudulent peer review</a> and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/real-crisis-in-psychology-isnt-that-studies-dont-replicate-but-that-we-usually-dont-even-try-47249">barriers to conducting and publishing replication studies</a> that seek to either verify or disprove earlier studies.</p>
<h2>So, what’s the future?</h2>
<p>In such an environment, how is a librarian or faculty member supposed to respond to a bright student who sincerely asks, “How can you say that a blog post attacking GMO food is less credible than some journal article supporting the safety of GMO food? What if the journal article’s research results were faked? Have the results been replicated? At the end of the day, aren’t facts a matter of context?”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151785/original/image-20170104-18668-aialm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151785/original/image-20170104-18668-aialm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151785/original/image-20170104-18668-aialm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151785/original/image-20170104-18668-aialm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151785/original/image-20170104-18668-aialm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151785/original/image-20170104-18668-aialm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151785/original/image-20170104-18668-aialm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How can students be trained to be information-literate?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mimiw/1878552888/in/photolist-3S15jU-8pz2vm-sk3FMk-8nBxtW-8nB35L-r4HjN7-eKPnZm-4wrLk5-cFhxM-jZhuMr-8nB8Qo-jkrUVL-7euof-nU34U-NUcN-7Xhhmq-p9CeSP-i824iY-o8u7ja-p78SnP-62WmT1-p9SpGY-8y1iLc-bkpd7C-2pqSst-8Nkmi9-8nBTvu-mbgSB-bmqGXo-bjqUYD-c6Bi1o-8nxY9M-9fYADL-F5KyvG-ngf9hQ-8nyzwk-dRTft-btLnvB-cXHNnh-8nyhXR-7xWwZQ-oZNWG7-8nBGjd-8JJF3-5uSU5Q-5uNy96-u43iC-6Wcg4Q-omYCRD-2u92AH">Mary Woodard</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>In recognition of a <a href="http://crln.acrl.org/content/77/8/382.full">dynamic and often unpredictable information landscape</a> and a rapidly changing higher education environment in which students are often creators of new knowledge rather than just consumers of information, the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) launched its <a href="http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/ilframework">Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education</a>, the first revision to the ACRL’s standards for information literacy in over 15 years. </p>
<p>The framework recognizes that information literacy is too nuanced to be conceived of as a treasure hunt in which information resources neatly divide into binary categories of “good” and “bad.” </p>
<p>Notably, the first of the framework’s six subsections is titled “Authority Is Constructed and Contextual” and calls for librarians to approach the notions of authority and credibility as dependent on the context in which the information is used rather than as absolutes.</p>
<p>This new approach asks students to put in the time and effort required to determine the credibility and appropriateness of each information source for the use to which they intend to put it. </p>
<p>For students this is far more challenging than either a) simply accepting authority without question or b) rejecting all authority as an anachronism in a <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/11/16/post-truth-named-2016-word-of-the-year-by-oxford-dictionaries/?utm_term=.753621fbfcdc">post-truth</a> world. Formally adopted in June 2016, the framework represents a way forward for information literacy. </p>
<p>While I approve of the direction taken by the Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education, I do not see it as the ultimate solution to the information literacy challenge. Real progress in information literacy will require librarians, faculty and administrators working together. </p>
<p>Indeed, it will require higher education, as well as secondary and primary education, to make information literacy a priority across the curriculum. Without such concerted effort, a likely outcome could be a future of election results and public policies based on whatever information – credible or not – bubbles to the top of the social media noise machine.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/70828/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Donald A. Barclay does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Since the 19th century academic librarians have helped students navigate the complex world of information. In today’s unpredictable information environment, how might they rethink their role?Donald A. Barclay, Deputy University Librarian, University of California, MercedLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/697062016-12-06T02:25:57Z2016-12-06T02:25:57ZHow can we learn to reject fake news in the digital world?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/148740/original/image-20161205-8020-1d8gwmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How can we make sense of information in today's connected world?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/256473613?src=&id=256473613&size=huge_jpg">Mobile phone image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/advertising-is-driving-social-media-fuelled-fake-news-and-it-is-here-to-stay-68458">circulation of fake news</a> through social media <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/11/18/this-is-how-the-internets-fake-news-writers-make-money/?tid=a_inl">in the 2016 presidential election</a> has raised several concerns about <a href="https://theconversation.com/facebooks-problem-is-more-complicated-than-fake-news-68886">online information</a>.</p>
<p>Of course, there is nothing new about fake news as such – the satirical site “The Onion” has long done this. Fake news satire is part of “Saturday Night Live”‘s Weekend Update and “The Daily Show.” </p>
<p>In these cases, the framework of humor is clear and explicit. That, however, is not the case in social media, which has emerged as a real news source. Pew Research Center reports that Facebook is <a href="http://www.pewinternet.org/2016/11/11/social-media-update-2016/">“the most popular social media platform”</a> and that “a majority of U.S. adults – 62 percent – <a href="http://www.journalism.org/2016/05/26/news-use-across-social-media-platforms-2016/">get news on social media</a>.” When people read fake news on social media, they may be tricked into thinking they are reading real news.</p>
<p>Both Google and Facebook have promised to <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/15/technology/google-will-ban-websites-that-host-fake-news-from-using-its-ad-service.html">take measures</a> to address the concerns of fake news masquerading as real news. A team of college students has already developed a browser plug-in called FiB to <a href="http://www.chicagotribune.com/bluesky/technology/ct-fake-news-college-students-fix-wp-bsi-20161120-story.html">help readers identify on Facebook</a> what is fake and what is real. </p>
<p>But these steps don’t go far enough to address fake news. </p>
<p>The question then is: Can we better prepare ourselves to challenge and reject fabrications that may easily circulate as untruthful texts and images in the online world?</p>
<p>As scholars of library and information science, we argue that in today’s complex world, traditional literacy, with its emphasis on reading and writing, and information literacy – the ability to search and retrieve information – are not enough. </p>
<p>What we need today is metaliteracy – an ability to make sense of the vast amounts of information in the connected world of social media.</p>
<h2>Why digital literacy is not enough</h2>
<p>Students today are consumers of the latest technology gadgets and social media platforms. However, they don’t always have a deep understanding of the information transmitted through these devices, or how to be creators of online content. </p>
<p>Researchers at Stanford University recently found that “when it comes to evaluating information that flows through social media channels,” today’s “digital natives,” despite being immersed in these environments, <a href="https://sheg.stanford.edu/upload/V3LessonPlans/Executive%20Summary%2011.21.16.pdf">“are easily duped”</a> by misinformation. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/148745/original/image-20161205-8023-mcmjci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/148745/original/image-20161205-8023-mcmjci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148745/original/image-20161205-8023-mcmjci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148745/original/image-20161205-8023-mcmjci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148745/original/image-20161205-8023-mcmjci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148745/original/image-20161205-8023-mcmjci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148745/original/image-20161205-8023-mcmjci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Digital literacy may not be enough.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/210974194?src=sgnRfbLDMMN1bGb9aaKM0Q-1-1&id=210974194&size=huge_jpg">Digital devices image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>They said they “were taken aback by students’ lack of preparation” and argued that educators and policymakers must “demonstrate the link between <a href="http://connect.ala.org/node/181197">digital literacy</a> and citizenship.” </p>
<p>The truth is that we live in a world where information lacks traditional editorial mechanisms of filter. It also comes in various styles and forms – it could range from digital images to multimedia to blogs and wikis. The veracity of all this information is not easily understood. </p>
<p>This problem has been around for a while. In 2005, for example, a false story about a political figure, John Seigenthaler Sr., was posted by an anonymous author on Wikipedia, <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/04/weekinreview/snared-in-the-web-of-a-wikipedia-liar.html">implicating him in the assassinations</a> of President John F. Kennedy and Bobby Kennedy. Seigenthaler <a href="http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/2005-11-29-wikipedia-edit_x.htm">challenged this fake entry</a> and it was eventually corrected. Several other hoaxes have <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:List_of_hoaxes_on_Wikipedia">circulated on Wikipedia</a> over the years, showing how easy it is to post false information online.</p>
<p>Indeed, in 2007, FactCheck.org, a website that monitors the accuracy of what is said by major U.S. political players, urged readers to ask <a href="https://www.factcheck.org/2007/12/not-pelosis-windfall-tax/">critical questions</a> in response to a false story that had been placed about House Democratic leader Nancy Pelosi. At the time, people were being misled into believing that Pelosi was proposing a tax on retirement funds and others to help illegal immigrants and minorities.</p>
<p>In 2016, FactCheck.org published <a href="http://www.factcheck.org/2016/11/how-to-spot-fake-news/">a set of practical steps</a> to <a href="http://www.factcheck.org/2016/11/how-to-spot-fake-news/">encourage closer reading</a> and critical thinking.</p>
<p>As we see it, metaliteracy is a way to achieve these goals.</p>
<h2>So, what is metaliteracy?</h2>
<p>Digital literacy supports the effective use of digital technologies, while metaliteracy emphasizes how we think about things. Metaliterate individuals learn to reflect on how they process information based on their feelings or beliefs.</p>
<p>To do that, first and foremost, metaliterates learn to question sources of information. For example, metaliterate individuals learn to carefully differentiate among multiple sites, both formal (such as The New York Times or Associated Press) and informal (a blog post or tweet). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/148714/original/image-20161205-8016-uo7x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/148714/original/image-20161205-8016-uo7x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148714/original/image-20161205-8016-uo7x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148714/original/image-20161205-8016-uo7x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148714/original/image-20161205-8016-uo7x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148714/original/image-20161205-8016-uo7x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148714/original/image-20161205-8016-uo7x2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Metaliterates learn to question the sources of information.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/62693815@N03/6280036507/in/photolist-ayWQ4v-hTiNjv-fJiTTo-ayDEMD-k2EJXd-3yCizh-7DSX3q-ayHg8x-4Xuud3-qwLcCC-dki4iG-q6UuCd-ayGkko-y8XfoL-F4bK8-pfPNwX-hTtYVi-nJ29pU-enSuZy-unvPko-xQnaS-d2kVuo-4XaGib-hTvHsn-iyEc2R-8oHs4W-oCWNtg-2Vrakq-dwyPFS-4A9eBb-ayGksm-ikaRV-5W1aoU-9nSE1b-48vQEC-aUskV-hBXz-ccWpgA-nwpEPB-cwfo47-q8M1Fy-7AUALs-ayZtq9-hTPi8f-74hykm-4LXJMZ-cVDr-oeLuqj-r24Tnj-F4aWj">Jon S</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>They question the validity of information from any of these sources and do not privilege one over the other. Information presented on a formal TV news source, such as CNN or Fox News, for instance, <a href="http://money.cnn.com/2016/11/03/media/baseless-fox-news-indictment-report/">may be just as inaccurate</a> as someone’s blog post. This involves understanding all sources of information.</p>
<p>Second, metaliterates learn to observe their feelings when reading a news item.</p>
<p>We are less inclined to delve further when something affirms our beliefs. On the other hand, we are more inclined to fact check or examine the source of the news when we don’t agree with it. Thinking about our own thinking reminds us that we need to move beyond how we feel, and engage our cognitive faculties in doing a critical assessment.</p>
<p>Metaliterates pause to think whether they believe something because it affirms their ideas. </p>
<h2>Metaliteracy challenges assumptions</h2>
<p>Metaliteracy helps us understand the context from which the news is arising, noting whether the information emanates from research or editorial commentary, distinguishing the value of formal and informal news sources and evaluating comments left by others.</p>
<p>By reflecting on the way we are thinking about a news story, for instance, we will be more apt to challenge our assumptions, ask good questions about what we are reading and actively seek additional information. </p>
<p>Consider the recent example of how fake news was put out through a single tweet and believed by thousands of readers online. Eric Tucker, a 35-year-old cofounder of a marketing company in Austin, Texas, tweeted that anti-Trump protesters <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/20/business/media/how-fake-news-spreads.html">were professionally organized</a> and bused to Trump rallies. Despite having only 40 Twitter followers, this one individual managed to <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/20/business/media/how-fake-news-spreads.html">start a conspiracy theory</a>. Thousands of people believed and forwarded the tweet.</p>
<p>This example shows how easy it is to transmit information online to a wide audience, even if it is not accurate. The combination of word and image in this case was powerful and supported what many people already believed to be true. But it also showed a failure to ask critical questions within an online community with shared ideas or to challenge one’s own beliefs with careful reflection. </p>
<p>In other words, just because information is shared widely on social media, that does not mean it is true.</p>
<h2>Developing deeper understanding</h2>
<p>Another emphasis of metaliteracy is understanding how information is packaged and delivered.</p>
<p>Packaging can be examined on a number of fronts. One is the medium used – is it text, photograph, video, cartoon, illustration or artwork? The other is how it is used – is the medium designed to appeal to our feelings? Does professional-looking design provide a level of credibility to the unsuspecting viewer?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/148713/original/image-20161205-8016-renqe5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/148713/original/image-20161205-8016-renqe5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148713/original/image-20161205-8016-renqe5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148713/original/image-20161205-8016-renqe5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148713/original/image-20161205-8016-renqe5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148713/original/image-20161205-8016-renqe5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148713/original/image-20161205-8016-renqe5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Metaliterates learn how to discriminate between fake and real news.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/226460671?src=Wyqx7OtDz9_LIzrueh4bbQ-1-4&id=226460671&size=huge_jpg">Hand image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Social media makes it easy to produce and distribute all kinds of digital content. We can all be <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2016/12/02/the-16-most-instagrammed-places-of-2016/?hpid=hp_hp-cards_hp-card-technology%3Ahomepage%2Fcard&utm_term=.2bd3463750df">photographers</a> or <a href="http://digitalstorytelling.coe.uh.edu/page.cfm?id=27">digital storytellers</a> using online tools for producing and packaging well-designed materials. This can be empowering.</p>
<p>But the same material can be used to create intentionally false messages with appealing design features. Metaliterates learn to distinguish between formal and informal sources of information that may have very different or nonexistent editorial checks and balances. </p>
<p>They learn to examine the packaging of content. They learn to recognize whether the seemingly professional design may be a façade for a bias or misinformation. <a href="http://realnewsrightnow.com/">Realnewsrightnow</a>, for example, is a slickly designed site with attention-grabbing but often <a href="http://fakenewswatch.com/realnewsrightnow-com">false headlines</a>. The <a href="http://realnewsrightnow.com/about/">About page</a> of the website might raise questions, but only if a reader’s mindset is evaluative. </p>
<h2>Becoming a responsible citizen</h2>
<p>Because social media is interactive and collaborative, the metaliterate learner must know how to contribute responsibly as well.</p>
<p>Metaliterate individuals recognize there are ethical considerations involved when sharing information, such as the information must be accurate. But there is more. Metaliteracy asks that individuals understand on a mental and emotional level the potential impact of one’s participation. </p>
<p>So, metaliterate individuals don’t just post random thoughts that are not based in truth. They learn that in a public space they have a responsibility to be fair and accurate. </p>
<p>So how can we become metaliterate? </p>
<p>Schools need to urge students to ponder these questions. Students need to be made aware of these issues early on so that they learn how not to develop uncritical assumptions and actions as they use technology. </p>
<p>They need to understand that whether they are posting a tweet, blog, Facebook post or writing a response to others online, they need to think carefully about what they are saying. </p>
<p>While social media offers much promise for providing everyone with a voice, there is a disturbing downside to this revolution. It has enabled sharing of misinformation and false news stories that radically alter representations of reality.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/69706/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas P Mackey and colleagues received funding from SUNY Innovative Instruction Technology Grants to support the development of a Coursera Metaliteracy MOOC and metaliteracy digital badging.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Trudi Jacobson and colleagues received funding from SUNY Innovative Instruction Technology Grants to support the development of a Coursera Metaliteracy MOOC and metaliteracy digital badging.</span></em></p>Researchers have found that today’s students, despite being ‘digital natives,’ have a hard time distinguishing what is real and what is fake online. Metaliteracy might provide the answers.Thomas P. Mackey, Vice Provost for Academic Programs, SUNY Empire State CollegeTrudi Jacobson, Distinguished Librarian, University at Albany, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/448182015-08-07T10:03:13Z2015-08-07T10:03:13ZCan’t seem to stop those ads following you around? Why not become ‘metaliterate’?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91040/original/image-20150806-5209-gdvkei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Information overload?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ileohidalgo/16224276621/in/photolist-qHFEcg-5z8Dhb-C2Sz5-drFzGJ-8GjtML-5qRfXr-Pm9Ra-7cDAaw-rKTTrd-5nDMnw-adF44b-c3SRwf-5nDMns-6DjwLb-fydKdw-dWUtp9-2qhAvW-6q4ey3-cAswZb-cEtrZw-5ovUgu-4NL2Ho-2a27eG-gKMLF-7ZrpxC-6cZdgt-9X3jEd-2UMMFF-8G2zCq-cAswSW-cyNqJy-c6jSrE-eiRYcK-2S1R9r-5qVFo9-6f5iFr-dTyZjo-fBzDe1-c93AC5-5nDMnJ-4coVuv-5z8U3o-7fuCxo-6f5iBB-cyNqNJ-rt4Bb7-9absfJ-446D8t-fyTQRK-5naMJ5">Leo Hidalgo</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In today’s mobile media environment, an incredible amount of information is available to every one of us, every minute of every day. </p>
<p>With our cell phones close by, we can easily search for answers to trivia questions, word definitions or find the perfect recipe for the confetti eggplant bought at the farmers’ market. When traveling, we have instant access to the conversion rate between the euro and the dollar and can map directions to any location. And then there is all the personalized information posted by our Facebook friends.</p>
<p>So, how do we keep up with and understand the wide array of information? How do we integrate this into our lives as we participate in a connected world? And how do we make meaningful additions to these spaces as originators of information in the online venues that matter to us?</p>
<p>As researchers of library and information science, we use the term <a href="http://crl.acrl.org/content/early/2010/04/29/crl-76r1.short">metaliteracy</a> as a way to look at literacy in the social media age. Previously, the usage of the term metaliteracy was mostly in connection with literacy studies. </p>
<p>We expand the idea further in our <a href="http://www.alastore.ala.org/detail.aspx?ID=10897">book</a>: Metaliteracy: Reinventing Information Literacy to Empower Learners. We use it as a way to recast information literacy for reflective learning with social media and emerging technologies. </p>
<p>So, what exactly is metaliteracy, as we define it?</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/7qaXs0_e9v8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Metaliterate mindset</h2>
<p>To understand it, let’s consider some common web-based situations that we encounter daily.</p>
<p>When browsing the web or scrolling Facebook, you may have noticed the ads that appear often align very closely to searches you’ve performed previously. </p>
<p>For instance, after searching for consumer products such as a new sofa, you probably encountered the same exact products and stores you originally sought out. At times, this might be just what you want. But after a while, it might start to feel a bit intrusive.</p>
<p>Yes, you can adjust your ad settings to increase the chances that relevant advertisements appear only when you are on Google sites such as YouTube. But did you also know that you can <a href="https://www.google.com/settings/u/0/ads/authenticated?hl=en">opt out</a> of this <a href="https://support.google.com/ads/answer/2662856?hl=en&ref_topic=2971788">feature</a>? </p>
<p>Here is where metaliteracy comes into play.</p>
<p>A metaliterate learner would always dig deeper into the search process, ask good questions about sources of information, consider privacy and ethical issues, and reflect on the overall experience, while adapting to new technologies and platforms. </p>
<h2>Filtering in a connected world</h2>
<p>There is more going on here than we might think we know.</p>
<p>For instance, did you know that often the information we see online is being filtered for us, by someone else?</p>
<p>Google has been personalizing your search results since 2005 if you were signed in and had your web history enabled. If you were being cautious and didn’t sign in, starting in 2009 they <a href="http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2009/12/personalized-search-for-everyone.html">began</a> using 180 days of your previous search activity to accomplish the same thing. </p>
<p>Google might call it personalizing, but others see it as constricting. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91036/original/image-20150806-5229-1ag6x8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91036/original/image-20150806-5229-1ag6x8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91036/original/image-20150806-5229-1ag6x8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91036/original/image-20150806-5229-1ag6x8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91036/original/image-20150806-5229-1ag6x8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91036/original/image-20150806-5229-1ag6x8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91036/original/image-20150806-5229-1ag6x8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Yes, but how many of us use other search engines?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/pbarry/5346829113/in/photolist-99tU1R-a1H5RJ-nPDdg9-f8vvEU-aBE2z-4H5dzW-6p2bEJ-npPGuZ-m3CzNk-fLAVvN-fLAVJC-fLjmcB-a35Koo-fKJbck-fLAVNs-f8vupu-nPDuPZ-f8geFg-f8ge9z-fLAVAC-fLAVDb-k6cPkR-ctb1-m3DncN-k6cQAM-nPDdZU-2U2Rb-apkxoj-2U3iX-nvWq9w-eWKEim-rKHRdX-j5dUex-nPDcMJ-jRpPXU-jjhfs7-nGt9Qv-q5YhqX-fLAVF9-3d7XhU-jjjJ2U-s4ZnXt-31VY8j-jgmjFB-91mi6p-o56tJU-m3CzjK-eWKEnU-m3CzAX-ppsXuV">Patrick Barry</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Information filtering, or <a href="http://www.ted.com/talks/eli_pariser_beware_online_filter_bubbles">“filter bubbles,”</a> as author and cofounder of Upworthy <a href="http://www.upworthy.com/eli-pariser">Eli Pariser</a> calls it in his TED Talk, can <a href="http://dontbubble.us">circumscribe</a> the information we see when we conduct those searches. </p>
<p>Filtering results in isolated information ecosystems of our own making. </p>
<h2>What about other search engines?</h2>
<p>If we are willing to break away from the convenience of Google, we could use other search services. <a href="https://duckduckgo.com/">DuckDuckGo</a> and <a href="https://www.startpage.com">Startpage</a> are just two of several search engines that provide more privacy than some of the <a href="http://www.howtogeek.com/113513/5-alternative-search-engines-that-respect-your-privacy/">big names</a>.</p>
<p>For, instance, DuckDuckGo does not engage in “search leakage,” as that firm calls it. It <a href="https://duckduckgo.com/privacy">notes</a> that other search engines save not only individual searches, but also your search history: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Also, note that with this information your searches can be tied together. This means someone can see everything you’ve been searching, not just one isolated search. You can usually find out a lot about a person from their search history.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But worse, search engines may release searches without adequately anonymizing the information, or that information may be hacked. </p>
<p>Startpage allows you to funnel your search in a way that obtains Google results without your personally identifiable information traveling along with the query. </p>
<p>But, how many of us opt to use a search engine other than Google? <a href="http://gs.statcounter.com/#all-search_engine-ww-monthly-201508-201508-bar_">Google</a> is still the dominant search engine worldwide. </p>
<h2>Filtering information</h2>
<p>So, then, are we weaving our own webs without carefully thinking about the many implications of doing so?</p>
<p>Look at how we selectively create and share our experiences on the fly, editing and filtering digital information along the way, and <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-22511650">making choices</a> about permissions to view and to share. For instance, imagine the millions of selfies that reflect our individual personas while being shared within a larger social mosaic of interconnected audiences.</p>
<p>Sometimes we may not even be aware of who can access our content or how it is distributed beyond our immediate circle of friends. Consider our focused concentration on texting while being in large crowds and ignoring the chance encounters with others or missing the random scenery of everyday experience. </p>
<p>Information-filtering is ongoing in all these contexts and is both internally and externally constructed.</p>
<h2>Empowered contributors</h2>
<p>What does metaliteracy do?</p>
<p>Metaliteracy prepares us to ask critical questions about our searches and the technologies we use to seek answers and to communicate with others. </p>
<p>We do not just accept the authority of information because it comes from an established news organization, a celebrity, a friend, or a friend of a friend. Metaliteracy encourages reflection on the circumstances of the information produced. </p>
<p>It prepares us to ask whether or not the materials came from an individual or an organization and to determine the reason for posting or publishing it. As part of this process, the metaliterate learner will seek to verify the source and ask questions about how the information is presented and in what format.</p>
<p>Metaliterate individuals gain insights about open environments and how to share their knowledge in these spaces. For instance, they are well aware of the importance of Creative Commons licenses for determining what information can be reused freely, and for making such content openly available for others’ purposes, or for producing their own content.</p>
<p>They also understand the importance of peer review and peer communities for generating and editing content for such sites as Wikipedia, or open textbooks, and other forms of Open Educational Resources (OERs).</p>
<p>The truth is that we can all be metaliterate learners – meditative and empowered, asking perceptive questions, thinking about what and how we learn, while sharing our content and insights as we make contributions to society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/44818/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>To understand the wide array of information in today’s world, we need a different kind of literacy. Some researchers call that ‘metaliteracy.’Trudi Jacobson, Distinguished Librarian, University at Albany, State University of New YorkThomas P. Mackey, Vice Provost for Academic Programs, SUNY Empire State CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.