tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/muslims-in-us-22866/articlesMuslims in US – The Conversation2021-11-05T12:29:04Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1706892021-11-05T12:29:04Z2021-11-05T12:29:04ZUS Muslims gave more to charity than other Americans in 2020<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430056/original/file-20211103-27-11uhjs2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C145%2C4314%2C2326&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Muslims Giving Back volunteer delivers warm food to a homeless man in New York City in April 2020.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/On%20A%20Ramadan%20Mission-Photo%20Essay/4e6b59a4c6a7422b88a4e38675340756?Query=us%20muslims%20donor&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=16&currentItemNo=1">P Photo/Wong Maye-E</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Muslim Americans gave more to charity in 2020 than non-Muslims, we found in a <a href="https://philanthropy.iupui.edu/institutes/lake-institute/muslim-initiative/research/index.html">new study</a>. They are also more likely to volunteer, we learned.</p>
<p>Only <a href="https://www.ispu.org/public-policy/american-muslim-poll/">1.1% of all Americans are Muslim</a>, and their average income is lower than non-Muslims’. But as we explained in our <a href="https://philanthropy.iupui.edu/institutes/lake-institute/muslim-initiative/research/index.html">Muslim American Giving 2021</a> report, their donations encompassed 1.4% of all giving from individuals. U.S. Muslims, a <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2011/08/30/section-1-a-demographic-portrait-of-muslim-americans/">highly diverse and quickly growing minority</a>, contributed an estimated US$4.3 billion in total donations to mostly nonreligious causes over the course of the year.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://philanthropy.iupui.edu/people-directory/siddiqui-shariq.html">philanthropy</a> <a href="https://rafeelwasif.com">scholars</a>, we believe our findings are significant not only because this is the first time that we can see the size and scope of giving by this small and highly diverse community, but also because U.S. Muslims face a <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/muslim-americans-still-facing-discrimination-20-years-911-rcna1915">great deal of discrimination</a>. </p>
<h2>Giving more, including to civil rights causes</h2>
<p>We partnered with Islamic Relief USA, a nonprofit humanitarian and advocacy organization, to <a href="https://scholarworks.iupui.edu/bitstream/handle/1805/26703/Muslim-American-Giving-2021_Final.pdf">conduct this study</a>. Our findings came from our survey of more than 2,000 Americans, half of whom were Muslim, that the <a href="https://ssrs.com/">SSRS research firm</a> carried out from March 17 through April 7, 2021. It has a margin of error of plus or minus 3 percentage points.</p>
<p>Participants answered questions regarding their faith customs, donation practices, and volunteer work, along with which causes they support and their concerns about COVID-19. We also inquired about how economic and political uncertainty and financial well-being influenced their giving and volunteering. Finally, we also examined whether they had experienced discrimination and their views about the level of discrimination in society. </p>
<p>We found that Muslim Americans gave more to charity, donating an average of $3,200, in 2020, versus $1,905 for other respondents. They also differed from non-Muslims in many ways. For example, nearly 8.5% of their contributions supported civil rights causes, compared with 5.3% of the general public.</p>
<p>We believe this elevated level of giving reflects efforts to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-social-media-aided-by-bots-amplifies-islamophobia-online-166080">fight Islamophobia</a>, a fear of Islam grounded in bigotry and hatred against Muslims. Likewise, Muslims gave more to enhance public understanding of their faith. About 6.4% of their giving funded religious research, compared with 4% from other sources.</p>
<p>Muslim Americans further defied <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/09/11/us/islamophobic-tropes-muslims-in-america/index.html">Islamophobic tropes</a> through the causes they support. For example, about 84% of Muslim American donations support U.S. charitable causes, with only 16% of this money going abroad. That conflicts with an erroneous belief that <a href="https://www.aclu.org/report/blocking-faith-freezing-charity-chilling-muslim-charitable-giving-war-terrorism-financing">Muslim Americans mainly support overseas causes</a>.</p>
<h2>COVID-19 relief</h2>
<p>The other top secular charitable priorities of Muslim Americans were domestic poverty relief and responses to the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>
<p>Donations to causes that sought to alleviate the toll COVID-19 has taken on U.S. health, employment and food security comprised 8.8% of Muslim American faith-based giving, versus 5.3% for non-Muslims. Additionally, these donations also comprised a large part of Muslim Americans’ non-faith giving. Muslims gave 14.3% of their non-faith giving to COVID-19 causes, a sharp contrast with others. Among the non-Muslim population we surveyed, 6.7% of non-faith giving backed these kinds of charities. </p>
<p>We attribute this pattern to the fact that Muslim Americans are overrepresented among medical professionals and front-line workers. For example, <a href="https://www.ispu.org/community-in-the-time-of-corona-documenting-the-american-muslim-response-to-the-covid19-crisis/">15% of physicians and 11% of pharmacists in Michigan</a> are Muslim Americans. In New York City, Muslim Americans make up 10% of the city’s physicians, 13% of the pharmacists and 40% of cab drivers, all of whom were designated essential workers.</p>
<h2>Faith amplifies giving</h2>
<p>All observant Muslim adults with the means to do so <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/z/zakat.asp">are expected to give to charity</a> in adherence to faith-based traditions. One, known as <a href="https://www.zakat.org/about-us/our-mission">Zakat</a>, is more formal and among the <a href="https://crestresearch.ac.uk/comment/islam-five-pillars">five pillars of Islam</a> that Muslims are expected to adhere to. Another, <a href="https://www.zakat.org/what-is-sadaqah">sadaqah</a>, happens voluntarily. </p>
<p>That made us want to see if religiosity played a role with the charitable patterns of U.S. Muslims. It turns out that Muslims who displayed higher levels of religiosity, such as by praying more often, were also more likely to give to charity than those who prayed less frequently. We found similar trends among non-Muslims.</p>
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<p>We plan to conduct this study annually for the next four years and will keep an eye on how Muslim giving patterns change over time. Furthermore, we will add additional questions to further illuminate how faith-based and secular motivations are shaping Muslim American giving.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170689/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shariq Siddiqui receives funding from Islamic Relief USA to conduct this study.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rafeel Wasif's work related to this article was funded by Islamic Relief USA.</span></em></p>Muslims also gave more to causes tied to relief from economic and health problems that arose during the COVID-19 pandemic.Shariq Siddiqui, Assistant Professor & Director of the Muslim Philanthropy Initiative, IUPUIRafeel Wasif, Incoming Assistant Professor of Nonprofit Management, Portland State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1480702020-10-20T19:40:32Z2020-10-20T19:40:32ZBeheading in France could bolster president’s claim that Islam is in ‘crisis’ – but so is French secularism<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364353/original/file-20201019-21-1qrz6hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=69%2C0%2C5749%2C3882&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An homage to Samuel Paty, a teacher murdered after showing caricatures of the Prophet Mohammed from the satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo, Oct. 18, 2020. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-gathered-in-place-de-la-republique-in-paris-france-news-photo/1229165233?adppopup=true">Adnan Farzat/NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A French high school teacher who had shown caricatures of the Prophet Muhammad to his class <a href="https://www.liberation.fr/france/2020/10/16/terrorisme-un-enseignant-decapite-dans-les-yvelines_1802673">was beheaded on Oct. 16 by an 18-year-old Muslim refugee</a> in what <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-54579403">France’s President Emmanuel Macron characterized as an “Islamist terrorist attack.”</a></p>
<p>The killing is the latest high-profile attack by a Muslim extremist in France, coming after the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-paris-50736">2015 massacre at Charlie Hebdo magazine</a> and the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36801671">2016 truck attack</a> in Nice. It also occurred two weeks after Macron gave <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/10/2/macron-announces-new-plan-to-regulate-islam-in-france">a controversial speech defining Islam</a> as “<a href="https://www.elysee.fr/emmanuel-macron/2020/10/02/la-republique-en-actes-discours-du-president-de-la-republique-sur-le-theme-de-la-lutte-contre-les-separatismes">a religion that is in crisis today all over the world</a>.”</p>
<p>France, which colonized many Muslim-majority territories in Africa and the Levant in the 19th and 20th centuries, such as Algeria and Mali, has Western Europe’s largest Muslim minority – <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/">6 million people, or 9% of its population</a>. </p>
<p>Macron’s Oct. 2 speech outlined a legislative proposal to fight “Islamist separatism.” If passed in Parliament, it would essentially ban home-schooling of all children aged 3 and up and prevent foreign-trained imams from leading French mosques. The goal, said the president, is “<a href="https://www.elysee.fr/front/pdf/elysee-module-16114-fr.pdf">to build an Islam in France that can be compatible with the Enlightenment</a>.” </p>
<p>Macron’s analysis concludes, simply, that Islam is somehow at odds with modern Western society. But my <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/sociology/sociology-religion/secularism-and-state-policies-toward-religion-united-states-france-and-turkey?format=PB">research on state secularism and religion</a> shows that the reality is much more complicated.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364504/original/file-20201020-19-1kpdj6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Macron speaks at a lectern with the French and EU flags behind him" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364504/original/file-20201020-19-1kpdj6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364504/original/file-20201020-19-1kpdj6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364504/original/file-20201020-19-1kpdj6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364504/original/file-20201020-19-1kpdj6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364504/original/file-20201020-19-1kpdj6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364504/original/file-20201020-19-1kpdj6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364504/original/file-20201020-19-1kpdj6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">French President Emmanuel Macron.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/french-president-emmanuel-macron-delivers-a-speech-during-a-news-photo/1201691009?adppopup=true">Sebastien Bozon/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>French versus American secularism</h2>
<p>French secularism, which is embraced by both the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/politics-international-relations/comparative-politics/alien-citizens-state-and-religious-minorities-turkey-and-france?format=HB&isbn=9781108476942">progressive left and the Islamophobic right</a>, goes well beyond the American democratic concept of <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1970/89">separating religion and state</a>. Called “laïcité,” it essentially excludes religious symbols from public institutions. France has <a href="https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/posts/the-weaponization-of-laicite">banned Muslim women’s headscarves in schools and outlawed religious face coverings everywhere</a>. There are no such bans in the United States.</p>
<p>While both America and France have ongoing debates about “Islamic fundamentalism” and “Muslim terrorists” and <a href="http://content.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,20100830,00.html">views that can be defined as Islamophobic</a> have some popular support, American democracy generally provides better opportunities for <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-future-of-religious-freedom-9780199930913?lang=en&cc=us#">the integration of various religious groups</a>. </p>
<p>In France, <a href="http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/connaissance/constitution.asp">the Constitution</a> defines the state only as secular, without delineating the boundaries of that secularism. In the United States, <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/first_amendment">the First Amendment</a> restricts the secular state’s engagement with religion, saying the government can neither establish a religion nor prohibit a religion’s free exercise. </p>
<p>It would be difficult for the U.S. to announce, as Macron did, a state-sponsored project to “<a href="https://uk.ambafrance.org/France-to-restore-the-Republic-to-fight-Islamist-separatism">forge a type of Enlightenment Islam</a>.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364501/original/file-20201020-21-1nfbrgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Pupils in headscarves sit at desks" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364501/original/file-20201020-21-1nfbrgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364501/original/file-20201020-21-1nfbrgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364501/original/file-20201020-21-1nfbrgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364501/original/file-20201020-21-1nfbrgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364501/original/file-20201020-21-1nfbrgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364501/original/file-20201020-21-1nfbrgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364501/original/file-20201020-21-1nfbrgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In France, Muslim girls may wear headscarves in Islamic private schools like the Alif school in Toulouse, but not in public schools.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/veiled-pupils-attend-a-lesson-in-a-classroom-on-may-11-2011-news-photo/114395069?adppopup=true">Eric Cabanis/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Indeed, 11 years before Macron voiced his provocative view, U.S. President Barack Obama gave a <a href="https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/remarks-president-cairo-university-6-04-09">famous speech on Islam</a> in Egypt in 2009, attempting to reset the relationship between America and the Muslim world.</p>
<p>Emphasizing Muslims’ contributions to American society, Obama said, “It is important for Western countries to avoid impeding Muslim citizens from practicing religion as they see fit – for instance, by dictating what clothes a Muslim woman should wear.”</p>
<p>Obama’s speech reflected an idealized American melting pot, a place where hyphenated identities like <a href="https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199930890.001.0001/acprof-9780199930890-chapter-11">Muslim-American</a> are common. </p>
<p>French secularism sees no hyphenated identities – only French or Not French.</p>
<h2>Islam and the secular state</h2>
<p>Some in France also see this rigid secularism as unequal to the challenges of <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/sociology/sociology-religion/secularism-religion-and-multicultural-citizenship?format=HB&isbn=9780521873604">multiculturalism</a> and <a href="http://grease.eui.eu/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2019/10/France-country-report.pdf">migration</a>. The eminent scholar <a href="https://www.seuil.com/ouvrage/laicites-sans-frontieres-jean-bauberot/9782020996167">Jean Bauberot</a>, for example, defends a more “pluralistic secularism” – one that tolerates certain religious symbols in public institutions. </p>
<p>France has in fact made many exceptions for Catholics. The government provides substantial public funding to <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691144214/the-emancipation-of-europes-muslims">private Catholic schools</a>, which educate about a quarter of all K-12 students, and six of 11 official holidays in France are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_holidays_in_France">Catholic holidays</a>. </p>
<p>Too often, laïcité translates into an unwillingness to accommodate the religiously based demands of Muslims. </p>
<p>In 2015, a Muslim advocacy organization sued a municipal authority in France’s Burgundy region for refusing to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/13/pork-school-dinners-france-secularism-children-religious-intolerance">offer an alternative to pork</a> in public school cafeterias. The court compelled the town to reverse its policy, but not because it <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/28/non-pork-meals-must-be-available-for-school-lunch-rules-french-court">violated religious freedom</a>. The court found the menu <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2017/08/28/chalon-sur-saone-la-justice-annule-la-fin-des-menus-sans-porc-dans-les-cantines_5177551_3224.html">violated the children’s rights</a>.</p>
<p>France’s founding commitment to equality under the law likewise forestalls meaningful social debate on <a href="http://tupress.temple.edu/book/1122">racial discrimination</a>; its census does not even collect information on race. Although France’s biggest minority is mostly composed of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/02/world/europe/macron-radical-islam-france.html">nonwhite Muslim immigrants from its former colonies in Africa and their descendents</a>, Macron’s speech referenced only in passing to French colonialism.</p>
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<h2>Blasphemy</h2>
<p>That said, I find some truth in Macron’s speech. But the “crisis” facing Islam lies in the historical and political failings of the Muslim world, not in the religion itself.</p>
<p>As my 2019 book, “<a href="https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/politics-international-relations/comparative-politics/islam-authoritarianism-and-underdevelopment-global-and-historical-comparison?format=PB&isbn=9781108409476">Islam, Authoritarianism, and Underdevelopment</a>,” documents, many Muslim countries like Egypt, Iran and Saudi Arabia have long-lasting authoritarian regimes and chronic underdevelopment. In <a href="https://theconversation.com/execution-for-a-facebook-post-why-blasphemy-is-a-capital-offense-in-some-muslim-countries-129685">32 of the world’s 49 Muslim-majority countries</a>, blasphemy laws punish people who speak sacrilegiously about sacred things; in six countries, blasphemy is a capital offense. </p>
<p>These laws, which block freedom of expression, are more rooted in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/execution-for-a-facebook-post-why-blasphemy-is-a-capital-offense-in-some-muslim-countries-129685">interests of the conservative clergy and authoritarian rulers</a> than in the Islamic faith, my research shows. They actually contradict several Quranic verses that urge Muslims not to coerce or retaliate against people of other faiths. </p>
<p>Still, in Western countries where Muslims are a minority, extremists occasionally take it upon themselves to punish those who, in their view, mock the Prophet Muhammad. That has <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300124729/cartoons-shook-world">caused global controversies</a> over <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-theres-opposition-to-images-of-muhammad-36402">cartoons and movies</a>. At times, in France and beyond, it has led to an unacceptable outcome: murder.</p>
<p>Such killings, whether perpetrated by the state or by individuals, are tragedies. But to frame them as a purely religious problem ignores the socioeconomic and political origins of Islamic blasphemy laws, and the anti-democratic cultural consequences of authoritarianism in many Muslim countries. </p>
<p>It also overlooks the difficult reality that social alienation is an underlying factor in the <a href="https://behavioralpolicy.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/BSP_vol1is2_-Lyons-Padilla.pdf">radicalization of some young Muslims in the West</a>.</p>
<h2>Multiple secularisms, multiple Islams</h2>
<p>Macron’s speech made some gestures toward greater inclusion. </p>
<p>“I want France to become a country where we can teach the thoughts of Averreos and Ibn Khaldun,” he said, referencing two eminent Muslim thinkers of the 12th and 14th centuries, and envisioned “<a href="https://www.elysee.fr/emmanuel-macron/2020/10/02/la-republique-en-actes-discours-du-president-de-la-republique-sur-le-theme-de-la-lutte-contre-les-separatismes">a country that excels in the study of Muslim civilizations</a>.” </p>
<p>That plural in “civilizations” is meaningful. It acknowledges that Islam is not monolithic. Neither is French secularism. Both are complex systems with varied interpretations. </p>
<p>In truth, Macron doesn’t need to “build an Islam in France that can be compatible with the Enlightenment,” because that already exists. Whether French secularism can adapt to Islam is another question.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148070/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ahmet T. Kuru does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Macron wants to ‘build an Islam in France that can be compatible with the Enlightenment.’ But that goal assumes France is compatible with Islam, says a Muslim scholar of religion and politics.Ahmet T. Kuru, Professor of Political Science, San Diego State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1061102018-11-02T10:53:39Z2018-11-02T10:53:39ZHow safe is your place of worship?<p>Many Americans may be wondering what security measures are in place at their place of worship after a <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/28/us/san-diego-synagogue-sunday/index.html">gunman’s attack on a San Diego synagogue</a> service this past weekend left one person dead and three others wounded. </p>
<p>The same question was raised after 11 people were killed in the Oct. 27 shooting at the <a href="https://pittsburgh.cbslocal.com/2018/10/27/heavy-police-presence-near-synagogue-in-squirrel-hill/">Tree of Life synagogue</a> in Pittsburgh.</p>
<p>The San Diego synagogue, Chabad Poway, had no security guards – it couldn’t afford them. <a href="https://forward.com/fast-forward/423408/poway-chabad-synagogue-shooting-border-patrol/">An off-duty border patrol agent was among the congregants</a>, and there are reports he both tried to disarm the shooter and then chased after him outside of the synagogue. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/28/us/synagogue-shooting-chabad-poway.html">Chabad Poway Rabbi Yisroel Goldstein told The New York Times</a> that a hired security guard may have stopped any attack before it began. </p>
<p>“This may have been prevented if we had that,” said Goldstein, who was injured in the attack.</p>
<p>President Donald Trump <a href="https://pittsburgh.cbslocal.com/2018/10/27/trump-reacts-to-pittsburgh-synagogue-shooting/">also alluded to this question</a> when he said “the results would have been far better” if the Tree of Life congregation had armed guards or members.</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/pittsburgh-mayor-peduto-rebukes-trump-armed-guards-idea-2018-10">news reports</a> at the time, the Tree of Life synagogue did not have armed guards present at the time of the shooting. Many community leaders rebuked Trump’s statements and argued that increasing armed security was not the solution.</p>
<p>We are a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=6_MGHUYAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">sociologist</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=c__pMnMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">criminologist</a> who in 2015 conducted a national study of religious congregations’ experiences with, fears of and preparations for crime.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13644-017-0316-3">Our study</a>, which was supported by the National Science Foundation, featured a survey of over 1,300 places of worship and in-depth interviews with more than 50 congregational leaders. </p>
<p>We asked each leader – individuals with significant knowledge of the congregation’s operations – about the congregation’s history of crime, its security measures, the individual’s assessment of future crime risk and fears, and a variety of questions about the congregation’s operations and neighborhood. </p>
<p>While neither the Chabad Poway nor the Tree of Life synagogue was part of our study, the results of this work may hold useful insights for conversations about crime and security in places of worship. Here’s what we found.</p>
<h2>Threats and fear</h2>
<p>Crimes, most commonly vandalism and theft, were committed at about 40% of congregations in the year prior to the survey. This overall percentage was not significantly different across religious traditions.</p>
<p>When we dug deeper, though, we found that synagogues and mosques deal with crime-related problems that are much different than the average church.</p>
<p>Our survey found, for instance, that synagogues and mosques were three times more likely than congregations overall to have received an explicit threat in the prior year. </p>
<p>Respondents also reported significantly greater fear that congregants would be assaulted or murdered on the congregation’s property. This <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-017-0124-z">helps explain</a> another pattern we found: Jewish and Muslim congregations are in many ways far ahead of congregations representing other religious traditions when it comes to thinking about and implementing security measures.</p>
<h2>Security measures</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13644-017-0316-3">survey showed that 40%</a> of congregations have in place at least four of the 18 security measures asked about in our survey. About 43% of congregations have an alarm system, 28% use security cameras and 25% have taken steps to restrict the number of entries into their buildings.</p>
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<p>Our interviews found that most places of worship have a hard time implementing security. Some of this is simply not enough money. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057%2Fs41284-017-0124-z">Larger and wealthier congregations</a> tend to have more security in place.</p>
<p>Beyond resources, our interviews consistently found that places of worship view security measures as a potential threat to their mission of creating a sacred space that is open to their communities.</p>
<p>However, our survey also found that synagogues and mosques were much more likely than the average congregation to have security cameras, restricted entry points, security guards and other security measures. For example, only 17% of all the congregations in our survey reported any use of security guards, whether full-time, part-time or for special events. This compares to just over 54% of synagogues and 28% of mosques. Synagogues are also more likely to have communicated <a href="https://academic.oup.com/policing/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/police/pax045/4080318">with their local police</a>. </p>
<p>Beyond the statistics, our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19361610.2018.1387736">in-depth interviews with leaders of congregations</a> found that synagogues and mosques tend to put a great deal of thought into security. For synagogues in particular, our interviews found that local organizations are effective at sharing information and resources about security threats and strategies – for example, the Jewish Community Relations Councils.</p>
<h2>Future steps</h2>
<p>The U.S. must find ways to address the threats and violence against synagogues, mosques and other places of worship. In the meantime, congregations can evaluate their security risks and precautions.</p>
<p>The sparse resources of most congregations present some limitations, but there are steps they can take at little or no cost. For instance, congregations can assess whether entry points should be restricted to increase the ability of staff and members to observe who enters the building. </p>
<p>Congregations are not alone in these efforts. Many local police departments will conduct a security assessment for specific congregations or offer a workshop for multiple congregations. Furthermore, many congregations have members who have relevant skills, from installing new locks to setting up security cameras. Simply starting a conversation within your community can help your congregation identify these resources. </p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an article originally published on Nov. 2, 2018.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106110/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher P. Scheitle receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffery T. Ulmer receives funding from the National Science Foundation.</span></em></p>A national survey of over 1,300 congregations found that religious leaders struggle to balance security concerns with carrying out a mission to be open to the communities they serve.Christopher P. Scheitle, Assistant Professor of Sociology, West Virginia UniversityJeffery T. Ulmer, Professor of Sociology and Criminology, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/822352017-09-04T23:54:38Z2017-09-04T23:54:38ZHow Muslim Americans are fighting Islamophobia and securing their civil rights<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184569/original/file-20170904-9717-aw31yq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rally against President Donald Trump's executive order banning travel from seven Muslim-majority nations.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Andres Kudacki</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The past year has been a difficult one for American Muslims.</p>
<p>According to a July 2017 <a href="http://www.pewforum.org/2017/07/26/demographic-portrait-of-muslim-americans/">Pew survey</a>, 48 percent of Muslims report experiencing at least one incident of discrimination in the past 12 months. The Council on American-Islamic Relations and other Muslim advocacy organizations found <a href="https://www.cair.com/press-center/press-releases/14476-cair-report-shows-2017-on-track-to-becoming-one-of-worst-years-ever-for-anti-muslim-hate-crimes.html">these trends</a> were particularly intense during the 2016 campaigns and the early months of the Trump presidency.</p>
<p>And while the survey shows that Americans report warmer feelings toward Muslims today than they did in 2014, Muslims continue to be the <a href="http://www.pewforum.org/2017/07/26/how-the-u-s-general-public-views-muslims-and-islam/">most negatively rated religious group</a> – followed closely by atheists. In fact, about half of Americans (49 percent) believe that <a href="http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/">at least “some”</a> Muslim Americans are anti-American. </p>
<p>As a scholar of religion and politics, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09739572.2016.1239437">I’ve studied</a> how U.S. Muslim advocacy organizations have advanced their community’s integration in America. Their work reminds us that minorities in the U.S. are still struggling for civil rights.</p>
<h2>Islamophobia in politics</h2>
<p>Spikes in anti-Muslim sentiments and hate crimes appear to <a href="https://www.theislamicmonthly.com/islamophobia-is-made-up/">correlate with elections cycles</a>. This is not a coincidence. In recent years, politicians have increasingly relied on <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/09/trump-muslims-islamophobia-hate-crime/500840/">anti-Muslim rhetoric</a> to mobilize voters. What was once considered unacceptable <a href="http://www.islamophobia.org/158-key-issues-in-islamophobia/180-islamophobia-in-politics-a-2016-review.html">discourse</a> by members of both parties has gradually been normalized, particularly among Republican candidates.</p>
<p>During the 2016 presidential primaries, for example, Sen. Ted Cruz called for law enforcement to “<a href="http://www.npr.org/2016/03/22/471405546/u-s-officials-and-politicians-react-to-brussels-attacks">patrol and secure</a> Muslim neighborhoods.” Ben Carson claimed that Islam was <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/meet-the-press/ben-carson-does-not-believe-muslim-should-be-president-n430431">incompatible with the Constitution</a>. And former Louisiana Gov. Bobby Jindal warned that some immigrants were trying to “<a href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=112042">change our fundamental culture and values and set up their own</a>.”</p>
<p>Then, candidate Donald Trump called for “<a href="http://www.npr.org/2015/12/07/458836388/trump-calls-for-total-and-complete-shutdown-of-muslims-entering-u-s">a total and complete shutdown</a> of Muslims entering the United States.” Many critics consider that statement the basis for his January 27 <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/03/06/executive-order-protecting-nation-foreign-terrorist-entry-united-states">executive order</a> banning immigration from seven Muslim majority countries.</p>
<p>Muslim Americans are responding through organizations that represent their interests, and are increasingly visible, engaged and assertive. At the grassroots level, their presence is seen through the work of activists like Linda Sarsour, a co-sponsor of the 2017 Women’s March. At the policy level, Muslim advocacy organizations such as the <a href="https://www.cair.com">Council on American-Islamic Relations</a> also work to advance the community’s legislative agenda. </p>
<h2>Advocating for Muslim Americans</h2>
<p>There are an <a href="http://www.pewforum.org/2017/07/26/demographic-portrait-of-muslim-americans/">estimated</a> 3.35 million Muslims in the U.S. A majority of them, 58 percent, are first-generation Americans who arrived in the U.S. after the passage of the Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965. As these immigrants began to settle in the U.S., they established institutions. In fact, most Muslim advocacy groups were founded in the late 1980s and early 1990s, but gained prominence in the <a href="http://www.nbcnews.com/id/44430432/ns/us_news-9_11_ten_years_later/t/american-muslims-come-age-post--era/#.Wancaa2ZNus">post-9/11</a> era. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.cair.com">Council on American-Islamic Relations</a>, the <a href="https://www.mpac.org/">Muslim Public Affairs Council</a> and the more recently established <a href="http://www.uscmo.org/">U.S. Council of Muslim Organizations</a> are among the largest at the national level.</p>
<p>By working on behalf of one of the most stigmatized religious minority groups, Muslim advocacy organizations aspire to uphold the most cherished of American ideals and values: liberty, equality and the inalienable rights of all citizens. They aim to make U.S. Muslims agents of their own narratives, fostering their civic engagement and strengthening the social fabric of our nation. </p>
<h2>Muslim American advocacy today</h2>
<p>For years, these organizations have encouraged and registered Muslim citizens to vote. More recently, they’ve begun encouraging them to <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/04/american-muslims-running-for-office/522585/">run for office</a>. These efforts are significant because many Muslims <a href="http://www.pewforum.org/2017/07/26/political-and-social-views/pf_2017-06-26_muslimamericans-04new-02/">are not registered to vote</a>, and only 44 percent of those who are voted during the 2016 elections. </p>
<p>Muslim advocacy organizations are also actively bringing their community’s concerns to the attention of elected officials. Some of their most recent lobbying efforts include calling on the House and Senate to support two bills. The No Religious Registry Act of 2017 (<a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/489">H.R. 489</a>) would protect the constitutional rights of American Muslims. And <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/248">Senate Bill 248</a> would block Trump’s travel ban on seven Muslim majority countries. </p>
<p>They’ve also lobbied for the protection of immigrant communities and the cessation of religious and racial profiling. In particular, they have focused on building support for the <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/496">BRIDGE Act</a>, which would protect young undocumented immigrants from deportation, and the End Racial and Religious Profiling Act of 2017 (<a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/411/text">S.411</a>), which would protect all Americans from discriminatory profiling by law enforcement.</p>
<p>U.S. Muslims face serious challenges, but they are also increasingly motivated to confront them. Their efforts show how minority groups in America work to secure their collective interests and continue the process of building an inclusive democracy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82235/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Cury does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New survey data show that Muslim Americans are the most negatively perceived religious group in the US and are often victims of Islamophobic attacks. How are they responding? By getting organized.Emily Cury, Research Fellow in International Affairs and Middle East Studies, Northeastern UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/686622016-11-11T03:23:23Z2016-11-11T03:23:23ZWhat might a Trump presidency mean for Muslims and the Muslim world?<p>A Donald Trump presidency will have unforeseen consequences for just about every interest group on the planet, but Muslims and the Muslim world may be feeling this historic upset particularly keenly. </p>
<p>During the election campaign, Trump <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/donald-trump-hairraising-quotes-1.3678096">said</a> he planned “a total and complete shutdown of Muslims” entering the US, voiced support for a database on Muslims in the US, and has made several divisive and Islamophobic comments. </p>
<p>So it would be no surprise if the 1.6 billion Muslims around the world were now feeling a mix of shock, trauma and worry.</p>
<p>However, a Trump presidency may not be all doom and gloom for Muslims. Yes, there is cause for concern, but there is reason for optimism too. </p>
<p>Let’s start with the optimism. </p>
<h2>Campaign mode versus presidential mode</h2>
<p>Now the election is over and he won, Trump is likely to relax and pull back on his rhetoric. As many <a href="http://www.itv.com/news/update/2016-11-10/obama-reassured-by-trumps-tone-in-white-house-meeting/">observers</a> have <a href="http://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-election-speech-20161108-story.html">noted</a>, Trump’s victory speech and comments made after meeting outgoing president Barack Obama were much more measured in tone and content than his inflammatory campaign comments.</p>
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<p>In the light and heat of the election campaign, Trump had to appeal to the blue-collar masses and a certain Republican voting base. He knew what they were looking for and delivered it. </p>
<p>As president, though, he will soon realise rhetoric is not enough. People will expect solutions to real problems, and that could have a civilising effect on Trump’s thinking and behaviour.</p>
<p>Second, while he would never describe himself this way, Trump is a political novice. It is for this reason that the president-elect does not immediately assume the helm. </p>
<p>In the next three months or so, Trump will be educated by countless information sessions and reports prepared and delivered by seasoned officials in the state department. This may bring Trump a huge reality check regarding the gravity and complexity of government. He will quickly discover that it’s not always possible for a president to immediately implement whatever he likes. </p>
<p>Third, the issues that he will be confronted with and the broad spectrum of people and world leaders he will meet may moderate his views. He will quickly learn that he is supposed to be the “leader of the free world”, not the chairman of the board of an increasingly authoritarian line-up of world leaders. </p>
<p>That said, it’s been clear for some time that Trump is partial to vitriolic rhetoric, and that strains of extremism run through his thoughts. So Muslims do have important reasons to worry about a Trump presidency.</p>
<h2>Cause for concern</h2>
<p>It is quite likely that Trump’s election will be <a href="http://www.salon.com/2016/11/10/isis-is-gloating-about-donald-trumps-presidential-win/">welcomed by ISIS</a> and their radical ilk. </p>
<p>Radicals on extreme ends have a tendency to feed one another. For ISIS to continue winning the hearts and minds of Muslim youth around the world, they need a clear anti-Muslim enemy. Who is more perfect for that role than an openly Islamophobic Trump? A Trump presidency helps perpetuate the narrative of radical Muslims and makes it hard for mainstream Muslims to prevent extremism and violent radicalisation. </p>
<p>Trump has also shown in his campaign that he can evolve as he goes, but it is anyone’s guess what evolutionary track he will take from here. Given the severity of domestic and international conditions, it is not looking good.</p>
<p>For the Muslim-majority countries, the reaction of their leadership will be pragmatic. For those leaders who need to be seen by their citizens as anti-US, Trump is the perfect president. It may not be long before we see openly expressed negative rhetoric between US and a leader of a Muslim-majority country. Egos and national interests will clash. This could trigger pro-Trump media coverage in Muslim majority countries that want to be seen as pro-US. Expect further splits in already divided Muslim societies.</p>
<p>For Muslim minorities living in Western countries, a Trump presidency is a lose-lose scenario. Many have observed a <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/07/12/europe-rejects-multi-cultural-society-says-survey/">direct</a> <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/aug/26/politicians-rise-hate-crimes-brexit-vote-un-committee">correlation</a> between the vitriol of political leaders and the rise of anti-Muslim sentiment. Trump may not be able to resist the temptation. Social groups and institutions who stand to benefit from the widespread anti-Islam sentiments will be emboldened by a Trump presidency.</p>
<p>However events transpire, a Trump presidency will be uncertain, unpredictable and, not least of all, interesting.</p>
<p><em>UPDATE: This article was updated on November 11 to reflect the fact that Trump’s promise to ban Muslims from entering the US, which an earlier version of this story said had <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/donald-trump-president-election-muslim-ban-immigrants-website-statement-removed-a7408466.html">disappeared</a> from his website, has now been put back. A Trump spokesman was <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-11-11/trump-muslim-ban-website-glitch/8016112">reported</a> as saying the issue was explained by a technical glitch.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68662/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mehmet Ozalp is an executive of the Islamic Sciences and Research Academy, a not-for-profit higher learning organisation. </span></em></p>A Trump presidency may not be all doom and gloom for Muslims. Yes, there is cause for concern but there is reason for optimism too.Mehmet Ozalp, Associate Professor in Islamic Studies, Director of The Centre for Islamic Studies and Civilisation and Executive Member of Public and Contextual Theology, Charles Sturt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/609912016-06-15T09:49:40Z2016-06-15T09:49:40Z48 hours as a Muslim American: A professor reflects<p>What a difference 48 hours can make. </p>
<p>Last Friday afternoon, before a global audience, former president Bill Clinton (a Christian) and comedian Billy Crystal (a Jew) <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/11/sports/lonnie-billy-crystal-bill-clinton-eulogies-for-muhammad-ali.html">eulogized “the Greatest,”</a> the most famous Muslim American of all time, Muhammad Ali.</p>
<p>The televised audience also took in Islamic invocations, recitations from the Qur’an, and, if they listened carefully, gleeful shouts of “Allahu akbar” (“God is the greatest”) from many of the thousands of attendees who packed Louisville’s KFC Yum! Sports Arena for the memorial service. President Barack Obama <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2016/06/10/president-obamas-tribute-muhammad-ali-he-will-always-be-america">declared </a>that Ali “will always be America.” And prior to his passing, a <a href="http://sports.yahoo.com/blogs/nba-ball-dont-lie/nba-honors-muhammad-ali-with-moment-of-silence-before-finals-game-2-010831328.html">moment of silence</a> in his honor was taken before tip-off at two NBA Finals games, once at Oracle Arena in Oakland, another time at Quicken Loans Arena in Cleveland.</p>
<p>On Sunday, Americans awoke to the <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/14/us/orlando-shooting.html">tragic news</a> that a young Muslim American had perpetrated the deadliest mass shooting in American history when he took the lives of dozens of innocents at Orlando’s Pulse nightclub. </p>
<p>His proclaimed affiliation to ISIS and reports of his homophobia and anger problems were all over the news. </p>
<p>Presidential candidate Donald Trump <a href="http://thehill.com/blogs/ballot-box/presidential-races/283211-trump-orlando-killer-shouted-allah-hu-akbar-as-he">tweeted</a> that the shooter reportedly shouted “Allahu akbar” during the horrific rampage. President Obama condemned what “was an act of terror and an act of hate.” And a moment of silence in honor of the victims was taken prior to tip-off at the most recent NBA Finals game in Oakland.</p>
<p>To say this past week has been a turbulent one would be an understatement. </p>
<p>Numerous Muslim Americans expressed how pleasantly surprised they were at seeing widely broadcast positive portrayals of their coreligionists in a nonetheless sobering Ali memorial. </p>
<p>At the Louisville, KY Islamic funeral service, the prominent Muslim American scholar Sherman Jackson had declared, “Ali put the question as to whether you could be a Muslim and an American to rest.” What is more, “Ali made being a Muslim cool.” </p>
<p>But with vile criminals such as the above-mentioned shooter (whose name I shall not bother to mention) dominating the headlines, it is easy to see why many Americans see Muslims as being very uncool.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/markaz/posts/2015/12/09-what-americans-think-of-muslims-and-islam-telhami">Surveys show</a> that non-Muslims who do not regularly interact with Muslims tend to have a significantly more negative impression of them. This should not come as a surprise given recent events and the media coverage of these events. </p>
<p>It certainly does not help that there exist numerous misconceptions and oversimplifications about both Islam and Muslims that are widely propagated online. (Of course, one could say something similar about America itself. If Islam and Muslims have a “public relations problem” in the West, the same is true for <a href="http://www.pewglobal.org/2015/06/23/1-americas-global-image/">America and Americans</a> in many countries overseas.) </p>
<p>Indeed, as a professor of religious studies, I find that I spend much of my time debunking popular myths.</p>
<h2>The demographics</h2>
<p>The reality is that with a population of <a href="http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/01/06/a-new-estimate-of-the-u-s-muslim-population/">over three million,</a> most Muslim Americans are not nearly as “great” as Ali; and they are certainly nothing like the Orlando shooter. The reality is that most Muslims are everyday people. </p>
<p>Muslim Americans are extremely diverse: <a href="http://www.people-press.org/2011/08/30/section-1-a-demographic-portrait-of-muslim-americans/">63 percent are immigrants hailing from 77 countries</a>. They are, on average, relatively young. Their levels of education mirror those of the U.S. population as a whole. As a <a href="http://www.pewforum.org/2007/05/22/muslim-americans-middle-class-and-mostly-mainstream2/">Pew survey</a> put it several years ago, they are “decidedly American in their outlook, values and attitudes.” </p>
<p>What is more, they have been here for a long time. </p>
<h2>Coming to America</h2>
<p>Some arrived on <a href="http://www.pbs.org/opb/historydetectives/feature/islam-in-america/">slave ships</a> centuries ago. Others – including famous figures such as Ali, Malcolm X, basketball legend Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, U.S. Representative Keith Ellison, author <a href="http://gwillowwilson.com/">G. Willow Wilson</a>, singer Jermaine Jackson, comedian Dave Chappelle and a 19th-century writer and U.S. Consul to the Philippines named <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/a-muslim-in-victorian-america-9780195187281?cc=us&lang=en&">Alexander Russell Webb</a> (1846-1916) – chose to convert to Islam. </p>
<p>Most – including numerous physicians, researchers, business owners and cab drivers – immigrated to this country to seek a better life, and, in the process, like other immigrants, made America a better country. </p>
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<span class="caption">Fazlur Khan’s iconic John Hancock Center in Chicago.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:John_Hancock_Center2.jpg">Antoine Taveneaux</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One such immigrant was the late <a href="https://drfazlurrkhan.com/">Fazlur Khan</a>, an architect originally from Bangladesh who designed the iconic Sears Tower (now called Willis Tower) and the John Hancock Center in Chicago. And just this past year, another immigrant, this time from Turkey, scientist<a href="http://www.med.unc.edu/biochem/people/faculty/primary/asancar"> Aziz Sancar,</a> received the Nobel Prize, making him the second Muslim American Nobel Laureate in Chemistry. (The first was Egyptian-American <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1999/zewail-bio.html">Ahmed Zewail</a> in 1999.) </p>
<p>Finally, many Muslims – from hip-hop artist <a href="http://www.lupefiasco.com/">Lupe Fiasco</a> to U.S. Army Specialist and Purple Heart recipient <a href="http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/krkhan.htm">Kareem Khan</a> (who was killed in combat in 2007) – were born into Muslim families right here in the United States. According to the Pentagon, there are almost 6,000 Muslims <a href="http://www.abcnews.go.com/US/5000-muslims-serving-us-military-pentagon/story?id=35654904">currently serving</a> in the U.S. military.</p>
<p>The Islamic State does not even account for one percent of one percent of the worldwide Muslim population. And among the many devout Muslim Americans I know personally, I have yet to meet or even hear about a single ISIS sympathizer; I see only looks of disgust whenever they’re mentioned. </p>
<p>Such sympathizers <a href="https://homeland.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/TaskForceFinalReport.pdf">obviously exist</a>. But this relatively small collection of individuals represent only themselves.</p>
<p>A friend on Facebook shared a story about how he came to learn about the Orlando shootings. He was passing through an airport when he noticed a crowd huddled around a television screen. When it was revealed that the shooter came from a Muslim family, a man in the crowd remarked, “Those damn Muslims.”</p>
<p>Three million diverse, overwhelmingly peaceful and productive Muslim Americans reduced to “those damn Muslims.” </p>
<p>Interestingly, just hours before the attack in Orlando I was discussing the Ali memorial service with a group of Muslim friends. Though sad about the passing of “the Greatest,” they all had smiles on their faces as they recounted the speeches from the service and imagined the effects those speeches might have on the broader American public. They had never felt better represented. At that moment, at least, they felt cool.</p>
<p><em>Editor’s note: An earlier version mistakenly identified Lexington, KY instead of Louisville, KY as where Muhammad Ali’s funeral took place.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/60991/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mohammad Hassan Khalil does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Who are American Muslims? And what is their history?Mohammad Hassan Khalil, Associate Professor of Religious Studies and Director of the Muslim Studies program, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/510192015-11-24T10:17:26Z2015-11-24T10:17:26ZWant to change perceptions of Muslims? Support students of all beliefs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102662/original/image-20151120-397-1ozif1r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Members of a Muslim fraternity at University of Texas, Dallas</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alif_Laam_Meem_Muslim_Fraternity_At_Domestic_Violence_Rally.JPG">AliMMahmoud94</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the wake of the recent terror attacks in Paris, Baghdad and Beirut, our national discourse has been full of conversations about Muslims in civic life. </p>
<p>Presidential candidates have offered up <a href="http://www.newyorker.com/news/amy-davidson/ted-cruzs-religious-test-for-syrian-refugees">religious tests</a> as potential barriers to entry for refugees seeking to flee conflict zones. State governors have <a href="http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2015/11/16/alabama-refuses-syrian-refugees-paris-terror-attack/75857924/">proposed</a> suspending accepting new refugees in the wake of the attacks.</p>
<p>Despite the recent surge of interest, skepticism about the trustworthiness of Muslims in America is anything but new. </p>
<p>National research data demonstrate that Muslims were <a href="http://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/07/Views-of-Religious-Groups-07-27-full-PDF-for-web.pdf">ranked</a> in the coldest third on a “feeling thermometer” by their fellow Americans of different faiths. </p>
<p>Even more troubling is the reality that religion-based violence against Muslims represented about 14% of hate crimes in 2013, despite the fact that Muslims <a href="https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/2013/topic-pages/incidents-and-offenses/incidentsandoffenses_final">comprise less</a> than <a href="http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2010/number/all/">1% </a>of the US population.</p>
<p>The national attitude toward Muslims extends into the collegiate environment. </p>
<p>Our research on religious and spiritual campus climate has <a href="https://www.ifyc.org/sites/default/files/u4/Whitepaper-Worldview-7.pdf">indicated</a> that only 46% of students believe that Muslims are accepted on campus. But our data also point to ways in which college educators can make a real difference in the ways Muslims are perceived by Americans generally. </p>
<h2>Prejudices on campus</h2>
<p>Controversy around Muslims on campus has hit the headlines on a number of occasions. </p>
<p>Universities have <a href="http://www.kansas.com/news/local/education/article38035449.html">faced criticism,</a> for example, for providing worship space to Muslim students (most recently at Wichita State in Kansas). Earlier this year, Duke <a href="http://chronicle.com/blogs/ticker/bowing-to-criticism-duke-u-scraps-plan-to-host-muslim-call-to-prayer-at-chapel/92333">encountered</a> an outcry from alumni after announcing plans to permit Muslim students to sound the call to prayer from the chapel bell tower. Similarly, in 2007 the University of Michigan-Dearborn faced a backlash after installing <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/07/education/07muslim.html?pagewanted=all">footbaths</a> for Muslim students on campus. </p>
<p>These situations, unsurprisingly, have an impact on how Muslim students perceive their campus communities. </p>
<p>Bruce Speck’s study of Muslim college students demonstrates that they feel largely unsupported in their religious practices and subject to <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tl.7004/abstract">bias and disrespect</a> both in and out of the classroom.</p>
<p>Incidents such as the <a href="http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/06/22/the-story-of-a-hate-crime">murder</a> of three Muslim students in North Carolina earlier this year continue to fuel fear in this community.</p>
<p>It is our belief that these prejudices and misperceptions damage the strength of our American democracy. Higher education has a role to play in beginning to address these challenges. </p>
<p>But what can campus leaders do? </p>
<p>Together with <a href="https://ced.ncsu.edu/people/anbryan2/">Alyssa Rockenbach</a> at North Carolina State University, we have collaborated on research to answer precisely this question. </p>
<h2>Data speak volumes</h2>
<p>We <a href="https://www.ifyc.org/campus-religious-and-spiritual-climate-survey">developed a survey</a> to examine the attitudes shown and values held by people on university campuses about religious diversity. From 2011-2014, we administered this survey at 52 colleges and universities. </p>
<p>The findings of our research point in some exciting directions for educators seeking to make a positive impact on negative perceptions of Muslims in higher education and beyond.</p>
<p>One of our key questions was related to the idea of how non-Muslim students perceive Islam and Muslims in the world. And following on from that, we wanted to know what experiences help non-Muslim students come to appreciate Islam and Muslims around the world. </p>
<p>We asked non-Muslim students to respond to a series of statements to gauge their level of appreciation for Muslims. These questions included, “Islam values service to others,” “Islam promotes peace,” and “In general, Muslims are moral and ethical people.”</p>
<p>Our subsequent data analysis revealed a variety of interesting trends. </p>
<p>Consistent with <a href="http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0787910449.html">the literature</a> on collegiate experiences, our analysis showed that the types of educational experiences students encounter within a campus community are critical in shaping their perceptions and attitudes.</p>
<p>Non-Muslim student appreciation for Islam and for Muslims around the world was associated with:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>participating in interfaith experiences, such as an interfaith service activity or an interfaith dialogue</p></li>
<li><p>having uncomfortable conversations that moved non-Muslim students to examine their own prejudices, and </p></li>
<li><p>engaging in informal opportunities to interact across difference, like dining together or studying together. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>However, opportunities to encounter difference did not always lead to greater appreciation of Muslims. </p>
<p>In fact, our research also showed that, among non-Muslim students, the following experiences were associated with a _lack _of appreciation of Islam:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>attending their own or other formal religious services</p></li>
<li><p>being silenced and feeling unsafe to express their own faith freely on campus, often due to moments of conflict or tension around religion</p></li>
<li><p>feeling as though their college seems to favor certain worldviews above others </p></li>
<li><p>perceiving less support for their own religious or nonreligious identities.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>A unique opportunity</h2>
<p>What do these data points tell us? As the number of Muslim college students <a href="http://www.beliefnet.com/News/2000/03/Colleges-Adapting-To-Increasing-Muslim-Student-Presence.aspx">continues to grow</a>, college educators have a unique opportunity to create and support productive meeting spaces that promote positive attitudes toward Muslims among non-Muslim college students. </p>
<p>As the number of international students from a variety of religious traditions increases on college campuses so will the opportunities for these students to return to their nations as leaders. Our work hopes to equip these future leaders with the tools needed to effectively and productively engage across religious differences. </p>
<p>However, increasing diversity on campus is only part of the solution. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102898/original/image-20151123-18246-m1ugb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102898/original/image-20151123-18246-m1ugb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102898/original/image-20151123-18246-m1ugb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=692&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102898/original/image-20151123-18246-m1ugb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=692&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102898/original/image-20151123-18246-m1ugb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=692&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102898/original/image-20151123-18246-m1ugb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102898/original/image-20151123-18246-m1ugb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102898/original/image-20151123-18246-m1ugb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Religious diversity needs support.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:16_religionist_symbols.png">Pass a Method</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In fact, the mere presence of diversity on campus may actually <a href="http://www.cic.edu/News-and-Publications/Multimedia-Library/CICConferencePresentations/2015%20Presidents%20Institute/20150106-Developing%20Interfaith%20Cooperation%20on%20Campus%202.pdf">harm relations</a> among communities, as diversity left unengaged and unsupported can lead to greater isolation and distrust. </p>
<p>Educators, we would argue, have the responsibility to appropriately design and thoughtfully support opportunities for interaction where students can genuinely learn and get to know one another.</p>
<p>Simply attending a religious service on or off campus or participating in a religious course is not enough. </p>
<p>Students are profoundly impacted by their own experiences of inclusion and exclusion. When they themselves feel safe and respected, they more readily extend a welcoming hand to others. </p>
<p>This suggests that educators must give greater attention to campus climate around religious identity and diversity as a whole. </p>
<p>Although students are less likely to formally identify with a religion over the course of their studies, there has been a <a href="https://www.aacu.org/publications-research/periodicals/religion-comeback-campus">notable increase </a>of students who participate in voluntary religious activities since the 1990s. </p>
<p>Faculty, staff and other campus leaders play a critical role in shaping a community where all feel welcomed.</p>
<p>Let us be clear: we believe these data give us the opportunity to change the news headlines of the future. Our research indicates that creating thoughtful educational experiences and building a constructive campus climate for all around religion has the potential to change hearts and minds about all Muslims. </p>
<p>It’s worth noting that those benefits are not limited to Muslims. Jewish, atheist, Mormon students and more would all benefit from this type of collegiate experience. </p>
<p>If higher education were to prioritize this work, how might the world respond differently in the wake of major global events related to religion? We challenge educators to help us discover the answer to that question.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This piece was coauthored with <a href="http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/interviews/a-discussion-with-mary-ellen-giess-chief-of-staff-and-lead-strategist-interfaith-youth-core">Mary Ellen Giess</a> from the Interfaith Youth Core.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/51019/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Mayhew receives funding from a non-religiously affiliated foundation that chooses to remain anonymous. . </span></em></p>Research indicates that only 46% of students believe Muslims are accepted on campus. But the same research points to ways to change how Muslims are perceived by Americans generally.Matthew J. Mayhew, Associate Professor of Higher Education, New York UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.