tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/native-plants-30855/articlesNative plants – The Conversation2024-02-02T23:11:54Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2154542024-02-02T23:11:54Z2024-02-02T23:11:54ZAnimals keep eating precious plants – we used ‘smell misinformation’ to keep them away<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555510/original/file-20231024-29-o85ef8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=143%2C294%2C4476%2C3218&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/swamp-wallaby-eating-some-eucalyptus-leaves-2243439195">Gert-Jan van Stein/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In places where we need to protect valuable plants – whether for ecological or economic reasons – local herbivores can cause significant damage.</p>
<p>Current solutions often involve killing the problem animals. But this is increasingly unacceptable due to animal welfare concerns and social pressures. Physical barriers such as fences can be expensive, and aren’t always practical. We need other options.</p>
<p>Recently, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27368609/">our team</a> <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2656.12748">discovered</a> that herbivores – plant-eating mammals – primarily use their sense of smell to tell which plants they want to eat or avoid.</p>
<p>In our study <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02330-x">published today in Nature Ecology & Evolution</a>, we show how we can use this reliance on smell to nudge wallabies away from vulnerable native tree seedlings. We artificially created and deployed the key smells of a shrub wallabies avoid. </p>
<h2>Herbivore-induced headaches</h2>
<p>Hungry plant eaters are a concern for conservationists, farmers and foresters alike. They can devastate revegetation efforts and post-fire recovery, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1442-9993.2004.01374.x">destroying more than half the seedlings</a> in these areas.</p>
<p>Every year, they cause <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/brv.12587">billions of dollars of damage</a> in forestry and agriculture. Herbivores also pose a risk to the long-term survival of many threatened plant species.</p>
<p>The most effective control strategies will likely <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/fulltext/S0169-5347(16)30152-5">work with a herbivore’s natural motivations</a> – understanding and harnessing what drives the animal to find or avoid certain plants.</p>
<p>Previously, research had primarily focused on what herbivores were eating, but had never really asked <em>how</em> they find the food in the first place.</p>
<p>Our approach puts a new twist on “olfactory (smell) misinformation” or “chemical camouflage” approaches. In recent studies, these methods have substantially reduced invasive predators eating <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abe4164">threatened bird eggs</a> in New Zealand, and house mice eating agricultural <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-023-01127-3">wheat grain</a> in Australia.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-fool-a-mouse-chemical-camouflage-can-hide-crops-and-cut-losses-by-over-60-202042">How to fool a mouse: ‘chemical camouflage’ can hide crops and cut losses by over 60%</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555509/original/file-20231024-25-i6una0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A small brown marsupial with dark ears eating spare but tall green grass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555509/original/file-20231024-25-i6una0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555509/original/file-20231024-25-i6una0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555509/original/file-20231024-25-i6una0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555509/original/file-20231024-25-i6una0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555509/original/file-20231024-25-i6una0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555509/original/file-20231024-25-i6una0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555509/original/file-20231024-25-i6una0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A swamp wallaby munching on some grass. Like other plant-eating mammals, they use their sense of smell to find delicious plants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/swamp-wallaby-wallabia-bicolor-eating-grass-2336437925">Joshua Prieto/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A landscape of smells</h2>
<p>In navigating <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/72/8/745/6618787">a scent landscape</a>, herbivores use odour to recognise and select among plants and plant patches. Odour is key in guiding the foraging of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00442-016-3678-2">marsupials in Australia</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347218301258">elephants in Africa</a> and <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1818284116">Asia</a>, and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2011.19515.x">deer in the United States</a>.</p>
<p>With this in mind, we explored whether the smell of a plant they don’t like could be enough to nudge animals away from highly palatable native tree seedlings.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553860/original/file-20231015-25-ot7z6b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Image of a deer surrounded by green and red 'bubbles' of things represented by smell" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553860/original/file-20231015-25-ot7z6b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553860/original/file-20231015-25-ot7z6b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553860/original/file-20231015-25-ot7z6b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553860/original/file-20231015-25-ot7z6b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553860/original/file-20231015-25-ot7z6b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553860/original/file-20231015-25-ot7z6b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553860/original/file-20231015-25-ot7z6b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mammalian herbivores use their noses to navigate complex smell landscapes where odour is emitted from food, predators, competitors and potential mates.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/72/8/745/6618787">Finnerty et al., BioScience, 2022</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To test this idea, we focused on swamp wallabies foraging in a eucalypt woodland in eastern Australia. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/emr.12437">Studies have shown</a> having too many swamp wallabies around can limit the number of eucalypt seedlings that survive to become trees. Swamp wallabies also have a fantastic sense of smell – they can find just <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2656.12748">a few eucalypt leaves buried underground</a> among complex vegetation. </p>
<p>Using an approach <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nph.18432">we recently developed</a>, we found the key scent compounds of a plant we know wallabies avoid – the native shrub <em>Boronia pinnata</em>.</p>
<p>We then mixed these compounds together to create “informative virtual neighbours”. They were “informative” as our mix of compounds mimicked what a wallaby would recognise as <em>Boronia pinnata</em>, “virtual” as we were not actually deploying the real shrub, and “neighbours” as we placed these smells in the bush next to eucalypt seedlings we were trying to protect.</p>
<p>In our study, a virtual neighbour was a small glass vial with a few millilitres of the mixture, with a tube pierced through the lid so the smell could waft out.</p>
<p>Using odours instead of real plants is a type of <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2534">olfactory misinformation</a> – it sends a deceptive message to the animals. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553872/original/file-20231015-21-f0ar90.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A side by side photo of a glass bottle with a tube sticking out and a black plastic cup on leaf litter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553872/original/file-20231015-21-f0ar90.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553872/original/file-20231015-21-f0ar90.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553872/original/file-20231015-21-f0ar90.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553872/original/file-20231015-21-f0ar90.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553872/original/file-20231015-21-f0ar90.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553872/original/file-20231015-21-f0ar90.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553872/original/file-20231015-21-f0ar90.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We deployed the virtual neighbour vials in custom-built contraptions that secured vials to the ground and provided protection from the weather.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Finnerty et al., Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2024</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Real and virtual neighbours</h2>
<p>We also compared if virtual neighbours were as good as the real thing in protecting eucalypt seedlings from being eaten by wallabies.</p>
<p>Five virtual neighbour vials or real <em>Boronia pinnata</em> plants were spaced evenly around single eucalypt seedlings the wallabies would find highly palatable. (We also had two types of controls: a seedling with nothing around it, and a seedling surrounded by five empty vials.)</p>
<p>Using remote cameras for 40 days, we recorded how long it took wallabies to find and munch on the eucalypt seedlings.</p>
<p>The results were staggering. Seedlings were 20 times less likely to be eaten when surrounded by virtual neighbours than for both controls. This was equivalent to using real <em>B. pinnata</em> plants, but better because vials don’t compete with seedlings for water and other resources.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572623/original/file-20240131-27-wkm6rq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572623/original/file-20240131-27-wkm6rq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572623/original/file-20240131-27-wkm6rq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572623/original/file-20240131-27-wkm6rq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572623/original/file-20240131-27-wkm6rq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572623/original/file-20240131-27-wkm6rq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572623/original/file-20240131-27-wkm6rq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572623/original/file-20240131-27-wkm6rq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A single eucalypt seedling surrounded by five virtual neighbours (a) and five real plant neighbours (b).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Finnerty et al., Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2024</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A highly effective approach</h2>
<p>The success of our study indicates we could use this approach as a new management tool – one that works by influencing the animals’ behaviour rather than trying to get rid of them.</p>
<p>We believe the concept behind developing virtual neighbours is directly transferable to any herbivore, mammal or otherwise, that uses plant odour to forage.</p>
<p>All herbivores avoid some plant species. With future development, we can deploy smelly virtual neighbours as a non-deadly and cost-effective tool to reduce the problems caused by overzealous herbivores.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>We acknowledge all other co-authors who contributed to this work: Catherine Price, Malcolm Possell and Cristian Gabriel Orlando from the University of Sydney, and Adrian Shrader from the University of Pretoria. We thank Paul Finnerty for assistance in designing and constructing virtual neighbour holders.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215454/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick Finnerty received funding for this work from the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, the Ecological Society of Australia, the Australian Academy of Science, NSW Dept of Planning and Environment, the Australian Wildlife Society, and the Australian Research Council.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clare McArthur receives funding from the Australian Research Council, NSW Environmental Trust and NSW Department of Planning and Environment. She is a member of the Ecological Society of Australia, the Australian Mammal Society and the Australasian Wildlife Management Society.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Banks receives funding from the Australian Research Council, NSW Environmental Trust and NSW Department of Planning and Environment, Hermon Slade Foundation and Manaaki Whenua.</span></em></p>Each year, hungry plant-eating animals do billions of dollars of damage to valuable plants. We need prevention methods that don’t involve killing them.Patrick Finnerty, PhD candidate - Behavioural Ecology and Conservation Research, University of SydneyClare McArthur, Professor of Behavioural Ecology, University of SydneyPeter Banks, Professor of Conservation Biology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2215892024-01-28T19:03:27Z2024-01-28T19:03:27ZBanksias are iconic Australian plants, but their ancestors actually came from North Africa<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571053/original/file-20240124-19-b1td3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=41%2C57%2C5416%2C3608&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/a-yellow-flower-with-green-leaves-on-a-branch-wmy7IFiAQZQ">Sandie Peters/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Few plants conjure up the Australian bush better than banksias, whose beautiful flowers are irresistible to honeyeater birds, small marsupials and nature lovers.</p>
<p>But our research, published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ppees.2024.125778">Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics</a>, shows that the ancestors of banksias actually migrated here from North Africa. </p>
<p>From <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcad055">early fossil pollen studies</a>, we already knew that the protea family (Proteaceae), which includes banksias, grevilleas, waratahs and macadamias in Australia, originated in northwest Africa 130 million years ago. </p>
<p>Our task was to track their migration to Australia, where they became the unique symbols of the Australian bush that we admire today. To give credit where it’s due, we need to know where our natural heritage originated. So, how did this iconic group of plants get here?</p>
<h2>Looking at the entire family</h2>
<p>Our study relied on two approaches. We used a DNA assessment of the entire protea family to create an evolutionary tree. Then we inserted key fossil pollen records of a known age into the tree, to serve as a “molecular clock”. This helped us work out the time of origin of all genera in this family.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An orange-pink flower resembling a bottle brush" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=748&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=748&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=748&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=940&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=940&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=940&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"><em>Banksia hookeriana</em>, the most important species used in the wildflower trade in Western Australia and now widely planted. This is the most studied of all members of the protea family.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Byron Lamont</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We then searched the literature for records of ancient sedimentary deposits that contain fossil pollen with affinities to banksias in Africa, South America, Antarctica (which was covered in forest until 40 million years ago) and Australia. </p>
<p>This was made possible by the fact the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/pollen">hard walls of pollen grains</a> allow them to be preserved for millions of years. Also, the pollen grains of plants in the protea family are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/SB97022">quite distinctive</a> from those of other families. We then compared the dates and locations of the fossil pollen against our family tree.</p>
<p>This showed that by 120 million years ago, the ancestors of banksias had begun crossing into northeast South America. The two continents remained joined at their tips until 100 million years ago.</p>
<p>The plants then migrated down the east side of South America – first reaching the Scotia Isthmus about 110 million years ago – and crossed onto the Antarctic Peninsula. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-coastal-banksia-has-its-roots-in-ancient-gondwana-138434">The coastal banksia has its roots in ancient Gondwana</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Two routes into Australia</h2>
<p>Here, the ancestors separated into two groups. One, the soft-leaved group, followed a cool-temperate rainforest pathway (dark for up to four months of the year) along the south side of Antarctica. They entered Australia via Tasmania from 105 million years ago. </p>
<p>The rainforest elements continued up the east coast, with some eventually reaching New Guinea; <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1501648">others entered New Caledonian rainforests</a> directly from southern Antarctica. This route remained open until 45 million years ago, when Australia and Antarctica finally separated. </p>
<p>The other, hard-leaved group followed an open, fire-prone woodland pathway along the warmer, sunnier northern side of Antarctica. They entered Australia via the southwest tip that remained attached to Antarctica until about 70 million years ago. </p>
<p>The two points of entry were separated by a huge inland sea that occupied the Great Australian Bight during that period.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Migratory pathway taken by the ancestors of banksias beginning 132 million years ago in north Africa. Note how the ancestors split into two groups on entering Antarctica from South America, banksia itself entering via southwest Australia and the rainforest species via Tasmania.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Modified from Lamont et al. (2024) Perspectives in Plant Ecology Evolution and Systematics</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A proliferation of banksias</h2>
<p>Since banksia itself appears to have arisen 100 million years ago, the genus either evolved in northeast Antarctica or at the extreme corner of southwestern Australia. From there, they spread to the rest of Australia over the next 50 million years.</p>
<p>Banksias now consist of <a href="https://anpsa.org.au/genera/banksia/">around 200 species</a>, 90% of which are endemic to southwestern Australia. Ancestors of the bulk of the hard-leaved genera, such as grevilleas, hakeas, macadamias and waratahs, also entered Australia via the southwestern tip. They then migrated east along the margins of the Nullarbor Plain – thickly vegetated back then – to southeast Australia.</p>
<p>Until the results of our new study, it was believed the protea family arose in Australia and spread from here to Africa, South America, New Caledonia and Asia. Almost all migration would have needed to be over the oceans, as it was thought to have happened after the breakup of the Gondwanan supercontinent. </p>
<p>In fact, the journey was entirely overland as it occurred when Gondwana was largely intact, except for the early departure of Greater India.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Banksia shrubland 300km north of Perth, Western Australia. Three species of banksia, about 1.5 metres tall, are present in this image as well as several other members of the protea family, such as <em>Adenanthos</em> and <em>Xylomelum</em>.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Byron Lamont</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Plants out of Africa</h2>
<p>Anthropologists are keen to point to the “<a href="https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-first-migrations-out-of-africa/">out of Africa</a>” hypothesis for the origin and <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-path-for-early-human-migrations-through-a-once-lush-arabia-contradicts-a-single-out-of-africa-origin-214719">migratory history of humans</a>. It now appears such a hypothesis is equally applicable to some important groups of plants.</p>
<p>This is the first time the southwest corner of Australia has been recognised as a major migratory route for the protea family.</p>
<p>We now need to take seriously the Antarctic–southwest Australian link as a likely major entry route for many other hard-leaved plant groups into Australia. They could have originated in Antarctica and South America, and possibly even Africa.</p>
<p>This north Antarctic pathway might well also apply to eucalypts, whose oldest records are for southern South America, as well as currently endemic animals and microbes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221589/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Byron Lamont receives funding from the Australian Research Council </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lynne Milne is a member of the Australian and New Zealand Forensic Society and the American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists. She is currently the Treasurer of the Royal Societies of Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tianhua He received funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Cowling does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Today, these plants are iconic to the Australian bush. But banksias and their many relatives originated in far-away shores 130 million years ago.Byron Lamont, Distinguished Professor Emeritus in Plant Ecology, Curtin UniversityLynne Milne, Curtin UniversityRichard Cowling, Professor, Nelson Mandela UniversityTianhua He, Senior lecturer, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2108132023-08-07T16:12:24Z2023-08-07T16:12:24ZIvy, dandelions and other common wildflowers are often seen as weeds – but they’re a crucial resource for pollinating insects<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541512/original/file-20230807-25161-zpbybv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1283%2C110%2C3318%2C2476&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A bumblebee flying over a blooming bramble bush.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bumblebee-fly-over-blackberry-flowers-1420563443">Legonkov Vladimir</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since the end of the second world war, factors such as more intensive farming and urbanisation have reduced the abundance of wildflowers in Britain. In fact, the past 90 years have seen the loss of <a href="https://meadows.plantlife.org.uk/">over 97% of the UK’s wildflower meadows</a>. </p>
<p>Simply <a href="https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/icad.12085">planting more wildflowers</a> seems an obvious solution – although difficult on a large scale. There’s just one problem. Many common British wildflowers are <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.10475">undervalued and even disliked</a> by the public, who consider them to be weeds. </p>
<p>These flowers, which include many species from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/dandelion">dandelion</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/clover-plant">clover</a> to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/bramble">bramble</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/ivy-plant">ivy</a>, provide large amounts of pollen and nectar for bees and other insects. But some people consider dandelions a nuisance in their gardens. Others dislike brambles because of their thorns and vigorous growth. And even plants like ivy, with inconspicuous flowers, are wrongly thought to be unhelpful to bees.</p>
<p>Greater appreciation of wildflowers like these will not only help to improve the food supply for bees and other flower-visiting insects, it will also help reconnect people with plant diversity and nature. So, what will it take for people to accept and enjoy more wildflowers in their lawns, parks, roadsides and fields?</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>Many people think of plants as nice-looking greens. Essential for clean air, yes, but simple organisms. A step change in research is shaking up the way scientists think about plants: they are far more complex and more like us than you might imagine. This blossoming field of science is too delightful to do it justice in one or two stories.</em>
<em><a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/plant-curious-137238?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=PlantCurious2023&utm_content=InArticleTop">This article is part of a series, Plant Curious</a>, exploring scientific studies that challenge the way you view plantlife.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>One clear answer is education. In Britain, knowledge about plants seems to be lacking. A phenomenon called “plant blindness” – an inability to notice or appreciate plants, distinguish between species or recognise their importance – could be one reason for negative public attitudes towards native plants.</p>
<p>In 2005, a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00219266.2005.9655963">study of UK A-level students</a> found that 86% could name only three or fewer common wildflowers. And in 2017, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00219266.2005.9655963">only 3.5% of British participants</a> in a poll commissioned by UK conservation charity Plantlife were able to name a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/red-clover">red clover</a> correctly. These figures show the disconnect between people and plants.</p>
<p>This is surely not a good thing. Bees and other flower-visiting insects rely heavily on flowers, and most life on Earth depends either directly or indirectly on plants. Although underappreciated, common native wildflowers are an important part of this.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Dandelions in profusion on a road verge." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540784/original/file-20230802-15-r6ay4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540784/original/file-20230802-15-r6ay4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540784/original/file-20230802-15-r6ay4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540784/original/file-20230802-15-r6ay4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540784/original/file-20230802-15-r6ay4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540784/original/file-20230802-15-r6ay4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540784/original/file-20230802-15-r6ay4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dandelions in profusion on a road verge.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Francis Ratnieks</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Sources of pollen</h2>
<p>Ivy is a common climbing plant that grows on walls, tree trunks and in hedges throughout Britain’s towns and countryside. Ivy is often falsely accused of strangling the trees it climbs or parasitizing them by embedding its roots into the tree itself. </p>
<p>But the reality is far less sinister. During the autumn, ivy blooms and becomes the main source of <a href="https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/icad.12033">nectar and pollen</a> for a wide range of insects, including <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/honeybee">honey bees</a>, <a href="https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/bees-and-wasps/ivy-bee">ivy bees</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/bumblebee">bumble bees</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/hover-fly">hover flies</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/butterfly-insect">butterflies</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/wasp">wasps</a>. In fact, pollen analysis from work published in 2021 on honey bee hives in Sussex suggests that <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11829-021-09807-7">90% of the pollen that is collected in autumn</a> comes from ivy. </p>
<p>The nectar and pollen provided by ivy’s open flowers are also accessible to all insects. Even insects with shorter tongues can gather ivy nectar. In contrast, plants like <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/lavender">lavender</a> secrete nectar at the base of the flower tube and thereby restrict access to insects with longer tongues such as bumble bees and butterflies. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Honey bee (right) gathering pollen and nectar from ivy flowers alongside a hover fly (left)." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540792/original/file-20230802-23-6oqczt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540792/original/file-20230802-23-6oqczt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540792/original/file-20230802-23-6oqczt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540792/original/file-20230802-23-6oqczt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540792/original/file-20230802-23-6oqczt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540792/original/file-20230802-23-6oqczt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540792/original/file-20230802-23-6oqczt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Honey bee (right) gathering pollen and nectar from ivy flowers alongside a hover fly (left).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Francis Ratnieks</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Bramble, also called blackberry, parallels ivy. It is abundant in both urban and rural settings and its open flowers are accessible to all types of insect. </p>
<p>Bramble blooms for a long period of time, starting in late May and continuing into autumn. In one study, when we used pollen traps (an apparatus that dislodges some of the pollen pellets from honey bee legs as they return to the hive), we found that <a href="https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/icad.12436">31% of the pollen collected</a> from late May to early August comes from bramble. </p>
<h2>What about weeds?</h2>
<p>Dandelions and white clover are native wildflower species that also provide pollen and nectar. Both are often found in lawns but are not always appreciated. Garden centres even sell herbicides to eliminate these and other “weeds” from lawns.</p>
<p>Interestingly, five native wildflower species in Britain are officially classified as “injurious weeds”, and having them on your land is technically illegal. Among these are <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/weeds/ragwort">ragwort</a> and two species of both <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/weeds/docks">dock</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/thistle">thistle</a>. These plants are found almost anywhere, from road verges to fields, waste land and even gardens. </p>
<p>However, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.14132">our more recent research</a>, which was carried out in Sussex, revealed that these so-called injurious weeds attract twice as many flower-visiting insects as wildflower species that are officially recommended as “good for pollinators”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A bee collecting pollen from ragwort blossom." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541452/original/file-20230807-4160-t931ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541452/original/file-20230807-4160-t931ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541452/original/file-20230807-4160-t931ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541452/original/file-20230807-4160-t931ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541452/original/file-20230807-4160-t931ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541452/original/file-20230807-4160-t931ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541452/original/file-20230807-4160-t931ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A bee collecting pollen from ragwort blossom.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bee-collects-pollen-some-ragwort-blossom-208368913">Ian Grainger/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Appreciating native plants</h2>
<p>To truly encourage appreciation and support for native wildflowers, we need to shift people’s perspective. Instead of viewing lawns with wildflowers as unattractive or a sign of laziness, let’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/icad.12085">celebrate the benefits</a> they bring. It’s certainly easier, cheaper and probably safer to enjoy existing wildflowers than to go to the trouble of removing them with herbicides.</p>
<p>Many of these underappreciated wildflowers are already popular beyond their value as nectar and pollen sources. Blackberries, for example, are widely eaten as a wild food in Britain, while the name Ivy holds a special place for some. </p>
<p>We must recognise that local native wildflower species with pollinator-friendly flowers already exist almost everywhere. By appreciating and supporting them, we not only assist pollinators, but also gain psychological benefits by reconnecting with the wonders of plants and nature. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 20,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210813/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Native common wildflowers provide large amounts of pollen and nectar for insects – but many are undervalued by the public.Francis Ratnieks, Professor of Apiculture, University of SussexNick Balfour, Research Technician in the School of Life Sciences, University of SussexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2052912023-06-02T02:20:07Z2023-06-02T02:20:07ZNative raspberries, limes and geraniums: how did these curious plants end up in Australia?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526418/original/file-20230516-29-uk5gcm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=61%2C38%2C5102%2C3700&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>While plants can’t walk, they can certainly travel. Some species have travelled vast distances over millennia, moving by different and varied modes. </p>
<p>Some found new habitats when the continent they were riding on slowly crashed into another. Others went on perilous ocean going journeys – think of coconuts washing up on new island shores. Others still have been carried as seeds by birds or other animals – including us. </p>
<p>Many have now become local, endemic to their region of Australia. Some may surprise you. </p>
<h2>Native nuts – how macadamia trees began</h2>
<p>Early in the age of jet aeroplanes, flying to America meant a stop-over in Hawaii to refuel. Here, many Australians tasted macadamia nuts for the first time and probably assumed they were a local delicacy. Imagine their surprise at discovering the truth. Hawaii’s macadamia industry began when a few nuts were <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/most-worlds-macadamias-may-have-originated-single-australian-tree-180972349">sent from</a> Australia in the 1880s. </p>
<p>Of course, this was not news to Australia’s First Nations people, many of whom had enjoyed macadamia nuts for millennia. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526421/original/file-20230516-23-gp5zr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="macadamia nuts" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526421/original/file-20230516-23-gp5zr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526421/original/file-20230516-23-gp5zr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526421/original/file-20230516-23-gp5zr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526421/original/file-20230516-23-gp5zr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526421/original/file-20230516-23-gp5zr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526421/original/file-20230516-23-gp5zr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526421/original/file-20230516-23-gp5zr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Macadamia nuts first gained notice in Hawaii – but they’re Australian as can be.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.wildmacadamias.org.au/rare-macadamias/the-four-macadamias">four species</a> of Macadamia, of which two are the most important nut producers, namely <em>Macadamia integrifolia</em> and <em>M
. tetraphylla</em>. All species belong to the <em>Proteaceae</em> family, meaning they are related to banksias, grevilleas and proteas. </p>
<p>This family connection reveals the genus has a long evolutionary history, dating back about 100 million years. Macadamias travelled with the continent of Australia as it split off from Antarctica and South America. </p>
<p>In their natural habitat across northern New South Wales and southern Queensland, these subtropical trees can reach heights of 25 metres. But even though they are now widely farmed, they’re <a href="https://www.wildmacadamias.org.au/rare-macadamias/threats-facing-wild-macadamias/">actually threatened</a> in the wild – and may be further threatened by climate change. </p>
<h2>Oranges, lemons – and native citrus?</h2>
<p>Many of us are fond of tart and tasty citrus – oranges from southern China, lemons probably from northern India. All the world’s citrus trees stem from an ancestor species which grew in the foothills of the Himalayas, according to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature25447">DNA evidence</a>. Over time, these trees spread out and new species split off. Eventually, about 8–10 million years ago, they arrived in Australia. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/food-tools-and-medicine-5-native-plants-that-illuminate-deep-aboriginal-knowledge-145240">Food, tools and medicine: 5 native plants that illuminate deep Aboriginal knowledge</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The most well known is the finger lime, <em>C. australasica</em>, with tiny globes spilling out of the fruit like citrus caviar. But there are others, like the Australian lime, <em>Citrus australis</em> and the desert lime <em>C. glauca</em>. Like many citrus, they can be prickly customers with long painful spines. While most are shrubs and small trees, the Australian lime can <a href="https://bie.ala.org.au/species/https://id.biodiversity.org.au/node/apni/2900219">reach heights</a> of 20 metres.</p>
<h2>Native raspberries</h2>
<p>In recent years, the <a href="https://vicflora.rbg.vic.gov.au/flora/taxon/bc19413d-6b07-4c94-84ee-4b5fef7e2f98">native raspberry</a>, <em>Rubus probus</em>, has achieved celebrity status as a prickly, quick growing bramble with a good fruit. </p>
<p>But like its relative, the blackberry, <em>Rubus fruticosus</em>, you have to work hard to get fruit and rarely come away unscathed. </p>
<p>That’s why it was <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-10-23/thornless-native-raspberries-native-food-game-changer/100546938">big news</a> when a thornless specimen was found and propagated. This will make a big difference to the cultivation of our native raspberry. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526408/original/file-20230516-21-wo5rkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Native raspberry" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526408/original/file-20230516-21-wo5rkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526408/original/file-20230516-21-wo5rkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526408/original/file-20230516-21-wo5rkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526408/original/file-20230516-21-wo5rkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526408/original/file-20230516-21-wo5rkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526408/original/file-20230516-21-wo5rkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526408/original/file-20230516-21-wo5rkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our native raspberry is becoming popular.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So how did Australia come to have raspberries? It seems likely their ancestors migrated from North America towards Europe and Asia between 10 and 15 million years ago and eventually made it to Oceania. </p>
<p>Exactly how the genus <em>Rubus</em> made it to Australia is unknown, but the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2019.01615/full">most likely pathway</a> is a few seeds stuck to the feathers of a migrating bird. It could have happened as recently as a few hundred thousand years ago. </p>
<h2>Native geraniums? It’s true</h2>
<p>I associate geraniums with my maternal grandmother, who had the most magnificent red geraniums along her back fence. Family folklore had it they were cuttings from a prize winner at a major horticultural exhibition – and I believe it.</p>
<p>While we associate garden geraniums with Europe, they’re actually African and <a href="https://www.gapswa.org.au/pelargonium-history.html">only arrived</a> in Europe in the 17th century. </p>
<p>But while we all know these geraniums, Australia has its own species. That fact still amazes me after decades of studying plants. </p>
<p>But first, let’s clear up the debate over names. In the 17th century, geraniums and closely-related pelargoniums were grouped together in a single genus. But early in the 18th century, Charles LeHeritier – the botanist who <a href="http://theconversation.com/stringybark-is-tough-as-boots-and-gave-us-the-word-eucalyptus-100528">first described</a> eucalypts – divided them and there has been confusion ever since. </p>
<p>The easiest way of telling them apart is that geraniums have five petals of the same size and shape but pelargoniums have two larger petals and three smaller ones. </p>
<p>Most of the Australian native plants commonly called geraniums are in fact pelargoniums. You may have stumbled across <em>Pelargonium australe</em>, the most common of our seven species, which is <a href="https://resources.austplants.com.au/plant/pelargonium-australe">spread across</a> much of southern Australia. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526406/original/file-20230516-15-12i7wp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="australian pelargonium" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526406/original/file-20230516-15-12i7wp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526406/original/file-20230516-15-12i7wp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526406/original/file-20230516-15-12i7wp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526406/original/file-20230516-15-12i7wp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526406/original/file-20230516-15-12i7wp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526406/original/file-20230516-15-12i7wp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526406/original/file-20230516-15-12i7wp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Native geranium? The pelargonium australe is the native plant most commonly thought of as a geranium.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pelargonium_australe_%28Geraniaceae%29_flower.JPG">Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Native orchids: from flying ducks to the Queen of Sheba</h2>
<p>There’s something about orchids. In the 19th century, so many Europeans went mad for their flowers that the name “orchidelirium” was coined. </p>
<p>We have some of the most iconic orchids as natives, such as the remarkable flying duck orchid and the stunning Queen of Sheba. Our 1800 species <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2022.912089/full">mostly grow</a> in our tropical and subtropical areas. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526404/original/file-20230516-23-itjdjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="flying duck orchid" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526404/original/file-20230516-23-itjdjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526404/original/file-20230516-23-itjdjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526404/original/file-20230516-23-itjdjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526404/original/file-20230516-23-itjdjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526404/original/file-20230516-23-itjdjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526404/original/file-20230516-23-itjdjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526404/original/file-20230516-23-itjdjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australia’s flying duck orchid (Caleana major) is world-famous for its resemblance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some orchids <a href="https://ecos.csiro.au/orchid-evolution/">can be traced</a> back to the last years of Gondwana. But curiously, we also have tropical species which must have island hopped from Papua New Guinea and Indonesia more recently. </p>
<p>That’s only the start of our surprising plants. We have native tamarinds, native rivermint, and a <a href="https://anpsa.org.au/plant_profiles/rhododendron-lochiae/">native rhododendron</a>. </p>
<p>And did you know that cloves <a href="https://theconversation.com/lets-show-a-bit-of-love-for-the-lillipilly-this-humble-plant-forms-the-worlds-largest-genus-of-trees-and-should-be-an-australian-icon-191080">come from</a> an Indonesian species of lilly pilly? This species is related to Australian lilly pillies, a genus which evolved as the final fragmentation of Gondwana occurred about 65 million years ago. They rapidly diversified and there are now over 1000 species.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526405/original/file-20230516-29-fqdfj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="queen of sheba orchid" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526405/original/file-20230516-29-fqdfj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526405/original/file-20230516-29-fqdfj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526405/original/file-20230516-29-fqdfj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526405/original/file-20230516-29-fqdfj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526405/original/file-20230516-29-fqdfj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=692&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526405/original/file-20230516-29-fqdfj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=692&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526405/original/file-20230516-29-fqdfj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=692&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Eastern Queen of Sheba orchid is rightly famous.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Plants move slowly. But they move much more than you’d expect. Their success has enriched the biodiversity and novelty of our ecosystems in surprising ways. As for me, I love an Australian macadamia nut – and I’ll always love those imported red geraniums.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lets-show-a-bit-of-love-for-the-lillipilly-this-humble-plant-forms-the-worlds-largest-genus-of-trees-and-should-be-an-australian-icon-191080">Let's show a bit of love for the lillipilly. This humble plant forms the world's largest genus of trees – and should be an Australian icon</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205291/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gregory Moore does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Whether riding on the feathers of birds or evolving on Gondwana, Australia’s plants got here in very different waysGregory Moore, Senior Research Associate, School of Ecosystem and Forest Sciences, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1990492023-03-28T12:15:57Z2023-03-28T12:15:57ZA shortage of native seeds is slowing land restoration across the US, which is crucial for tackling climate change and extinctions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517710/original/file-20230327-16-yltw9r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3994%2C2814&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Planting native plant seeds on sand dunes at Westward Beach in Malibu, Calif., to stabilize the dunes.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/sara-cuadra-watershed-program-coordinator-with-the-bay-news-photo/1234406431">Al Seib / Los Angeles Times via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Spring is planting time for home gardeners, landscapers and public works agencies across the U.S. And there’s rising demand for <a href="https://www.wildflower.org/plants-main">native plants</a> – species that are genetically adapted to the specific regions where they are used. </p>
<p>Native plants have evolved with local climates and soil conditions. As a result, they generally require less maintenance, such as watering and fertilizing, after they become established, and they are hardier than non-native species. </p>
<p>Many federal, state and city agencies <a href="https://law.pace.edu/sites/default/files/Team%20%233%20Brief.pdf">rank native plants as a first choice</a> for restoring areas that have been disturbed by natural disasters or human activities like mining and development. Repairing damaged landscapes is a critical strategy for <a href="https://www.decadeonrestoration.org/">slowing climate change and species loss</a>. </p>
<p>But there’s one big problem: There aren’t enough native seeds. This issue is so serious that it was the <a href="https://doi.org/10.17226/26618">subject of a recent report</a> from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine. The study found an urgent need to build a native seed supply. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=EAP10S8AAAAJ&hl=en">plant scientists</a> who have worked on <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/john-campanelli/">ecological restoration projects</a>, we’re familiar with this challenge. Here’s how we are working to promote the use of native plants for <a href="https://nenativeplants.psla.uconn.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3415/2022/08/netcr97_09-2.pdf">roadside restoration in New England</a>, including by building up a seed supply network.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/S98HAyDfOwY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Landscapers and land managers explain the benefits of planting native plants.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The need for native plants</h2>
<p>Many stressors can damage and degrade land. They include natural disasters, such as wildfires and flooding, and human actions, such as urbanization, energy production, ranching and development. </p>
<p>Invasive plants <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-021-02478-8">often move into disturbed areas</a>, causing further harm. They may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2017.04.008">drift there on the wind</a>, be excreted by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1366-9516.2005.00195.x">birds and animals that consume fruit</a>, or be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051%5B0095:HAGPDG%5D2.0.CO;2">introduced by humans</a>, unintentionally or deliberately.</p>
<p>Ecological restoration aims to bring back degraded lands’ native biological diversity and the ecological functions that these areas provided, such as sheltering wildlife and soaking up floodwater. In 2021, the United Nations launched the <a href="https://www.decadeonrestoration.org/">U.N. Decade on Ecosystem Restoration</a> to promote such efforts worldwide.</p>
<p>Native plants have many features that make them an essential part of healthy ecosystems. For example, they provide long-term defense against invasive and noxious weeds; shelter local pollinators and wildlife; and have <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/reducing-erosion-with-native-plants.htm">roots that stabilize soil</a>, which helps reduce erosion.</p>
<p>Restoration projects require vast quantities of native seeds – but commercial supplies fall far short of what’s needed. Developing a batch of seeds for a specific species takes skill and several years of lead time to either <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/26618/chapter/2#2">collect native seeds in the wild or grow plants to produce them</a>. Suppliers say one of their biggest obstacles is unpredictable demand from large-scale customers, such as government and tribal agencies, that don’t plan far enough ahead for producers to have stocks ready.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517737/original/file-20230327-1159-1tiu2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Dozens of small potted seedlings sprouting in large trays." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517737/original/file-20230327-1159-1tiu2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517737/original/file-20230327-1159-1tiu2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517737/original/file-20230327-1159-1tiu2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517737/original/file-20230327-1159-1tiu2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517737/original/file-20230327-1159-1tiu2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517737/original/file-20230327-1159-1tiu2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517737/original/file-20230327-1159-1tiu2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wyoming Big Sage seedlings growing in a greenhouse. The U.S. Bureau of Land Management and the Shoshone-Paiute Tribe are working together to produce native seedlings to restore public lands in Idaho that have been damaged by wildfires.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/xkGQ6Q">Bureau of Land Management Idaho/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Restoring roadsides in New England</h2>
<p>Most drivers give little thought to what grows next to highways, but the wrong plants in these areas can cause serious problems. Roadsides that aren’t replanted using ecological restoration methods may erode and be taken over by invasive weeds. Ecological restoration provides effective erosion control and better habitat habitats for wildlife and pollinators. It’s also more attractive. </p>
<p>For decades, state transportation departments across the U.S. used non-native cool-season turfgrasses, such as fescue and ryegrass, to restore roadsides. The main benefits of using these species, which grow well during the <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/the-cool-season-turfgrasses-basic-structures-growth-and-development">cooler months of spring and fall</a>, were that they grew fast and provided a quick cover.</p>
<p>Then in 2013 the <a href="https://www.newenglandtransportationconsortium.org/">New England Transportation Consortium</a> – a research cooperative funded by state transportation agencies – commissioned our research team to help the states transition to native warm-season grasses instead. These grasses <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/warm-season-grasses">grow well in hot, dry weather</a> and need less moisture than cool-season grasses. One of us, John Campanelli, developed the <a href="https://nenativeplants.psla.uconn.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3415/2022/08/netcr97_09-2.pdf">framework for selecting plant species</a> based on conservation practices and identified methods for establishing native plant communities for the region.</p>
<p>We recommended using warm-season grasses that are native to the region, such as <a href="https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/schizachyrium/scoparium/">little bluestem</a>, <a href="https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/eragrostis/spectabilis/">purple lovegrass</a>, <a href="https://plantfinder.nativeplanttrust.org/plant/Panicum-virgatum">switchgrass</a> and <a href="https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/tridens/flavus/">purpletop</a>. These species required less long-term maintenance and less-frequent mowing than the cool-season species that agencies had previously used. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517743/original/file-20230327-24-1vtcmc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Dense tall switchgrass plot with some leaves turning red." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517743/original/file-20230327-24-1vtcmc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517743/original/file-20230327-24-1vtcmc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517743/original/file-20230327-24-1vtcmc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517743/original/file-20230327-24-1vtcmc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517743/original/file-20230327-24-1vtcmc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517743/original/file-20230327-24-1vtcmc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517743/original/file-20230327-24-1vtcmc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Switchgrass is native to the U.S. Northeast. It grows very upright, can tolerate dry soil and drought, and produces seeds that are a good winter food source for birds.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://extension.unh.edu/blog/2021/02/what-are-some-best-native-ornamental-grasses-landscapes">Peganum via University of New Hampshire Extension</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To ensure sound conservation practices, we wanted to use seeds produced locally. Seeds sourced from other locations would produce grasses that would interbreed with <a href="https://www.environment.fhwa.dot.gov/env_topics/ecosystems/roadside_use/vegmgmt_rdsduse18.aspx#">local ecotypes</a> – grasses adapted to New England – and disrupt the local grasses’ gene complexes. </p>
<p>At that time, however, there was no reliable seed supply for local ecotypes in New England. Only a few sources offered an incomplete selection of small quantities of local seeds, at prices that were too expensive for large-scale restoration projects. Most organizations carrying out ecological restoration projects purchased their bulk seeds mainly from large wholesale producers in the Midwest, which introduced non-local genetic material to the restoration sites.</p>
<h2>Improving native seed supply chains</h2>
<p>Many agencies are concerned that lack of a local seed supply could limit restoration efforts in New England. To tackle this problem, our team launched a project in 2022 with funding from the New England Transportation Consortium. Our goals are to increase native plantings and pollinator habitats with seeds from local ecotypes, and to make our previous recommendations for roadside restoration with native grasses more feasible.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1515085385423937538"}"></div></p>
<p>As we were analyzing ways to obtain affordable native seeds for these roadside projects, we learned about work by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eve-allen-b84a38188/">Eve Allen</a>, a master’s degree student in city planning at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. For her thesis, Allen used supply chain management and social network analysis to identify the best methods to <a href="https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/145170">strengthen the native seed supply chain network</a>. </p>
<p>Her research showed that developing native seed supplies would require cooperative partnerships that included federal, state and local government agencies and the private and nonprofit sectors. Allen reached out to many of these organizations’ stakeholders and established a broad network. This led to the launch of the regional Northeast Seed Network, which will be hosted by the Massachusetts-based <a href="https://www.nativeplanttrust.org/documents/1063/221027_Symposium_PR.pdf">Native Plant Trust</a>, a nonprofit that works to conserve New England’s native plants. </p>
<p>We expect this network will promote all aspects of native seed production in the region, from collecting seeds in the wild to cultivating plants for seed production, developing regional seed markets and carrying out related research. In the meantime, we are <a href="https://dailycampus.com/2023/02/10/university-of-connecticut-faculty-members-are-working-to-revive-native-plants-on-the-roadside-of-new-england/">developing a road map</a> for new revegetation practices in New England. </p>
<p>We aim to build greater coordination between these agencies and seed producers to promote expanded selections of affordable native seeds and make demand more predictable. Our ultimate goal is to help native plants, bees and butterflies thrive along roads throughout New England.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199049/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Native plants help damaged landscapes by stabilizing soil, fighting invasive species and sheltering pollinators. Two horticulture experts explain what they’re doing to help develop new seed sources.Julia Kuzovkina, Professor of Horticulture, University of ConnecticutJohn Campanelli, PhD Student in Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of ConnecticutLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1987242023-03-08T13:40:36Z2023-03-08T13:40:36ZOnce the Callery pear tree was landscapers’ favorite – now states are banning this invasive species and urging homeowners to cut it down<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513447/original/file-20230303-16-jjphd6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C1933%2C1283&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bradford pear trees in bloom along a driveway in Sussex County, Del.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/9xfPoK">Lee Cannon/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When people think of spring, they often picture flowers and trees blooming. And if you live in the U.S. Northeast, Midwest or South, you have probably seen a medium-sized tree with long branches, covered with small white blooms – the Callery pear (<em>Pyrus calleryana</em>). </p>
<p>For decades, Callery pear – which comes in many varieties, including “Bradford” pear, “Aristocrat” and “Cleveland Select” – was among the most popular trees in the U.S. for ornamental plantings. Today, however, it’s widely recognized as an <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1999-02-08/pdf/99-3184.pdf">invasive species</a>. Land managers and plant ecologists <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=uRA-SZ0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">like me</a> are working to eradicate it to preserve biodiversity in natural habitats. </p>
<p>As of 2023, it is illegal to <a href="https://ohiodnr.gov/discover-and-learn/plants-trees/invasive-plants/callery-pear">sell, plant or grow Callery pear</a> in Ohio and <a href="https://www.agriculture.pa.gov/Plants_Land_Water/PlantIndustry/NIPPP/Pages/Callery-Pear.aspx">Pennsylvania</a>, and will become illegal in <a href="https://news.clemson.edu/invasive-bradford-pear-3-other-species-to-be-banned-for-sale-in-sc/">South Carolina</a> on October 1, 2024. <a href="https://news.ncsu.edu/2022/03/bounty-offered-on-bradford-pear-trees/">North Carolina</a> and <a href="https://www.lakeexpo.com/community/community_news/cut-down-your-bradford-pear-and-missouri-conservation-will-send-you-a-free-tree/article_df77978a-b51a-11ec-ab85-b39d20e73240.html">Missouri</a> will give residents free native trees if they cut down Callery pear trees on their property. </p>
<p>How did this tree, once in high demand, become designated by the U.S. Forest Service as “<a href="https://www.invasive.org/weedcd/pdfs/wow/callery_pear.pdf">Weed of the Week</a>”? The devil is in the biological details.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/txwrZ1CqzrE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A Kentucky extension specialist explains why Callery pears initially seemed like a solution, but have proved to be a major problem.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A quasi-perfect tree</h2>
<p>Botanists brought the Callery pear to the U.S. from Asia <a href="https://arboretum.harvard.edu/stories/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-ornamental-callery-pear-tree/">in the early 1900s</a>. They intentionally bred the horticultural variety to enhance its ornamental qualities. In doing so, they created an arboricultural wunderkind. As The New York Times <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1964/01/05/archives/bradford-pear-has-many-assets-new-ornamental-fruit-offers-sturdy.html">observed in 1964</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Few trees possess every desired attribute, but the Bradford ornamental pear comes unusually to close to the ideal.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Modern varieties of Callery pear produce an explosion of white flowers in springtime, followed by deep green summer foliage that turns deep red and maroon in autumn. They also are very tolerant of urban soils, which can be <a href="https://arboretum.harvard.edu/stories/urban-soil-problems-and-promise/">highly compacted</a> and hard for roots to penetrate. The trees grow quickly and have a rounded shape, which made them suitable for planting in rows along driveways and roadsides.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510742/original/file-20230216-22-hkyqya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Tree with leaves mostly shaded red." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510742/original/file-20230216-22-hkyqya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510742/original/file-20230216-22-hkyqya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510742/original/file-20230216-22-hkyqya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510742/original/file-20230216-22-hkyqya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510742/original/file-20230216-22-hkyqya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510742/original/file-20230216-22-hkyqya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510742/original/file-20230216-22-hkyqya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Callery pear turning red in fall.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ryan McEwan</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>During the post-World War II suburban development boom, Callery pear trees became extremely popular in residential settings. In 2005 the Society of Municipal Arborists named the “Chanticleer” variety the <a href="https://www.concreteconstruction.net/projects/infrastructure/arborists-select-urban-tree-of-the-year_o">urban street tree of the year</a>. But the breeding process that created this and other varieties of Callery pear was producing unexpected results.</p>
<h2>Cloning to produce an American original</h2>
<p>To ensure that each Callery pear tree had bright blooms, red foliage and other desired traits, horticulturists created identical clones through <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/graft">a process known as grafting</a>: creating seedlings from cuttings of trees with the desired characteristics. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LTqG8-OhElY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Grafting is a method for propagating new fruit trees using buds from existing trees and fusing them onto a branch or stem of another tree, which is called the rootstock.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This approach eliminated the messy complexity of mixing genes during sexual reproduction and ensured that when each tree matured, it would have the characteristics that homeowners desire. Every tree of a specific variety was a genetically identical clone.</p>
<p>Grafting also meant Callery pear trees could not make fruits. Some fruit trees, such as peaches and tart cherries, can <a href="https://extension.umaine.edu/fruit/growing-fruit-trees-in-maine/pollination-requirements/">fertilize their flowers with their own pollen</a>. In contrast, Callery pear is self-incompatible: pollen on an individual tree cannot fertilize flowers on that tree. And since all Callery pears of a specific variety planted in a neighborhood would be identical clones, they would effectively be the same tree. </p>
<p>If a tree can’t produce fruits, it can’t disperse into natural habitats. Gardeners and landscapers thought it was perfectly safe to plant Callery pear near natural habitats, such as prairies, because the species was trapped in place by its reproductive biology. But the tree would break free from its isolation and spread seeds far and wide.</p>
<h2>The great escape</h2>
<p>University of Cincinnati botanist <a href="https://culleylab.com/home-page/members-lab/theresa-culley-pi/">Theresa Culley</a> and colleagues have found that as horticulturalists tinkered with Callery pears to produce new versions, they made the individuals different enough <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-008-9386-z">to escape the fertilization barrier</a>. If a neighborhood had only “Bradford” pear trees, then no fruits could be produced – but once someone added an “Aristocrat” pear to their yard, then these two varieties could fertilize each other and produce fruits. </p>
<p>When Callery pear trees in gardens and parks started depositing seeds in nearby areas, wild populations of the trees became established. Those wild trees could pollinate one another, as well as neighborhood trees. </p>
<p>In today’s landscape, Callery pear is astonishingly fertile. The prolific flowering that horticulturists intentionally bred into these varieties now yields tremendous crops of pears each year. Although these little pears are generally not edible by humans, birds feed on the fruit, then fly away and excrete the seeds into natural habitats. Callery pear has become one of the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/program/invasive-species">most problematic invasive species</a> in the eastern United States. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1628379085364957184"}"></div></p>
<h2>A thorny problem</h2>
<p>Like other invasives, Callery pears crowd out native species. Once Callery pear seedlings <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-022-02861-z">spread from habitat edges into grasslands</a>, they have advantages that allow them to dominate the site. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://mcewanlab.org/">my research lab</a>, we have found that Callery pear leafs out very early in spring and drops its leaves late in fall. This enables it to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3159/TORREY-D-22-00008.1">soak up more sun than native species</a>. We also have discovered that during invasion, these trees <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2021.103989">alter the soil</a> and release chemicals that suppress the germination of native plants. </p>
<p>Callery pear is highly resistant to natural disturbances. In fact, when <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/meg-maloney-51b22b112/">my graduate student Meg Maloney</a> tried to kill the trees by using <a href="https://www.youtube.com/shorts/AeaEsDTnMLw">prescribed fires</a> or applying <a href="https://www.youtube.com/shorts/wtkMey4IItE">liquid nitrogen</a> directly to stumps after cutting the trees down, her efforts failed. Instead, the trees sprouted aggressively and <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/883911#info_wrap">seemingly gained strength</a>.</p>
<p>Once Callery pear has escaped into natural areas, its seedlings produce <a href="https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH04892-21">very sharp, stiff thorns</a> that can puncture shoes or even tires. This makes the trees a menace to people working in the area, as well as to native plants. Another nuisance factor is that when Callery pears bloom, they produce a <a href="https://www.npr.org/2015/04/24/401943000/whats-that-smell-the-beautiful-tree-thats-causing-quite-a-stink">strong odor</a> that many people find unpleasant.</p>
<p>Currently, <a href="https://www.invasive.org/alien/pubs/midatlantic/pyca.htm">directly applying herbicides</a> is the only known control for a Callery pear invasion. But the trees are so successful at spreading that poisoning their seedlings may simply create space for other Callery pear seedlings to establish. It is unclear how habitat managers can escape a confounding ecological cycle of invasion, herbicide application and re-invasion.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513473/original/file-20230304-14-ct0blo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An open space studded with Callery pear trees, with dead grasses between the trees." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513473/original/file-20230304-14-ct0blo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513473/original/file-20230304-14-ct0blo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513473/original/file-20230304-14-ct0blo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513473/original/file-20230304-14-ct0blo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513473/original/file-20230304-14-ct0blo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513473/original/file-20230304-14-ct0blo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513473/original/file-20230304-14-ct0blo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Callery pear invasion is crowding out native species on this agricultural land, converting it to woodland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/the-invasive-callery-pear.html">Oklahoma State University Extension</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Banned but not gone</h2>
<p>In response to work by the <a href="https://www.oipc.info/">Ohio Invasive Plants Council</a> and other experts, Ohio has taken the extraordinary step of <a href="https://codes.ohio.gov/ohio-administrative-code/rule-901:5-30-01">banning Callery pear</a> to thwart its ecological invasion into natural habitats. But the trees are common in residential areas across the state and have established vigorous populations in natural habitats. Ecologists will be working well into the future to maintain openness and biodiversity in areas where Callery pear is invading. </p>
<p>In the meantime, homeowners can help. Horticulturists recommend that people who have a Callery pear on their property should <a href="https://dyckarboretum.org/callery-pear-cut-them-down/">remove it and replace it</a> with something that is not an invasive species. Few trees possess every desired attribute, but many <a href="https://moinvasives.org/2018/03/29/plant-this-not-that-10-native-trees-to-plant-in-place-of-callery-pear/">native trees</a> have visually attractive features and will not threaten ecosystems in your region.</p>
<p><em>This article has been updated to reflect current state bans on Callery pear trees as of March 2024.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198724/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan W. McEwan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>They’re beautiful in bloom, but Callery pear trees crowd out native plants and turn productive open land into woody thickets.Ryan W. McEwan, Professor of Biology, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1954352022-12-01T01:58:23Z2022-12-01T01:58:23ZA new law offers better protection for indigenous plants of significance to Māori, but no requirement to share profits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498351/original/file-20221130-18-yjbbq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C321%2C6689%2C4013&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Fabrizio Guarisco</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>New Zealand law has generally treated agriculture, biodiversity conservation and the protection of Indigenous knowledge (mātauranga Māori) as separate areas. </p>
<p>This changed last month when parliament passed a major reform of the <a href="https://www.parliament.nz/en/pb/bills-and-laws/bills-proposed-laws/document/BILL_111271/plant-variety-rights-bill">law covering plant variety rights</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Red kiwifruit" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498094/original/file-20221129-15856-giip2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498094/original/file-20221129-15856-giip2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498094/original/file-20221129-15856-giip2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498094/original/file-20221129-15856-giip2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498094/original/file-20221129-15856-giip2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498094/original/file-20221129-15856-giip2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498094/original/file-20221129-15856-giip2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The red kiwifruit is protected under intellectual property rights.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Tommy Atthi</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Plant Variety Rights (PVR) are a form of intellectual property designed to encourage innovation in plant breeding and to reward breeders for these efforts. In Aotearoa, popular examples of plants protected under the PVR system include the red kiwifruit and Honeycrisp apples. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.legislation.govt.nz/bill/government/2021/0035/latest/LMS352239.html">reform</a> continues to offer this kind of intellectual property to plant breeders, but the law now also extends new protections for the guardian (kaitiaki) relationships Māori have with taonga plant species, as well as for mātauranga Māori. But it stops short of requiring that any benefits from the commercial use of these plants be shared.</p>
<h2>What are taonga plants?</h2>
<p>The new act defines taonga plants as those Māori have special relationships with, either because they are indigenous to Aotearoa or because they are believed to have been brought to the country before European settlement from other parts of the Pacific region. </p>
<p>Iwi, hapū and whānau have kaitiaki relationships with many plant species, grounded in reciprocal and mutual obligations. Māori consider taonga plants as tūpuna (ancestors) and kaitiaki have direct whakapapa (genealogical) connections to them. Mātauranga Māori forms the basis of these kaitiaki relationships, encompassing inter-generational knowledge about how to care for and sustainably use these plants. </p>
<p>For example, Ngāi Tahu has long used taramea (<em>Aciphylla</em> or speargrass) as a fragrance. Historically, taramea resin was extracted through cuttings or fire, processed and preserved, and rubbed on the hair and body. Taramea was also a valuable item in trade between Ngāi Tahu and northern tribes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Close-up of the native speargrass taramea." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498348/original/file-20221130-22-vyt845.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498348/original/file-20221130-22-vyt845.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498348/original/file-20221130-22-vyt845.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498348/original/file-20221130-22-vyt845.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498348/original/file-20221130-22-vyt845.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498348/original/file-20221130-22-vyt845.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498348/original/file-20221130-22-vyt845.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The native speargrass taramea is a traditional source of fragrance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Molly NZ</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The protection of taonga plants, kaitiaki relationships and mātauranga Māori is required under the Treaty of Waitangi, which was signed between the British Crown and Māori rangatira (chiefs) in 1840 and guarantees Māori will retain rangatiratanga (chieftainship) over their taonga. </p>
<p>Throughout the 20th century, it was clear this promise was not being upheld. After the original Plant Variety Rights Act was passed in 1987, claimants representing various iwi and hapū brought a legal action (<a href="https://www.wai262.nz/">Wai 262</a>) before the Waitangi Tribunal, alleging the Crown had failed to respect Māori rangatiratanga over indigenous biodiversity. </p>
<p>After 20 years of weighing evidence, the tribunal published a <a href="https://waitangitribunal.govt.nz/news/ko-aotearoa-tenei-report-on-the-wai-262-claim-released/">report</a> in 2011, recommending a “<a href="https://www.tpk.govt.nz/en/a-matou-whakaarotau/te-ao-maori/wai-262-te-pae-tawhiti">whole-of-government</a>” approach to protect taonga flora and fauna, and mātauranga Māori. This law reform is the most significant legal development to date.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-plants-and-animals-have-long-been-used-without-indigenous-consent-now-queensland-has-taken-a-stand-144813">Australia's plants and animals have long been used without Indigenous consent. Now Queensland has taken a stand</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Preventing misappropriation</h2>
<p>Legal issues aside, it is important to protect taonga plants and mātauranga Māori for ethical reasons. For years, kaitiaki relationships have been threatened as non-Māori have benefited from the use of indigenous plants and knowledge. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Detail of a flowering kōwhai." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498349/original/file-20221130-24-6ja2gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498349/original/file-20221130-24-6ja2gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498349/original/file-20221130-24-6ja2gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498349/original/file-20221130-24-6ja2gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498349/original/file-20221130-24-6ja2gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498349/original/file-20221130-24-6ja2gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498349/original/file-20221130-24-6ja2gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kōwhai varieties are sold commercially through nurseries.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/patjo</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nurseries and other non-Māori entities have claimed intellectual property rights over improved varieties of taonga species. Examples include harakeke (flax; <em>Phormium tenax</em>), kāpuka (broadleaf; <em>Griselinia littoralis</em>), korokio (wire-netting bush; <em>Corokia cotoneaster</em>), kōwhai (<em>Sophora microphylla</em>), and tī rākau/tī kōuka (cabbage tree; <em>Cordyline australis</em>). </p>
<p>In most (maybe all) cases, kaitiaki do not receive any direct financial or other benefits from the commercialisation and sale of taonga plants where plant variety rights are owned by non-Māori organisations.</p>
<h2>Protection under the new act</h2>
<p>The reformed act contains several new protections. When plant breeders apply for plant variety rights for taonga plants, they now need to meet certain requirements. </p>
<p>For example, if the breeder is aware that a kaitiaki relationship with the plant has been asserted, the breeder must engage directly with the kaitiaki.</p>
<p>If the kaitiaki finds that granting plant variety rights for the breeder’s variety would have adverse effects on the kaitiaki relationship, the breeder and kaitiaki must agree on how to mitigate these effects.</p>
<p>The law also creates a new Māori plant varieties committee, which holds the power to make binding decisions to nullify or cancel or impose conditions on any grants of plant variety rights for taonga species that may have adverse effects on kaitiaki relationships.</p>
<p>The new protections are commendable, but there are some gaps in the law. </p>
<h2>No shared benefits from commercial use</h2>
<p>The PVR Act allows plant breeders to bring legal actions against those who infringe their intellectual property rights. But the law does not contain similar enforcement mechanisms where mātauranga Māori is misappropriated. </p>
<p>The act does not require plant breeders who obtain PVR for varieties of taonga plants to share any benefits they receive from commercial uses of these plants with kaitiaki.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/returning-the-three-sisters-corn-beans-and-squash-to-native-american-farms-nourishes-people-land-and-cultures-149230">Returning the 'three sisters' – corn, beans and squash – to Native American farms nourishes people, land and cultures</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Another issue is that the new law adopts the narrow, species-based approach common to intellectual property laws for plant varieties worldwide. The powers of the Māori plant varieties committee only apply to taonga plant species. Kaitiaki have no say over whether exotic plant varieties are introduced into Aotearoa and protected with PVR, which fails to take into account the effects non-taonga plants could have on the whenua (land) and taiao (environment) should they become invasive.</p>
<p>Overall, the reformed PVR Act is an important step in addressing the recommendations of the Waitangi Tribunal on how the Crown should protect taonga plants and mātauranga Māori. But there is still much work to do to ensure that tangata whenua may exercise rangatiratanga over their taonga. </p>
<p>Time will tell whether other <a href="https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/new-funding-protecting-and-enabling-m%C4%81tauranga-m%C4%81ori">proposed changes</a> – such as the development of a stand-alone intellectual property framework for mātauranga Māori and the creation of a bioprospecting regime – are sufficient to fulfil the promises of Te Tiriti.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195435/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research is generously supported by the University of Canterbury Vision Mātauranga Development Fund. </span></em></p>Plant breeders must now engage with kaitiaki if special relationships with a plant have been asserted. But Māori have no say on the introduction of exotic plants that could become invasive.David Jefferson, Lecturer, University of CanterburyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1902962022-10-13T12:23:17Z2022-10-13T12:23:17ZBees face many challenges – and climate change is ratcheting up the pressure<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489384/original/file-20221012-18-sw1rgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5184%2C3880&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bees look for water on an outdoor tap in Berlin, Germany during a hot spell, June 19, 2022.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/berlin-bees-try-to-take-water-from-the-thread-of-an-old-tap-news-photo/1241401800">Wolfram Steinberg/picture alliance via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The extreme weather that has <a href="https://theconversation.com/looking-back-on-americas-summer-of-heat-floods-and-climate-change-welcome-to-the-new-abnormal-190636">battered much of the U.S.</a> in 2022 doesn’t just affect humans. Heat waves, wildfires, droughts and storms also <a href="https://www.fws.gov/initiative/impacts">threaten many wild species</a> – including some that already face other stresses. </p>
<p>I’ve been <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=B1qAtjIAAAAJ">researching bee health</a> for over 10 years, with a focus on honey bees. In 2021, I began hearing for the first time from beekeepers about how extreme drought and rainfall were affecting bee colony health. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/monthly-report/drought/202113">Drought conditions in the western U.S.</a> in 2021 dried up bee forage – the floral nectar and pollen that bees need to produce honey and stay healthy. And <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2021/12/29/wettest-2021-east-us/">extreme rain in the Northeast</a> limited the hours that bees could fly for forage. </p>
<p>In both cases, managed colonies – hives that humans keep for honey production or commercial pollination – were starving. Beekeepers had to feed their bees more supplements of sugar water and pollen than they usually would to keep their colonies alive. Some beekeepers who had been in business for decades shared that they lost 50% to 70% of their colonies over the winter of 2021-2022. </p>
<p>These weather conditions <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jisesa/ieaa114">likely also affected wild and native bees</a>. And unlike managed colonies, these important species did not receive supplements to buffer them through harsh conditions. </p>
<p>Each year, the <a href="https://www.usda.gov/">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> and the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency</a> host federal pollinator experts to share the latest scientific findings on bee and pollinator health, and assess the status of these important insects, birds, bats and other species. One clear takeaway from this year’s meeting was that climate change has become a new and formidable stressor for bees, potentially amplifying previously known issues in ways that scientists can’t yet predict but need to prepare for. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6tZTH5KWFqM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Climate change threatens bees around the world. In Australia, large-scale bushfires and drought have killed millions of bees in recent years.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The scourge of <em>Varroa</em> mites</h2>
<p>Pollinators contribute <a href="https://ipbes.net/article/press-release-pollinators-vital-our-food-supply-under-threat">an estimated US$235 billion to $577 billion</a> yearly to global agriculture, based on the value of the crops they pollinate. Understanding and mitigating the impacts of climate change on pollinators is key for supporting healthy ecosystems and sustainable agriculture.</p>
<p>Bee health first attracted widespread attention in 2006 with the emergence of <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pollinator-protection/colony-collapse-disorder">Colony Collapse Disorder</a>, a phenomenon where the majority of adult worker bees in a colony disappeared, leaving their honey and pollen stores and some nurse bees behind to care for the queen and remaining immature bees. In the past five years, reported cases have declined substantially. Now, researchers are focusing on what beekeepers call the “four Ps”: parasites, pathogens, pesticides and poor nutrition, as well as habitat loss for wild and native bees. </p>
<p>One of the most severe threats to honey bees over the past several decades has been <em>Varroa destructor</em>, a crablike parasitic mite that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1818371116">feeds on honey bees’ fat body tissue</a>. The fat body is <a href="https://entomologytoday.org/2019/02/21/inside-look-how-varroa-mite-diet-discovered/">a nutrient-dense organ</a> that functions much like the liver in mammals. It helps bees maintain a strong immune system, metabolize pesticides and survive through the winter. </p>
<p>These are vital functions, so controlling mite infestations is essential for bee health. <em>Varroa</em> can also transmit deadly pathogens to honey bees, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47447-3">deformed wing virus</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489395/original/file-20221012-21-7erbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A bee flying, with two brown circular mites clinging to it" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489395/original/file-20221012-21-7erbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489395/original/file-20221012-21-7erbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489395/original/file-20221012-21-7erbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489395/original/file-20221012-21-7erbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489395/original/file-20221012-21-7erbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=648&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489395/original/file-20221012-21-7erbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=648&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489395/original/file-20221012-21-7erbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=648&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A honey bee carrying two <em>Varroa</em> mites, one above its leg and one on its back.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/2hcd9TT">USGS</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Controlling mite populations is challenging. It requires using an insecticide in an insect colony, or as beekeepers say, “trying to kill a bug on a bug.” It’s hard to find a formula strong enough to kill mites without harming the bees. </p>
<p>Monitoring <em>Varroa</em> takes significant skill and labor, and mites can build up resistance to treatments over time. Researchers and beekeepers are working hard to <a href="https://www.sare.org/publications/a-sustainable-approach-to-controlling-honey-bee-diseases-and-varroa-mites/breeding-for-resistance/">breed <em>Varroa</em>-resistant bees</a>, but mites continue to plague the industry.</p>
<h2>Pesticide microdoses</h2>
<p>Pesticides also harm bees, particularly products that cause sublethal or chronic bee health issues. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156857">Sublethal pesticide exposures</a> can make bees less able to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12292">gather forage</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077547">grow healthy larvae</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cois.2018.01.006">fight off viruses</a> and mites. </p>
<p>However, it can be hard to document and understand sublethal toxicity. Many factors affect how bees react to agrochemicals, including whether they are exposed as larvae or as adult bees, the mixture of chemicals bees are exposed to, the weather at the time of application and how healthy a bee colony is pre-exposure.</p>
<p>Researchers are also working to understand <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-common-soil-pesticide-cut-wild-bee-reproduction-by-89-heres-why-scientists-are-worried-155985">how soil pesticides affect ground-nesting wild bees</a>, which represent <a href="https://ento.psu.edu/research/centers/pollinators/resources-and-outreach/disappearing-pollinators/nesting-sites">over 70% of the U.S. native bee</a> population. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487116/original/file-20220928-6297-s2i3ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A bee crawls out of a small hole in the dirt, overhung by grass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487116/original/file-20220928-6297-s2i3ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487116/original/file-20220928-6297-s2i3ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487116/original/file-20220928-6297-s2i3ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487116/original/file-20220928-6297-s2i3ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487116/original/file-20220928-6297-s2i3ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487116/original/file-20220928-6297-s2i3ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487116/original/file-20220928-6297-s2i3ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A ground-nesting bee (<em>Colletes inaqualis</em>) emerging from its burrow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/9GUDGz">Rob Cruickshank/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Junk food diets</h2>
<p>Like many other species, bees are losing the habitat and food sources that they depend on. This is happening <a href="https://ento.psu.edu/research/centers/pollinators/resources-and-outreach/disappearing-pollinators/habitat-fragmentation">for many reasons</a>. </p>
<p>For example, uncultivated lands are being <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22702-2">converted to farmland or developed worldwide</a>. Large-scale agriculture focuses on mass production of a few commodity crops, which reduces the amount of nesting habitat and forage available for bees. </p>
<p>And many farmers often remove pollinator-friendly plants and shrubs that grow around farm lands to reduce the risk of attracting animals such as deer and rodents, which could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biv152">spread pathogens that cause foodborne illness</a>. Research suggests that these efforts <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12707">harm beneficial insects and don’t increase food safety</a>. </p>
<p>As diverse and healthy bee forage disappears, beekeepers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.10.007">feed their bees more supplements</a>, such as sugar water and pollen substitutes, which are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13592-015-0386-6">not as nutritious</a> as the nectar and pollen bees get from flowers.</p>
<h2>Climate change is a force multiplier</h2>
<p>Researchers don’t know exactly how climate change will affect bee health. But they suspect it will add to existing stresses. </p>
<p>For example, if pest pressures mount for farmers, bees will be exposed to more pesticides. Extreme rainfall can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11829-019-09686-z">disrupt bees’ foraging patterns</a>. Wildfires and floods may destroy bee habitat and food sources. Drought may also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14130">reduce available forage</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.628802">discourage land managers</a> from planting new areas for bees as water becomes less readily available. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1062404727995011077"}"></div></p>
<p>Climate change could also increase the spread of <em>Varroa</em> and other pathogens. Warmer fall and winter temperatures <a href="https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1394621/v1">extend the period when bees forage</a>. <em>Varroa</em> travel on foraging bees, so longer foraging provides a larger time window for mites and the viruses they carry to spread among colonies. Higher mite populations on bee colonies heading into winter will likely cripple colony health and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159615">increase winter losses</a>.</p>
<p>Studies have already shown that climate change is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1042/ETLS20190139">disrupting seasonal connections</a> between bees and flowers. As spring arrives earlier in the year, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2019.0573">flowers bloom earlier</a> or in different regions, but bees may not be present to feed on them. Even if flowers bloom at their usual times and locations, they may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cois.2022.100927">produce less-nutritious pollen and nectar</a> under extreme weather conditions. </p>
<p>Research that analyzes the nutritional profiles of bee forage plants and how they change under different climate scenarios will help land managers plant climate-resilient plants for different regions. </p>
<h2>Creating safe bee spaces</h2>
<p>There are many ways to support bees and pollinators. Planting <a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-gardens-are-crucial-food-sources-for-pollinators-heres-what-to-plant-for-every-season-174552">pollinator gardens</a> with regional plants that bloom throughout the year can provide much-needed forage. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/reel/Cg8BHF_DOud/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Ground-nesting native bees need patches of exposed and undisturbed soil, free of mulch or other ground covers. Gardeners can clear some ground in a sunny, well-drained area to create <a href="https://xerces.org/blog/ground-nesting-bees#:%7E:text=If%20you'd%20like%20to,growing%20plants%20to%20prevent%20erosion">dedicated spaces for bees to dig nests</a>. </p>
<p>Another important step is using <a href="https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=17624">integrated pest management</a>, a land management approach that minimizes the use of chemical pesticides. And anyone who wants to help monitor native bees can join <a href="https://xerces.org/community-science">community science projects</a> and use phone apps to submit data. </p>
<p>Most importantly, educating people and communities about bees and their importance to our food system can help create a more pollinator-friendly world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190296/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr. Jennie L. Durant has received funding from the U.S. Department of Agriculture's National Institute of Food and Agriculture. She was a AAAS Science and Technology Fellow at the U.S. Department of Agriculture from 2021-2022.</span></em></p>Honey bees, wild and native bees face threats from parasites, pesticides and habitat loss. Shorter winters, more extreme weather and more habitat destruction won’t help.Jennie L. Durant, Research Affiliate in Human Ecology, University of California, DavisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1902262022-09-23T00:34:16Z2022-09-23T00:34:16ZWant noisy miners to be less despotic? Think twice before filling your garden with nectar-rich flowers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483365/original/file-20220907-15616-uce7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C20%2C4457%2C2964&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/australian-noisy-miner-sitting-on-a-native-blooming-flower-13024717/">Photo by Vlad Kutepov/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Noisy miners are complicated creatures. These Australian native honeyeaters live in large cooperative groups, use alarm calls to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/28/3/724/3076238">target specific predators</a>, and sometimes <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/29/6/1380/5076038">help raise the young of other miners</a>. But they’re perhaps best known for their aggressive and coordinated attacks on other birds – a behaviour known as “mobbing”.</p>
<p>We conducted a study investigating some of the possible factors that influence mobbing. We were interested in whether access to human food left on plates at cafes, or a high nectar supply thanks to planted gardens, might give urban miners extra energy and time to mob other species more often. We also examined whether miners were more aggressive towards some species over others. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01584197.2022.2049608">study</a>, published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01584197.2022.2049608">Emu - Austral Ornithology</a>, found it wasn’t cafes with access to sugar-rich food that led to more miner aggression. In fact, gardens were where we recorded the highest amount of aggressive behaviour.</p>
<p>Understanding mobbing is important, because this behaviour can drive out other birds and reduce diversity. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12292.x">Smaller birds with a similar diet</a> to noisy miners are particularly vulnerable.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483366/original/file-20220907-14-a7czet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A noisy miner sits on a plant with bright red flowers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483366/original/file-20220907-14-a7czet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483366/original/file-20220907-14-a7czet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483366/original/file-20220907-14-a7czet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483366/original/file-20220907-14-a7czet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483366/original/file-20220907-14-a7czet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=722&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483366/original/file-20220907-14-a7czet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=722&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483366/original/file-20220907-14-a7czet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=722&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Noisy miners can drive out other birds and reduce diversity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/black-grey-white-yellow-bird-near-on-pink-petal-flower-105805/">Photo by Mark Broadhurst/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/should-we-cull-noisy-miners-after-decades-of-research-these-aggressive-honeyeaters-are-still-outsmarting-us-169524">Should we cull noisy miners? After decades of research, these aggressive honeyeaters are still outsmarting us</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What we did</h2>
<p>The noisy miner’s preferred habitat is along the edges of open eucalypt forest, including cleared land and urban fringes. Their numbers have <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ddi.12128">grown</a> in recent decades, presenting a significant <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened/key-threatening-processes/overabundant-noisy-miners">conservation problem</a>.</p>
<p>We know from <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2011.01902.x">previous research</a> that urban noisy miners tend to be more aggressive compared with rural populations. </p>
<p>But to examine mobbing behaviour more closely, we placed museum taxidermies (stuffed animals) of different species of birds in three different types of habitat around Canberra:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>urban cafes with lots of food leftovers</p></li>
<li><p>urban gardens that had higher-than-usual supplies of nectar </p></li>
<li><p>bush areas more typical of “natural” miner habitat.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>For each habitat, we then presented the resident noisy miners with three different types of museum taxidermy models of birds:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>food competitors with a similar diet to miners, both of the same size (musk lorikeets) and a much smaller species (spotted pardalote)</p></li>
<li><p>potential predators, including a dangerous species that preys on miners (brown goshawk) and a species that robs nests but poses less of a risk to adult miners (pied currawong)</p></li>
<li><p>neutral species, meaning a bird that does not prey upon nor compete with miners for food (in our study, we used a model of an eastern rosella).</p></li>
</ul>
<p>We wanted to see how miners responded to these “intruders” in various settings. We also set up a speaker nearby to broadcast alarm calls, to see how miners reacted.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484208/original/file-20220913-6373-ohyjed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two noisy miners mob a magpie." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484208/original/file-20220913-6373-ohyjed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484208/original/file-20220913-6373-ohyjed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484208/original/file-20220913-6373-ohyjed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484208/original/file-20220913-6373-ohyjed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484208/original/file-20220913-6373-ohyjed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484208/original/file-20220913-6373-ohyjed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484208/original/file-20220913-6373-ohyjed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Noisy miners are known for their aggressive and coordinated attacks on other birds – a behaviour known as ‘mobbing’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>We found interesting differences in how miners responded to our taxidermy models and the broadcasted alarm calls.</p>
<p>Noisy miners exhibited aggressive behaviours for a much longer time in gardens and cafés in comparison to natural bush areas.</p>
<p>Surprisingly, however, access to sugar-rich food from cafes didn’t yield the most aggressive behaviour. Rather, we recorded the highest levels of aggressive behaviour near garden sites.</p>
<p>Nectar-rich plants (such as grevilleas and bottlebrushes) are attractive to birds with a sweet tooth, and miners are no exception. Newer cultivars flower for longer, meaning miners living in our gardens may have access to an almost year-round source of food. </p>
<p>Ready access to these flowering shrubs may affect aggression by providing more time, energy or reward to noisy miners defending these uber-rich resources. </p>
<p>The type of model presented also impacted miner response.</p>
<p>More miners were attracted to an area and mobbed the subject for longer when the model was of a predator.</p>
<p>Miners showed even greater aggression to food competitor models, however. They were more likely to physically strike food competitor models with a peck or swoop compared to predator models. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485205/original/file-20220919-60305-bzy2aj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485205/original/file-20220919-60305-bzy2aj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485205/original/file-20220919-60305-bzy2aj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485205/original/file-20220919-60305-bzy2aj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485205/original/file-20220919-60305-bzy2aj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485205/original/file-20220919-60305-bzy2aj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485205/original/file-20220919-60305-bzy2aj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Noisy miners are often drawn to cafes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jade Fountain</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What can gardeners do with these findings?</h2>
<p>Our research shows the importance of considering how gardens – whether in back yards, in parks or new housing estates – can affect local ecosystems, including bird behaviour. Previous <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/ZO20019">studies</a> have drawn a link between the types of plants humans choose to plant and the local mix of bird species.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484210/original/file-20220913-12035-z31cbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484210/original/file-20220913-12035-z31cbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484210/original/file-20220913-12035-z31cbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484210/original/file-20220913-12035-z31cbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484210/original/file-20220913-12035-z31cbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484210/original/file-20220913-12035-z31cbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484210/original/file-20220913-12035-z31cbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484210/original/file-20220913-12035-z31cbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Grevilleas look lovely but how does their presence affect miner behaviour?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To reduce the risk of creating a perfect habitat for despotic miners in your garden, aim to:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>plant multi-layered levels in your garden – that means including ground cover, small shrubs, medium shrubs and trees to provide shelter at different heights for various birds and animals</p></li>
<li><p>consider planting plenty of dense shrubs with small flowers to attract insects and provide shelter for small birds</p></li>
<li><p>use a mix of nectar-rich and non-flowering shrubs and grasses (instead of focusing too heavily on flowering plants)</p></li>
<li><p>try to avoid planting too many exotic species; opt instead for native plants <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/WR96078">local to your area and suited to the climate</a>, as these benefit native plants and animals whilst minimising benefits to aggressive noisy miners.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-we-hate-certain-birds-and-why-their-behaviour-might-be-our-fault-54404">Why we 'hate' certain birds, and why their behaviour might be our fault</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190226/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our study found it wasn’t cafes with access to sugar-rich food that led to more miner aggression. In fact, gardens were where we recorded the highest amount of aggressive behaviour.Jade Fountain, PhD Student, University of AdelaidePaul McDonald, Professor of Animal Behaviour, University of New EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1903362022-09-12T20:27:42Z2022-09-12T20:27:42ZSneezing with hay fever? Native plants aren’t usually the culprit<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483626/original/file-20220908-12-h4xyg8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=204%2C57%2C5259%2C3579&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/allergy-concept-young-asian-woman-sneezes-1163542810">shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Hay fever is a downside of springtime around the world. As temperatures increase, plant growth resumes and flowers start appearing. </p>
<p>But while native flowering plants such as wattle often get the blame when the seasonal sneezes strike, hay fever in Australia is typically caused by introduced plant species often pollinated by the wind.</p>
<h2>A closer look at pollen</h2>
<p>Pollen grains are the tiny reproductive structures that move genetic material between flower parts, individual flowers on the same plant or a nearby member of the same species. They are typically lightweight structures easily carried on wind currents or are sticky and picked up in clumps on the feathers of a honeyeater or the fur of a fruit bat or possum. </p>
<p>Hay fever is when the human immune system overreacts to allergens in the air. It is not only caused by pollen grains but fungal spores, non-flowering plant spores, mites and even pet hair. </p>
<p>The classic symptoms of hay fever are sneezing, runny noses, red, itchy, and watery eyes, swelling around the eyes and scratchy ears and throat. </p>
<p>The problem with pollen grains is when they land on the skin around our eyes, in our nose and mouth, the proteins found in the wall of these tiny structures leak out and are recognised as foreign by the body and trigger a reaction from the immune system.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-i-have-covid-or-hay-fever-heres-how-to-tell-188030">Do I have COVID or hay fever? Here’s how to tell</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>So what plants are the worst culprits for causing hay fever?</h2>
<p>Grasses, trees, and herbaceous weeds such as plantain are the main problem species as their pollen is usually scattered by wind. In Australia, the main grass offenders are exotic species including rye grass and couch grass (a commonly used lawn species). </p>
<p>Weed species that cause hay fever problems include introduced ragweed, Paterson’s curse, parthenium weed and plantain. The <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5102629/">problematic tree species</a> are also exotic in origin and include liquid amber, Chinese elm, maple, cypress, ash, birch, poplar, and plane trees.</p>
<p>Although there are some native plants that have wind-spread pollen such as she-oaks and white cypress pine, and which can induce hay fever, these species are exceptional in the Australian flora. Many Australian plants are not wind pollinated and <a href="https://blog.publish.csiro.au/austpollinatorweek/">use animals</a> to move their clumped pollen around.</p>
<p>For example, yellow-coloured flowers such as wattles and peas are pollinated by insect such as bees. Red- and orange-coloured flowers are usually visited by birds such as honeyeaters. Large, dull-coloured flowers with copious nectar (the reward for pollination) are visited by nocturnal mammals including bats and possums. Obviously Australian plant pollen can still potentially cause the immune system to overreact, but these structures are less likely to reach the mucous membranes of humans.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/got-allergies-you-could-be-at-lower-risk-of-catching-covid-188486">Got allergies? You could be at lower risk of catching COVID</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What can we do to prevent hay fever attacks at this time of the year?</h2>
<p>With all of this in mind, here are some strategies to prevent the affects of hay fever:</p>
<ol>
<li>stay inside and keep the house closed up on warm, windy days when more pollen is in the air </li>
<li>if you must go outside, wear sunglasses and a face mask</li>
<li>when you return indoors gently rinse (and don’t rub) your eyes with running water, change your clothes and shower to remove pollen grains from hair and skin </li>
<li>try to avoid mowing the lawn in spring particularly when grasses are in flower (the multi-pronged spiked flowers of couch grass are distinctive)</li>
<li>when working in the garden, wear gloves and facial coverings particularly when handling flowers </li>
<li>consider converting your garden to a native one. Grevilleas are a great alternative to rose bushes. Coastal rosemary are a fabulous native replacement for lavender. Why not replace your liquid amber tree with a fast growing, evergreen and low-allergenic lilly pilly tree?</li>
</ol>
<h2>If you do suffer a hay fever attack</h2>
<p>Sometimes even with our best efforts, or if it’s not always possible to stay at home, hay fever can still creep up on us. If this happens:</p>
<ul>
<li>antihistamines will reduce sneezing and itching symptoms</li>
<li>corticosteroid nasal sprays are very effective at reducing inflammation and clearing blocked noses</li>
<li>decongestants provide quick and temporary relief by drying runny noses but should not be used by those with high blood pressure </li>
<li>salt water is a good way to remove excessive mucous from the nasal passages.</li>
</ul>
<p>Behavioural changes on warm, windy spring days are a good way of avoiding a hay fever attack. </p>
<p>An awareness of the plants around us and their basic reproductive biology is also useful in preventing our immune systems from overreacting to pollen proteins that they are not used to encountering.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190336/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Dearnaley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With spring’s arrival, it’s important to know which plants might exacerbate hay fever. Surprisingly, it’s not native wattles you have to watch out for.John Dearnaley, Associate Professor, University of Southern QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1678832021-10-04T19:06:35Z2021-10-04T19:06:35ZRosemary in roundabouts, lemons over the fence: how to go urban foraging safely, respectfully and cleverly<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424373/original/file-20211004-19-19r21tk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=46%2C26%2C4360%2C2853&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Does anything beat the experience of finding a wild mulberry tree and stuffing a handful of fresh juicy berries in your mouth? Have you ever roasted potatoes with a sprig of rosemary taken from an overgrown nature strip? </p>
<p>COVID lockdowns have encouraged more people to explore their neighbourhoods and appreciate <a href="https://theconversation.com/spending-time-in-nature-has-always-been-important-but-now-its-an-essential-part-of-coping-with-the-pandemic-153073">their local green spaces</a>, where edible plants are often growing freely. Alongside the joy in eating something freely harvested, foraging can help us learn about plants, become better environmental stewards, and bring together communities. </p>
<p>It can also help us notice changes in season, weather and climate. So with spring upon us, how do you forage safely, respectfully, and legally?</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Lmm51Cyf9_8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">12 Australian bushfoods.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Wild, edible plants thrive in cities</h2>
<p>The locations of Sydney and Melbourne were chosen by colonists, in part, because they’re within large food basins. Many edible species existed well before colonisation, thanks to the favourable climate, shape of the coastline and custodianship of Country.</p>
<p>Edible native plants, from ground covering warrigal greens to the huge canopies of Illawarra plum trees, are still naturally growing all over southeast Australian cities. Further north, macadamias, lemon myrtles and finger limes thrive, and <a href="https://www.bhg.com.au/everything-about-pigface">pigface</a> is common on sand dunes along coastal towns.</p>
<p>Today, edible plants thrive despite the disturbances of soils and water from urbanisation. Fruit trees, for example, emerge spontaneously on the edges of park lands, in vacant lots and in people’s gardens.</p>
<p>In some cases, urbanisation is actually responsible for the growth and distribution of edible plants. </p>
<p>Birds, rats, bats broaden the trajectories of mulberry, loquat, and papaya seeds by eating them and expelling the seeds somewhere else. This is also how mulberries, which European settlers introduced to Australia, now grow in most Australian cities. </p>
<p>Kumquat, citrus, and fig trees are also very common in tropical and temperate climates. And keep an eye out for blackberry vines. They’ve created an immense environmental problem, although the fruit is delicious, and grow best in NSW, Victoria and Tasmania. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424395/original/file-20211004-13-jkwhj5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424395/original/file-20211004-13-jkwhj5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424395/original/file-20211004-13-jkwhj5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424395/original/file-20211004-13-jkwhj5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424395/original/file-20211004-13-jkwhj5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424395/original/file-20211004-13-jkwhj5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424395/original/file-20211004-13-jkwhj5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424395/original/file-20211004-13-jkwhj5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Not everyone likes it when you pick from their nature strip.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Mapping Edges</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Think before you pick</h2>
<p>But foraging is not a free for all, and doing it safely and respectfully is important. </p>
<p>First and foremost, in Australia, wherever you walk, you are on Country. Take a moment to remember that although urban foraging may be new to you, Aboriginal people have always gathered native plants while caring for Country.</p>
<p>Foraging also carries possible risks to your own health. Some plants in urban areas are poisonous, such as the castor oil plant and many gum trees. Plants could also be contaminated from pollution in the air, water and soil, and by chemical sprays. </p>
<p>You can learn about some of the possible environmental contaminants in your neighbourhood <a href="https://www.mapmyenvironment.com/">here</a>, and there are a few services like <a href="https://www.360dustanalysis.com/">VegeSafe</a> that test soil samples for metals. </p>
<p>Always start by considering the past and current uses of the land where you’re foraging. Was the land once industrially zoned? Do dogs urinate there? Make sure you always wash foraged food.</p>
<p>Legally, plants are the property of whoever owns the land on which they’re growing. That means foraging for food on private land is legal, as long as you either own the land or have the owner’s permission. </p>
<p>But if food is accessible on public land — such as lemons or bananas hanging over a fence, or rosemary and parsley planted as ornamentals in a park or street shoulder — you can harvest them. Just take what you need, and leave plenty for others.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-land-abounds-in-nature-strips-surely-we-can-do-more-than-mow-a-third-of-urban-green-space-124781">Our land abounds in nature strips – surely we can do more than mow a third of urban green space</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424394/original/file-20211004-23-1whq400.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424394/original/file-20211004-23-1whq400.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424394/original/file-20211004-23-1whq400.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424394/original/file-20211004-23-1whq400.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424394/original/file-20211004-23-1whq400.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424394/original/file-20211004-23-1whq400.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424394/original/file-20211004-23-1whq400.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424394/original/file-20211004-23-1whq400.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Make sure you wash foraged plants before you eat them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Mapping Edges</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Foraging respectfully</h2>
<p>There are different cultures around growing and sharing food, depending on the local area. For example, many neighbourhood nature strips are technically owned by the council, but planted and tended by residents. </p>
<p>Community gardens and even streets with nature strips may have their own harvesting rules. Some groups like <a href="https://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/community-gardens/green-square-growers">Green Square Growers</a> encourage spontaneous harvesting. Others, such as <a href="https://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/community-gardens/sydney-city-farm">Sydney City Farm</a>, donate produce to local charities.</p>
<p>Since 2016, we have been working in various suburbs of Sydney to <a href="https://www.mappingedges.org/projects/home-gardens-of-haberfield/">conduct research</a> on urban gardening. We discovered people often work with plants to develop a sense of place that goes well beyond what’s visible in their gardens. </p>
<p>We found networks of neighbours grow together with plants on street edges, through exchanging cuttings, seeds, tips, stories and produce. Coming across a row of trees heavy with olives on a nature strip may feel like a lucky discovery, but these plants are probably watered, pruned, and whitewashed for winter by one or more gardeners. </p>
<p>For someone who has carefully netted a fruit tree to protect it from bats and cockatoos, or who has patiently tended a vine for three years before their first passionfruit appears, there’s nothing more infuriating than a stranger harvesting. </p>
<p>On the other hand, helping yourself to a fragrant feijoa tree weighed down by ripe fruit makes sense, when the fruits would otherwise fall, rot and go to waste. </p>
<p>When possible, ask residents about the plants growing on or around their properties. Conversations about what’s growing in neighbourhoods build so-called “<a href="https://www.mappingedges.org/projects/the-green-square-atlas-of-civic-ecologies/what-are-civic-ecologies/">civic ecologies</a>” — actions that bring together environmental and civic values, building neighbourly connections around common interests and care for shared places.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/supermarket-shelves-stripped-bare-history-can-teach-us-to-make-do-with-food-135304">Supermarket shelves stripped bare? History can teach us to 'make do' with food</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424377/original/file-20211004-13-1xgj4rn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424377/original/file-20211004-13-1xgj4rn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424377/original/file-20211004-13-1xgj4rn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424377/original/file-20211004-13-1xgj4rn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424377/original/file-20211004-13-1xgj4rn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424377/original/file-20211004-13-1xgj4rn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424377/original/file-20211004-13-1xgj4rn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424377/original/file-20211004-13-1xgj4rn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Foraging on nature strips can depend on local council rules.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Mapping Edges</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Learn from foraging celebrities</h2>
<p>In Australia, a hand full of “foraging” celebrities have brought attention to this age old practice. They see foraging as an opportunity to learn about what’s growing where, and why. </p>
<p>In Sydney, Randwick Council Sustainability Educator Julian Lee, has created a Scrumper’s Delight <a href="https://www.google.com/maps/d/edit?mid=1z4E4KYaDZLVFs-ShpcF-WgYglHg&ie=UTF8&oe=UTF8&msa=0&ll=-33.91414914832107%2C151.20033552888276&z=21">participatory map</a> that records edible plants growing in public spaces. Sydney artist and activist Diego Bonetto — aka <a href="https://www.diegobonetto.com/about">The Weedy One</a> — brought a wealth of planty knowledge from Piedmont, Italy to Australia in the 1990s, and since then his passion has evolved to a public pedagogy about respectful foraging.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.milkwood.net/2018/11/06/the-right-to-roam-tips-for-first-time-foragers/">Milkwood Permaculture</a> offer tips, even on foraging sea weed. The <a href="https://www.instagram.com/melbourneforager/?hl=en">Melbourne Forager</a> on Instagram makes urban foraging hip. And a growing number of Indigenous businesses, such as <a href="https://www.indigigrow.com.au/">Indigigrow</a>, share Indigenous knowledge by selling plants people can recognise outside their gardens. </p>
<p>Foraging in cities is fun, it helps us remember we’re part of ecosystems, and we have a responsibility to care for Country. So keep in mind principles of reciprocity, and go forth and learn what’s growing in your city. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/farming-the-suburbs-why-cant-we-grow-food-wherever-we-want-80330">Farming the suburbs – why can’t we grow food wherever we want?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<hr>
<p><em>Correction: A previous version of this article said Sydney City Farm allocates produce to volunteers. In fact, the produce is donated to local charities.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167883/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Spring has settled in and fruit is starting to ripen. Read this before you start helping yourself to the edible plants growing in your neighbourhood.Alexandra Crosby, Associate Professor, School of Design, University of Technology SydneyIlaria Vanni, Associate Professor, International Studies and Global Societies, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1673672021-09-20T20:08:59Z2021-09-20T20:08:59ZClimate change is testing the resilience of native plants to fire, from ash forests to gymea lilies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419732/original/file-20210907-21-zf7v0t.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=138%2C24%2C3887%2C2993&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">One year following the 2019/20 fires, this forest has been slow to recover.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rachael Nolan</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Green shoots emerging from black tree trunks is an iconic image in the days following bushfires, thanks to the remarkable ability of many native plants to survive even the most intense flames.</p>
<p>But in recent years, the length, frequency and intensity of Australian bushfire seasons have increased, and will worsen further <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/assessment-report/ar6/">under climate change</a>. <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/assessment-report/ar6/">Droughts and heatwaves are also projected to increase</a>, and climate change may also affect the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40725-018-0075-6">incidence of pest insect outbreaks</a>, although this is difficult to predict. </p>
<p>How will our ecosystems cope with this combination of threats? In our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.14176">recently published paper</a>, we looked to answer this exact question — and the news isn’t good. </p>
<p>We found while many plants are really good at withstanding certain types of fire, the combination of drought, heatwaves and pest insects may push many fire-adapted plants to the brink in the future. The devastating Black Summer fires gave us a taste of this future. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419743/original/file-20210907-27-18vhqlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419743/original/file-20210907-27-18vhqlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419743/original/file-20210907-27-18vhqlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419743/original/file-20210907-27-18vhqlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419743/original/file-20210907-27-18vhqlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419743/original/file-20210907-27-18vhqlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419743/original/file-20210907-27-18vhqlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419743/original/file-20210907-27-18vhqlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Examples of fire-adapted plants: prolific flowering of pink flannel flowers (upper left), new foliage resprouting on geebung (upper right), seed release from a banksia cone (lower left), and an old man banksia seedling (lower right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rachael Nolan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What happens when fires become more frequent?</h2>
<p>Ash forests are one of the most iconic in Australia, home to some of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/mountain-ash-has-a-regal-presence-the-tallest-flowering-plant-in-the-world-96021">tallest flowering plants</a> on Earth. When severe fire occurs in these forests, the mature trees are killed and the forest regenerates entirely from the seed that falls from the dead canopy. </p>
<p>These regrowing trees, however, do not produce seed reliably until they’re 15 years old. This means if fire occurs again during this period, the trees will not regenerate, and the ash forest will collapse. </p>
<p>This would have <a href="https://theconversation.com/ash-to-ashes-what-could-the-2013-fires-mean-for-the-future-of-our-forests-12346">serious consequences</a> for the carbon stored in these trees, and the habitat these forests provide for animals.</p>
<p>Southeast Australia has experienced <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00049158.2013.848610">multiple fires since 2003</a>, which means there’s a large area of regrowing ash forests across the landscape, especially in Victoria. </p>
<p>The Black Summer bushfires burned parts of these young forests, and nearly 10,000 football fields of ash forest was at risk of collapse. Thankfully, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BEfCE22q8aU">approximately half of this area</a> was recovered through an artificial seeding program.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420717/original/file-20210913-15-9547bp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420717/original/file-20210913-15-9547bp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420717/original/file-20210913-15-9547bp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420717/original/file-20210913-15-9547bp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420717/original/file-20210913-15-9547bp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420717/original/file-20210913-15-9547bp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420717/original/file-20210913-15-9547bp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ash to ashes: On the left, unburned ash forest in the Central Highlands of Victoria; on the right, ash forest which has been burned by a number of high severity bushfires in Alpine National Park. Without intervention, this area will no longer be dominated by ash and will transition to shrub or grassland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">T Fairman</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What happens when fire seasons get longer?</h2>
<p>Longer fire seasons means there’s a greater chance species will burn at a time of year that’s outside the historical norm. This can have devastating consequences for plant populations. </p>
<p>For example, out-of-season fires, such as in winter, can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.01.083">delay maturation of the Woronora beard-heath</a> compared to summer fires, because of their seasonal requirements for releasing and germinating seeds. This means the species needs longer fire-free intervals when fires occur out of season. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/entire-hillsides-of-trees-turned-brown-this-summer-is-it-the-start-of-ecosystem-collapse-126107">Entire hillsides of trees turned brown this summer. Is it the start of ecosystem collapse?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The iconic gymea lily, a post-fire flowering species, is another plant under similar threat. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2021.104634">New research</a> showed when fires occur outside summer, the gymea lily didn’t flower as much and changed its seed chemistry. </p>
<p>While this resprouting species might persist in the short term, consistent out-of-season fires could have long-term impacts by reducing its reproduction and, therefore, population size. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422061/original/file-20210920-47670-1lfpjwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422061/original/file-20210920-47670-1lfpjwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422061/original/file-20210920-47670-1lfpjwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422061/original/file-20210920-47670-1lfpjwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422061/original/file-20210920-47670-1lfpjwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422061/original/file-20210920-47670-1lfpjwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422061/original/file-20210920-47670-1lfpjwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422061/original/file-20210920-47670-1lfpjwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Out-of-season fires could have long-term impacts on gymea lilies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>When drought and heatwaves get more severe</h2>
<p>In the lead up to the Black Summer fires, eastern Australia experienced the <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/aus/2019/">hottest and driest year</a> on record. The drought and associated heatwaves triggered widespread canopy die-off. </p>
<p>Extremes of drought and heat can directly kill plants. And this increase in dead vegetation may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/WF15028">increase the intensity</a> of fires.</p>
<p>Another problem is that by coping with drought and heat stress, plants may deplete their stored energy reserves, which are vital for resprouting new leaves following fire. Depletion of energy reserves may result in a phenomenon called “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1285">resprouting exhaustion syndrome</a>”, where fire-adapted plants no longer have the reserves to regenerate new leaves after fire.</p>
<p>Therefore, fire can deliver the final blow to resprouting plants already suffering from drought and heat stress.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420673/original/file-20210913-25-1wdcx7h.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420673/original/file-20210913-25-1wdcx7h.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420673/original/file-20210913-25-1wdcx7h.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420673/original/file-20210913-25-1wdcx7h.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420673/original/file-20210913-25-1wdcx7h.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420673/original/file-20210913-25-1wdcx7h.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420673/original/file-20210913-25-1wdcx7h.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Drought stressed eucalypt forest in 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rachael Nolan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Drought and heatwaves could also be a big problem for seeds. Many species rely on fire-triggered seed germination to survive following fire, such as many species of wattles, banksias and some eucalypts. </p>
<p>But drought and heat stress may reduce the number of seeds that get released, because they limit flowering and seed development in the lead up to bushfires, or trigger plants to release seeds prematurely. </p>
<p>For example, in Australian fire-prone ecosystems, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.973">temperatures between 40°C and 100°C</a> are required to break the dormancy of seeds stored in soil and trigger germination. But during heatwaves, soil temperatures can be high enough to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.973">break these temperature thresholds</a>. This means seeds could be released before the fire, and they won’t be available to germinate after the fire hits. </p>
<p>Heatwaves can also reduce the quality of seeds by deforming their DNA. This could reduce the success of seed germination after fire. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422059/original/file-20210920-19-rtohb4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Burnt banksia" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422059/original/file-20210920-19-rtohb4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422059/original/file-20210920-19-rtohb4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422059/original/file-20210920-19-rtohb4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422059/original/file-20210920-19-rtohb4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422059/original/file-20210920-19-rtohb4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422059/original/file-20210920-19-rtohb4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422059/original/file-20210920-19-rtohb4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many native plants, such as banksia, rely on fire to germinate their seeds.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What about insects? The growth of new foliage following fire or drought is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1983.tb01516.x">tasty to insects</a>. If pest insect outbreaks occur after fire, they may remove all the leaves of recovering plants. This additional stress may push plants over their limit, resulting in their death. </p>
<p>This phenomenon has more typically been obverved <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1983.tb01516.x">in eucalypts following drought</a>, where repeated defoliation (leaf loss) by pest insects triggered dieback in recovering trees.</p>
<h2>When threats pile up</h2>
<p>We expect many vegetation communities will remain resilient in the short-term, including most <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13227">eucalpyt species</a>. </p>
<p>But even in these resilient forests, we expect to see some changes in the types of species present in certain areas and changes to the structure of vegetation (such as the size of trees). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420657/original/file-20210913-12-1w0ymym.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420657/original/file-20210913-12-1w0ymym.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420657/original/file-20210913-12-1w0ymym.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420657/original/file-20210913-12-1w0ymym.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420657/original/file-20210913-12-1w0ymym.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420657/original/file-20210913-12-1w0ymym.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420657/original/file-20210913-12-1w0ymym.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Resprouting eucalypts, one year on following the 2019-2020 bushfires.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rachael Nolan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As climate change progresses, many fire-prone ecosystems will be pushed beyond their historical limits. Our new research is only the beginning — how plants will respond is still highly uncertain, and more research is needed to untangle the interacting effects of fire, drought, heatwaves and pest insects. </p>
<p>We need to rapidly reduce carbon emissions before testing the limits of our ecosystems to recover from fire.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-remarkable-stories-of-flora-and-fauna-in-the-aftermath-of-australias-horror-bushfire-season-155749">5 remarkable stories of flora and fauna in the aftermath of Australia’s horror bushfire season</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167367/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachael Nolan receives funding from the Australian Research Council, NSW Rural Fire Service, ACT Parks and Conservation and the Hermon Slade Foundation. She is a member of the NSW Bushfire Risk Management Research Hub, which is supported by funds from the NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrea Leigh receives funding from the Australian Research Council. She is affiliated with The University of Technology Sydney. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Ooi receives funding from the ARC. and the Commonwealth Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. He is a member of the NSW Bushfire Risk Management Research Hub, which is supported by funds from the NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ross Bradstock receives funding from the NSW Rural Fire Service and the NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment via the NSW Bushfire Risk Management Research Hub, the Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC and the ARC.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Curran receives funding from the New Zealand Ministry for Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE), Fire and Emergency New Zealand, the Miss E L Hellaby Indigenous Grasslands Research Trust, Marlborough District Council, and the Lincoln University Argyle Fund. Tim is the President of the New Zealand Ecological Society.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Fairman has received funding from Australian Research Council and has previously worked in forest management and research for the Victorian Government.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Víctor Resco de Dios receives funding from MICINN and Velux Fundation. </span></em></p>Many plants are really good at withstanding bushfires, but the combination of drought, heatwaves and pest insects under climate change may push them to the brink.Rachael Helene Nolan, Postdoctoral research fellow, Western Sydney UniversityAndrea Leigh, Associate Professor, Faculty of Science, University of Technology SydneyMark Ooi, Senior Research Fellow, UNSW SydneyRoss Bradstock, Emeritus professor, University of WollongongTim Curran, Associate Professor of Ecology, Lincoln University, New ZealandTom Fairman, Future Fire Risk Analyst, The University of MelbourneVíctor Resco de Dios, Profesor de Incendios y Cambio Global en PVCF-Agrotecnio, Universitat de LleidaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1572202021-04-28T12:16:28Z2021-04-28T12:16:28ZClimate-friendly farming strategies can improve the land and generate income for farmers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397449/original/file-20210428-21-1py5npc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=34%2C8%2C5635%2C3723&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A prairie strip filled with flowers and wild rye grass between soybean fields on Tim Smith's farm near Eagle Grove, Iowa, reduces greenhouse gases and stores carbon in the soil.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/prairie-strip-filled-with-black-eyed-susan-flowers-in-news-photo/629903308">The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Agriculture has not been a central part of U.S. climate policy in the past, even though climate change is <a href="https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/10/">altering weather patterns that farmers rely on</a>. Now, however, President Biden has directed the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to develop a <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/01/27/fact-sheet-president-biden-takes-executive-actions-to-tackle-the-climate-crisis-at-home-and-abroad-create-jobs-and-restore-scientific-integrity-across-federal-government/">climate-smart agriculture and forestry strategy</a>.</p>
<p>As a scientist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-6bpfYUAAAAJ&hl=en">focusing on agricultural land use</a> and adviser to several farm organizations, I have the privilege of working alongside farmers who have figured out how to do just that. I am enthusiastic about farmer-led solutions to climate change. What does this look like?</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1385273269599752196"}"></div></p>
<h2>Restore strips of native plants around farm fields</h2>
<p>Plants remove carbon from the atmosphere as they grow, and soil can soak up carbon and store it. These abilities are key to climate solutions that crop farmers can readily deploy today.</p>
<p>Seeding narrow strips of land within and around crop fields with native plants is an effective and affordable way to make farming more climate-friendly. Iowa State University’s <a href="https://www.nrem.iastate.edu/research/STRIPS/">STRIPS Project</a> has shown that this technique reduces erosion and nutrient loss from soil and supports birds and insects.</p>
<p>Prairie strips can reduce emissions of <a href="https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2014.05.0221">nitrous oxide</a>, a greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases#nitrous-oxide">298 times more potent</a> than carbon dioxide. Nitrous oxide emissions vary widely across agricultural landscapes and over time, but the largest contributions are associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JG004629">poorly drained croplands</a>. </p>
<p>Nitrous oxide forms under <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-nitrogen-cycle-processes-players-and-human-15644632/">anaerobic conditions</a> – environments without oxygen, such as low-lying wet areas of farm fields, where it is produced by soil microbes. The easiest way to keep it from forming is to avoid fertilizing these areas, which amounts to feeding the microbes.</p>
<p>Prairie strips help reduce nitrous oxide emissions by soaking up nitrogen fertilizer that runs off of adjacent cropland. They also can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/saj2.20007">store carbon in soil</a> in two ways: by trapping sediment moving down slopes, and by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and storing this carbon in plant roots and soil.</p>
<figure>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/291571298" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">‘Prairie strips’ integrate native grasses into row crop fields, bringing many environmental benefits.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Prairie strips are among the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-013-0106-9">least expensive conservation practices </a> available to farmers. This is especially true if the land they occupy is enrolled in the <a href="https://www.fsa.usda.gov/programs-and-services/conservation-programs/conservation-reserve-program/">Conservation Reserve Program</a>, which pays farmers to take environmentally sensitive land out of production and conserve it for other purposes.</p>
<p>Installing prairie strips has <a href="https://www.fsa.usda.gov/Assets/USDA-FSA-Public/usdafiles/FactSheets/2019/crp_clear_initiative_prairie_strip_practice-fact_sheet.pdf">qualified for Conservation Reserve Program funding</a> since 2019. Colleagues and I estimate that via this route, they cost <a href="https://store.extension.iastate.edu/Product/15222">US$8 yearly per acre of cropland treated</a>. A <a href="https://store.extension.iastate.edu/product/16071">recent survey</a> found that about half of Iowa farmers were willing to install prairie strips if they could access federal funds.</p>
<p>On April 21, 2021, Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack announced that the agency will <a href="https://www.fsa.usda.gov/news-room/news-releases/2021/usda-expands-and-renews-conservation-reserve-program-in-effort-to-boost-enrollment-and-address-climate-change">expand Conservation Reserve Program enrollment</a> and offer higher payment rates for participating. The department is also creating a new Climate-Smart Practice Incentive to promote strategies that sequester carbon and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. I hope this measure will promote national awareness of prairie strips, which today are known mainly <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CMu4AtbjU8W/">in Iowa and neighboring states</a>. </p>
<p><iframe id="3Qtuh" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/3Qtuh/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Turn soggy spots into wetlands</h2>
<p>Since nitrous oxide emissions come mainly from wet zones, letting these areas remain as wetlands is another climate-smart strategy. Soggy areas tend to yield poorly in most years, and farmers rarely recoup their investment in cropping them. However, wetlands can be troublesome to farm around, which is why many farmers try to drain and farm through them. </p>
<p>But healthy wetlands also provide benefits: They <a href="https://doi.org/10.1890/09-0216.1">sequester carbon, store and filter water and provide crucial habitat</a> for mammals, birds, frogs and other organisms. The Agriculture Department’s new Climate-Smart Practice Incentive will support wetland restoration on agricultural lands.</p>
<p>Another USDA initiative, the <a href="https://www.fsa.usda.gov/programs-and-services/conservation-programs/farmable-wetlands/index">Farmable Wetland Program</a>, pays farmers to take previously farmed wetlands and buffer areas out of production for 10 or more years. Enrollment is currently capped at 1 million acres. A climate-smart agricultural policy could expand the program by removing the acreage cap and boosting incentive payments.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397391/original/file-20210427-23-s7o0cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Low-lying zone of a farm field before and after conversion to a wetland." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397391/original/file-20210427-23-s7o0cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397391/original/file-20210427-23-s7o0cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397391/original/file-20210427-23-s7o0cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397391/original/file-20210427-23-s7o0cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397391/original/file-20210427-23-s7o0cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397391/original/file-20210427-23-s7o0cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397391/original/file-20210427-23-s7o0cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A prairie wetland in Minnesota, formerly part of a crop field (left) and restored to provide habitat for water birds (right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/EUaPjP">Shawn Papon/USFWS</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Promote perennial crops, especially grasses</h2>
<p>All crops are not equal when it comes to mitigating climate change and conserving the environment. Perennials – including various types of grasses, shrubs and trees – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170512000385">provide more ecological benefits </a> than annual crops like corn, wheat and soybeans. But they receive less government support. </p>
<p>Just like annual garden plants, annual crops must be replanted every year. Perennial crops live for multiple seasons, so raising them requires fewer climate-warming inputs, such as fertilizer and fuel to power tractors. These crops develop deep roots that soak up water in soggy spots and help stabilize soil on sloping land. </p>
<p>Many fruits, vegetables and forage crops are perennials. Examples include apples, alfalfa, grapes and asparagus. Researchers are working to develop <a href="https://landinstitute.org/our-work/perennial-crops/">perennial versions</a> of grains, legumes and oilseeds such as sunflowers.</p>
<p>There are many opportunities to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170512000385">expand cultivation of perennial crops</a>. Grasses and <a href="https://www.dupageforest.org/plants-wildlife/plants/forbs">forbs</a> – flowering plants with stems and leaves, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarda">bee balm</a> – are less expensive to establish and grow than woody crops like willow, and offer farmers more management flexibility.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CNYWwcvh0X9/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>I direct a transdisciplinary team called <a href="https://cchange.research.iastate.edu/">C-CHANGE</a>, funded by USDA, that is working with farmers to create and expand market-based value chains for perennial grasses. We are helping farmers plant mixtures of native perennial grasses and forbs to build soil health where it has been eroded and protect environmentally sensitive areas. </p>
<p>The grasses can ultimately be harvested and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.1671">processed in biodigesters</a> – devices that break down organic materials to produce energy – along with manure or food waste. This cycle will yield electricity or biomethane from renewable sources that can displace fossil-based energy sources on or off of farms. It also will produce liquid and solid materials that can be used as organic fertilizers, along with <a href="https://cchange.research.iastate.edu/files/2020/10/CCHANGE_Proposal-Narrative_2020-1.pdf">other valuable products</a>. </p>
<p>Replacing fertilizer made from synthetic nitrogen is important for the climate because making it consumes <a href="https://www.wired.com/2008/05/how-to-make-nit/">enormous quantities of natural gas</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.358">releases methane</a> into the atmosphere. Methane is another powerful greenhouse gas, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases">25 times more potent</a> than carbon dioxide. </p>
<p>Biodigestion is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109332">widely used in Europe</a> but underdeveloped in the U.S. We expect that the value chain we’re creating will embed it in a larger cycle that creates a market for protective perennial crops, reduces fossil fuel use and returns carbon to the soil. </p>
<p>The Agriculture Department’s <a href="https://www.rd.usda.gov/programs-services/rural-energy-america-program-renewable-energy-systems-energy-efficiency">Rural Energy for America Program</a> provides grants and loans that can be used to support biodigester construction on farms. Expanding this program, which currently is funded at <a href="https://sustainableagriculture.net/publications/grassrootsguide/renewable-energy/renewable-energy-energy-efficiency/">$50 million yearly through 2022</a>, and making biodigesters a priority, is another climate-friendly opportunity.</p>
<p>When I think of climate-smart agriculture, I picture farmlands with lots of perennial vegetation smartly integrated as prairie strips, wetlands and crops. Federal policies and programs that can make such landscapes a reality are already in place. With concerted efforts and investments, they could be expanded to achieve a pace and scale that will help address climate change.</p>
<p>[<em>Get our best science, health and technology stories.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-best">Sign up for The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/157220/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa Schulte Moore has received funding from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bia-Echo Foundation, Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research, Walton Family Foundation, McKnight Foundation, Iowa State University, Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture, USDA Forest Service, National Science Foundation, US Fish and Wildlife Service, 11th Hour Project, Bayer Crop Science, The Nature Conservancy, Syngenta, Iowa Soybean Association, Iowa Agriculture Water Alliance, DuPont-Pioneer, Renewable Energy Group, Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Iowa Ornithological Union, and Iowa Native Plant Society. She is on the boards of the Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Practical Farmers of Iowa, Iowa Chapter of The Nature Conservancy, and Iowa Wildlife Federation, and advises Iowa Smart Agriculture.</span></em></p>Farmers can help slow climate change by mixing native grasses into croplands, restoring wetlands and raising perennial crops. These strategies also conserve soil and water and build new markets.Lisa Schulte Moore, Professor of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, Iowa State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1537762021-04-27T12:12:01Z2021-04-27T12:12:01ZArbor Day: Why planting trees isn’t enough<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522384/original/file-20230421-20-3y816m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=49%2C24%2C5406%2C3034&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Aerial view of native seedlings for forest restoration at the the Instituto Terra, Aimores, Brazil. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/aerial-view-of-the-tree-nursery-of-the-instituto-terra-at-news-photo/1189438752">Christian Ender/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For 151 years, Americans have marked <a href="https://www.arborday.org/celebrate/history.cfm">Arbor Day</a> on the last Friday in April by planting trees.
Now <a href="https://www.1t.org/">business leaders</a>, <a href="https://www.wri.org/blog/2020/02/how-where-plant-trees-us">politicians</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HPJKxAhLw5I">YouTubers</a> and <a href="https://www.vogue.co.uk/news/article/gisele-bundchen-40-birthday-trees">celebrities</a> are calling for the planting of millions, billions or even <a href="https://www.1t.org/">trillions of trees</a> to slow climate change.</p>
<p>As ecologists who study <a href="https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=LqwnWIoAAAAJ&hl=en">forest</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.co.jp/citations?user=0f_YV1wAAAAJ&hl=en">restoration</a>, we know that trees store carbon, provide habitat for animals and plants, prevent erosion and create shade in cities. But as we have explained elsewhere in detail, planting trees <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aba8232">is not a silver bullet</a> for solving complex environmental and social problems. And for trees to produce benefits, they need to be planted correctly – which often is not the case.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396141/original/file-20210420-23-1cy5iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Cartoon showing benefits and harms from tree-planting." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396141/original/file-20210420-23-1cy5iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396141/original/file-20210420-23-1cy5iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396141/original/file-20210420-23-1cy5iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396141/original/file-20210420-23-1cy5iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396141/original/file-20210420-23-1cy5iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396141/original/file-20210420-23-1cy5iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396141/original/file-20210420-23-1cy5iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Planting trees can have both positive and negative effects, depending on how projects are planned and managed and where they are done.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Vanessa Sontag, modified from Holl and Brancalion 2020.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Tree-planting is not a panacea</h2>
<p>It is impossible for humanity to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jul/04/planting-billions-trees-best-tackle-climate-crisis-scientists-canopy-emissions">plant its way out of climate change</a>, as some advocates have suggested, although trees are one part of the solution. Scientific assessments show that avoiding the worst consequences of climate change will require governments, businesses and individuals around the globe to make <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/2020/07/31/energy-climatechallenge/">rapid and drastic efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions</a>. </p>
<p>Moreover, planting trees in the wrong place can have unintended consequences. For example, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GAoVZoZpqro">planting trees into native grasslands</a>, such as North American prairies or African savannas, <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-tree-planting-actually-damages-ecosystems-120786">can damage these valuable ecosystems</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396108/original/file-20210420-17-llbbwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396108/original/file-20210420-17-llbbwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396108/original/file-20210420-17-llbbwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396108/original/file-20210420-17-llbbwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396108/original/file-20210420-17-llbbwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396108/original/file-20210420-17-llbbwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396108/original/file-20210420-17-llbbwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396108/original/file-20210420-17-llbbwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A monoculture of exotic eucalyptus trees (background) was planted into a native grassland within the Brazilian Cerrado, a global hot spot for conservation priorities. Transforming an open ecosystem into a shaded monoculture plantation can harm native plant and animal species and reduce the water supply for local people and aquatic creatures.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Robin Chazdon</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Planting fast-growing, nonnative trees in arid areas may also <a href="https://theconversation.com/planting-trees-must-be-done-with-care-it-can-create-more-problems-than-it-addresses-128259">reduce water supplies</a>. And some top-down tree-planting programs implemented by international organizations or national governments displace farmers and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1014773107">lead them to clear forests elsewhere</a>.</p>
<p>Large-scale tree-planting initiatives have failed in locations from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12492">Sri Lanka</a> to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/30/most-of-11m-trees-planted-in-turkish-project-may-be-dead">Turkey</a> to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/how-to-regrow-forest-right-way-minimize-fire-water-use">Canada</a>. In some places, the tree species were not well suited to local soil and climate conditions. Elsewhere, the trees were not watered or fertilized. In some cases local people <a href="https://www.theweek.in/news/world/2020/08/10/pakistan-locals-at-khyber-uproot-trees-planted-by-government.html">removed trees</a> that were planted on their land without permission. And when trees die or are cut down, any carbon they have taken up returns to the atmosphere, negating benefits from planting them.</p>
<h2>Focus on growing trees</h2>
<p>We think it’s time to change the narrative from <a href="https://www.worldagroforestry.org/publication/tree-planting-tree-growing-rethinking-ecosystem-restoration-through-trees">tree-planting to tree-growing</a>. Most tree-planting efforts focus on <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HPJKxAhLw5I">digging a hole and putting a seedling in the ground</a>, but the work doesn’t stop there. And tree-planting diverts attention from <a href="https://www.iis-rio.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/IIS_CI_CIFOR._Progress_report_natural_regeneration_.pdf">promoting natural forest regrowth</a>. </p>
<p>To achieve benefits from tree-planting, the trees need to grow for a decade or more. Unfortunately, evidence suggests that reforested areas are often <a href="https://theconversation.com/restoring-tropical-forests-isnt-meaningful-if-those-forests-only-stand-for-10-or-20-years-107880">recleared within a decade or two</a>. We recommend that tree-growing efforts set targets for the area of forest restored after 10, 20 or 50 years, rather than focusing on numbers of seedlings planted. </p>
<p>And it may not even be necessary to actively plant trees. For example, much of the eastern U.S. was <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2260864">logged in the 18th and 19th centuries</a>. But for the past century, where nature has been left to take its course, large areas of forests have regrown without people’s planting trees. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522385/original/file-20230421-5447-7awbnd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A stream runs through a wooded area past remains of an old stone wall." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522385/original/file-20230421-5447-7awbnd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522385/original/file-20230421-5447-7awbnd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522385/original/file-20230421-5447-7awbnd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522385/original/file-20230421-5447-7awbnd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522385/original/file-20230421-5447-7awbnd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522385/original/file-20230421-5447-7awbnd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522385/original/file-20230421-5447-7awbnd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hardwood forests like this one in central New England have regrown after logging in the 18th and 19th centuries.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://harvardforest.fas.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/dioramas/hi_res/1-8-modernforestlandscape1.jpg">David Foster/Harvard Forest</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Helping tree-growing campaigns succeed</h2>
<p>Tree-growing is expected to receive unprecedented financial, political and societal support in the coming years as part of the <a href="https://www.decadeonrestoration.org/">U.N. Decade on Ecosystem Restoration</a> and ambitious initiatives such as the <a href="https://www.bonnchallenge.org/content/challenge">Bonn Challenge</a> and World Economic Forum 1t.org campaign to <a href="https://appliedecologistsblog.com/2020/09/02/how-can-we-improve-tree-planting-outcomes/1t.org">conserve, restore and grow 1 trillion trees</a>. It would be an enormous waste to squander this unique opportunity.</p>
<p>Here are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13725">key guidelines that we</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15498">others</a> have proposed to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SqWp65AtgZc">improve the outcomes of tree-planting campaigns</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/blogs/sustainability-works/posts/planting-trees-is-good-saving-existing-forests-is-better-protecting-people-and-nature-is-best"><strong>Keep existing forests standing</strong></a>. <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/about/">Global Forest Watch</a>, an online platform that monitors forests around the world, estimates that the Earth lost an area of rainforest <a href="https://blog.globalforestwatch.org/data-and-research/global-tree-cover-loss-data-2020/">the size of New Mexico in 2020</a>. It is much more effective to <a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-beat-climate-change-protect-our-natural-forests-121491">prevent clearing of existing forests</a> than to try to put them back together again. And existing forests provide benefits now, rather than decades into the future after trees mature. </p>
<p>Protecting existing forests often requires <a href="https://www.rncalliance.org/WebRoot/rncalliance/Shops/rncalliance/509E/0633/706F/6EAF/F598/C0A8/D2F8/45D2/DTP2_239_English_Brancalion_0020_et_0020_al_4-10-12.pdf">providing alternative income</a> for people who maintain trees on their land rather than logging them or growing crops. It also is important to strengthen enforcement of protected areas, and to promote supply chains for timber and agricultural products that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-021-01417-z">do not involve forest-clearing</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Include nearby communities in tree-growing projects</strong>. International organizations and national governments fund many tree-growing projects, but their goals may be quite different from those of local residents who are actually growing the trees on their land. Study after study has shown that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-013-0213-7">involving local farmers and communities</a> in the process, from planning through monitoring, is <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab96d1">key to tree-growing success</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396112/original/file-20210420-19-jirviz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Tree-planting projects that involve local communities are more likely to succeed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396112/original/file-20210420-19-jirviz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396112/original/file-20210420-19-jirviz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396112/original/file-20210420-19-jirviz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396112/original/file-20210420-19-jirviz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396112/original/file-20210420-19-jirviz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396112/original/file-20210420-19-jirviz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396112/original/file-20210420-19-jirviz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A farmer and representatives from an international NGO and a restoration company discuss where to plant native trees on a cattle ranch in the Brazilian Amazon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pedro Brancalion</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Start with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13725">careful planning</a>.</strong> Which species are most likely to grow well given local site conditions? Which species will best achieve the project’s goals? And who will take care of the trees after they are planted?</p>
<p>It is important to plant in areas where trees have grown historically, and to consider whether future climatic conditions are likely to support trees. Planting in areas that are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/140052">less productive for agriculture</a> reduces the risk that the land will be recleared or existing forests will be cut down to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1014773107">compensate for lost productive areas</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Plan for the long term</strong>. Most tree seedlings need care to survive and grow. This may include multiyear commitments to water, fertilize, weed and protect them from grazing or fire and monitor whether the venture achieves its goals. </p>
<p>We recently <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2022.04.001">published</a> a <a href="https://www.climateandcapitalmedia.com/the-pitfalls-of-the-global-tree-planting-frenzy/">list of questions</a> that all tree-growing organizations should answer and that funders should ask before pulling out their wallets. They include questions about whether the initial drivers of deforestation have been addressed, how the project will be maintained and monitored over time, and how local stakeholders will be involved and benefit from the project. It’s also important to look at the outcomes of prior tree-growing projects overseen by the organization.</p>
<p>Organizations that follow best practices are much more likely to grow trees successfully over the long term. Planting seedlings is just the first step.</p>
<p><em>This is an update of an <a href="https://theconversation.com/arbor-day-should-be-about-growing-trees-not-just-planting-them-153776">article</a> originally published on April 27, 2021.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153776/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karen Holl receives funding from the U.S. National Science Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pedro Brancalion receives funding from The São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) and Fundação de Estudos Agrários "Luiz de Queiroz". </span></em></p>Large-scale tree-planting projects are politically popular and media-friendly, but without effective planning and long-term management, they can do more harm than good.Karen D. Holl, Professor of Restoration Ecology, University of California, Santa CruzPedro Brancalion, Professor of Forest Restoration, Universidade de São Paulo (USP)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1536092021-03-22T12:25:05Z2021-03-22T12:25:05ZTo help insects, make them welcome in your garden – here’s how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390209/original/file-20210317-17-1pdecdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C0%2C1637%2C1012&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An insect-friendly wildflower swath at California State University, Fullerton's arboretum.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/25C1wyq">TDLucas5000/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As winter phases into spring across the U.S., gardeners are laying in supplies and making plans. Meanwhile, as the weather warms, common garden insects such as bees, beetles and butterflies will emerge from underground burrows or nests within or on plants. </p>
<p>Most gardeners know how beneficial insects can be for their plots. <a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/animals/flies.shtml">Flies pollinate flowers</a>. Predatory bugs, such as the <a href="http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/beneficial/podisus_maculiventris.htm">spined shoulder bug</a>, eat pest insects that otherwise would tuck into garden plants. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=tzo9De0AAAAJ&hl=en">scientist whose research involves insects</a> and as a gardener, I know that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023989118">many beneficial insect species are declining</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-an-insect-apocalypse-happening-how-would-we-know-113170">need humans’ help</a>. If you’re a gardener looking for a new challenge this year, consider revamping all or part of your yard to support beneficial insects.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/H-iIgTNdmRo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Ladybugs, lacewings, spiders, earthworms and honey bees are among the most beneficial common garden animals.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Lawns are insect food deserts</h2>
<p>Some gardeners <a href="https://plants.usda.gov/checklist.html">choose native plants</a> to attract and support helpful insects. Often, however, those native plants are surrounded by vast expanses of lawn.</p>
<p>The vast majority of insect species find blades of grass as unappetizing as we do. Yet, lawns sprawl out across many public and private spaces. <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Lawn">NASA estimated in 2005</a> that lawns covered at least 50,000 square miles (128,000 square kilometers) of the U.S. – about the size of the entire state of Mississippi. </p>
<p>A well-manicured lawn is a sure sign that humanity has imposed its will on nature. Lawns provide an accessible and familiar landscape, but they come at a cost for our six-legged neighbors. Grasses grown as turf provide very few places for insects to safely tuck themselves away, because homeowners and groundskeepers cut them short – before they send up flowering spikes – and apply fertilizers and pesticides to keep them green. </p>
<p>Entomologists have a recomendation: Dig up some fraction of your lawn and convert it into a meadow by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2002547117">replacing grass with native wildflowers</a>. Wildflowers provide pollen and nectar that feed and attract a variety of insects like ants, native bees and butterflies. Just as you may have a favorite local restaurant, insects that live around you have a taste for the flowers that are native to their areas. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1148408008923328513"}"></div></p>
<p>This bold choice will not just benefit insects. Healthier insects support local birds, and meadows require fewer chemical inputs and less mowing than lawns. The amount of attention lawns demand from us, even if we outsource the work to a landscaping company, is a sign of their precarity. </p>
<p>A meadow is a wilder, more resilient option. Resilient ecosystems are better able to respond to and recover from disturbances. </p>
<p>Entomologist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=3EsB164AAAAJ&hl=en">Ryan Gott</a>, integrated pest management and quality control specialist at Maitri Genetics in Pittsburgh, describes lawns and meadows as two opposite ends of a resiliency spectrum. “As far as basic ecological functions go, a lawn does not have many. A lawn mainly extracts nutrition and water, usually receiving outside inputs of fertilizer and irrigation to stay alive, and returns very little to the system,” he told me. </p>
<p>Native flowers, by definition, will grow well in your climate, although some areas will have more choices than others and growing seasons vary. Native plants also provide a palette of colors and variety that lawns sorely lack. By planting them as a meadow, with many different flowers emerging throughout the growing season, you can provide for a diverse assortment of local insects. And mowing and fertilizing less will leave you more time to appreciate wildlife of all sizes.</p>
<p>There are many different types of meadows, and every wildflower species has different preferences for soil type and conditions. Meadows thrive in full sunlight, which is also where lawns typically do well. </p>
<h2>Making insects feel at home</h2>
<p>Not every yard can support a meadow, but there are other ways to be a better, more considerate neighbor to insects. If you have a shady yard, consider modeling your garden after natural landscapes like woodlands that are shady and support insects. </p>
<p>What’s important in landscaping with insects in mind, or “entoscaping,” is <a href="https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/insects-and-man/gardening-for-insects.html">considering insects early and often</a> when you visit the garden store. With a few pots or window boxes, even a balcony can be converted into a cozy insect oasis. </p>
<p>If you’re gardenless, you can still support insect health. Try replacing white outdoor lights, which <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/light-pollution-contributes-insect-apocalypse-180973642/">interfere with many insects’ feeding and breeding patterns</a>. White lights also lure insects into swarms, where they are vulnerable to predators. <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-have-figured-out-the-type-of-light-bulb-to-use-if-you-want-to-avoid-insects">Yellow bulbs or warm-hued LEDs</a> don’t have these effects. </p>
<p>[<em>Get facts about coronavirus and the latest research.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=coronavirus-facts">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter.</a>]</p>
<p>Another easy project is using scrap wood and packing materials to create simple “hotels” for <a href="https://modernfarmer.com/2017/02/build-native-bee-hotel/">bees</a> or <a href="https://www.hgtv.com/design/make-and-celebrate/handmade/craft-a-ladybug-hotel">ladybugs</a>, making sure to carefully sanitize them between seasons. Easiest of all, <a href="https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=26345">provide water for insects to drink</a> – they’re adorable to watch as they sip. Replace standing water at least weekly to prevent mosquitoes from developing.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390417/original/file-20210318-23-16piil9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Butterflies on a pebbled pathway." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390417/original/file-20210318-23-16piil9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390417/original/file-20210318-23-16piil9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390417/original/file-20210318-23-16piil9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390417/original/file-20210318-23-16piil9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390417/original/file-20210318-23-16piil9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390417/original/file-20210318-23-16piil9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390417/original/file-20210318-23-16piil9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Giant swallowtail (left) and Palamedes swallowtail (right) drinking water from a puddle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/PGuLZ">K. Draper/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A refuge in every yard</h2>
<p>Many resources across the U.S. offer advice on converting your lawn or making your yard more insect-friendly. </p>
<p>The Xerces Society for Insect Conservation publishes a <a href="https://xerces.org/publications/guidelines/establishing-pollinator-meadows-from-seed">guide to establishing meadows</a> to sustain insects. Local university extension offices <a href="https://extension.unh.edu/resource/planting-pollinators-establishing-wildflower-meadow-seed-fact-sheet">post tips on growing meadows</a> with specific instructions and resources for their areas. Gardening stores often have experience and carry selections of local plants.</p>
<p>You may find established communities of enthusiasts for local plants and seeds, or your journey could be the start of such a group. Part of the fun of gardening is learning what plants need to be healthy, and a new endeavor like entoscaping will provide fresh challenges.</p>
<p>In my view, humans all too often see ourselves as separate from nature, which leads us to relegate biodiversity to designated parks. In fact, however, we are an important part of the natural world, and <a href="https://www.si.edu/spotlight/buginfo/benefits">we need insects</a> just as much as they need us. As ecologist <a href="https://www.udel.edu/canr/departments/entomology-and-wildlife-ecology/faculty-staff/doug-tallamy/">Douglas Tallamy</a> argues in his book, “<a href="https://www.workman.com/products/natures-best-hope">Nature’s Best Hope</a>,” the best way to protect biodiversity is for people to plant native plants and promote conservation in every yard.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153609/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian Lovett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Looking for a new gardening challenge? Turning your yard into an insect-friendly oasis could mean less work and more nature to enjoy.Brian Lovett, Postdoctoral Researcher in Mycology, West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1447272020-12-28T21:42:12Z2020-12-28T21:42:12Z‘Like finding life on Mars’: why the underground orchid is Australia’s strangest, most mysterious flower<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371661/original/file-20201127-15-cew647.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C11%2C3970%2C2652&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">_Rhizanthella speciosa_ from Barrington Tops</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you ask someone to imagine an orchid, chances are pots of moth orchids lined up for sale in a hardware store will spring to mind, with their thick shiny leaves and vibrant petals. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371665/original/file-20201127-24-f9q54n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Moth orchids with purple flowers in a pot" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371665/original/file-20201127-24-f9q54n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371665/original/file-20201127-24-f9q54n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371665/original/file-20201127-24-f9q54n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371665/original/file-20201127-24-f9q54n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371665/original/file-20201127-24-f9q54n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371665/original/file-20201127-24-f9q54n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371665/original/file-20201127-24-f9q54n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Orchids like this may be what comes to mind when you think of them, but there are actually more 30,000 different orchid species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But Australia’s orchids are greater in number and stranger in form than many people realise. Rock orchids, fairy orchids, butterfly orchids, leek orchids and even onion orchids all look more or less the same. But would you recognise a clump of grass-like roots clinging to a tree trunk as an orchid? </p>
<p>What about a small, pale tuber that spends its whole life underground, blooms underground and smells like vanilla? This is the underground orchid, <em>Rhizanthella</em>, and it’s perhaps the strangest Australian orchid of them all. </p>
<p>Even to me, having spent a lifetime researching orchids, the idea of a subterranean orchid is like finding life on Mars. I never expected to even see one, let alone have the privilege of working on them.</p>
<h2>Known for almost a century, but rarely seen</h2>
<p>The family Orchidaceae is the largest group of flowering plants on Earth, comprising <a href="http://www.canbr.gov.au/cpbr/orchids/key-article-biolog-2005.html">more than 30,000 species</a>. Australia is home to around 1,550 species and 95% are endemic, meaning they don’t occur naturally anywhere else in the world.</p>
<p><em>Rhizanthella</em> has been known to science <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/node/15887">since 1928</a>, when a farmer in Western Australia who was ploughing mallee for wheat fields noticed a number of tuber-like plants among the roots of broom bushes. Recognising them as unusual, he sent some specimens to the Western Australian Herbarium. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371672/original/file-20201127-14-vfc5bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371672/original/file-20201127-14-vfc5bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371672/original/file-20201127-14-vfc5bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=756&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371672/original/file-20201127-14-vfc5bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=756&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371672/original/file-20201127-14-vfc5bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=756&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371672/original/file-20201127-14-vfc5bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=950&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371672/original/file-20201127-14-vfc5bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=950&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371672/original/file-20201127-14-vfc5bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=950&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The species <em>Rhizanthella gardneri</em> occurs in Western Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/63479603@N00/3099500916">Fred Hort/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-8748.00378">In 1931</a>, another underground orchid was discovered in eastern Australia at Bulahdelah in NSW by an orchid hunter who was digging up a hyacinth orchid and found an unusual plant tangled in its roots. Three quarters of a century later, I was involved in conserving the population of <em>Rhizanthella</em> in this location when the Bulahdelah bypass was built.</p>
<p>And most recently, in September, I confirmed an <a href="http://www.lankesteriana.org/LankesterianaJournal/20(2)/07.%20Clements%20&%20Jones%202020.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2qd5_Q-eVlVpN49ENDF7Vp_U2XjyKmYuyAV33WMohbqKSB7cgYdqeuovk">entirely new species</a> of underground orchid, named <em>Rhizanthella speciosa</em>, after science illustrator <a href="https://www.mareeelliott.com.au/about">Maree Elliott</a> first stumbled upon it <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-09-13/new-underground-orchid-flower-find-thrills-botanists/12656410">four years ago</a> in Barrington Tops National Park, NSW. </p>
<p>Elliott’s discovery brings the total number of <em>Rhizanthella</em> species known to science to five, with the other two from eastern Australia and two from Western Australia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371668/original/file-20201127-17-ptgvwe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The pink flower head of the _Rhizanthella speciosa_" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371668/original/file-20201127-17-ptgvwe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371668/original/file-20201127-17-ptgvwe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371668/original/file-20201127-17-ptgvwe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371668/original/file-20201127-17-ptgvwe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371668/original/file-20201127-17-ptgvwe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371668/original/file-20201127-17-ptgvwe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371668/original/file-20201127-17-ptgvwe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The newly discovered species, <em>Rhizanthella speciosa</em>, found in Barrington Tops.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark Clements</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>All species are vulnerable</h2>
<p>For much of its life, an underground orchid exists in the soil as a small white rhizome (thickened underground stem). When it flowers, it remains hidden under leaf litter and soil close to the surface, its petals think and pink, its flower head a little larger than a 50 cent coin. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/majestic-stunning-intriguing-and-bizarre-new-guinea-has-13-634-species-of-plants-and-these-are-some-of-our-favourites-144279">'Majestic, stunning, intriguing and bizarre': New Guinea has 13,634 species of plants, and these are some of our favourites</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Its pollinator is probably a tiny fly that burrows down to lay eggs in the orchid, mistaking the flower for a fungus.</p>
<p>Today, all <em>Rhizanthella</em> species are vulnerable: the species <em>R. gardneri</em> and <em>R. johnstonii</em> are listed as <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2020L01211/Explanatory%20Statement/Text">critically endangered</a> under national environment laws, while <a href="https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/profile.aspx?id=10730"><em>R. slateri</em></a> and and <a href="https://apps.des.qld.gov.au/species-search/details/?id=30870"><em>R. omissa</em></a> are listed as endangered. The most recently discovered species hasn’t yet been listed, but its scarcity means it’s probably <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-09-13/new-underground-orchid-flower-find-thrills-botanists/12656410">highly vulnerable</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371669/original/file-20201127-21-u2nylc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371669/original/file-20201127-21-u2nylc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371669/original/file-20201127-21-u2nylc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371669/original/file-20201127-21-u2nylc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371669/original/file-20201127-21-u2nylc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371669/original/file-20201127-21-u2nylc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371669/original/file-20201127-21-u2nylc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371669/original/file-20201127-21-u2nylc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"><em>Rhizanthella speciosa</em>. The seeds of underground orchids are like ball bearings, and the fruits smell like vanilla.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark Clements</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The conservation of the underground orchid is complicated. Knowing where it exists, and where it doesn’t, is one problem. Another is knowing how to grow it. </p>
<p>All orchid species need a buddy, a particular soil fungus, for their seeds to germinate, and <em>Rhizanthella</em> must have its habitat to survive. Unfortunately, it’s extremely difficult to just grow it in a pot. </p>
<h2>Seeds like ball bearings</h2>
<p>We also know very little about the biology of <em>Rhizanthella</em>. But here’s what we do know. </p>
<p>We’ve discovered the fungus that buddies up with underground orchids in Western Australia is indeed the same as that in eastern Australia. We know underground orchids tend to grow in wetter forests and that burning will kill them. And we know that after pollination, the seed head of an underground orchid takes 11 months to mature.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371664/original/file-20201127-22-jzd81s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The floral structures of four described species of _Rhizanthella_" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371664/original/file-20201127-22-jzd81s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371664/original/file-20201127-22-jzd81s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=924&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371664/original/file-20201127-22-jzd81s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=924&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371664/original/file-20201127-22-jzd81s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=924&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371664/original/file-20201127-22-jzd81s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1161&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371664/original/file-20201127-22-jzd81s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1161&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371664/original/file-20201127-22-jzd81s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1161&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The floral structures of four described species of <em>Rhizanthella</em>: (a) <em>R. slateri</em> (b) <em>R. omissa</em> (c) <em>R. johnstonii</em> (d) <em>R. gardneri</em></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris J. Thorogood, Jeremy J. Bougoure et Simon J. Hiscock/Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most orchids have wind-dispersed seeds. Some are so light that drifting between Queensland and Papua New Guinea might be possible, and might explain its vast distribution. </p>
<p>The seeds of underground orchids, however, are like ball bearings and the fruits smell like the famous <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/entry/vanilla-comes-from_n_5021060">vanilla orchid</a> of Mexico, whose seeds and pods add scent and flavour to everything from candles to ice cream. </p>
<p>In nature, bats disperse the seeds of the vanilla orchid. So we set up infra-red cameras in Bulahdelah as part of the bypass project to find out what animals might disperse the seeds of the underground orchid. We observed swamp wallabies and long-nosed bandicoots visiting the site where <em>R. slateri</em> grows. </p>
<p>We suspect they disperse the seeds of underground orchids via their excrement, finding the orchid among truffles and other goodies in the leaf litter and soil of the forest floor. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371670/original/file-20201127-21-j6gfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A swamp wallaby in the bush" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371670/original/file-20201127-21-j6gfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371670/original/file-20201127-21-j6gfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371670/original/file-20201127-21-j6gfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371670/original/file-20201127-21-j6gfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371670/original/file-20201127-21-j6gfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371670/original/file-20201127-21-j6gfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371670/original/file-20201127-21-j6gfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Swamp wallabies and long-nosed bandicoots may disperse the underground orchid seeds, but they’re locally extinct in WA.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Western Australia, these animals are locally extinct. Without bandicoots and wallabies to transport seeds away from the parent plant, the natural cycle of renewal and establishment of new plants has been broken. This cannot be good for the long-term survival of the two Western Australian <em>Rhizanthella</em> species. </p>
<h2>An alien in the floral world</h2>
<p>Conservation of the underground orchid might require <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/node/15887">intricate strategies</a>, such as reintroducing bandicoots to a protected area, preventing bushfires and using alternatives to burning to manage the land.</p>
<p>An important first step is to find more populations of underground orchids to help us learn more about them. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371678/original/file-20201127-17-1dhgy45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Leek orchid" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371678/original/file-20201127-17-1dhgy45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371678/original/file-20201127-17-1dhgy45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371678/original/file-20201127-17-1dhgy45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371678/original/file-20201127-17-1dhgy45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371678/original/file-20201127-17-1dhgy45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371678/original/file-20201127-17-1dhgy45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371678/original/file-20201127-17-1dhgy45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A leek orchid.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our work with DNA has shown, in the orchid family tree, <em>Rhizanthella</em> is most closely related to leek orchids (<em>Prasophyllum</em>) and onion orchids (<em>Microtis</em>). </p>
<p>But as you can see from the photo of a leek orchid above, it bears no resemblance to a subterranean flower, like an alien in the floral world.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/leek-orchids-are-beautiful-endangered-and-we-have-no-idea-how-to-grow-them-103224">Leek orchids are beautiful, endangered and we have no idea how to grow them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/144727/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Clements does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What blooms underground and smells like vanilla? The answer is an underground orchid, and I never expected to see one, let alone have the privilege of working on them.Mark Clements, Botanist, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1508522020-12-23T21:05:42Z2020-12-23T21:05:42ZSnow in summer: when this tree begins to bloom, count down the days to Christmas<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375281/original/file-20201216-17-1my8hed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C31%2C5152%2C3414&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Often in the lead up to Christmas, the tree with the curious common name “snow in summer” is in full bloom. </p>
<p>Snow in summer (<em>Melaleuca linariifolia</em>) is an Australian paperbark, and is endemic to parts of Queensland and New South Wales. It has spikes of creamy white flowers that grow in dense clusters at the ends of branches and twigs. When in profusion, they look very much like snow-capped foliage. </p>
<p>It intrigued me as a youngster and, not surprisingly, I associated it with Christmas and the images of the snowy festivals of the northern hemisphere, which were such a contrast to our own experiences.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/once-again-wattles-are-out-in-bloom-heres-what-makes-our-iconic-flowers-so-special-146109">Once again, wattles are out in bloom: here's what makes our iconic flowers so special</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Depending where you live, <em>Melaleuca linariifolia</em> tends to flower from late October until February, but in many parts of Australia they are in full flower in December. Once they start, however, you must be quick to catch sight of them — the impressive flower show doesn’t last more than a couple of weeks. </p>
<h2>Hear the hum of insects</h2>
<p>Naturally, snow in summer often grows near water and rivers, and can reach heights of ten to 12 metres (but is often lucky to make it to eight metres). </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375280/original/file-20201216-19-1g5lvth.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up of snow in summer flowers" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375280/original/file-20201216-19-1g5lvth.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375280/original/file-20201216-19-1g5lvth.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375280/original/file-20201216-19-1g5lvth.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375280/original/file-20201216-19-1g5lvth.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375280/original/file-20201216-19-1g5lvth.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375280/original/file-20201216-19-1g5lvth.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375280/original/file-20201216-19-1g5lvth.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The flowers attract native birds and bees.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Greg Moore</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Its dense canopy provides excellent habitat for native birds and mammals such as honey-eaters and possums, as it offers protection and great nesting sites. The nectar in its flowers attracts native birds, bees and other insects, and if you wander past when it’s in full bloom, you can hear the hum of insect visitors. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-theres-a-lot-more-to-love-about-jacarandas-than-just-their-purple-flowers-150851">Why there's a lot more to love about jacarandas than just their purple flowers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The fruits develop as hard woody capsules, which only release their seed after a fire or when they dry out. They are like little woody cups about five millimetres across, glued to the woody branches. </p>
<p>Like all paperbarks, the bark of snow in summer is wonderfully spongy and can be quite thick. You can peel it off in sheets, draw and write on it. It also had uses for Indigenous peoples, who would <a href="https://www.monash.edu/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/542119/Guide-to-the-Aboriginal-Garden-Clayton-Campus.pdf">wrap the strips of bark</a> around fish or meat and then bury the food under sand or soil for slow cooking. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375283/original/file-20201216-19-1meu641.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Paperbark trunk" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375283/original/file-20201216-19-1meu641.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375283/original/file-20201216-19-1meu641.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375283/original/file-20201216-19-1meu641.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375283/original/file-20201216-19-1meu641.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375283/original/file-20201216-19-1meu641.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375283/original/file-20201216-19-1meu641.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375283/original/file-20201216-19-1meu641.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The thick, spongy bark of <em>Melaleuca linariifolia</em> can be easily torn off in large strips.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Robert McPherson/Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>From farms and nature strips to pharmacies</h2>
<p>As far back as the 1970s, snow in summer was planted in <a href="http://anpsa.org.au/m-lin.html">urban nature strips</a> and as an effective landscape screening plant. While many of those 1970s nature strip trees are gone, those that remain still put on quite a show.</p>
<p>They were also planted widely as a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112797000054">wind break</a> on farms because of its low growing habit and dense canopy. But farmers may have been left disappointed as the trees burnt well in fires and tended to collapse as they reached the end of their useful lives, which could be as short as 20 years. </p>
<p>It has been widely used horticulturally and there are compact forms, such as those named “snowstorm” and “sea foam”, that grow only to about two metres and make hardy garden shrubs. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375285/original/file-20201216-17-hfcdz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Snow in summer trees along nature strips" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375285/original/file-20201216-17-hfcdz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375285/original/file-20201216-17-hfcdz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375285/original/file-20201216-17-hfcdz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375285/original/file-20201216-17-hfcdz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375285/original/file-20201216-17-hfcdz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375285/original/file-20201216-17-hfcdz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375285/original/file-20201216-17-hfcdz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Snow in summer is native to eastern Australia, but has been planted widely elsewhere, such as in California, US.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/john_d_rusk/18470782561/in/photolist-39CyKK-u8ErqE-u9cA9i-72jQU1-tc2h9d-39CyGZ-92jaJE-7cvviJ-92dJR2-942o9c-7cvvpj-92dJN6-92dK1x-92gRvo-P69qjb-8Wtv4n-UuQTNv-UCJB2o-7ugA6p-VwzzmA-Vwzzv3-UmzzDe-U7g4ud-U7g4WL-PWnVB4-8i4sbX-2j2dRCB-2hP7SkW-rePyii-2j2a92T-2j2cgJF-2j2dRHr-2e2EY97-24w6qD4-2j2dT59">John Rusk/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For the gardeners, <em>Melaleuca linariifolia</em> is <a href="http://anpsa.org.au/m-lin.html">easy to propagate</a> from both cuttings and seed. It has quite an extensive root system that can cause problems if you have leaky pipes. They love water — in fact, they’re what botanists call “luxury water users”, and have little or no control of how much water they take from the soil. </p>
<p>They grow well in almost any soil and it doesn’t matter if they’re occasionally waterlogged, as they tolerate periods of inundation. If you want a plant that will drain a swamp, <em>Melaleucas</em> in general are up for it.</p>
<p>Like many members of the Myrtaceae family — which includes eucalypts and tea tree — <em>Melaleuca linariifoliais</em> are rich in essential oils. One of these, Terpinen-4-ol <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28782167/">is found in high concentrations</a> in snow in summer and is an antioxidant and powerful antiseptic. </p>
<p>It can be used as disinfectant and to treat skin problems as it is non-irritant. There is great <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28782167/">scientific interest</a> at the moment in its use in anti-bacterial and anti-viral medicines. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375287/original/file-20201216-23-163o5t0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Fluffy flowers of snow in summer" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375287/original/file-20201216-23-163o5t0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375287/original/file-20201216-23-163o5t0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375287/original/file-20201216-23-163o5t0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375287/original/file-20201216-23-163o5t0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375287/original/file-20201216-23-163o5t0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375287/original/file-20201216-23-163o5t0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375287/original/file-20201216-23-163o5t0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Snow is summer typically blooms for only around two weeks every year.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>By any other name</h2>
<p>Just to avoid confusion, some of you may know of other plants as snow in summer. The most common is <a href="https://www.mortonarb.org/trees-plants/tree-plant-descriptions/snow-summer"><em>Cerastium tomentosum</em></a>, which is a low growing ground cover with small white trumpet-like flowers. It is a southern European plant, but has been widely planted in gardens around the world. Likewise, <em>Melaleuca alternifolia</em> is also called snow in summer and was once considered to be a variety of <em>Melaleuca linariifolia</em>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tree-ferns-are-older-than-dinosaurs-and-thats-not-even-the-most-interesting-thing-about-them-138435">Tree ferns are older than dinosaurs. And that's not even the most interesting thing about them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Melaleuca linariifolia</em> was one of the first plants I planted in my own first (and only) backyard in the late 1970s. </p>
<p>I always anticipated its flowering and would make sure our children saw the flowers, explained why it was called snow in summer and usually noted the number of days to Christmas. It is one of the trees they remember still.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150852/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gregory Moore does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In many parts of Australia, the trees are in full flower in December. But once they start you must be quick to catch sight of them, the impressive flower show doesn’t last more than a couple of weeks.Gregory Moore, Doctor of Botany, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1452402020-10-20T19:00:42Z2020-10-20T19:00:42ZFood, tools and medicine: 5 native plants that illuminate deep Aboriginal knowledge<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363629/original/file-20201015-13-1fe6wwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=27%2C0%2C4592%2C2597&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over countless millennia, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have harnessed the tremendous potential of plants, ingeniously using them <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-art-of-healing-five-medicinal-plants-used-by-aboriginal-australians-97249">for medicines</a>, <a href="https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/A/Aboriginal%20traditional%20diet.htm">nutrition</a>, to express <a href="https://www.mirrnongminnie.com.au">our culture</a> and to develop <a href="http://collections.anmm.gov.au/objects/33590/eel-trap;jsessionid=D22CB3BC736581CC5DC4AC4A6D54FC75">innovative technologies</a>. </p>
<p>But as I learn more about First Peoples’ plant knowledge, I’m also better understanding the broader Australian community’s failure to recognise the depth and breadth of our expertise. </p>
<p>Aboriginal people, our culture and deep knowledges are often <a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-when-did-australias-human-history-begin-87251">seen as</a> “in the past”, fixed and stagnant. </p>
<p>Damaging perceptions which cast us as lesser and posit us as a
homogenous peoples, who were limping towards inevitable extinction before
the arrival of a “superior” race, still abound. Such tropes deny our dynamic place in the present day, and our ability to <a href="https://aiatsis.gov.au/news-and-events/news/innovation-indigenous-genius-then-and-now">continuously adapt</a> and innovate.</p>
<p>Below I’ve listed five of my favourite indigenous plants and the multiple ways Aboriginal people used them, and continue to do so.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-address-the-ecological-crisis-aboriginal-peoples-must-be-restored-as-custodians-of-country-108594">To address the ecological crisis, Aboriginal peoples must be restored as custodians of Country</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These plants are examples from my <a href="https://nespurban.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Indigenous-plant-use.pdf">recent publication</a> exploring Aboriginal plant use, and highlight our deep knowledge and <a href="http://www.firesticks.org.au/">holistic approaches</a> to ecological management. </p>
<h2>1. Spiny-headed mat-rush (<em>Lomandra longifolia</em>)</h2>
<p>Spiny-headed mat-rush is a large tussocky plant found throughout southeastern Australia. </p>
<p>The Wurundjeri people <a href="https://nespurban.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Coranderrk-Plant-Brochure-pdf-002.pdf">particularly favour</a> this plant for weaving cultural items such as necklaces, headbands, girdles, baskets, mats and bags for carrying foods, as well as for making technologies such as eel traps and hunting nets. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363623/original/file-20201015-15-16hve22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Spiny-headed mat-rush" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363623/original/file-20201015-15-16hve22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363623/original/file-20201015-15-16hve22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363623/original/file-20201015-15-16hve22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363623/original/file-20201015-15-16hve22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363623/original/file-20201015-15-16hve22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363623/original/file-20201015-15-16hve22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363623/original/file-20201015-15-16hve22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Spiny-headed mat-rush.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Its seeds are high in protein. They can be collected and pounded into a bread mix, with the core of the plant and the base of the leaves eaten as a vegetable. </p>
<p>Many diverse Aboriginal peoples use the roots to treat bites and stings. The caterpillars of several butterflies, such as the Symmomus Skipper, also rely on this plant for food and habitat. </p>
<h2>2. Wallaby grass</h2>
<p>There are around 30 types of wallaby grass in Australia. Native grasslands were once the most extensive habitat of Victoria’s western plains, but are now the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jun/17/victorian-government-found-to-have-failed-to-protect-critically-endangered-grasslands">most endangered</a> plant community.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363625/original/file-20201015-23-1ygutvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Wallaby grass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363625/original/file-20201015-23-1ygutvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363625/original/file-20201015-23-1ygutvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363625/original/file-20201015-23-1ygutvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363625/original/file-20201015-23-1ygutvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363625/original/file-20201015-23-1ygutvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363625/original/file-20201015-23-1ygutvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363625/original/file-20201015-23-1ygutvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wallaby grass.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Tann/Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Grasslands provide food and habitat for a huge diversity of fauna, particularly birds, such as the peregrine falcon, whistling kite and Australian kestrels. Many animals, such as the legless lizard, little whip snake and fat-tailed dunnart, were once commonplace, but are now scarce in this endangered ecosystem. </p>
<p>Wallaby grass seeds make an excellent bread by pounding them into flour. The leaves and stem are also used to make cultural items, such as nets for fishing and hunting.</p>
<p>It’s also incredibly hardy – highly tolerant to frost, heat and drought, and requiring no fertilisers and little water. And it makes an excellent lawn, controlling erosion and weeds.</p>
<h2>3. Bulbine lily (<em>Bulbine bulbosa</em>)</h2>
<p>In summer, bulbine lily dies back to a dormant bulb, before re-shooting in late autumn. In spring, it displays vibrant yellow flowers. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363627/original/file-20201015-17-1t7zeie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Bulbine lily" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363627/original/file-20201015-17-1t7zeie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363627/original/file-20201015-17-1t7zeie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363627/original/file-20201015-17-1t7zeie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363627/original/file-20201015-17-1t7zeie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363627/original/file-20201015-17-1t7zeie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363627/original/file-20201015-17-1t7zeie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363627/original/file-20201015-17-1t7zeie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bulbine lily.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Bulbine lilies can be found in all states except Western Australia, growing wild in tandem with milkmaids and chocolate lilies in the few areas of Victoria’s undisturbed remnant vegetation.</p>
<p>It’s considered the sweetest tasting of all edible root plants and is available year-round. You can find a plump, round, cream-coloured storage organ (a type of underground stem) under its stalk, which can be eaten after being roasted. Bulbine lily is also nutritious, a good source of calcium and iron. </p>
<h2>4. Black kurrajong (<em>Brachychiton populneus</em>)</h2>
<p>Aboriginal peoples from many diverse groups favour the fibrous kurrajong bark for making string for fishing lines, nets and bags, as well as body adornments such as headbands. </p>
<p>Flowers turn to fruit in the form of leathery pods. These pods contain highly nutritious yellow seeds, which contain around 18% protein and 25% fat, and high levels of magnesium and zinc. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363630/original/file-20201015-13-113ep66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Black kurrajong" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363630/original/file-20201015-13-113ep66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363630/original/file-20201015-13-113ep66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363630/original/file-20201015-13-113ep66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363630/original/file-20201015-13-113ep66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363630/original/file-20201015-13-113ep66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363630/original/file-20201015-13-113ep66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363630/original/file-20201015-13-113ep66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Black kurrajong.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Luis Fernández García/Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To eat the seeds, you first must remove toxic yellow hairs surrounding them. They can be eaten raw and roasted, and have a pleasantly nutty flavour. The young roots of this tree also make an excellent food source and can provide water.</p>
<h2>5. Black sheoak (<em>Allocasuarina littoralis</em>)</h2>
<p>Favouring dry conditions, black sheoak is native to Queensland, Tasmania, NSW and Victoria, and can grow up to eight metres high. It flowers in spring, with either rusty-brown spikes or red flowers that develop into cones. </p>
<p>Its seeds are an important food source for many native birds, including parrots and cockatoos. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Black Sheoak" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363633/original/file-20201015-17-f8v0zb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363633/original/file-20201015-17-f8v0zb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363633/original/file-20201015-17-f8v0zb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363633/original/file-20201015-17-f8v0zb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363633/original/file-20201015-17-f8v0zb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363633/original/file-20201015-17-f8v0zb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363633/original/file-20201015-17-f8v0zb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Black sheoak.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Robert McPherson/Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Diverse groups of Aboriginal peoples use sheoaks for various purposes. The shoots and cones can be eaten, and sheoak wood can be used to fashion boomerangs, shields, clubs and other cultural implements because the wood is both strong and resists splitting and chipping.</p>
<p>In fact, the earliest evidence of boomerangs, found in the Wyrie Swamp in South Australia, were made from various <a href="https://bth.humanrights.gov.au/significance/historical-context-ancient-history">sheoak</a> species, and were dated at 10,000 years old. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-art-of-healing-five-medicinal-plants-used-by-aboriginal-australians-97249">The art of healing: five medicinal plants used by Aboriginal Australians</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/145240/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zena Cumpston receives funding from the Clean Air Urban Landscapes Hub, funded by the Australian Government's National Environmental Science Program</span></em></p>‘As I learn more about First Peoples’ plant knowledge, I’m also better understanding the broader Australian community’s failure to recognise the depth and breadth of our expertise.’Zena Cumpston, Research Fellow, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1448132020-09-16T03:25:23Z2020-09-16T03:25:23ZAustralia’s plants and animals have long been used without Indigenous consent. Now Queensland has taken a stand<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358148/original/file-20200915-22-4eg92c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C0%2C3385%2C2428&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> </figcaption></figure><p>Many products we use each day contain compounds taken from nature. Aspirin, for example, is derived from willow trees. And nanofibres from <a href="https://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/ijrlp/article/view/5713/6337">spinifex grass</a> in Queensland is added to bitumen to make stronger roads.</p>
<p>But throughout history, native plants, animals and other biological materials have been removed without the consent of Indigenous people. In many cases, Indigenous knowledge was also taken without permission – and Indigenous people rarely benefited from the commercial products developed as a result.</p>
<p>Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities have strong connections to country, and totemic relationships with certain plants and animals. If these are removed without permission, Indigenous people suffer significant spiritual harm. And using Indigenous knowledge without permission perpetuates the social and economic injustices of colonisation. </p>
<p>With those important considerations in mind, the Queensland government last month reformed a law governing “biodiscovery” - the taking, analysing and using of native biological material. It should serve as a model for other states to follow.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Indigenous women displays native seeds" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358159/original/file-20200915-18-squu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358159/original/file-20200915-18-squu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358159/original/file-20200915-18-squu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358159/original/file-20200915-18-squu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358159/original/file-20200915-18-squu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358159/original/file-20200915-18-squu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358159/original/file-20200915-18-squu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Indigenous cultural knowledge must be protected.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A leader in biodiscovery law</h2>
<p>In 2004, Queensland was the first Australian jurisdiction to <a href="https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-2004-019">regulate biodiscovery</a>. Since then, the Commonwealth and Northern Territory governments have also passed biodiscovery laws.</p>
<p>Queensland’s original Biodiscovery Act was beset with limitations, such as:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>it did not cover traditional knowledge. This meant Indigenous people were left out of benefit-sharing negotiations</p></li>
<li><p>it didn’t meet all requirements of the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/abs/">2014 Nagoya Protocol</a>, which sets conditions for access to genetic resources and traditional knowledge</p></li>
<li><p>the approvals process for biodiversity researchers was burdensome</p></li>
<li><p>only biological materials from state land or waters were regulated – not those from private or Indigenous land.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The Queensland government wanted to rectify these issues. During the reform process, it consulted widely – including with Indigenous people, scientists, and experts on intellectual property and Indigenous rights.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Hands holding native seeds" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358156/original/file-20200915-22-65ki34.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358156/original/file-20200915-22-65ki34.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358156/original/file-20200915-22-65ki34.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358156/original/file-20200915-22-65ki34.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358156/original/file-20200915-22-65ki34.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358156/original/file-20200915-22-65ki34.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358156/original/file-20200915-22-65ki34.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Queensland’s biodiscovery laws offer a model for other states.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So what’s changed?</h2>
<p>Under the revised law, anyone engaging in biodiscovery must take all reasonable measures to form agreement with the custodians of Indigenous knowledge being used. This includes a benefit-sharing agreement.</p>
<p>The act now aligns with the Nagoya Protocol. This is important for those in the Queensland biodiscovery industry who want to export to countries that have ratified the protocol, such as in Europe. The approvals process has also been streamlined.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/all-things-will-outlast-us-how-the-indigenous-concept-of-deep-time-helps-us-understand-environmental-destruction-132201">'All things will outlast us': how the Indigenous concept of deep time helps us understand environmental destruction</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Finally, the Queensland government is designing a “Traditional Knowledge Code of Practice” in consultation with Indigenous communities and other experts. The code will aim to help the biodiscovery industry work more inclusively with traditional knowledge custodians. It will be important to monitor whether the code meets these aims.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A hand holding native seeds" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358152/original/file-20200915-16-1bvvphd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358152/original/file-20200915-16-1bvvphd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358152/original/file-20200915-16-1bvvphd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358152/original/file-20200915-16-1bvvphd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358152/original/file-20200915-16-1bvvphd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358152/original/file-20200915-16-1bvvphd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358152/original/file-20200915-16-1bvvphd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Queensland government hopes the reform will encourage more biodiscovery.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Collaboration is key</h2>
<p>The Queensland government hopes the reforms will lead to more biodiscovery activities. These will often rely on the knowledge and practices of Indigenous people. </p>
<p>As well as custodians of Indigenous knowledge, others involved in the biodiscovery process include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>scientists researching the properties of native biological materials</p></li>
<li><p>businesses that commercialise new products</p></li>
<li><p>consumers who buy the products</p></li>
<li><p>government officials who grant regulatory approvals.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Collaboration between all these groups is key. One good example of this involves the Chuulangun Aboriginal Corporation and researchers at the University of South Australia. In 2013, the partners began <a href="http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p154251/pdf/ch02.pdf">work on</a> a biodiscovery project in the Kuuku I’yu Northern Kaanju homelands in Cape York. It investigated traditional medicinal plants used to treat ailments such as psoriasis, a skin condition. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/strength-from-perpetual-grief-how-aboriginal-people-experience-the-bushfire-crisis-129448">Strength from perpetual grief: how Aboriginal people experience the bushfire crisis</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>David Claudie – a coauthor of this article and Kuuku I’yu Northern Kaanju Traditional Owner – knows how to use local plants as medicine. Working together, traditional knowledge custodians and scientists collected medicinal plants and analysed them in a lab. This approach drew on both Indigenous and Western perspectives, and led to <a href="https://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/tools-resources/case-studies/chuulangun-aboriginal-corporation-and-university-south-australia">plant-based medicinal products</a> being developed.</p>
<p>The project also protected Indigenous intellectual property and negotiated an agreement to share commercial benefits. Claudie is named as an inventor on the <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/AU2010317657C1/en">patents</a> and an author of <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/ch/fulltext/CH15456">scientific articles</a> published from the collaboration.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man holds native snails" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358160/original/file-20200915-16-1vsv6fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358160/original/file-20200915-16-1vsv6fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358160/original/file-20200915-16-1vsv6fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358160/original/file-20200915-16-1vsv6fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358160/original/file-20200915-16-1vsv6fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358160/original/file-20200915-16-1vsv6fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358160/original/file-20200915-16-1vsv6fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Biodiscovery should incorporate Indigenous and Western perspectives.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An important example</h2>
<p>Australia is one of 17 countries considered “<a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/conservation/hotspots">megadiverse</a>”. It is home to up to 700,000 species, many found nowhere else in the world. This means the biodiscovery industry has big potential in Australia – but Indigenous knowledge must be protected.</p>
<p>Queensland’s reforms to biodiscovery laws set an important example. Other Australian states should follow Queensland’s lead and develop better legal protections for Indigenous knowledge. These should take into account both Indigenous and Western perspectives, for the benefit of all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/144813/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Jefferson receives funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC) as a member of the 'Harnessing Intellectual Property to Build Food Security' ARC Laureate Project at The University of Queensland School of Law. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Robinson receives funding from the Australian Research Council Discovery Projects (DP180100507) 'Indigenous Knowledge Futures: Protecting and Promoting Indigenous Knowledge'; and the Access and Benefit-Sharing Capacity Development Initiative (ABS-Initiative) Pacific Project, which receives European Union and BMZ funding, and is implemented by the German International Development Implementing Agency (GIZ).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jocelyn Bosse receives funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC) as a member of the 'Harnessing Intellectual Property to Build Food Security' ARC Laureate Project at The University of Queensland School of Law.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Margaret Raven was an expert adviser for the Queensland Government's consultations on the reforms. She sat on an Indigenous Advisory Committee informing the consultations.
She has an Australian Research Council Grant Discovery Project grant - DP180100507: Indigenous knowledge futures: protecting and promoting indigenous knowledge.
She is a member of the Australian College of Experts. Until relatively recently I was a member of the AIATSIS Human Research Ethics Committee.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Claudie does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our medicine, cosmetics and other everyday products contain compounds taken from nature. But Traditional Owners may not have given permission for the materials or their knowledge to be used.David Jefferson, Research Fellow, The University of QueenslandDaniel Robinson, Associate Professor, UNSW SydneyDavid Claudie, Invited User, Indigenous KnowledgeJocelyn Bosse, PhD candidate in Law, The University of QueenslandMargaret Raven, Senior Scientia Lecturer (Research), UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1396652020-07-07T19:52:37Z2020-07-07T19:52:37ZAfter last summer’s fires, the bell tolls for Australia’s endangered mountain bells<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339661/original/file-20200604-130912-1ystm50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C20%2C3489%2C2771&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">_Darwinia nubigena_ also known as the Success Bell or Red Mountain Bell</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">A.T Morphet</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This article is part of Flora, Fauna, Fire, a special project by The Conversation that tracks the recovery of Australia’s native plants and animals after last summer’s bushfire tragedy. Explore the project <a href="https://bushfires2020.netlify.app/">here</a> and read more articles <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/search?utf8=%E2%9C%93&q=%23bushfire+recovery+2020&sort=relevancy&language=en&date=all&date_from=&date_to=">here</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Hidden in the Stirling Range national park in Western Australia – an area so diverse, so ecologically important, I’ve <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/rn/legacy/features/balancingnature/australia.htm">described</a> it as a “coral reef out of water” – are Australia’s spectacular mountain bells.</p>
<p>When Western botanists encountered these predominantly bird-pollinated plants, they found them so intriguing and so unlike anything they knew (Britain has no bird pollination), they named them <em>Darwinia</em> after Charles Darwin’s grandfather, Erasmus Darwin. </p>
<p>These breathtaking native Australian flowers are now at grave risk from recent fires, with many species listed on the government’s <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/289205b6-83c5-480c-9a7d-3fdf3cde2f68/files/summary-list-plants-requiring-urgent-management-intervention.pdf">provisional list</a> of plants requiring urgent management intervention. The Stirling Ranges were ravaged by this summer’s fires, and three-quarters of this WA national park now experience fire cycles twice as frequent as species recovery rates.</p>
<p>If it sounds grim, that’s because it is. There’s hope yet for the mountain bell, though, thanks largely to the efforts of concerned community members. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339371/original/file-20200603-133855-1epuxtr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339371/original/file-20200603-133855-1epuxtr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339371/original/file-20200603-133855-1epuxtr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339371/original/file-20200603-133855-1epuxtr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339371/original/file-20200603-133855-1epuxtr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339371/original/file-20200603-133855-1epuxtr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339371/original/file-20200603-133855-1epuxtr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339371/original/file-20200603-133855-1epuxtr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"><em>Darwinia collina</em>, the yellow mountain bell, is listed as endangered.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">A. T. Morphet</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why are mountain bells so special?</h2>
<p>With an astonishing range of colours, the Stirling Range mountain bells are the glamour plants in WA’s floral bouquet.</p>
<p>Standing up to 60cm tall, these glorious shrubs are a gardener’s dream. They have neat foliage and pendulous, bell-like flowers in colours ranging from yellow, to greens, to striking reds and multicoloured variegated blooms.</p>
<p><em>Darwinia</em> has just 70 species – a modest number compared with some plant genera in Australia.</p>
<p>They occur in southeastern <em>and</em> southwestern Australia. <em>Darwinia</em> split from their ancestral lineage 16 million years ago with the southwest, including the Stirling Ranges – a cradle of the genus. The chance dispersal of seed to southeastern Australia meant the two nodes of diversity were separated by the Nullarbor and central desert, and evolved in splendid isolation. How these heavy-seeded plants managed such an epic journey across the Australian deserts remains a mystery.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-phoenix-factor-what-home-gardeners-can-learn-from-natures-rebirth-after-fire-122620">The phoenix factor: what home gardeners can learn from nature's rebirth after fire</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Nectar-hungry Australian birds found the rewards in the rain-protected, bell-like flowers irresistible. </p>
<p>In what was a blink of evolutionary time, mountain bells capitalised on birds as a better system for pollination than offered by insects, and new species appeared across the peaks of the Stirlings. </p>
<p>Today, there are ten species of mountain bells. All but one are only found in the Stirling Ranges, often on single peaks or in highly restricted locations. And many feature on the provisional <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/289205b6-83c5-480c-9a7d-3fdf3cde2f68/files/summary-list-plants-requiring-urgent-management-intervention.pdf">list</a> of plants requiring urgent management.</p>
<p>Virtually each peak could have its very own mountain bell. I recall my first encounter with the mountain bells years ago. I’d spotted the delicate cherry-coloured blooms of Wittwer’s bell nestled in a small wooded hollow, midway along the main drive through the Stirlings. I eagerly sought out other mountain bell species and, soon enough, realised I had an untreatable case of “bell fever”. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339417/original/file-20200603-130929-1nhwpxz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339417/original/file-20200603-130929-1nhwpxz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339417/original/file-20200603-130929-1nhwpxz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339417/original/file-20200603-130929-1nhwpxz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339417/original/file-20200603-130929-1nhwpxz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339417/original/file-20200603-130929-1nhwpxz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339417/original/file-20200603-130929-1nhwpxz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339417/original/file-20200603-130929-1nhwpxz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A _Darwinia macrostegia or Mondurup Bell on Mondurup Peak.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">A.T Morphet</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A biodiversity hotspot at a crossroads</h2>
<p>Traditional owners revered the Stirling Ranges as sacred land that had endured countless ice ages and climate ravages. But today, the Stirling Ranges are at a crossroads. </p>
<p>The discovery of dieback disease (<em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em>) in 1974, as well as fires both prescribed and natural, have taken a heavy toll on the plants and animals in the park. </p>
<p>Last summer’s cataclysmic fires <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-07/bushfires-cause-stirling-ranges-biodiversity-to-be-devastated/11844516">scorched</a> half of the Stirling Ranges national park, and the danger the mountain bells now face is emblematic of the broader problem of biodiversity loss. </p>
<p>Many plants and animal species here may never recover. Yes, many Australian plants evolved to cope with bushfire - but not with how frequently these fires are reoccurring. </p>
<p>The Stirling Ranges national park is like no other, with an astonishing 1,500 plant species, eclipsing the flora of the British Isles.</p>
<h2>Threats abound</h2>
<p>Contemporary fire is now one of the single greatest threats to what remains of this extraordinary ecosystem. </p>
<p>The mountain bells need more than 15 years or more to rebuild their soil seed bank, as these plants are killed by even the mildest of fire.</p>
<p>We knew this was coming. Dire predictions by conservation scientists as early as 2015 warned the Stirling Ranges faced a biodiversity meltdown, and that mountain bells were particularly at risk of extinction.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/after-the-bushfires-we-helped-choose-the-animals-and-plants-in-most-need-heres-how-we-did-it-138736">After the bushfires, we helped choose the animals and plants in most need. Here's how we did it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Though the fires have retreated, the once thriving populations of mountain bells are reduced to blackened stems. It is indescribably sad to see.</p>
<p>For some species, the 2020 bushfires came hot on the heels of an out-of-control prescribed burn in 2018, and few species can survive such short interval fire. Scientists are surveying the damage, to see if parts of the soil seed bank survived to grow the next generation of mountain bells. But it may be too late for some species. Time will tell.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339660/original/file-20200604-130929-hoo9oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339660/original/file-20200604-130929-hoo9oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339660/original/file-20200604-130929-hoo9oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339660/original/file-20200604-130929-hoo9oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339660/original/file-20200604-130929-hoo9oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339660/original/file-20200604-130929-hoo9oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339660/original/file-20200604-130929-hoo9oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339660/original/file-20200604-130929-hoo9oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The endemic grass tree <em>Kingia australis</em> absorbs ethylene gas from bushfire to initiate flowering within months.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Keith Bradbury</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Community action</h2>
<p>Is there a future for mountain bells? I like to think so. I have grown them in wildflower gardens from cuttings handed down from wildflower gardeners over decades. Through temperamental and often unpredictable to grow, mountain bells are remarkably easy to propagate. </p>
<p>A key part of saving our mountain bells is, I believe, intimately linked to the community of wildflower enthusiasts. These passionate, committed community members stand ready to help save the last bells. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339672/original/file-20200604-130969-1e2kcbh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339672/original/file-20200604-130969-1e2kcbh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339672/original/file-20200604-130969-1e2kcbh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339672/original/file-20200604-130969-1e2kcbh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339672/original/file-20200604-130969-1e2kcbh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339672/original/file-20200604-130969-1e2kcbh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339672/original/file-20200604-130969-1e2kcbh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339672/original/file-20200604-130969-1e2kcbh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Stirling Ranges national park in Western Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/trevor_dobson_inefekt69/16749385235/in/photolist-rw5YG4-r7QGFK-2hZrf7X-2ifcq2V-omzcRv-2idG6Y4-2idJoZc-2hZ29jc-omzcdg-28Xc5mi-2icKAub-2icJBX2-pc3qzN-2ifGSnS-2ifcsjq-2ig3qpF-2idJiDH-2ifGRVp-2idKtQi-SdCqeP-rw1jCN-qBvCmk-245Aen1-2ig5PZk-2i98V4M-pHiKNE-2ide7vF-2icJM9o-2idJotn-2i1rjxn-2icdoe2-2ig5Rry-2icgU4W-2idgopU-2hZUPGt-2i98Q34-2i1rf4c-oCRPbN-omzc8M-Si94rg-pc2XLB-oKDb9c-ppXb44-oKD7or-re1HnD-omYqgz-pF8i1Y-2idgnvE-2i9curS-2ifcqkL">Trevor Dobson</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The way we’ve done conservation in the past needs a reboot. For the mountain bells and many other threatened species to have a future, we need to embrace a new way of engaging with community volunteers and particularly our traditional owners. </p>
<p>Everyone I have spoken to is ready to roll up their sleeves and help our plants, and animals struggling to come out of the fires. Such an approach will need trust, training and support - but it may be our only hope. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heat-detecting-drones-are-a-cheaper-more-efficient-way-to-find-koalas-140332">Heat-detecting drones are a cheaper, more efficient way to find koalas</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://bushfires2020.netlify.app"><img src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/1103/Explore.gif?1594552012" width="100%"></a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139665/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kingsley Dixon receives funding from the Australian Research Council, primarily for the Centre for Mine Site Restoration. He has received funding in the past from various government and non-government bodies for rare flora research. He is a member of the state and federal Threatened Species Scientific Committee, a member of the Australian Orchid Foundation and a board member of the Society for Ecological Restoration (in Australia and internationally) and partner chapters.</span></em></p>Three quarters of WA’s Stirling Ranges national park now experience fire cycles twice as frequent as species recovery rates.Kingsley Dixon, John Curtin Distinguished Professor, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1384342020-06-12T04:47:15Z2020-06-12T04:47:15ZThe coastal banksia has its roots in ancient Gondwana<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341052/original/file-20200611-114066-10q242f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=220%2C141%2C1493%2C833&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/ecVh2F">John Tann/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you fondly remember May Gibbs’s <a href="https://maygibbs.org/story/gumnut-babies/">Gumnut Baby</a> stories about the adventures of Snugglepot and Cuddlepie, you may also remember the villainous <a href="https://maygibbs.org/characters/big-bad-banksia-men/">Big Bad Banksia Men</a> (perhaps you’re still having nightmares about them). </p>
<p>But banksias are nothing to be afraid of. They’re a marvellous group of Australian native trees and shrubs, with an ancient heritage and a vital role in Australian plant ecology, colonial history and bushfire regeneration.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.anbg.gov.au/banksia/">genus Banksia</a> has about 173 native species. It takes its name from botanist <a href="https://theconversation.com/botany-and-the-colonisation-of-australia-in-1770-128469">Sir Joseph Banks</a>, who collected specimens of four species in 1770 when he arrived in Australia on board Captain Cook’s Endeavour. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/botany-and-the-colonisation-of-australia-in-1770-128469">Botany and the colonisation of Australia in 1770</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>One of the four species he collected was <em>B. integrifolia</em>, the coastal banksia. This can be a small to medium tree about 5m to 15m tall. In the right conditions, it can be quite impressive and grow up to 35m. </p>
<p>It’s found naturally in coastal regions, growing on sand dunes or around coastal marshes from Queensland to Victoria. These can be quite tough environments and, while <em>B. integrifolia</em> tends to grow in slightly protected sites, it still copes well with sandy soils, poor soil nutrition, salt and wind.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341066/original/file-20200611-114066-11d96vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341066/original/file-20200611-114066-11d96vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341066/original/file-20200611-114066-11d96vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341066/original/file-20200611-114066-11d96vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341066/original/file-20200611-114066-11d96vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341066/original/file-20200611-114066-11d96vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341066/original/file-20200611-114066-11d96vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341066/original/file-20200611-114066-11d96vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In the right conditions, coastal banksia can grow to 35m tall.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>From ancient origins</h2>
<p>Coastal banksia – like all banksias – belong to <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/14599266?q&versionId=45817129">the protea family</a> (Proteaceae). But given the spectacular flowering proteas are of African origin, how did our Australian genera get here?</p>
<p>The members of the Proteaceae belong to an ancient group of flowering plants that evolved almost 100 million years ago on the southern supercontinent Gondwana. When Gondwana fragmented more than 80 million years ago, the proteas remained on the African plate, while the Australian genera remained here.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-firewood-banksia-is-bursting-with-beauty-112696">The firewood banksia is bursting with beauty</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The spikes of woody fruits on the Australian banksia, sometimes called cones, are made up of several hundred flowers. The flower spikes are beautiful structures, soft and brush-like. But with <em>B. integrifolia</em>, they are pale green, similar to the foliage, and can be hard to see within the canopy at a distance.</p>
<p>Up close, these fruit spikes can look quite spooky, almost sinister, especially when wasps have caused <a href="https://www.sgaonline.org.au/gall-of-australian-native-trees/">extensive gall formation</a>. Galls are swellings that develop on plant tissues as a result of fungal and insect damage, a bit like a benign tumour. </p>
<p>Maybe this is what led May Gibbs to cast them as <a href="https://www.maygibbs.org/characters/big-bad-banksia-men/">the baddies</a> in her Gumnut Baby stories. While the galls may look unsightly, they rarely do serious harm to banksias.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341056/original/file-20200611-114066-i21m2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341056/original/file-20200611-114066-i21m2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341056/original/file-20200611-114066-i21m2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341056/original/file-20200611-114066-i21m2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341056/original/file-20200611-114066-i21m2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=908&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341056/original/file-20200611-114066-i21m2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=908&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341056/original/file-20200611-114066-i21m2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=908&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Banksias were depicted as the Big Bad Banksia Men in May Gibbs’s Gumnut stories.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://maygibbs.org/characters/big-bad-banksia-men/">May Gibbs/The Northcott Society and Cerebral Palsy Alliance</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Indigenous use</h2>
<p>Given the fruit spikes of coastal banksia look like brushes, it’s not surprising Indigenous people once used them as <a href="https://www.monash.edu/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/542119/Guide-to-the-Aboriginal-Garden-Clayton-Campus.pdf">paint brushes</a>. </p>
<p>The flowers <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/BT/BT9850705" title="Flowering Biology and Phenology of Banksia integrifolia and B. spinulosa (Proteaceae) in New England National Park, NSW">are very rich in nectar</a>, which attracts insects and birds. If you run your hand along the flower spike you, like generations of Aboriginal people before you, can enjoy the sweet taste if you lick the nectar off your hand. You can also soak the flowers in water and collect a sweet syrup. </p>
<p>In the garden, <em>B. integrifolia</em> is wonderfully attractive to native insects, birds and ringtail possums. It’s easy to establish and, until it grows more than a few metres high, can be successfully moved and transplanted.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341064/original/file-20200611-114124-1uflyxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341064/original/file-20200611-114124-1uflyxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341064/original/file-20200611-114124-1uflyxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341064/original/file-20200611-114124-1uflyxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341064/original/file-20200611-114124-1uflyxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341064/original/file-20200611-114124-1uflyxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341064/original/file-20200611-114124-1uflyxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341064/original/file-20200611-114124-1uflyxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coastal banksia doesn’t need fire to release its seed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unlike many other banksia species, coastal banksias don’t need fire to release their seed. For many Australian species, the woody fruits remain solid and sealed, and it’s only when fire comes through that they burn, dry, crack open and release their seed.</p>
<p>This can happen with <em>B. integrifolia</em> too, but in a garden setting the fruits will mature, dry and crack open and release the seeds, which germinate readily. This makes propagating coastal banksia easy work.</p>
<h2>In touch with its roots</h2>
<p>Perhaps one of the more important, but less obvious, attributes of <em>B. integrifolia</em> are its roots. These are a special type of root possessed by members of the protea family.</p>
<p>The roots form a dense, branched cluster, a bit like the head of a toothbrush, that can be 2-5cm across. They greatly increase the absorbing surface area of the roots, as each root possesses thousands of very fine root hairs.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-black-wattle-is-a-boon-for-australians-and-a-pest-everywhere-else-100529">The black wattle is a boon for Australians (and a pest everywhere else)</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Proteoid roots can be very handy in sandy and other poor soils, where water drains quickly and nutrients are scarce.</p>
<p>These roots, also described as cluster roots, are often visible in a garden bed just at the interface of the soil with the humus or mulch layer above it. They’re very light brown, almost white, in colour.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341390/original/file-20200612-38702-59lnis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341390/original/file-20200612-38702-59lnis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341390/original/file-20200612-38702-59lnis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341390/original/file-20200612-38702-59lnis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341390/original/file-20200612-38702-59lnis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341390/original/file-20200612-38702-59lnis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341390/original/file-20200612-38702-59lnis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341390/original/file-20200612-38702-59lnis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rainbow lorikeets love hanging around in banksias.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/salihan/5567118988/">Flickr/Salihan</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>B. integrifolia</em>, like other banksias, also has the ability to take in nitrogen and enrich the soil, which can be very handy in soils low in nitrogen. It’s like a natural living and decorative fertiliser.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/after-the-bushfires-we-helped-choose-the-animals-and-plants-in-most-need-heres-how-we-did-it-138736">After the bushfires, we helped choose the animals and plants in most need. Here's how we did it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Proteoid roots are unfortunately very well suited to the presence of <em>Phytophthora cinnamomii</em> (the cinnamon fungus). It causes dieback in many native plant species, but can be particularly virulent for banksias.</p>
<p>But <em>B. Integrifolia</em> is one of the more <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Native_Australian_Plants/1G4lAQAAMAAJ?hl=en" title="Native Australian Plants">resistant species</a> to the fungus. Promising experiments have been done on grafting susceptible species onto the roots of <em>B. integrifolia</em> to improve their rates of survival.</p>
<p>This could be important, as banksias have a role in bushfire regeneration in many parts of Australia, so the occurrence of the fungus can compromise fire recovery.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138434/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gregory Moore does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The plant takes its name from the colonial botanist Joseph Banks, but the coastal banksia’s history goes way back to ancient times.Gregory Moore, Doctor of Botany, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1338922020-06-05T12:04:17Z2020-06-05T12:04:17ZRain plays a surprising role in making some restored prairies healthier than others<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327388/original/file-20200412-6948-13gxbir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=48%2C42%2C3935%2C2951&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A restored prairie in southern Michigan.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lars Brudvig</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Prairies once covered an enormous area of North America, but today have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1312365">reduced to a small fraction</a> of this historical range. Imagine an area the size of Texas, the second largest state, shrinking over the course of decades to an area the size of Massachusetts, the sixth smallest state. </p>
<p>Prairie grasslands <a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/grasslands/ecoservices/index.shtml">produce a lot of benefits</a>, such as storing carbon in soil, providing habitat for wildlife and protecting the land from erosion. <a href="https://www.nps.gov/miss/learn/nature/prairesthome.htm">Government agencies</a>, <a href="https://www.americanprairie.org/restoring-the-prairie">conservation organizations</a> and <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/in_us_midwest_restoring_native_prairie_ecosystems_kessler">homeowners</a> are working to restore native prairie ecosystems in many parts of the central U.S., but it’s a daunting challenge. Often newly planted restoration sites end up covered with weeds.</p>
<p>I am an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=FicmXq4AAAAJ&hl=en">ecologist</a> and have worked with other researchers for a decade to find the most effective ways of restoring prairies in the midwestern United States. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-62123-7">Research we published in 2020</a> points to a reason why planted prairies can fail, one that few had considered earlier: the weather during the year they are planted. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/e_-Qo7IBxEw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Neal Smith Wildlife Refuge in central Iowa is farmland that has been restored with native plants.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Restoring ecosystems to solve environmental problems</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.ser.org/page/SERStandards/International-Standards-for-the-Practice-of-Ecological-Restoration.htm">Ecological restoration</a> improves the health of ecosystems that have been degraded – for example, <a href="https://theconversation.com/restoring-the-everglades-will-benefit-both-humans-and-nature-56052">returning water to drained wetlands</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/restoring-tropical-forests-isnt-meaningful-if-those-forests-only-stand-for-10-or-20-years-107880">replanting heavily logged forests</a>. It’s an important strategy for tackling many of the world’s most pressing environmental challenges.</p>
<p>Research shows that repairing damaged ecosystems provides <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1172460">critical habitat for plants and animals</a>. It <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12989">slows the impacts of climate change</a> by drawing down carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. It <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12257">enhances crop pollination</a>, prevents soil loss and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1620229114">keeps fertilizers out of waterways</a>. For all these reasons, the United Nations recently declared 2021-2030 to be the <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/new-un-decade-ecosystem-restoration-offers-unparalleled-opportunity">Decade on Ecosystem Restoration</a>. </p>
<p>But these projects can produce widely inconsistent results, even on similar sites where similar techniques have been used. Researchers are starting to understand that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12938">restoration success</a> depends on multiple factors, but why some projects succeed and others fail is largely still a mystery. We want to predict outcomes so that agencies can direct scarce funding to sites where the work is most likely to succeed. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327392/original/file-20200412-186332-1rvlyx0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327392/original/file-20200412-186332-1rvlyx0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327392/original/file-20200412-186332-1rvlyx0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327392/original/file-20200412-186332-1rvlyx0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327392/original/file-20200412-186332-1rvlyx0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327392/original/file-20200412-186332-1rvlyx0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327392/original/file-20200412-186332-1rvlyx0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An eastern tiger swallowtail butterfly visits a purple cone flower within a restored prairie in southern Michigan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lars Brudvig</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Decimated prairies</h2>
<p>Before European settlement, prairies were the <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1312365">most expansive ecosystem in North America</a>, covering much of the Midwest and Plains. Today, however, most of them have been converted largely to farmland, thanks to their fertile soil. Prairie grasslands are nearly extinct east of the Mississippi River. </p>
<p>As a result, a huge number of plant and animal species that once thrived in those regions have little habitat remaining. Some, like <a href="https://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/insects/posk/index.html">Poweshiek Skipperling butterflies</a> and <a href="https://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/plants/prairief.html">prairie fringed orchids</a>, are now at risk of extinction.</p>
<p>By spreading the seeds of prairie plants onto old farmlands, land managers can restore these ecosystems. As new grasslands grow, managers periodically conduct prescribed fires and remove weeds with herbicides to promote the prairie plants. In time, insects and birds will return to restored prairies from nearby areas. </p>
<p>I’ve been to hundreds of restored prairies. Strikingly, no two have been the same. Some are rich communities of prairie plants, while others are packed with weeds – that is, nonprairie plant species. This variation can be vexing to land managers who are seeking to restore prairies in particular ways, for particular species. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327391/original/file-20200412-174608-1y3q2cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327391/original/file-20200412-174608-1y3q2cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327391/original/file-20200412-174608-1y3q2cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327391/original/file-20200412-174608-1y3q2cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327391/original/file-20200412-174608-1y3q2cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327391/original/file-20200412-174608-1y3q2cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327391/original/file-20200412-174608-1y3q2cf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Seeding a prairie restoration on former farmland in southern Michigan in 2007.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jerry Stewart</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In past studies, colleagues and I have identified a number of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12135">factors explaining why no two prairies are alike</a>. They include specific soil type, the number of plant species spread as seed to initiate restoration and the frequency of prescribed fires. These findings show that although restoration outcomes vary, at least they do so for reasons that are either easily known or under land managers’ control. But our new research indicates that this isn’t always the case.</p>
<h2>Rainy planting years cause problems</h2>
<p>Land managers widely acknowledge that planting-year weather can affect a restoration, but up to now, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2010.00714.x">few scientists had tested this idea</a>. Restorations planted during rainy years should be more successful, meaning that they will support a greater diversity and abundance of the native plants that we seed on the land. But it’s hard to test this hypothesis because it requires many study sites, planted under differing weather conditions.</p>
<p>Our team worked at 83 restored prairies in Illinois, Indiana and Michigan that had been planted two to 19 years earlier. We recorded which plant species lived within each site, and then determined the weather conditions that affected each prairie during the year it was planted. </p>
<p>Our results were surprising. We expected that rainy years would promote successful restorations, but instead they produced prairies with more abundant and diverse weeds. These effects were comparable to or larger than the influence of other important factors such as soil conditions, the length of time since the last prescribed fire and the age of the project. </p>
<p>Weeds were more abundant in prairies that had been restored during rainy years as much as 19 years earlier. These sites also had relatively fewer native prairie plant species. </p>
<p>Why would dry planting years ultimately lead to more successful restoration than wet years, even though native prairie plants <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12708">perform better with more water</a>, as we showed in a previous study? Unfortunately, weeds are super-responders to water. We suspect that this explains why they gained dominance and suppressed prairie plants during wet planting years.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339633/original/file-20200603-130912-n64yd0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339633/original/file-20200603-130912-n64yd0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339633/original/file-20200603-130912-n64yd0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339633/original/file-20200603-130912-n64yd0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339633/original/file-20200603-130912-n64yd0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339633/original/file-20200603-130912-n64yd0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339633/original/file-20200603-130912-n64yd0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339633/original/file-20200603-130912-n64yd0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Projected changes in average precipitation across the Midwest for the middle of the current century (2041-2070) relative to the end of the last century (1971-2000) if greenhouse gas emissions remain at current levels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report/regions/midwest">USGCRP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Working around the weather</h2>
<p>Our results show that land managers need to guard against detrimental planting-year weather conditions – a challenge that is likely to become increasingly important in the future. Climate change is <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20180001312.pdf">increasing springtime rainfall</a> in the Midwest, which may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ppees.2011.07.002">particularly benefit weeds</a>. </p>
<p>[<em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>To manage the weed burden during wet planting years, managers can mow frequently, repeat seed-spreading in a later year or even avoid planting during anticipated high rainfall years. Humans can’t control the weather, but understanding how weather affects restoration can help managers maximize projects’ chances of success.</p>
<p><em><a href="https://www.discovermagazine.com/author/anna-funk">Anna Funk</a>, a former graduate student at Michigan State University, was lead author of the study on which much of this article is based.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133892/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lars Brudvig receives funding from the United States National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Restoring former prairies that have been plowed under for farming delivers land, wildlife and climate benefits. But a new study finds that the weather plays a surprising role.Lars Brudvig, Associate Professor of Plant Biology, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1302962020-01-27T18:58:14Z2020-01-27T18:58:14ZPulling out weeds is the best thing you can do to help nature recover from the fires<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311539/original/file-20200123-162232-xs4vf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C0%2C3867%2C2444&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Australians are keen to help nature recover after a season of devastating bushfires.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Darren England/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many Australians feel compelled to help our damaged wildlife after this season’s terrible bushfires. Suggested actions have included <a href="https://www.wwf.org.au/get-involved/bushfire-emergency">donating money</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/you-can-leave-water-out-for-wildlife-without-attracting-mosquitoes-if-you-take-a-few-precautions-128631">leaving water out</a> for thirsty animals, and learning how to <a href="https://www.marieclaire.com.au/how-to-help-animals-australian-bushfires">help the injured</a>. But there is an equally, if not more, important way to assist: weeding.</p>
<p>An army of volunteers is needed to help land owners with judicious weed removal. This will help burnt habitats recover more quickly, providing expanded, healthy habitat for native fauna. </p>
<p>Other emergency responses, such as culling feral animals and <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/massive-food-drop-to-help-save-endangered-wallabies-in-fire-affected-areas-20200112-p53qss.html">dropping emergency food from aeroplanes</a>, are obviously jobs for specialists. But volunteer weeding does not require any prior expertise – just a willingness to get your hands dirty and take your lead from those in the know. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311544/original/file-20200123-162190-4qhus3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311544/original/file-20200123-162190-4qhus3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311544/original/file-20200123-162190-4qhus3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311544/original/file-20200123-162190-4qhus3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311544/original/file-20200123-162190-4qhus3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311544/original/file-20200123-162190-4qhus3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311544/original/file-20200123-162190-4qhus3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Volunteer weeding will help burnt habitats recover more quickly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Silje Polland/Flickr</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why is weeding so critical?</h2>
<p>The recent bushfires burned many areas in national parks and reserves which were infested with weeds. Some weeds are killed in a blaze, but fire also stimulates their seed banks to germinate.</p>
<p>Weed seedlings will spring up en masse and establish dense stands that out-compete native plants by blocking access to sunlight. Native seedlings will die without setting seed, wasting this chance for them to recover and to provide habitat for a diverse range of native species.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/many-of-our-plants-and-animals-have-adapted-to-fires-but-now-the-fires-are-changing-129754">Many of our plants and animals have adapted to fires, but now the fires are changing</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This mass weed germination is also an opportunity to improve the outlook for biodiversity. With a coordinated volunteer effort, these weeds can be taken out before they seed – leaving only a residual seed bank with no adult weeds to create more seed and creating space for native plants to flourish.</p>
<p>With follow-up weeding, we can leave our national parks and reserves – and even bushland on farms - in a better state than they were before the fires.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311542/original/file-20200123-162221-1l3qp1w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311542/original/file-20200123-162221-1l3qp1w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311542/original/file-20200123-162221-1l3qp1w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311542/original/file-20200123-162221-1l3qp1w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311542/original/file-20200123-162221-1l3qp1w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311542/original/file-20200123-162221-1l3qp1w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311542/original/file-20200123-162221-1l3qp1w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bush regeneration groups are well placed to restore forests after fire, but need volunteers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Weeding works</h2>
<p>In January 1994, fire burned most of Lane Cove National Park in Sydney. Within a few months of the fire, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1442-8903.2005.00225.x">volunteer bush regeneration groups were set up to help tackle regenerating weeds</a>.</p>
<p>Their efforts eradicated weeds from areas where the problem previously seemed intractable and prevented further weed expansion. Key to success in this case was the provision of funding for coordination, an engaged community which produced passionate volunteers and enough resources to train them.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/conservation-scientists-are-grieving-after-the-bushfires-but-we-must-not-give-up-130195">Conservation scientists are grieving after the bushfires -- but we must not give up</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Following recent fires in the Victorian high country, volunteers will be critical to controlling weeds, <a href="https://bie.ala.org.au/species/http://id.biodiversity.org.au/node/apni/2897651">particularly broom (Scotch broom and related species), which occurs throughout fire-affected areas </a>. </p>
<p>Fire typically kills these woody shrubs but also stimulates seed germination. Without intervention, broom will form dense stands which <a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11258-005-9046-7.pdf">out-compete native plant species </a>.</p>
<p>However, swift action now can prevent this. Mass germination <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299041169">reduces the broom’s seedbank to as low as 8% of pre-fire levels, and around half of the remaining seeds die each year</a>. Further, broom usually takes three years to flower and replenish its seedbank. So with no new seeds being produced and the seedbank low and shrinking, this three-year window offers an important opportunity to restore previously infested areas.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311540/original/file-20200123-162199-1bukveg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311540/original/file-20200123-162199-1bukveg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311540/original/file-20200123-162199-1bukveg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311540/original/file-20200123-162199-1bukveg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311540/original/file-20200123-162199-1bukveg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311540/original/file-20200123-162199-1bukveg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311540/original/file-20200123-162199-1bukveg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scotch broom, a native shrub of Western Europe, has infested vast swathes of Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Gunter Maywald-CSIRO/Wikimedia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Parks Victoria took up this opportunity after the 2003 fires in the Alpine National Park. They rallied agencies, natural resource management groups and local landholders to <a href="http://www.aabr.org.au/images/stories/resources/ManagementGuides/WeedGuides/wmg_brooms.pdf">sweep up broom </a>. Herbicide trials at that time revealed that to get the best outcome for their money, it was critical to spray broom seedlings early, within the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259323125_Best-practice_chemical_control_of_English_broom_Cytisus_scoparius_evaluated_in_Alpine_National_Park_Victoria_through_an_adaptive_experimental_management_program">first year and a half</a>. </p>
<p>Broom management also needs to use a range of approaches, <a href="https://www.parkconnect.vic.gov.au/Volunteer/public-planned-activity/?id=446c9d83-53b6-e811-a966-000d3ad1c6f2">including using volunteers to spread a biological control agent</a>. </p>
<h2>Plenty of work to do</h2>
<p>Parks Victoria continue to <a href="https://www.parkconnect.vic.gov.au/Volunteer/">engage community groups in park management</a> and will coordinate fire response actions when parks are safe to enter. Similar programs can be found in <a href="https://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/conservation-and-heritage/volunteer-programs">New South Wales</a>, <a href="https://www.dbca.wa.gov.au/parks-and-wildlife-service/volunteering-with-parks-and-wildlife">Western Australia</a>, <a href="https://www.parks.sa.gov.au/volunteer">South Australia</a>, <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/parks/park-volunteers/start-volunteering">Queensland</a>, <a href="https://parks.tas.gov.au/be-involved/volunteer">Tasmania</a>, <a href="https://nt.gov.au/leisure/parks-reserves/learn-and-be-involved/volunteers-in-parks">the Northern Territory</a>, and the <a href="https://www.environment.act.gov.au/parks-conservation/parks-and-reserves/get-involved/the-ParkCare-initiative">ACT</a>.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kevin_Taylor16/publication/331247014_Fire_Weeds_and_the_Native_Vegetation_of_New_South_Wales_A_report_prepared_by_the_Hotspots_Fire_Project/links/5c6e1fa94585156b570d4c51/Fire-Weeds-and-the-Native-Vegetation-of-New-South-Wales-A-report-prepared-by-the-Hotspots-Fire-Project.pdf">wide range of weeds expand after fire</a> and warrant a rapid response. They include <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/weeds/publications/guidelines/wons/pubs/l-camara.pdf">lantana</a>, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0128482">bitou bush</a>, and
<a href="http://caws.org.nz/old-site/awc/2006/awc200612111.pdf">blackberry</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-native-plants-can-flourish-after-bushfire-but-theres-only-so-much-hardship-they-can-take-129748">Yes, native plants can flourish after bushfire. But there’s only so much hardship they can take</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Managing weeds after fire is currently a high priority at many sites. At the edges of the World Heritage Gondwana rainforests of southwest Queensland and northern and central NSW, there is a window to more effectively control <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2011/12/12/3387436.htm">lantana</a>. In many forested areas in NSW, Victoria and South Australia, fire has created an opportunity to address important weed problems.</p>
<p>State government agencies have the mapping capacity to locate these places. Hopefully they can make these resources easy for the public to access soon, so community groups can self-organise and connect with park managers. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311545/original/file-20200123-162240-brb21w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311545/original/file-20200123-162240-brb21w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311545/original/file-20200123-162240-brb21w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311545/original/file-20200123-162240-brb21w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311545/original/file-20200123-162240-brb21w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311545/original/file-20200123-162240-brb21w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311545/original/file-20200123-162240-brb21w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A koala badly injured during the Canberra bushfires before it was returned to the wild.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ALAN PORRIT/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>All this needs money</h2>
<p>Emergency funding is now essential to enable community-based weed control programs at the scale needed to have a substantial impact. Specifically, funding is needed for group coordinators, trainers and equipment.</p>
<p>While emergency work is needed to control regenerating weeds in the next 6-18 months, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1442-8903.2005.00225.x">ongoing work is needed after that</a> to consolidate success and prevent reinfestations from the small, but still present, seed bank.</p>
<p><a href="https://vnpa.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Assessment-of-the-Weed-Management-program-in-land-managed-by-Parks-Victoria.pdf">Ongoing government funding is needed</a> to enable this work, and prepare for a similar response to the next mega-fires.</p>
<h2>Want to act immediately?</h2>
<p>You can volunteer to do your bit for fire recovery right now. In addition to state-agency volunteer websites, there are many existing park care, bush care and “friends of” groups coordinated by local governments. They’re waiting for you to join so they can start planning the restoration task in fire-affected areas.</p>
<p>Contact them directly or <a href="http://www.aabr.org.au/do/post-fire-wildlife-habitat-recovery-response/">register your interest with the Australian Association of Bush Regenerators</a> who can link you with the appropriate organisations. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/you-can-leave-water-out-for-wildlife-without-attracting-mosquitoes-if-you-take-a-few-precautions-128631">You can leave water out for wildlife without attracting mosquitoes, if you take a few precautions</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>If we do nothing now, the quality of our national parks will decline as weeds take over and native species are lost. But if you channel your fire-response energy and commitment to help manage weeds, our national parks could come out in front from this climate-change induced calamity.</p>
<p>By all means, rescue an injured koala. But by pulling out weeds, you could also help rescue a whole ecosystem.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Dr Tein McDonald, president of the Australian Association of Bush Regenerators, contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130296/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Don Driscoll receives funding from the Herman Slade Foundation, OEH NSW Environmental Grants program, DELWP Vic, National Geographic, Rufford Foundation and Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC. He is Past President of the Ecological Society of Australia, Director of the Centre of Integrative Ecology and Director of the TechnEcology Research Network at Deakin University. Don is a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and Society for Conservation Biology.</span></em></p>By all means, rescue an injured koala. But by pulling out weeds after the fires, you could also help rescue a whole ecosystem.Don Driscoll, Professor in Terrestrial Ecology, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1264842020-01-22T13:37:24Z2020-01-22T13:37:24ZStoneflies and mayflies, canaries of our streams<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308426/original/file-20200103-11900-2fldm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=214%2C118%2C1913%2C1275&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The presence of mayflies and stone flies indicates clean water is nearby.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/andrew_ww/7275127502">Andrew/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Experienced anglers recognize that for a trout, the ultimate “steak dinner” is a stonefly or mayfly. That’s why fly fishing enthusiasts will go to extreme lengths to imitate these graceful, elegant and fragile insects. </p>
<p>I share their passion, but for different reasons. As a an entomologist who has <a href="https://bspm.agsci.colostate.edu/people-button/faculty/boris-kondratieff/">studied stoneflies and mayflies</a> for over 40 years, I’ve discovered these insects have value far beyond luring trout – they are indicators of water quality in streams and are a crucial piece of the larger food web. And they are in trouble.</p>
<h2>Collecting bugs</h2>
<p>I have served as director of the <a href="https://bspm.agsci.colostate.edu/gillette-museum/">C. P. Gillette Museum of Arthropod Diversity</a> since 1986. The greatest thrill of my career has been collecting and adding mayflies and stoneflies to our collection.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309127/original/file-20200108-107219-1r624aq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309127/original/file-20200108-107219-1r624aq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309127/original/file-20200108-107219-1r624aq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309127/original/file-20200108-107219-1r624aq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309127/original/file-20200108-107219-1r624aq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309127/original/file-20200108-107219-1r624aq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309127/original/file-20200108-107219-1r624aq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Boris Kondratieff collecting aquatic insects in Oregon with former student Chris Verdone.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To find specimens, I have traveled to pristine streams in every U.S. state, Canada, Mexico, Central America, Brazil, Ecuador, the Arabian Peninsula and Europe. My collecting trips have yielded more than 100 new species of mayflies and stoneflies.</p>
<p>One of my favorites literally fell into my lap as I was beating lush foliage along a pristine stream in southern Oregon during May 2014. The beating sheet is an efficient means of sampling dense, streamside vegetation, where adult insects hide. The sheet itself is made of sturdy canvas stretched over two wooden cross members. A stick is used to knock the insects from the vegetation onto the canvas, where they are collected.</p>
<p>When I saw a large yellow and black insect drop onto my sheet, I knew immediately it was a new stonefly species, previously unknown to science. I was ecstatic. My colleagues and I <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315373464_KATHROPERLA_SISKIYOU_A_NEW_STONEFLY_SPECIES_FROM_CALIFORNIA_AND_OREGON_USA_PLECOPTERA_CHLOROPERLIDAE">subsequently described it as <em>Kathroperla siskiyou</em></a>, after the Siskiyou mountains of southern Oregon. </p>
<p>Mayflies and stoneflies thrive in unpolluted water – a fact my colleagues and I have witnessed firsthand on our numerous expeditions. Not only do we see greater overall abundance of these insects in clean streams, but more diversity of species, as well. In polluted areas, we observe the exact opposite. Without a doubt, the presence or absence of mayflies and stoneflies in a stream <a href="https://www.epa.gov/national-aquatic-resource-surveys/indicators-benthic-macroinvertebrates">is a reliable indicator of the quality of its water</a>. </p>
<p>The role of mayflies and stoneflies in the food chain is fundamental, as well. Immature mayflies and stoneflies consume algae, living plants, dead leaves, wood and each other. In this nymph phase, when they have gills and live exclusively underwater, they are an important food source for many animals further up the food chain, including fish and wading birds. When the mayflies and stoneflies emerge from the water as adults, they are essential food for spiders, other insects such as dragonflies and damselflies, and many kinds of birds and bats.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308425/original/file-20200103-11914-1yaa33q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308425/original/file-20200103-11914-1yaa33q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308425/original/file-20200103-11914-1yaa33q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308425/original/file-20200103-11914-1yaa33q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308425/original/file-20200103-11914-1yaa33q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308425/original/file-20200103-11914-1yaa33q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308425/original/file-20200103-11914-1yaa33q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308425/original/file-20200103-11914-1yaa33q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mayflies are on the menu for this hungry fledgling.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/keithmwilliams/48561842382/">Keith Williams/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Currently, scientists estimate that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.01.020">33% of all aquatic insects</a> are threatened with extinction worldwide. Many of these species are mayflies and stoneflies. The mayfly species <a href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=101536#null"><em>Ephemera compar</em> has already gone extinct in Colorado</a>, and several <a href="http://cnhp.colostate.edu/ourdata/trackinglist/arthropods_insects/">other species of aquatic insects are threatened in my home state</a>.</p>
<h2>Life drains into a stream</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.ngwa.org/what-is-groundwater/About-groundwater/information-on-earths-water">Less than 1% of Earth’s water is potable</a> and available for human use. Maintaining water quality has become an ever increasing challenge because of the large number of chemicals people use in everyday life and in commerce. Common contaminants such as sediment, organic enrichment including fertilizers and animal waste and heavy metals are constantly <a href="https://www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org/water/causes/">making their way into the waters</a>, as well. Declining water quality is like a police siren alerting humanity to current, ongoing and emerging pollution problems.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308428/original/file-20200103-11914-jlv768.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308428/original/file-20200103-11914-jlv768.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308428/original/file-20200103-11914-jlv768.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308428/original/file-20200103-11914-jlv768.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308428/original/file-20200103-11914-jlv768.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308428/original/file-20200103-11914-jlv768.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308428/original/file-20200103-11914-jlv768.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308428/original/file-20200103-11914-jlv768.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Native plantings along a waterway can reduce storm water runoff.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/native-plantings-along-riparian-zone-waterway-1122153395">Sheryl Watson/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of my great passions is to enlighten others on how to protect the most valuable natural resource of the planet: streams and rivers. Individually, citizens can make a difference. <a href="https://www.epa.gov/npdes/npdes-stormwater-program">Storm water is the number one water quality problem</a> nationally. Enhancing and planting <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/home/?cid=nrcs143_023568">riparian buffers</a> – that is, planted areas near streams – can help to prevent precipitation and sprinkler runoff. People can also prioritize using only native plants; decreasing mowing areas; recycling or composting yard waste; using less or no fertilizer; avoiding the use of pesticides; and bagging pet waste. Insisting that environmental laws be enforced and strengthened will also help reduce water pollution.</p>
<p>Without clean water, life on Earth will become difficult or impossible for mayflies and stoneflies, not to mention people.</p>
<p>[ <em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=youresmart">You can read us daily by subscribing to our newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126484/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Boris Kondratieff receives funding from National Park Service, Agricultural Experiment Station, and National Science Foundation.. </span></em></p>Mayflies and stone flies are extremely vulnerable to water pollution, which has implications for the larger food chain.Boris Kondratieff, Professor of Entomology and Curator of the C. P. Gillette Museum of Arthropod Diversity, Colorado State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1297482020-01-16T19:02:11Z2020-01-16T19:02:11ZYes, native plants can flourish after bushfire. But there’s only so much hardship they can take<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310149/original/file-20200115-151829-1fa4710.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=77%2C93%2C5098%2C3787&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bulbine lilies flowering and eucalypts resprouting after fire in the Victorian high country. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Heidi Zimmer</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a fire-blackened landscape, signs of life are everywhere. A riot of red and green leaves erupt from an otherwise dead-looking tree trunk, and the beginnings of wildflowers and grasses peek from the crunchy charcoal below.</p>
<p>Much Australian flora has evolved to cope with fire, recovering by re-sprouting or setting seed. However, some plants are sensitive to fire, especially when fires are frequent or intense, and these species need our help to recover.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/some-say-weve-seen-bushfires-worse-than-this-before-but-theyre-ignoring-a-few-key-facts-129391">Some say we've seen bushfires worse than this before. But they're ignoring a few key facts</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>After announcing a A$50 million wildlife and habitat recovery package, the Morrison government <a href="https://minister.environment.gov.au/ley/news/2020/wildlife-experts-head-canberra-steer-recovery-process">recently met</a> with Australia’s leading wildlife experts to steer recovery efforts.</p>
<p>Encouraging native flora to bounce back from these unprecedented fires requires targeted funding and actions to conserve and restore plants and ecological communities, including seed banking.</p>
<h2>How do plants naturally recover from fire?</h2>
<p>Many plants from fire-prone ecosystems have evolved strategies to survive, and even thrive, with fire. Some resprout after fire, with green shoots bursting from blackened stems. For others, fire stimulates flowering.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310140/original/file-20200115-151862-fkygw3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310140/original/file-20200115-151862-fkygw3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310140/original/file-20200115-151862-fkygw3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310140/original/file-20200115-151862-fkygw3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310140/original/file-20200115-151862-fkygw3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310140/original/file-20200115-151862-fkygw3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310140/original/file-20200115-151862-fkygw3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310140/original/file-20200115-151862-fkygw3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some species are able to resprout from blackened stems following a fire.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lucy Commander</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Fire can also trigger seed germination of <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-arplant-042811-105545">hundreds of species</a>, as seeds respond to fire “cues” like <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305736401914519">heat and smoke</a>.</p>
<p>Seeds may wait in woody fruits stored on the plant. The fruits’ hard capsules shield the seeds from the fire, but the heat opens the capsules, releasing seeds into the soil below. </p>
<p>We can capitalise on this natural recovery by not disturbing the soil where the seeds are scattered, not clearing “dead” plants which may resprout and provide shelter for remaining wildlife, including perches for birds who may bring in seeds. </p>
<p>We should also stop vegetation clearing, especially unburnt vegetation home to threatened species and communities.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310141/original/file-20200115-151887-17a4d82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310141/original/file-20200115-151887-17a4d82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310141/original/file-20200115-151887-17a4d82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310141/original/file-20200115-151887-17a4d82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310141/original/file-20200115-151887-17a4d82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310141/original/file-20200115-151887-17a4d82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310141/original/file-20200115-151887-17a4d82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310141/original/file-20200115-151887-17a4d82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some species, like this <em>Banksia</em>, have woody fruits that protect the seeds, then open after fire to release them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lucy Commander</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>When do we need to intervene?</h2>
<p>While Australian plants and ecosystems have evolved to embrace bushfires, there’s only so much drought and fire they can take. </p>
<p>Many plants and ecosystems, including alpine and rainforest species, are not resilient to fire, especially if drought persists or they have been <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/BT/BT17176">burnt too frequently</a>. Too frequent fires deplete the seed bank and put recovery at risk. </p>
<p>Fires which are intense and severe will outright kill other plants, or the plants will be very slow to recover – taking years or decades to reach maturity again. We need comprehensive monitoring to detect which species are not returning, with <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1442-8903.2000.00034.x">systematic field surveys</a> starting immediately, and continuing after the first rains to identify which species emerge from the soil. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310156/original/file-20200115-151880-1uhjdqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310156/original/file-20200115-151880-1uhjdqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310156/original/file-20200115-151880-1uhjdqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310156/original/file-20200115-151880-1uhjdqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310156/original/file-20200115-151880-1uhjdqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310156/original/file-20200115-151880-1uhjdqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310156/original/file-20200115-151880-1uhjdqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310156/original/file-20200115-151880-1uhjdqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some ecosystems are adapted to fire, with trees resprouting and seeds germinating from the soil seed bank. Even so, fencing and weed control may be required.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lucy Commander</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Invasive plants such as blackberry or veldt grass can also impede recovery after a fire by out-competing the natives. Feral herbivores – such as rabbits, goats and horses – can overgraze the native regrowth. So controlling the weeds and feral grazers with, for instance, temporary fencing and tree guards, is a priority post-fire.</p>
<p>And when ecosystems aren’t able to repair themselves, it’s up to us to <a href="https://www.ser.org/page/SERStandards">intervene</a>. For instance, land managers, supported by volunteer community groups, could sow seeds or plant seedlings in fire-affected areas. This act of restoring ecosystems can be an important healing process for those affected by the fires.</p>
<h2>Do we have enough seeds?</h2>
<p>But for that to happen, we need <a href="https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts-62-en.pdf#page=66">enough seeds to supply restoration efforts</a>. With millions of hectares already burnt, few areas may be left for seed collection. </p>
<p>This means unburnt areas are at risk of over-collection from commercial and volunteer seed collectors. Stopping this from happening is possible, however. The agencies giving out permits for seed collection must record where seeds are being sourced and how much is collected. This ensures areas aren’t stripped of seeds, rendering them less resilient. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-sweet-relief-of-rain-after-bushfires-threatens-disaster-for-our-rivers-129449">The sweet relief of rain after bushfires threatens disaster for our rivers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Another, more controversial issue, is whether seeds should be collected locally (<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-8903.2012.00660.x">perhaps within 20km or within the catchment</a>), or from <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2015.00065/full">somewhere much further away and more suited to a potential future climate</a>. </p>
<p>And what should we do if we lose a population of a threatened plant species? Establishing a new population or replacing a lost one using <a href="https://www.anpc.asn.au/translocation/">translocation</a> is one option. Similar to capture-and-release or zoo breeding programs for <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-the-frontline-saving-australias-threatened-mammals-28337">reintroduction of threatened animals</a>, translocation refers to deliberately moving plants or seeds to a new location. </p>
<h2>How can we better prepare for next time?</h2>
<p>With potentially more unprecedented bushfire seasons in our future, it’s important land managers are prepared. </p>
<p>They need data on the distribution of species and the fire frequency, severity and season they can tolerate. A nationwide database could identify which species and ecosystems are most at risk, and could be incorporated into fire and restoration planning – including seed collecting – to ensure plant material is available if species fail to recover. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/plant-blindness-is-obscuring-the-extinction-crisis-for-non-animal-species-118208">'Plant blindness' is obscuring the extinction crisis for non-animal species</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01632.x">Botanic gardens have a special role to play</a> as many already have conservation seed banks of threatened species, and their living collections provide additional genetic material. Across Australia there is already a network of seed banks collaborating through the <a href="http://seedpartnership.org.au/">Australian Seed Bank Partnership</a> that collect, store and undertake research to better support plant conservation. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310142/original/file-20200115-151876-w8fusc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310142/original/file-20200115-151876-w8fusc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310142/original/file-20200115-151876-w8fusc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310142/original/file-20200115-151876-w8fusc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310142/original/file-20200115-151876-w8fusc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310142/original/file-20200115-151876-w8fusc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310142/original/file-20200115-151876-w8fusc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310142/original/file-20200115-151876-w8fusc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A restoration seed bank in Utah, USA. These banks hold huge amounts of seeds, but the Australian equivalents operate on a smaller scale.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lucy Commander</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, restoration seed banks <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/332/6028/424">operate on a much larger scale</a> than botanic gardens, and it’s important both approaches are conducted collaboratively. We need more ongoing investment in seed banks, particularly for threatened species and ecosystems least likely to recover from repeat fires like rainforests. Investment in skilled staff to run them is also critical, as well as <a href="https://www.anpc.asn.au/healthy-seeds/">national guidelines for seed use</a> and training programs for staff and volunteers.</p>
<p>The recent bushfires will push many plant species to their limits. If we want to keep these species around – and the animals depend on them for food and habitat – we need to monitor their recovery and intervene where necessary.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/129748/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lucy Commander receives funding from the Australian Network for Plant Conservation and the NSW Government through its Environmental Trust. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heidi Zimmer is a Senior Scientist at the NSW Government Department of Planning Industry and Environment and editor of Australasian Plant Conservation.</span></em></p>When ecosystems aren’t able to repair themselves, it’s up to us to intervene.Lucy Commander, Adjunct Lecturer, The University of Western AustraliaHeidi Zimmer, Research associate, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.