tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/science-communication-171/articlesScience communication – The Conversation2024-03-13T19:13:22Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2227072024-03-13T19:13:22Z2024-03-13T19:13:22ZTotal solar eclipses provide an opportunity to engage with science, culture and history<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580943/original/file-20240311-16-li8vda.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C3724%2C2146&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Throughout time, eclipses have inspired societies to understand the cosmos and its events.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On April 8, 2024, there will be a total solar eclipse in Canada. This is an opportunity to experience, learn from and participate in the excitement and wonder. And rather than hiding inside, researchers have been communicating how people can safely enjoy this unique opportunity.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/on-april-8-2024-parts-of-ontario-quebec-the-maritimes-and-newfoundland-will-see-a-total-eclipse-of-the-sun-heres-how-to-get-ready-for-it-203382">On April 8, 2024, parts of Ontario, Québec, the Maritimes and Newfoundland will see a total eclipse of the sun. Here's how to get ready for it.</a>
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<p>Roughly every 18 months, the sun, moon and Earth come into perfect alignment and somewhere on Earth <a href="https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEatlas/SEatlas.html">experiences a solar eclipse</a>. During this phenomenon, the moon casts a roughly 250 km wide shadow onto Earth.</p>
<p>This ephemeral daytime darkness can be a once-in-a-lifetime experience. The last time Toronto experienced a total solar eclipse was on <a href="http://xjubier.free.fr/en/site_pages/solar_eclipses/xSE_GoogleMap3.php?Ecl=+19250124&Acc=2&Umb=1&Lmt=1&Mag=0&Lat=43.69660&Lng=-79.41391&Elv=162.0&Zoom=8&LC=1">Jan. 24, 1925</a>; the next total solar eclipse will occur in 120 years, on <a href="http://xjubier.free.fr/en/site_pages/solar_eclipses/xSE_GoogleMap3.php?Ecl=+21441026&Acc=2&Umb=1&Lmt=1&Mag=0&Lat=43.69629&Lng=-79.29982&Elv=127.0&Zoom=8&LC=1">Oct. 26, 2144</a>.</p>
<p>Our interpretation of, and response to, total solar eclipses has advanced enormously. Eclipses were once considered cosmic omens that predicted dying kings, good harvests or the need for new territorial treaties. Today, they provide a unique opportunity to consider the physical nature of the universe, and the cosmic privilege of witnessing the alignment of the moon and sun. </p>
<h2>Eclipses and knowledge creation</h2>
<p>Due to their sudden darkness, solar eclipses have been perceived <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2017/07/25/us/history-solar-eclipse/index.html">through history as catastrophic events</a>. Many societies developed stories to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/list/the-sun-was-eaten-6-ways-cultures-have-explained-eclipses">explain these unusual events</a>, often filled with fear and violence. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580949/original/file-20240311-26-98odlu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="an illustration of a golden brown demon eating a yellow disc against a purple background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580949/original/file-20240311-26-98odlu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580949/original/file-20240311-26-98odlu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580949/original/file-20240311-26-98odlu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580949/original/file-20240311-26-98odlu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580949/original/file-20240311-26-98odlu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580949/original/file-20240311-26-98odlu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580949/original/file-20240311-26-98odlu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A mural of the Hindu demon Rahu swallowing the moon at the temple Wat Phang La in southern Thailand.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/anandajoti/10684670235/">(Anandajoti Bhikkhu/flickr)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Indian myths tell of an <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2017/lifestyle/eclipse-myths/">immortal demon seeking revenge on Vishnu by trying to eat the sun and moon</a>. The Pomo, Indigenous people of Northern California, describe <a href="https://www.exploratorium.edu/eclipse/eclipse-stories-from-around-the-world">a huge angry bear trying to eat the sun</a>. In other mythologies, eclipses were thought to be heavenly forces removing our source of warmth and life.</p>
<p>Beliefs about eclipses motivated ancient Greek astronomers to create the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103275">antikythera mechanism</a>, a complex analog computer that predicted the timing of future eclipses with a precision of 30 minutes. These predictions were critical for Greek society as a solar eclipse could mean an upcoming death of the king, requiring the appointment of a pseudo-emperor to be killed instead.</p>
<p>Our reactions to eclipses have evolved, driving us to better understand the solar system and the universe at large. </p>
<p>During the eclipse on Aug. 18, 1868, astronomers Norman Lockyer and Pierre Janssen each studied the light from the solar corona to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5363-5">discover a new chemical element</a>. This chemical element was named helium, after the Greek word for the sun. </p>
<p>On May 29, 1919, Frank Watson Dyson and Arthur Stanley Eddington studied the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.1920.0009">bent path of starlight</a> during a total solar eclipse for the first experimental “<a href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/11/10/118180487.pdf">triumph of Einstein’s theory</a>” of general relativity.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580945/original/file-20240311-20-25sylo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="ancient greenish square fragments" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580945/original/file-20240311-20-25sylo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580945/original/file-20240311-20-25sylo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580945/original/file-20240311-20-25sylo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580945/original/file-20240311-20-25sylo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580945/original/file-20240311-20-25sylo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580945/original/file-20240311-20-25sylo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580945/original/file-20240311-20-25sylo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Fragments of an antikythera mechanism on display at a museum in Athens, Greece.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<h2>Eclipse experiences</h2>
<p>Unlike many other cosmic events, such as meteor showers or comets, which require expensive telescopes or <a href="https://darksky.org/what-we-do/international-dark-sky-places/">dark sky places</a>, eclipses are a barrier-free celestial event. To safely enjoy the eclipse, one simply needs eclipse viewing glasses or <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/learn/project/how-to-make-a-pinhole-camera/">a cardboard box</a>. </p>
<p>Many universities across Canada are using the opportunity of the total solar eclipse to engage with people to safely experience this astronomical phenomenon. For example, Queen’s University in Kingston, Canada is making <a href="https://www.queensu.ca/physics/2024-total-solar-eclipse/eclipse-glasses">120,000 eclipse glasses available</a> to make safe eclipse viewing possible for anyone.</p>
<p>In the spirit of education, hundreds of <a href="https://astrosociety.org/education-outreach/amateur-astronomers/eclipse-ambassadors/program.html">eclipse ambassadors</a> are heading to schools to engage with students about having a profound and safe experience during the eclipse. These ambassadors lead workshops on building inexpensive pinhole cameras to project the sun during the eclipse, explaining unique features that can be seen during eclipses, such as <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/baileys-beads/">Bailey’s beads</a> and the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/diamond-ring-effect/">diamond ring effect</a>, and helping everyone appreciate the vastness of the solar system.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580952/original/file-20240311-20-8t2snr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a black circle surrounded with a ring of light that is thicker in the lower righthand quadrant" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580952/original/file-20240311-20-8t2snr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580952/original/file-20240311-20-8t2snr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580952/original/file-20240311-20-8t2snr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580952/original/file-20240311-20-8t2snr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580952/original/file-20240311-20-8t2snr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580952/original/file-20240311-20-8t2snr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580952/original/file-20240311-20-8t2snr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The Baily’s Beads effect occurs when gaps in the moon’s rugged terrain allow sunlight to pass through in some places just before the total phase of the eclipse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/baileys-beads/">(Aubrey Gemignani/NASA)</a></span>
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<p>These efforts demonstrate the universal value of science, and promote science engagement beyond classrooms and institutions.</p>
<p>Not only is the upcoming eclipse being leveraged as an opportunity to inspire the next generation of scientists, but it is also being used for the advancement of scientific knowledge. Unlike the experiments of Dyson, Eddington and Lockyer that were limited to the academy, today’s institutions are mobilizing the public to conduct citizen science experiments. </p>
<p>Initiated by NASA, the <a href="https://eclipsemegamovie.org/goals">Eclipse Megamovie project</a> will use photos taken during totality of the solar eclipse to study the solar corona. In 2017, photos collected during the total eclipse helped researchers identify a plasma plume in the solar corona. The 2024 eclipse will help researchers study this plume in greater detail. </p>
<p>Anyone with a DSLR camera and a tripod can submit a picture of the total solar eclipse to the Eclipse Megamovie project. The public data collected for the 2024 eclipse will far exceed what could be accomplished by any one experiment or location.</p>
<p>April’s total solar eclipse, and others to come, will remind people that science is exciting and inspiring, and that scientific expertise is of profound universal value. Such a celestial coincidence is an opportunity to engage with local communities and discuss the origin and mechanics of our solar system, all while including the public in scientific discovery through crowd-sourcing images of their experience. </p>
<p>All that’s left is to hope for clear skies and marvel once more at the cosmos.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222707/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nikhil Arora receives funding from the National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Richardson is based at the Arthur B. McDonald Canadian Astroparticle Physics Research Institute, who has received funding from the Canada First Research Excellence Fund. </span></em></p>Eclipses have inspired myths, predictions and scientific discoveries. The total solar eclipse occurring on April 8 provides a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to engage with science and the cosmos.Nikhil Arora, Postdoctoral fellow, Physics, Engineering Physics & Astronomy, Queen's University, OntarioMark Richardson, Manager for Education and Public Outreach, Adjunct Professor of Physics and Astronomy, Queen's University, OntarioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2155722024-01-17T13:37:02Z2024-01-17T13:37:02ZConnecting researchers and legislators can lead to policies that reflect scientific evidence<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569604/original/file-20240116-21-149ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C104%2C1919%2C1455&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Legislators make policy based on the information at hand, which isn't always the latest scientific findings.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/scenes-from-the-halls-of-the-state-house-as-senators-head-news-photo/1370192889">Stuart Cahill/Boston Herald via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Like most kids of the 1990s, I attended a school that used the original DARE program as a cornerstone initiative in the war on drugs. Congressional funding for this Drug Abuse Resistance Education program surged to over <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/07/12/a-brief-history-of-d-a-r-e-the-anti-drug-program-jeff-sessions-wants-to-revive/">US$10 million</a> per year by 2002, <a href="https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.94.6.1027">despite studies</a> published in the prior decade demonstrating the original program was ineffective at preventing substance use. Following mounting political pressure and declining government investments, the DARE program was retooled.</p>
<p>This scenario exemplifies how a disconnect between research-based information and decision-making can lead to ineffective policies. It also illustrates why scientists often <a href="https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2011.110180">bemoan that it can take over a decade</a> before their work achieves its intended public benefit. </p>
<p>Researchers want the results of their studies to have an impact in the real world. Policymakers want to make effective policies that serve the people. The public wants to benefit from tax-funded research.</p>
<p>But there’s a disconnect between the world of science and the world of policy decision-making that keeps information from flowing freely between them. There are hundreds of <a href="https://evidence2impact.psu.edu/what-we-do/research-translation-platform/results-first-resources/clearing-house-database/">evidence-based programs</a> that receive minimal public investment despite their promise to curb social ills and save taxpayer dollars.</p>
<p>At the <a href="https://evidence2impact.psu.edu/what-we-do/research-translation-platform/">Penn State Research Translation Platform</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=61NeK5gAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">I work</a> with a team that studies policymakers’ use of research evidence. Legislators and other decision-makers tend to prioritize certain solutions over others, largely based on the kinds of advice and input they receive from trusted sources. My team is developing ways to connect policymakers with university-based researchers – and studying what happens when these academics become the trusted sources, rather than those with special interests who stand to gain financially from various initiatives. </p>
<h2>Forging researcher-policymaker relationships</h2>
<p>Our Research Translation Platform team has found that policymakers assess in different ways how credible someone is. They generally consider <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Evidence-Based-Policymaking-Envisioning-a-New-Era-of-Theory-Research/Bogenschneider-Corbett/p/book/9780367523855">university-based researchers to be more reliable and impartial</a> than special interest groups, lobbyists and think tanks. Academic researchers can be key <a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-political-donations-reflect-polarization-in-academia-with-implications-for-the-publics-trust-in-science-196691">trusted messengers</a>, and their information is most credible when it’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-at-risk-if-scientists-dont-think-strategically-before-talking-politics-63797">not advocating particular political agendas</a>.</p>
<p>But scientists and lawmakers don’t usually have each other on speed dial. Building these connections is a promising way to improve policymakers’ access to credible, high-quality information. </p>
<p>Drawing on these principles, I co-developed a service that matches state and federal legislators with researchers who share their interests. Called the <a href="https://trestlelink.org/models/research-to-policy-collaboration/">Research-to-Policy Collaboration</a>, it involves a series of steps that starts with identifying policymakers’ existing priorities – for instance, addressing the opioid crisis. Then we identify and match them with researchers who work on studies relevant to substance use. The ultimate goal is to facilitate the meetings and follow-through that are critical for developing mutually beneficial partnerships between politicians and scientists.</p>
<p>Working closely with prevention scientist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=IEjjoBAAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Max Crowley</a>, we designed the first experiment of its kind to measure whether our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2012955118">model was useful for congressional staffers</a>. We found that legislators we randomly assigned to receive researchers’ support introduced 23% more bills that reference research evidence. Their staffers reported placing a greater value on using research to understand problems compared with staffers who were not matched with a researcher.</p>
<p>This experiment showed that researcher-policymaker partnerships can be effective not only for bridging research and policy, but legislators and their staff may find value in the service for honing empirical evidence pertaining to their bills. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569608/original/file-20240116-27-bebp9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="seated state legislators face an audience at a public hearing in an auditorium" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569608/original/file-20240116-27-bebp9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569608/original/file-20240116-27-bebp9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569608/original/file-20240116-27-bebp9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569608/original/file-20240116-27-bebp9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569608/original/file-20240116-27-bebp9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569608/original/file-20240116-27-bebp9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569608/original/file-20240116-27-bebp9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">State legislators tend to hear from many different stakeholders as they design policy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/boston-ma-the-joint-committee-on-public-health-hears-news-photo/1557184909">Pat Greenhouse/The Boston Globe via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Getting research into the hands of policymakers</h2>
<p>While research-policy partnerships can be effective, they’re also time-consuming.</p>
<p>When the world was turned upside down by the COVID-19 pandemic, routine handshakes disintegrated into social distancing. As a flurry of congressional activity tried to triage the catastrophe, pandemic conditions provided an opportunity to experiment with a way for researchers to communicate directly with policymakers online. </p>
<p>Our team created what we call the <a href="https://trestlelink.org/models/scope/">sciComm Optimizer for Policy Engagement</a>, or SCOPE for short. It’s a service that directly connects lawmakers with researchers who study timely policy issues. The researchers author a fact sheet in their area of study by summarizing a body of research pertaining to a national policy issue.</p>
<p>Then the SCOPE team sends an email on their behalf to lawmakers and staffers assigned to relevant committees. The email invites an opportunity to connect further. This effort is more interpersonal than a newsletter, providing a direct connection with a trustworthy source of science-based information. </p>
<p>As part of this <a href="https://research2policy.org/category/covid-19/">effort, scholars produced</a> over 65 fact sheets as well as several virtual panels and briefings relevant to various policy domains during the pandemic, such as substance use, violence and child maltreatment. These were disseminated over the course of a year and typically prompted about two researcher-policymaker meetings each. </p>
<p><iframe id="DQKp5" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/DQKp5/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>To investigate the value of this service, we looked at the language that state lawmakers used in social media posts pertaining to COVID-19. We found that those we had randomly assigned to receive our SCOPE emails produced <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-023-01268-1">24% more social media posts</a> referencing research than those we didn’t contact. We particularly noticed increased use of technical language related to data and analytics, as well as more language pertaining to research concepts, such as risk factors and disparities.</p>
<p>Legislators receiving SCOPE material also used less language related to generating more or new knowledge, which suggests they were less likely to call for more studies to produce new evidence. Perhaps their access to evidence decreased their need for more.</p>
<h2>Capitalizing on timely and relevant research</h2>
<p>These studies show some promising ways to connect legislators with timely and relevant research, and how doing so might improve the impact of research translation.</p>
<p>More work is needed to study other types of science policy efforts. Most research translation initiatives have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1332/174426421X16420918447616">very little data for evaluating their impact</a>.</p>
<p>It’s also worth considering the possibility that some efforts may unintentionally damage these political relationships and the credibility of scientific institutions. For instance, partisan efforts <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-march-for-science-participants-advocate-without-losing-the-publics-trust-76205">advancing specific political agendas</a> are apt to reduce the <a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-political-donations-reflect-polarization-in-academia-with-implications-for-the-publics-trust-in-science-196691">perceived credibility of academic scientists</a>.</p>
<p>And if educational outreach merely preaches science in the absence of interpersonal connections, scholars not only risk perpetuating the out-of-touch, eggheaded stereotype of academia, they risk squandering resources on ineffective programs, similar to the original DARE program. </p>
<p>The bridge between science and policy is a two-way street. Not only must the parties meet in the middle, but science policy and communication practice should be held to the same rigorous standards we expect in evidence-based policymaking. The world needs solutions to innumerable real-time crises. How to forge these connections is a critical area of study in itself.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215572/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Taylor Scott has received funding from the William T. Grant Foundation, National Science Foundation's Science of Science Program, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, and Penn State's Social Science Research Institute and the Huck Institutes at Penn State. She directs the Research Translation Platform in Penn State's Evidence-to-Impact Collaborative and serves on the boards of TrestleLink and the National Prevention Science Coalition. </span></em></p>Researchers want real-world impact. Lawmakers want programs that work. The public wants to benefit from taxpayer-funded research. Building a bridge from academia to legislatures is key to all three.Taylor Scott, Associate Research Professor of Human Development and Family Studies and Director of the Research Translation Platform, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2182502023-12-20T19:05:47Z2023-12-20T19:05:47ZHow many people need to be in a room for two to share a birthday? It’s fewer than you think. Here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560653/original/file-20231121-4807-e2cxhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3994%2C2000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A veridical paradox with practical uses. Cottonbro Studio/Pexels</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you ever bumped into someone with the same birthday as you? What about someone sharing a birthday in your workplace? How common is a shared birthday, anyway?</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bring-science-home-probability-birthday-paradox/">birthday problem</a>, as it’s called by mathematicians, reveals problems with our understanding of number theory, probabilities and our assumptions of how the world works. It comes back to how counter-intuitive maths is for a lot of people.</p>
<p>In the birthday problem you are asked “what’s the minimum number of people in a room to get better than 50% chance of two people having the same birthday?” A simple question with a puzzling answer.</p>
<p>To get a more intuitive understanding of this problem we’ve created an interactive simulation, below. It arranges birthdays along a line, with January on the left and December on the right.</p>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-982" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/982/2b47006750b0481a7781fede8a7655f3bf3b387a/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>The intuitive answer is the wrong one</h2>
<p>When the birthday problem is described to maths students for the first time, the majority of responses are that a group of 183 people is needed to have a better than even chance of two people having the same birthday.</p>
<p>The thinking here is: 183 is half of 365 (number of days in the year). Students assume they only need to compare others against a single person – themselves, and then <a href="https://betterexplained.com/articles/understanding-the-birthday-paradox/">try to match their birthday</a> with other people.</p>
<p>If you use this assumption, you need to find 183 people to have an even chance of finding a person matching with you. However, when students understand that not every combination has to be with yourself – for example, person 2 and person 5 might be the right combination – it becomes clearer the number needed is lower than 183.</p>
<h2>Combinations do not scale linearly</h2>
<p>If you’ve been playing with the interactive above you may have come across the answer to the birthday problem: only about 23 people are needed for a greater than 50% chance of a shared birthday. But how can this be if there are 15 times more days in the year?</p>
<p>We’ve created another interactive below to visualise how the connections between people in a room do not scale linearly as you add more people. Play around with adding a node and see if you can guess how many connections should be added.</p>
<p>It should give you a better grasp of factorial growth through multiplication, which is the area of number theory that underpins the birthday problem.</p>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-995" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/995/9c3076a412616df132bae72eb5e4448ad50520ed/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Large numbers are hard to comprehend</h2>
<p>The COVID-19 pandemic showed the world most of us have a limited understanding of exponential growth when presented with models of what could occur if the pandemic were left unchecked. </p>
<p>There are many great examples of the ill-understood power of exponential growth, but one I often use is asking this question: would you take $1 million on the first day of the month only, or one cent on the first day of the month, doubled each day until the end of the month (30 days)?</p>
<p>Nearly all people choose the $1 million lump sum. However, if you choose the one cent option, you end the month with approximately 10 times more money due to the effect of exponential growth.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="TiktokEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.tiktok.com/@axiomalpha/video/7056421079149202734"}"></div></p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/alexknapp/2011/11/17/the-seduction-of-the-exponential-curve/?sh=52448f7d2480">similar tale</a>, the supposed inventor of chess requested to sell their game to a king for some rice. They proposed placing a single grain on the first tile and doubling it each tile. The amount of rice on the final tile would be the sale price.</p>
<p>As you can see below, that number can very quickly become larger than the entire world’s rice supply.</p>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-1004" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/1004/bc0ac6dafe6f7260f7180b9cfb39a15b1c270f70/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Asking ‘what comes next’ is seldom simple</h2>
<p>Another real world example of counter-intuitive mathematics was on the <a href="https://www.elderresearch.com/blog/gamblers-fallacy/">roulette wheels in Monte Carlo in 1913</a>. There was a run of 26 straight black results, which is improbable but not impossible. </p>
<p>One striking aspect of the story is that gamblers increasingly bet on red as the run of blacks continued, thinking red was “due”. However, the mathematics says otherwise. Each spin of the roulette wheel has no memory of what happened before, so the chance of red appearing does not increase as time goes on. In short, lots of people lost money that night!</p>
<p>However, some situations do rely on the probabilities of what came before. For example, in the Monty Hall problem you are trying to win a car, which is hidden behind one of three doors (the others have goats). You are given the option to pick a door, then shown a different door with a goat.</p>
<p>The question is: should you stay with your first pick or switch doors? Try it out with the game below.</p>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-1000" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/1000/c55c43cd1b856a9237b1add3d624f68fad7bdcc1/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>The assumption here is that after Monty shows you the goat then the odds of winning a car if you switch or stay are 50/50 – there are only two doors left and one of them has a car.</p>
<p>But that doesn’t take into account the likelihood that you originally picked a goat to begin with. Thus the chances of your next choice are informed by your previous choice.</p>
<h2>Becoming numerate is important</h2>
<p>These examples demonstrate the importance of being “numerate”, defined as <a href="http://www.ncesd.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/WaKids.preschool-box-powerpoint.pdf">being able to reason with numbers</a> and being able to apply this reasoning in a range of contexts. The importance of developed numeracy skills cannot be understated, with correlations to <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/discover/article/the-importance-of-measuring-adult-literacy-and-numeracy">better overall life outcomes</a> such as employment, income, health and well being.</p>
<p>If people are highly numerate, they can understand how our world works at a deeper level, even if it doesn’t feel like it should work that way. Also, they are likely to have a better idea of what actions will yield the desired results in certain situations.</p>
<p>So, keep turning your mind to mathematical and numerical problems, they may just come in handy one day.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218250/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ben Zunica does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The logic of shared birthdays is stranger than you might think, but learning to understand counter-intuitive mathematics is key to seeing the world clearly.Ben Zunica, Lecturer in Secondary Maths Education, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2170592023-12-13T13:35:34Z2023-12-13T13:35:34ZHealth misinformation is rampant on social media – here’s what it does, why it spreads and what people can do about it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564379/original/file-20231207-23-75o0yn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=62%2C26%2C5904%2C4070&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Media literacy is more essential than ever. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/myth-fake-news-and-facts-vector-illustration-royalty-free-illustration/1358189151?phrase=social+media+misinformation&searchscope=image%2Cfilm&adppopup=true">Wanlee Prachyapanaprai/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The global anti-vaccine movement and vaccine hesitancy that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa433">accelerated during the COVID-19 pandemic</a> show no signs of abating.</p>
<p>According to a survey of U.S. adults, Americans in October 2023 were <a href="https://www.annenbergpublicpolicycenter.org/vaccine-confidence-falls-as-belief-in-health-misinformation-grows/">less likely to view approved vaccines as safe</a> than they were in April 2021. As vaccine confidence falls, health misinformation continues to spread like wildfire on social media and in real life.</p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://www.bu.edu/sph/profile/monica-wang/">public health</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=5g6xyEMAAAAJ&hl=en">expert</a> in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/abm/kaaa088">health misinformation</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/tbm/ibac096">science communication</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1891/9780826180148">health behavior change</a>.</p>
<p>In my view, we cannot underestimate the <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305905">dangers of health misinformation</a> and the need to understand why it spreads and what we can do about it. Health misinformation is defined as any health-related claim that is false based on current scientific consensus. </p>
<h2>False claims about vaccines</h2>
<p>Vaccines are the No. 1 topic of misleading health claims. Some <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmicb.2020.00372">common myths about vaccines</a> include: </p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Their supposed link with human diagnoses of autism</strong>. Multiple studies have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.04.085">discredited this claim</a>, and it has been firmly refuted by the <a href="https://www.who.int/groups/global-advisory-committee-on-vaccine-safety/topics/mmr-vaccines-and-autism">World Health Organization</a>, the <a href="https://www.nationalacademies.org/based-on-science/vaccines-do-not-cause-autism">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine</a>, the <a href="https://publications.aap.org/patiented/article-abstract/doi/10.1542/peo_document599/82016/Vaccines-Autism-Toolkit">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> and the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccinesafety/concerns/autism.html">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Concerns with the COVID-19 vaccine leading to infertility</strong>. This connection has been debunked through a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.vaccine.2022.09.019">systematic review and meta-analysis</a>, one of the most robust forms of synthesizing scientific evidence.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Safety concerns about vaccine ingredients, such as thimerosal, aluminum and formaldehyde</strong>. Extensive studies have shown these ingredients are safe when used in <a href="https://www.aaaai.org/tools-for-the-public/conditions-library/allergies/vaccine-myth-fact">the minimal amounts contained in vaccines</a>.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Vaccines as medically unnecessary to protect from disease</strong>. The development and dissemination of vaccines for life-threatening diseases such as smallpox, polio, measles, mumps, rubella and the flu has saved <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1704507114">millions of lives</a>. It also played a critical role in historic <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1413559111">increases in average life expectancy</a> – from 47 years in 1900 in the U.S. to 76 years in 2023. </p></li>
</ul>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CX9WyO4s4kA","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>The costs of health misinformation</h2>
<p>Beliefs in such myths have come at the highest cost. </p>
<p>An estimated 319,000 COVID-19 deaths that occurred between January 2021 and April 2022 in the U.S. <a href="https://globalepidemics.org/vaccinations/">could have been prevented</a> if those individuals had been vaccinated, according to a data dashboard from the Brown University School of Public Health. Misinformation and disinformation about COVID-19 vaccines alone have cost the U.S. economy an estimated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/tbm/ibac096">US$50 million to $300 million per day</a> in direct costs from hospitalizations, long-term illness, lives lost and economic losses from missed work.</p>
<p>Though vaccine myths and misunderstandings tend to dominate conversations about health, there is an <a href="https://doi.org/10.2196%2F17187">abundance of misinformation</a> on social media surrounding diets and eating disorders, smoking or substance use, chronic diseases and medical treatments. </p>
<p>My team’s research and that of others show that social <a href="https://doi.org/10.2196/43961">media platforms have become go-to sources</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.2196%2F17917">for health information</a>, especially among adolescents and young adults.
However, many people are not equipped to maneuver the maze of health misinformation.</p>
<p>For example, an analysis of Instagram and TikTok posts from 2022 to 2023 by The Washington Post and the nonprofit news site The Examination found that the food, beverage and dietary supplement industries paid dozens of registered dietitian influencers to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wellness/2023/09/13/dietitian-instagram-tiktok-paid-food-industry/">post content promoting diet soda, sugar and supplements</a>, reaching millions of viewers. The dietitians’ relationships with the food industry were not always made clear to viewers. </p>
<p>Studies show that health misinformation spread on social media results in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.vaccine.2022.09.046">fewer people getting vaccinated</a> and can also increase the risk of other health dangers such as <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-a-weight-loss-trend-on-tiktok-might-encourage-eating-disorders/">disordered eating</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.18297/tce/vol1/iss1/16">unsafe sex practices and sexually transmitted infections</a>. Health misinformation has even bled over into animal health, with a 2023 study finding that 53% of dog owners surveyed in a nationally representative sample report being <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.08.059">skeptical of pet vaccines</a>.</p>
<h2>Health misinformation is on the rise</h2>
<p>One major reason behind the spread of health misinformation is <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2023/11/14/americans-trust-in-scientists-positive-views-of-science-continue-to-decline/">declining trust in science</a> and <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2023/09/19/public-trust-in-government-1958-2023/">government</a>. Rising political polarization, coupled with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08964289.2019.1619511">historical medical mistrust</a> among communities that have experienced and continue to experience <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4194634/">unequal health care treatment</a>, exacerbates preexisting divides.</p>
<p>The lack of trust is both fueled and reinforced by the way misinformation can spread today. Social media platforms allow people to <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.2020.305905">form information silos</a> with ease; you can curate your networks and your feed by unfollowing or muting contradictory views from your own and liking and sharing content that aligns with your existing beliefs and value systems. </p>
<p>By tailoring content based on past interactions, social media algorithms can unintentionally <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2023.06.008">limit your exposure</a> to diverse perspectives and generate a fragmented and incomplete understanding of information. Even more concerning, a study of misinformation spread on Twitter analyzing data from 2006 to 2017 found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559">falsehoods were 70% more likely to be shared</a> than the truth and spread “further, faster, deeper and more broadly than the truth” across all categories of information.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/GIaRw5R6Da4?wmode=transparent&start=2" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The average kindergarten student sees about 70 media messages every day. By the time they’re in high school, teens spend more than a third of their day using media.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How to combat misinformation</h2>
<p>The lack of robust and standardized regulation of misinformation content on social media places the difficult task of discerning what is true or false information on individual users. We scientists and research entities can also do better in communicating our science and rebuilding trust, as my colleague and I have <a href="https://www.bu.edu/articles/2023/rebuilding-public-trust-in-science/">previously written</a>. I also provide <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2023.5282">peer-reviewed recommendations</a> for the important roles that parents/caregivers, policymakers and social media companies can play. </p>
<p>Below are some steps that consumers can take to identify and prevent health misinformation spread: </p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Check the source.</strong> Determine the credibility of the health information by checking if the source is a reputable organization or agency such as the <a href="https://www.who.int">World Health Organization</a>, the <a href="https://www.nih.gov">National Institutes of Health</a> or the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>. Other credible sources include an established medical or scientific institution or a peer-reviewed study in an academic journal. Be cautious of information that comes from unknown or biased sources.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Examine author credentials.</strong> Look for qualifications, expertise and relevant professional affiliations for the author or authors presenting the information. Be wary if author information is missing or difficult to verify.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Pay attention to the date.</strong> Scientific knowledge by design is meant to evolve as new evidence emerges. Outdated information may not be the most accurate. Look for recent data and updates that contextualize findings within the broader field. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Cross-reference to determine scientific consensus.</strong> Cross-reference information across multiple reliable sources. Strong consensus across experts and multiple scientific studies supports the validity of health information. If a health claim on social media contradicts widely accepted scientific consensus and stems from unknown or unreputable sources, it is likely unreliable. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Question sensational claims.</strong> Misleading health information often uses sensational language designed to provoke strong emotions to grab attention. Phrases like “miracle cure,” “secret remedy” or “guaranteed results” may signal exaggeration. Be alert for potential conflicts of interest and sponsored content.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Weigh scientific evidence over individual anecdotes.</strong> Prioritize information grounded in scientific studies that have undergone rigorous research methods, such as randomized controlled trials, peer review and validation. When done well with representative samples, the scientific process provides a reliable foundation for health recommendations compared to individual anecdotes. Though personal stories can be compelling, they should not be the sole basis for health decisions. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Talk with a health care professional.</strong> If health information is confusing or contradictory, seek guidance from trusted health care providers who can offer personalized advice based on their expertise and individual health needs. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>When in doubt, don’t share.</strong> Sharing health claims without validity or verification contributes to misinformation spread and preventable harm.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>All of us can play a part in responsibly consuming and sharing information so that the spread of the truth outpaces the false.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217059/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Monica Wang receives funding from the National Institutes of Health. </span></em></p>Studies show that health misinformation on social media has led to fewer people getting vaccinated and more lives lost to COVID-19 and other life-threatening diseases.Monica Wang, Associate Professor of Public Health, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2180302023-12-05T19:23:52Z2023-12-05T19:23:52ZFact-bombing by experts doesn’t change hearts and minds. But good science communication can<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563530/original/file-20231205-30-fhevw2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C7%2C2389%2C1577&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/rock-formation-during-night-time-167843/">Pixabay / Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A stir went through the Australian science communication community last week, caused by an article with the headline <a href="https://theconversation.com/science-communicators-need-to-stop-telling-everybody-the-universe-is-a-meaningless-void-215334">Science communicators need to stop telling everybody the universe is a meaningless void</a>. In meetings and online back channels we cried “not ALL science communicators!” </p>
<p>As experts in science communication, we think the article got a few things right but also that this isn’t the whole story. As science communication researchers have <a href="https://doi.org/10.17226/23674">recognised</a> for <a href="https://royalsociety.org/%7E/media/royal_society_content/policy/publications/1985/10700.pdf">decades</a>, some people who communicate science don’t really take their audiences into account. Instead they rely on the “<a href="https://oxfordre.com/communication/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228613-e-1396">deficit model</a>”, which wrongly suggests you can change people’s beliefs and behaviours simply by giving them facts to fill perceived gaps in their knowledge.</p>
<p>However, this isn’t the norm. Science communicators are not evangelists for the science-only worldview of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism">scientism</a>. Many science communicators think very deeply about what values matter to people, and how to reach their audiences.</p>
<p>Good science communicators put a lot of work into understanding audiences. Sometimes we undertake research programs to understand attitudes, values and worldviews so we can communicate empathetically with audiences, not just transmit information. Yet much of this work is invisible to the public – and clearly it isn’t widely recognised.</p>
<h2>What is science communication?</h2>
<p>Science communication is sometimes characterised as science marketing, but many of us would reject that label. We love to share our passion for science, but we are not uncritical cheerleaders for it. </p>
<p>We see science as part of humanity’s grand project to solve many challenges. We are not ignorant of the broader social context. Most of us do not believe science is everything, and we talk about its limitations. We also recognise the need to provide hope even in the face of catastrophic predictions.</p>
<p>Many of us would agree some science popularisers (we use the term deliberately) should stop telling people their values-based intuitive beliefs are proved pointless by science. For one thing, telling people their beliefs are wrong is a thoroughly ineffective way to communicate science, <a href="https://theconversation.com/three-key-drivers-of-good-messaging-in-a-time-of-crisis-expertise-empathy-and-timing-135866">especially in a crisis</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563532/original/file-20231205-27-9eemqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of a protest in favour of science" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563532/original/file-20231205-27-9eemqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563532/original/file-20231205-27-9eemqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563532/original/file-20231205-27-9eemqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563532/original/file-20231205-27-9eemqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563532/original/file-20231205-27-9eemqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563532/original/file-20231205-27-9eemqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563532/original/file-20231205-27-9eemqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Science has a crucial role to play in informing the public and decision makers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/group-of-people-with-signages-nKNrOZ5MXZY">Vlad Tchompalov</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most science communicators work behind the scenes, supporting scientists to share their work, or running campaigns to counter misinformation. Some of us are translators, making information more accessible to decision-makers. Others are interpreters, helping define meaning and relevance of scientific ideas. Some of us are professional storytellers of science. </p>
<p>Being influential behind the scenes means we sometimes struggle to be recognised as experts in our own right, to have our qualifications and specialist training valued, and to have a seat at the table when governments and other organisations make decisions involving science communication.</p>
<p>There is some debate over whether science communication is <a href="https://jcom.sissa.it/article/pubid/Jcom0903(2010)C04/">a discipline in its own right</a>. Regardless, we know through practice and research that fact-bombing by experts has never been an effective way to engage communities in science. </p>
<h2>What makes a science communicator?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21548455.2022.2136985">For some</a>, the key to what makes one a competent science communicator lies in education and training in “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshold_knowledge">threshold concepts</a>” which include</p>
<ol>
<li><p>audience-centred communication (which relies on understanding your audience)</p></li>
<li><p>shifting from deficit model-based communication to engagement.</p></li>
</ol>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-key-drivers-of-good-messaging-in-a-time-of-crisis-expertise-empathy-and-timing-135866">Three key drivers of good messaging in a time of crisis: expertise, empathy and timing</a>
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<p>Scientists themselves may not have been exposed to these concepts. While some universities teach these skills within science degrees, the depth and orientation of these courses vary. </p>
<p>In Australia, there are only two Masters-level programs in science communication (compared with the Netherlands, which has seven). These programs aim to develop professional skills but are also informed by the history, philosophy and sociology of science, so communicators can reflect deeply and critically on the choices they make. </p>
<p>So-called <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1075547019847484?journalCode=scxb?">values-based communication</a> is central to these programs.</p>
<h2>At the core, it’s about audience</h2>
<p>Values-based communication requires communicators to recognise that audiences have a range of knowledge bases, attitudes, perceptions, experiences and values. All of these influence how they relate to different scientific issues. </p>
<p>A science communication professional will take their audiences’ value systems into account when considering the purpose of their communication.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/god-and-illness-for-some-south-africans-theres-more-to-healing-than-medicine-176180">God and illness: for some South Africans, there's more to healing than medicine</a>
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<p>A science communicator might decide to point out to some audiences that a virus doesn’t care who we are, so as to emphasise personal risk and responsibility. A different approach may be needed for an audience who believe <a href="https://theconversation.com/god-and-illness-for-some-south-africans-theres-more-to-healing-than-medicine-176180">illness is due to the will of a god</a>. </p>
<p>It’s the communicator’s responsibility to balance the potential harm their communication may cause with the benefit in supporting various audiences. One size definitely does not fit all.</p>
<h2>Good communicators understand human values</h2>
<p>Many people working in science communication do not have an education or qualifications in science communication. However, the vast majority do communicate with empathy and transparency about their own values. They acknowledge the limitations of science and its interplay with politics, culture, history and economics. </p>
<p>We reflect deeply on the ethical issues arising from our activities and, for those of us working with particularly controversial or contentious sciences, only time will tell whether we have been effective.</p>
<p>There is no doubt some sections of the science community do communicate without taking people’s values in mind. However, this is counter to current scholarship and best practice. </p>
<p>Most science communication professionals carefully take these things into account. We do it because that is the best way to get better societal outcomes, and to do better science that actually reflects the needs of the communities we live in.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218030/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Carruthers is a freelance communications specialist working with clients including Science in Public. He is the co-president of the Australian Science Communicators, and adjunct lecturer in science communication at UWA.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heather Bray is the Coordinator of the Master of Science Communication at the University of Western Australia and is involved in both teaching and research in science communication. She is a current member of Australian Science Communicators. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Nurse is an associate lecturer of science communication at the Australian National Centre for the Public Awareness of Science at ANU. He has previously received Research Training Program funding from the Commonwealth Government. He is a current member of Australian Science Communicators. </span></em></p>Science communication has to start with values – and most of the time it does.Tom Carruthers, Co-president, Australian Science Communicators, and Adjunct Lecturer, Science Communication, The University of Western AustraliaHeather Bray, Senior Lecturer in Science Communication, The University of Western AustraliaMatthew Nurse, Associate lecturer, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2150012023-10-18T20:34:31Z2023-10-18T20:34:31ZTalking about science and technology has positive impacts on research and society<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553752/original/file-20231013-29-zlzivk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C45%2C5120%2C2789&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It is important to educate the public about scientific research, discoveries and applications.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/talking-about-science-and-technology-has-positive-impacts-on-research-and-society" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Discussions around science and technology can become controversial, such as public conversations around <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2016/10/04/the-politics-of-climate/">climate science</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/crispr-gene-editing-controversy-shows-old-ideas-about-east-and-west-still-prevail-66918">gene-editing tools</a>. </p>
<p>That might leave the impression that such conversations are best avoided. But it is important to have constructive conversations about scientific and technical subjects because of how they impact our lives.</p>
<p>Not having these conversations can lead to further division and strained relationships. Avoidance of such conversations could also have serious implications for scientific research support such as the continued development of life-saving vaccines or in deciding how we might regulate emerging technologies such as generative artificial intelligence.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/generative-ai-like-chatgpt-reveal-deep-seated-systemic-issues-beyond-the-tech-industry-198579">Generative AI like ChatGPT reveal deep-seated systemic issues beyond the tech industry</a>
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<p>The ancient Greeks had a term for opportune moments, or those qualitative measures of time where things just seem to be right for some action. They called these <em>kairotic</em>. The term <em><a href="http://rhetoric.byu.edu/Encompassing%20Terms/kairos.htm">kairos</a></em> is a qualitative measure of time, as opposed to <em>chronos</em>, or linear quantitative time. </p>
<p>It is a <em>kairotic</em> moment to talk about trust — which we might think of as a very old idea but is highly important today — as we see new science emerging and technologies developing apace.</p>
<h2>Polarizing information</h2>
<p>The consequences of allowing issues in science and technology to be so polarized that we don’t talk about them include <a href="https://data.oecd.org/chart/6YJS">economic impacts</a>, Canada falling behind in applied and <a href="https://www.universityaffairs.ca/features/feature-article/time-to-step-up-to-the-plate/">basic scientific research</a> and <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/engineering/news/dean-wells-calls-greater-trust-science-and-technology">responsible</a> <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/commentary/article-canada-science-and-tech-investing/">technology development</a>. </p>
<p>We need to have direct conversations about scientific research, progress, <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/news/arts/why-people-trust-or-distrust-experts-when-it-comes-critical">experts and expertise</a>, and new technologies that may become critically important to <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/news/societal-relevance/societal-futures">society in the future</a>.</p>
<p>Together, we have built a <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/news/nobel-laureate-launches-trust-research-undertaken-science">research network</a> called <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/trust-research-undertaken-science-technology-scholarly-network/">TRuST</a> at the University of Waterloo. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/trust-research-undertaken-science-technology-scholarly-network/videos">inaugural lecture series event</a> began this conversation about trust in science, technology and health in Canada, and we hope to continue these conversations through an ongoing speaker series and collaborations with other researchers and organizations.</p>
<p>Our work asks the tough <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/engineering/news/dean-wells-calls-greater-trust-science-and-technology">questions about why people do — or don’t — trust science and technology</a>, <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/news/global-futures/building-trust-experts">who is found trustworthy</a>, how trust is earned and lost and how we can have conversations about science and technology in the service of us all. </p>
<p>By doing so, we hope to launch conversations about these topics, not to provide definitive answers or to tell anyone what to think.</p>
<h2>A crisis of trust?</h2>
<p>While there appears to be a public crisis in trust, there is a good deal of complexity when we talk about concepts of trust and who is trustworthy. Trust in scientists and interest in science has remained high for a number of years, but there are some trends that raise questions about whether that is changing. </p>
<p>Overall, trust in <a href="https://getproof.com/trust/cantrust/?utm_source=web&utm_medium=release&utm_campaign=ct2023">medical doctors and scientists</a>, for example, seems to have declined somewhat since the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic when trust was somewhat higher than normal. </p>
<p>Surveys and polls give us high-level insights, but we also know that there are issues that become controversial. We also know that how questions are asked in a survey or poll can influence the nature of responses. For instance, if we ask “do you trust scientists,” do you think about scientists generally or are you thinking of a specific scientist?</p>
<p>Sometimes <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41940538">controversy is manufactured</a>, as in the case of <a href="https://www.politico.com/story/2019/08/21/frank-luntz-wrong-climate-change-1470653">climate change</a> where the prevailing consensus among scientists was strategically downplayed. Sometimes the way we <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-illusion-and-implications-of-just-following-the-science-covid-19-messaging-210786">frame an issue</a> can lead to confusion and mistrust. </p>
<p>Once an issue is controversial it can be polarizing and <a href="https://theconversation.com/7-ways-to-spot-polarizing-language-how-to-choose-responsibly-what-to-amplify-online-or-in-person-177276">polarizing language</a> can influence how we think and talk about issues. </p>
<p>And of course, social media influences how scientific knowledge is shared, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-social-media-can-distort-and-misinform-when-communicating-science-59044">distorted</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630.2022.2143550">“ironically reversed”</a>, <a href="https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/8/2/e019414">exploited</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1050651920958505">corrected</a> — or not.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553753/original/file-20231013-15-c662s1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a row of people on a bench looking at their phones" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553753/original/file-20231013-15-c662s1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553753/original/file-20231013-15-c662s1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553753/original/file-20231013-15-c662s1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553753/original/file-20231013-15-c662s1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553753/original/file-20231013-15-c662s1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553753/original/file-20231013-15-c662s1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553753/original/file-20231013-15-c662s1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Social media is a primary source for news.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Communicating through disagreement</h2>
<p>How do we talk to each other when we might not agree? </p>
<p>First, you need to have capacity, both emotionally and in terms of conversational skill, and some knowledge and interest in a topic to undertake this work. </p>
<p>Listening is a good place to begin, and by that we mean genuinely trying to hear and understand someone’s perspective. You might not agree, but you cannot engage their ideas if, for instance, you’re talking about <em>if</em> something actually happened and someone else is speculating <em>about</em> what happened.</p>
<p>This might seem like a subtle distinction, but these are the important distinctions. In the <a href="https://theconversation.com/defending-science-how-the-art-of-rhetoric-can-help-68210">field of rhetoric</a>, we might talk about this as a problem of <a href="http://rhetoric.byu.edu/Canons/Invention/Stasis.htm"><em>stasis</em></a>: you’re asking a question about if something is a fact and someone else is talking about the definition of what they have already taken to be a fact. </p>
<p>Listening means working hard to determine what someone else is talking about and while you can still disagree, calling out misinformation or otherwise challenging points, you should do so empathetically and respectfully. We can work towards building bridges that will productively move a conversation forward. </p>
<p>Built into this is a certain amount of respect for the person you’re talking to — even if <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/con.2004.0022">you’re an expert</a>, you need <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/con.2004.0023"><em>ethos</em></a> which means character built upon goodwill (<em><a href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/eunoia">eunoia</a></em>), good morals (<em>arete</em>) and good sense or reason (<em><a href="https://www-jstor-org.proxy.lib.uwaterloo.ca/stable/4545462">phronesis</a></em>) — and also goodwill to understand their perspective. </p>
<p>Goodwill, however, goes both ways. If someone you are listening to does not seem to be coming to a conversation in good faith or with goodwill, it might be time to excuse yourself.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-u-s-capitol-violence-could-happen-in-canada-here-are-3-ways-to-prevent-it-152960">The U.S. Capitol violence could happen in Canada — here are 3 ways to prevent it</a>
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<h2>Better science, better technology</h2>
<p>Improving science, our ethical processes for technology development and deployment and how we engage in conversations about how these efforts should shape our communities and everyday lives also requires work on the part of scientists, engineers and other experts. </p>
<p>Developing strategies to talk about our research methods and how science works and, critically, to listen to people’s concerns is a first step in <a href="https://scientistscitizens.wordpress.com/2012/11/03/three-little-words-so-hard-to-say/">responsibly and ethically communicating science</a>. It is a step experts can take with family, friends and in their communities. Working to support knowledge sharing from a wide variety of experts that better reflect the range of people and experiences in our communities is also very important.</p>
<p>Because trust requires certain kinds of vulnerability, the trustworthiness of experts is important in science and technology. </p>
<p>Relationships between experts and non-experts are asymmetrical. Experts often have knowledge that others need, and others must trust that experts will provide that knowledge and do so with goodwill, good sense and good judgment in line with shared values. When this is perceived as not happening, trust can be reduced or lost. </p>
<p>Trust is critical to the advancement of science itself and science in the advancement of society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215001/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ashley Rose Mehlenbacher works for the University of Waterloo and is the co-director of the TRuST network. She receives funding from the Canada Research Chairs program and has received funding from the Canadian Foundation for Innovation, Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Ontario Early Researcher Program, and others.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Donna Strickland and Mary Wells do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Conversations about scientific research and technological innovations allow the public to build trust with experts, and understand the impacts on everyday lives.Ashley Rose Mehlenbacher, Associate Professor and Canada Research Chair in Science, Health, and Technology Communication, University of WaterlooDonna Strickland, Professor, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of WaterlooMary Wells, Dean, Faculty of Engineering, University of WaterlooLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2115022023-08-14T07:16:47Z2023-08-14T07:16:47Z‘Stay safe’ – Vale Mary-Louise McLaws, a champion for the power of clear science communication<p>When the COVID pandemic hit, epidemiologist <a href="https://research.unsw.edu.au/people/emeritus-professor-marylouise-mclaws">Professor Emeritus Mary-Louise McLaws AO</a> became the go-to expert for many journalists across the media spectrum. With new research being released daily, access to calm, reliable and knowledgeable experts like Mary-Louise – or “ML” as she was known to her friends – became paramount for them and many Australians.</p>
<p>Her manner was friendly and unassuming for someone so highly regarded in scientific circles. She had a gentle and calm presence on camera and a way of cutting through scientific terms and jargon to get to the heart of what really mattered to viewers, readers and listeners. </p>
<p>Yet she was also not afraid to question whether authorities were making the correct decisions. She expressed concerns that too few measures were being taken to stop the virus spreading <a href="https://theconversation.com/5-tips-for-ventilation-to-reduce-covid-risk-at-home-and-work-151758">through the air</a> and about the <a href="https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=645971703420401">time it took</a> for rapid antigen tests to become publicly and freely available.</p>
<p>And when Mary-Louise spoke, the audience listened. Yet, she never resorted to hyperbole or exaggeration. When Australians needed someone to explain what at times seemed inexplicable, she knew all the right words. She had a unique way of taking her understanding of diseases such as COVID and being able to tell audiences exactly what they needed to hear.</p>
<p>Mary-Louise passed away on Saturday aged 70, some 18 months after her <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/melbourne/programs/mornings/mary-louise-mclaws-queens-birthday-honour/13926650">diagnosis</a> with brain cancer. We had the privilege of collaborating with Mary-Louise, including on a paper <a href="https://ojs.wpro.who.int/ojs/index.php/wpsar/article/view/1079">published today</a> about communicating health and science to the public. We hope to continue her legacy of building trust in science, even as it unfolds. </p>
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<h2>Unique skills</h2>
<p>A reputable scientist – she spent 36 years in the University of NSW Medicine and Health Faculty – she was able to adeptly translate research findings into language the public could understand. Mary-Louise had the confidence to work with journalists and the media during a public health emergency. Along with countless interviews, she <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-14/mary-louise-mclaws-remembered-by-health-community/102725732">wrote</a> 180 scientific papers and was made an Officer of the Order of Australia in 2022 for distinguished service to epidemiology and infection prevention. As she <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/melbourne/programs/mornings/mary-louise-mclaws-queens-birthday-honour/13926650">told</a> ABC radio listeners just over a year ago: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>My tone should always be – I’m not political but I will tell you what I think as an epidemiologist and as a global epidemiologist as well and what the [World Health Organization] and others are trying to achieve.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>She was passionate about ensuring scientists and academic researchers develop public engagement and science communication skills to allow them to become influential champions and to rebuild trust in science. </p>
<p>Of her passing, UNSW Chancellor David Gonski <a href="https://newsroom.unsw.edu.au/news/health/vale-mary-louise-mclaws-researcher-and-global-advocate-infectious-diseases-and-public">said</a> </p>
<blockquote>
<p>We mourn the passing of a UNSW academic who was locally grown and became a superstar while remaining tenacious, humble, hardworking and caring. We are grateful for all she did for UNSW and Australia, she will not be forgotten.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Mary-Louise responded quickly to the media, respecting their deadlines. She often said that journalists have a difficult job to do. When she was diagnosed with a brain tumor, she <a href="https://twitter.com/MarylouiseMcla1/status/1482201662387519492">thanked the media</a> for helping her spread knowledge. </p>
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<p>We hope her legacy will help pave the way for universities to encourage and train their scientists and academics to work confidently with journalists to communicate their research to the public.</p>
<h2>A calm voice</h2>
<p>To the Australian public, Mary-Louise was a calm voice who graced our lounge rooms daily via the ABC, sometimes <a href="https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=645971703420401">signing off</a> with “stay safe”. She wrote for and spoke to media outlets including <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/mary-louise-mclaws-280701/articles">The Conversation</a> before and during the pandemic.</p>
<p>To her colleagues at UNSW, on the WHO Health Emergencies Program Expert Advisory Panel and the NSW COVID Infection Prevention and Control taskforce, she was a credible, well-regarded and respected epidemiologist and infection prevention and control expert and extended her expertise globally with many appointments.</p>
<p>To her students, Mary-Louise was devoted and while she demanded the highest quality of work from her doctoral students, she provided much more than just academic guidance – she was gentle, thought-provoking and always available.</p>
<p>To her friends and family, Mary-Louise was a nurturer, a kind, loving mother and devoted wife. Her Jewish heritage was important to her and she embraced diversity, culture and enjoyed travelling around the world experiencing all that it had to offer.</p>
<p>For all of us feeling her loss, there is some comfort knowing Mary-Louise’s life penetrated so many hearts and that her legacy will continue, forever.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1690700184832069633"}"></div></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211502/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jocelyne Basseal is the President for the Australasian Medical Writers Association.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sharon Salmon and Sophie Scott do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A calm voice, a trusted expert, devoted teacher. Epidemiologist Professor Mary-Louise McLaws was passionate about engaging with the mainstream media and communicating what she knew.Jocelyne Basseal, Associate Director, Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute (Sydney ID), Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of SydneySharon Salmon, Honorary Senior Lecturer, UNSW SydneySophie Scott, Associate Professor (Adjunct), Science Communication, University of Notre Dame AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1966912023-06-06T12:31:12Z2023-06-06T12:31:12ZScientists’ political donations reflect polarization in academia – with implications for the public’s trust in science<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530181/original/file-20230605-25-5v5b99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=175%2C143%2C3722%2C2746&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Under 10% of political donations from academic scholars go to Republican causes.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/political-contributions-super-pacs-and-political-royalty-free-image/1321234653">Douglas Rissing/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People who lean left politically reported an <a href="https://apnorc.org/projects/amidst-the-pandemic-confidence-in-the-scientific-community-becomes-increasingly-polarized/">increase in trust in scientists</a> during the COVID-19 pandemic, while those who lean right politically reported much lower levels of trust in scientists. This polarization around scientific issues – from COVID-19 to climate change to evolution – is at its peak since surveys started tracking this question over 50 years ago.</p>
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<p>Surveys reveal that people with more education are <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2016/04/26/a-wider-ideological-gap-between-more-and-less-educated-adults/">more ideologically liberal</a>. And academia has been gradually turning left over the past 40 years. Scientists – the people who produce scientific knowledge – are widely perceived to be on the opposite side of the political spectrum from those who trust science the least. This disparity poses a challenge when communicating important science to the public.</p>
<p>In a recent study, science historian <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=UK9sjJMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Naomi Oreskes</a>, environmental social scientist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=e138rTwAAAAJ&hl=en">Viktoria Cologna</a>, literary critic <a href="https://www.charlietyson.com/">Charlie Tyson</a> <a href="https://www.kaurov.org">and I</a> leveraged public data sets <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01382-3">to explore the dynamics of scientists’ political leanings</a>. Our analysis of individual political donations confirms that the vast majority of scientists who contribute have supported Democratic candidates. But we contend that this fact doesn’t need to short-circuit effective science communication to the public.</p>
<h2>Digging into individuals’ political donations</h2>
<p>In the United States, all donations to political parties and campaigns must be reported to the Federal Election Committee. That information is <a href="https://www.fec.gov/">published by the FEC on its website</a>, along with the donation amount and date; the donor’s name, address and occupation; and the recipient’s party affiliation. This data allowed us to examine millions of transactions made in the past 40 years.</p>
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<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01382-3">In our study</a>, we examined researchers in academia, specifically people with titles like “professor,” “faculty,” “scientist” and “lecturer,” as well as scientists in the energy sector. We conducted this analysis by identifying 100,000 scientists based on their self-reported occupation and cross-referencing them with the <a href="https://www.scopus.com/">Elsevier’s Scopus database</a>, which contains information on researchers and their scientific publications. The findings of our study indicate a gradual shift away from the Republican Party among American researchers, both in academia and the industry.</p>
<p>Overall support of the Republican Party, in terms of individual donations from the general public, has slid down over the past 40 years. But this trend is much steeper for scientists and academics than for the overall U.S. population. By 2022, it was hard to find an academic supporting the Republican Party financially, even at <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-022-01382-3/figures/1">Christian colleges and universities</a>. The trend also persists <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-022-01382-3/figures/3">across academic disciplines</a>.</p>
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<p>Notably, scientists working at fossil fuel companies have also become more liberal, while their management has remained conservative, based on both groups’ political donations. We suspect this buildup of political polarization within companies may at some point intensify the public conversation about climate change.</p>
<h2>Who shares science messages</h2>
<p>People tend to accept and internalize information delivered by someone they consider trustworthy. Communication scholars call this the “<a href="https://ssir.org/articles/entry/finding_the_right_messenger_for_your_message">trusted messenger</a>” effect. Various factors like socioeconomic status, race and, increasingly, political leanings influence this perceived credibility.</p>
<p>Science communication gets stalled because of what appears to be a positive feedback loop: The more liberal academia gets, the fewer “trusted messengers” can communicate with the half of the U.S. that leans right. Trust in science and scientific institutions among Republicans declines and it gets reflected in their policies; academia, in response, leans even more left.</p>
<p>The increased clustering of scientists away from Republicans risks further damaging conservative Republicans’ trust in science. But we contend there are ways to break out of this loop.</p>
<p>First, academia is not a monolith. While our study may suggest that all academics are liberal, it is important to admit that the data we analyzed – political donations – is only a proxy for what people actually think. We don’t capture every scientist with this method since not everyone donates to political campaigns. In fact, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2017/05/17/5-facts-about-u-s-political-donations/">most people don’t donate to any candidate at all</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/book/31449">According to</a> <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2009/07/09/section-4-scientists-politics-and-religion/">surveys</a>, many academics have traditionally considered themselves moderate. The question, then, is how to communicate to the public the diversity of political views in academia, given the degree of current polarization, and how to elevate these other voices.</p>
<p>Second, the evident left leaning of academia <a href="https://social-epistemology.com/2020/08/07/the-american-university-the-politics-of-professors-and-the-narrative-of-liberal-bias-charlie-tyson-and-naomi-oreskes/">is not necessarily proof of a “liberal bias</a>” that <a href="https://areomagazine.com/2018/10/02/academic-grievance-studies-and-the-corruption-of-scholarship/">some people worry is corrupting research</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X14000430">impeding the pursuit of truth</a>. Overall, higher education does appear to have a <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2016/04/26/a-wider-ideological-gap-between-more-and-less-educated-adults/">liberalizing effect on social and political views</a>, but universities also play an important role in the formation of <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691163666/becoming-right">political identity for</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-020-09446-z">young conservatives</a>.</p>
<p>We believe that clear data about academia’s left-leaning orientation, as well as understanding the underlying reasons for it, could help interrupt the feedback loop of declining scientific trust.</p>
<p>For now there’s a shortage of centrist and conservative scientists serving as trusted messengers. By engaging in public conversation, these scientists could offer visible alternatives to the anti-scientific stances of Republican elites, while at the same time showing that the scientific world is not homogeneous.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196691/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexander Kaurov receives funding from Harvard University. </span></em></p>Public data about individual donors’ political contributions supports the perception that American academia leans left.Alexander Kaurov, Research Associate in History of Science, Harvard UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1976452023-03-01T12:31:37Z2023-03-01T12:31:37ZHow amateur scientists are still helping make important discoveries<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509223/original/file-20230209-20-6ispxh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C44%2C5935%2C3900&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/students-inside-a-classroom-8471859/">pexels/ mart production</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What images does science conjure up in your mind?</p>
<p>You may well be visualising a laboratory, equations scrawled on a blackboard. Figures are surrounded by glassware filled with coloured liquids. Maybe someone, with a slightly furrowed brow, is hunched over a microscope. </p>
<p>But what this scene fails to convey is that science isn’t about labs, equipment or highly trained professionals. It’s not even the body of knowledge locked away in great minds or archived within text books and journals. </p>
<p>Instead, it’s about having a curious, creative, critical and evidence-based mindset. Which means anyone who uses the scientific method can and should consider themselves a scientist. Indeed, many a discovery has been made by amateur scientists. </p>
<p>They’re still helping to shape science. In January 2023, a new study <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-archaeological-journal/article/an-upper-palaeolithic-protowriting-system-and-phenological-calendar/6F2AD8A705888F2226FE857840B4FE19">confirmed the theory</a> of amateur archaeologist Ben Bacon who concluded 20,000-year-old cave markings were a lunar calendar. He spent hours decoding the primitive writing system, which may pre-date equivalent record-keeping systems by at least 10,000 years, before he approached a team of academics. </p>
<h2>Out of this world</h2>
<p>Astronomy has a long history of encouraging input from nonprofessional scientists. Brother and sister team <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27859053?seq=2">William and Caroline Herschel</a> are among the most well known. Originally from Hanover, German, and trained as musicians, the siblings moved to England and eventually lived in Bath. During the 1770s William worked as a choirmaster while his sister kept his house. </p>
<p>After a day’s work William would spend late nights voraciously reading up on astronomy. Breakfast conversations with his sister soon infected her with his passion. Together, the Herschels taught themselves to make their own telescopes. </p>
<p>Before long their prowess as telescope makers eclipsed their musical reputations. Eventually, the <a href="https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/astronomer-royal">astronomer royal</a>, who advised the king on astronomical matters, deemed their telescopes superior to those at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich. </p>
<p>The siblings went on to make major discoveries, using their telescopes. In 1781, William was the first to spot Uranus, followed by several galaxies. Meanwhile, Caroline found eight comets, a dwarf galaxy and 14 nebulae (<a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/nebula">giant clouds of dust and gas in space</a>).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508089/original/file-20230203-18-y6t4fi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508089/original/file-20230203-18-y6t4fi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=870&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508089/original/file-20230203-18-y6t4fi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=870&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508089/original/file-20230203-18-y6t4fi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=870&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508089/original/file-20230203-18-y6t4fi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1094&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508089/original/file-20230203-18-y6t4fi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1094&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508089/original/file-20230203-18-y6t4fi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1094&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sir William Herschel and Caroline Herschel ca. 1896.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/dmbmc538">Alfred Richard Diethe/Wellcome collection gallery</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the intervening 250 years, others followed the trail blazed by the Herschels. With no formal education <a href="https://earthsky.org/space/clyde-tombaugh-discovered-pluto-on-february-18-1930/">Clyde Tombaugh</a> taught himself to make telescopes. His creations landed him a job at Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, where he discovered Pluto in 1929. <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/obituaries/2018/02/20/thomas-bopp-comet-hunter-obituary/">Thomas Bopp</a> noticed a smudge when he peered down a friend’s scope, which was later named <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/comets/c-1995-o1-hale-bopp/in-depth/">Comet Hale-Bopp</a>. </p>
<p>On the very same night, (July 22 1995) unemployed physicist <a href="https://wiki.alquds.edu/?query=Alan_Hale_(astronomer)">Alan Hale</a> spotted the comet, so he shared the glory. Since then the number of discoveries, largely of planets outside of our solar system <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/06/22/world/exoplanets-nasa-citizen-science-scn/index.html">(exoplanets), by backyard astronomers</a> have rocketed due to <a href="https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/citizen-science/">citizen science projects</a> and the thousands of data sets made <a href="https://data.nasa.gov">publicly available by space agencies</a>. </p>
<h2>Down to Earth</h2>
<p>Back down on the ground there is still plenty for the amateur to explore. <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/mary-anning-unsung-hero.html">Mary Anning</a> is one of the most notable amateur Earth scientists. </p>
<p>In the early 19th century, she unearthed fabulous fossils on the beaches of Lyme Regis, Dorset. Despite her limited education, she devoured as much of the scientific literature as she could get her hands on and produced detailed technical drawings to record her finds. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, the influential Geological Society of London did not allow female members. So Anning was forced to sell her finds to “gentlemen” geologists who passed her work off as their own.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508091/original/file-20230203-7171-cr3hk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Sketch of dinosaur" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508091/original/file-20230203-7171-cr3hk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508091/original/file-20230203-7171-cr3hk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508091/original/file-20230203-7171-cr3hk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508091/original/file-20230203-7171-cr3hk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508091/original/file-20230203-7171-cr3hk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1164&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508091/original/file-20230203-7171-cr3hk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1164&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508091/original/file-20230203-7171-cr3hk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1164&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Autograph letter concerning the discovery of plesiosaurus, from Mary Anning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/cezbevj4">Wellcome collection</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Finding traces of a long dead creature gives people a taste of the thrill that any scientist feels when their data reveals something new. Since Anning trod the beaches of the Jurassic coast many an amateur palaeontologist has followed in her path. </p>
<p>A wonderful example is <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/giant-dinosaur-footprint-the-largest-ever-found-in-yorkshire-say-experts-12812147">fossil hunters Marie Woods and Rob Taylor</a> who spotted a metre-long dinosaur footprint – the largest ever discovered – in 2021 on the Yorkshire coast. </p>
<p>It’s not just the ground under our feet that has proved fruitful for budding Earth scientists. Our atmosphere is also a fertile area of research. Today, cheap air sensors, microprocessors and mobile phone networks allow anyone to use atmospheric <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07106-5">monitors</a> that feed into public access databanks, which are used for climate and pollution models. </p>
<p>But the first and most influential amateur climatologist was probably <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/meet-the-amateur-scientist-who-discovered-climate-change/">Guy Callendar</a>, a steam engineer by profession. </p>
<p>From the 1930s and throughout the mid 20th century, he published papers describing models of how carbon dioxide was affecting and would affect our climate. At the time his work was met with major scepticism, largely because he didn’t have scientific qualifications and because CO₂ constitutes a fraction of our atmosphere: just 0.04%, up from 0.03% in the pre-industrial era. </p>
<p>So the climatologists of the time struggled to grasp how these tiny changes could drive the dramatic effects Callendar predicted. Nevertheless, his perseverance and robust analysis of the data eventually persuaded others to take the threat of CO₂ seriously. </p>
<p>Amateur scientists thrive where data, observations and objects can be collected without technical and expensive equipment. That’s partly why historically there were so many amateur palaeontologists and astronomers. </p>
<p>Today, there is no shortage of open-source data and cheap analytical equipment. The result is hundreds of projects that interested <a href="https://www.zooniverse.org/projects">citizen scientists</a> can get involved with, from <a href="https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/penguintom79/penguin-watch">surveying penguins in the Antarctic</a> to <a href="https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/marek-slipski/cloudspotting-on-mars">cloud spotting on Mars</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/aOYrVM5bTno?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Flat-Earther proves himself wrong.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of course, access to equipment, data and even the ability to design an experiment does not a scientist make. You also need an open mind. Physicist and writer of the popular 1980s TV series Cosmos, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/space/who-was-carl-sagan">Carl Sagan</a>, once said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>In science it often happens that scientists say, “You know that’s a really good argument; my position is mistaken,” and then they would actually change their minds.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This attitude is central to any scientist’s mindset. It’s what distinguishes science from pseudoscience. A distinction beautifully made by an experiment, shown in the Netflix documentary, <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/reddit-video-flat-earth-conspiracy-b2007316.html">Beyond the Curve</a>. </p>
<p>The show finishes with a elegant experiment designed by a flat-Earther to prove his point of view. When the inevitable results came in he adopts that furrowed brow and just repeats “interesting”. </p>
<p>The documentary credits roll there, so we don’t get to see his thoughts play out. But if his next words were “I guess I was wrong”, then he gets to call himself a scientist.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197645/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Lorch does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Mary Anning, Thomas Bopp and Ben Bacon are just a few of the nonprofessionals who pushed the frontiers of science.Mark Lorch, Professor of Science Communication and Chemistry, University of HullLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1893222022-12-01T15:22:38Z2022-12-01T15:22:38ZDigital storytelling can be a powerful tool for water researchers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498216/original/file-20221130-12-pr7fvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Digital storytelling offers a way for water researchers to capture the nuance and emotion of people's experiences.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Eric Lafforgue/Art in All of Us/Corbis via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Storytelling and science may, at first glance, seem like strange bedfellows. Scientists usually share their research through academic journals and books or at academic conferences.</p>
<p>But storytelling is a powerful way to share scientific research with non-expert audiences. Today, stories can be built digitally: photos, videos and audio clips create visually, emotionally effective stories that are relatable and easily understood. </p>
<p>There are several reasons for taking this approach. One is that making scientific research accessible is essential for citizens to participate in democracies. And, rather than a researcher sharing people’s insights and experiences in a journal that’s not read by many, they can work with participants to craft stories that <a href="https://theconversation.com/refugee-women-use-their-voices-through-digital-storytelling-97870">give voice to marginalised and oppressed communities</a>.</p>
<p>Good digital storytelling is a way to impart different forms of knowledge in a way that stimulates action. For instance, it can <a href="https://theconversation.com/science-can-influence-policy-and-benefit-the-public-heres-how-41668">influence policy</a>. However, the tool needs to be used by those who have been trained to accurately, ethically and sensitively report various aspects of research findings. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/refugee-women-use-their-voices-through-digital-storytelling-97870">Refugee women use their voices through digital storytelling</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We trained ten early career researchers from six African countries – Senegal, Tanzania, Nigeria, Uganda, Rwanda, and South Africa – about digital storytelling. This work was undertaken by the African Research Universities Alliance <a href="https://www.ru.ac.za/iwr/centers/aruacoe/">Water Centre of Excellence</a> and the <a href="https://www.ru.ac.za/communityengagement/socialinnovation/aboutthesocialinnovationhub/">Social Innovation Hub</a> at Rhodes University in South Africa. All the participants study some aspect of water, such as pollution, allocation and access.</p>
<p>The researchers created <a href="https://www.youtube.com/@aruawatercoe">digital stories</a> based on their academic work. The videos were shared on several platforms, like email, WhatsApp, Youtube, stakeholder workshops and during <a href="https://youtu.be/iYQ3e2NYb9Q">a symposium</a> at the international 2021 African Research Universities Alliance Biennial Conference.</p>
<h2>What participants told us</h2>
<p>The researchers are all post-doctoral; they obtained their PhDs in the past decade. This was an opportunity to build their capacity as science communicators early on in their careers. First, they participated in a week-long online digital storytelling training workshop, accredited by Rhodes University. They learned, among other things, about building narratives and how to do basic video editing.</p>
<p>A few months after the training, and once the digital stories had been distributed via various platforms, we interviewed the ten participants. We wanted to find out how using digital storytelling had helped them and where there was room for improvement.</p>
<p>They overwhelmingly described digital storytelling as a useful tool for quickly sharing research work and findings with local and international colleagues. It also helped them to advertise their research to potential future funders. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/science-needs-to-start-speaking-to-peoples-everyday-lives-in-africa-67938">Science needs to start speaking to people's everyday lives in Africa</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The training has even inspired institutional change. In Uganda, Makerere University’s College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences and the Department of Geography have started to use digital stories as teaching aids – including the one developed during training. Makerere has also partnered with the Mastercard Foundation to <a href="https://news.mak.ac.ug/2022/09/prof-nawangwe-urges-makerere-university-community-to-support-the-mastercard-foundation-e-learning-initiative/">set up digital studios</a> that will help produce stories.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498215/original/file-20221130-22-3hx3v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498215/original/file-20221130-22-3hx3v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498215/original/file-20221130-22-3hx3v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498215/original/file-20221130-22-3hx3v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498215/original/file-20221130-22-3hx3v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498215/original/file-20221130-22-3hx3v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498215/original/file-20221130-22-3hx3v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some of the case studies developed into digital stories during the training.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Supplied by authors</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is a recognition of digital storytelling as <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-students-can-use-storytelling-to-bring-the-dangers-of-climate-change-to-life-16669">an important tool</a> for academics. It empowers students to share their research with peers, communities and policy makers. </p>
<p>Participants also found digital storytelling useful in highlighting multiple stakeholders’ experiences. Such nuanced and emotive stories are not often captured in traditional research outputs like journal articles. This approach gave stakeholders an important voice to those who might not have much power in decision making around the management of water resources.</p>
<h2>Some gaps and concerns</h2>
<p>There was room for improvement, though.</p>
<p>For starters, not all the community stakeholders whose experiences were captured in digital stories had access to digital platforms. There are also language limitations. Senegal, for instance, is a Francophone country – so should the video be in French or in English? Our Senegalese participant decided to create a video in French with English subtitles.</p>
<p>There was also a concern that the digital stories were oversimplified or presented idealistic narratives. Participants worried that their stories didn’t adequately reflect how decision making relating to the management of water quality, water use and allocation in each case study context had resulted in some stakeholder groups being marginalised.</p>
<p>Participants also suggested that stakeholder communities could be taught digital storytelling skills. This would allow communities themselves to authentically portray their own experiences. </p>
<h2>Collaboration and communication</h2>
<p>We believe that digital storytelling could become a valuable tool for water resource researchers in Africa. It is a way to enhance science communication and collaborative efforts in addressing water resource challenges.</p>
<p>But training is key. Digital storytellers must be able to accurately, sensitively report on the issues at hand and how these play out for those affected. </p>
<p>Accessibility, too, must be considered. Some of this is linguistic; some relates to the availability of digital resources. And, as our participants suggested, digital storytelling could perhaps be most powerful when local communities are given the skills to lead the creation of digital stories of their particular context, problem and experiences.</p>
<p><em>Thandiwe Matyobeni co-authored this article. The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of ARUA Water Centre of Excellence co-director Isa Kabenge and those of the ARUA Water Centre of Excellence Early Career Researchers who were part of the storytelling course and who responded to a survey following the course (alphabetical): Alphonse Nzarora, Augustina Alexander, Matthew Weaver, Naledi Chere, Notty Libala, Olusola Oribayo, Prossie Nakawuke, Rokhaya Diop.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189322/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Traditional research outputs like journal articles don’t often give voice to communities’ stories.Rebecca Powell, Postdoctoral Researcher in Water Science, Rhodes UniversitySukhmani Mantel, Senior Research Officer Institute for water research, Rhodes UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1953622022-11-28T01:22:38Z2022-11-28T01:22:38ZVisually striking science experiments at school can be fun, inspiring and safe – banning is not the answer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497500/original/file-20221128-18-3ldy04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=57%2C0%2C5415%2C3673&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alexandr Grant/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>To a young mind, science can be magical. Perhaps you remember a visually striking or seemingly inexplicable scientific demonstration from your own youth?</p>
<p>A liquid spontaneously and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V7pfoy2iKFM">unexpectedly changes colour</a>. A banknote is set <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ucrRDTdoFUA">alight without being burnt</a>. A column of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mrHi-cc6F9E&t">colourful bubbles shoots into the air</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ucrRDTdoFUA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>Scientists and science teachers often make use of dramatic demonstrations to capture the attention of young, impressionable minds, to inspire and to teach. But sometimes these experiments go wrong.</p>
<p>In September, <a href="https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/explosion-at-outreach-event-under-investigation-after-18-people-injured-in-spain/4016397.article">a public display in Girona, Spain</a> involving liquid nitrogen in large metal barrels failed, causing injuries to the presenters and the audience. </p>
<p>In October, a teacher and a student in the US state of Virginia were airlifted to hospital after a <a href="https://www.nbc12.com/2022/10/19/student-remains-hospitalized-after-dinwiddie-school-fire/">methanol fire demonstration caused an explosion</a>.</p>
<p>And last week, a demonstration known as the “carbon snake” <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/maybe-it-needs-to-be-prohibited-school-experiment-has-hurt-children-before-20221122-p5c0c5.html">injured several schoolchildren in Sydney</a>, leading to the suggestion that such experiments should be banned.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A bowl with sand and a dark curled burnt object on top" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497502/original/file-20221128-26-a2cao1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497502/original/file-20221128-26-a2cao1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497502/original/file-20221128-26-a2cao1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497502/original/file-20221128-26-a2cao1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497502/original/file-20221128-26-a2cao1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497502/original/file-20221128-26-a2cao1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497502/original/file-20221128-26-a2cao1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Burning sugar and baking soda produces the ‘carbon snake’, a classic demonstration of several chemical reactions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Vins Contributor/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Demonstrations are a valuable teaching tool</h2>
<p>Our rapidly changing, technologically complex world benefits greatly from a <a href="https://theconversation.com/science-communication-is-more-important-than-ever-here-are-3-lessons-from-around-the-world-on-what-makes-it-work-147670">scientifically informed and engaged population</a>.</p>
<p>A key aspect of achieving a “science-savvy” community is inspiring our children to <a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-need-help-to-save-nature-with-a-smartphone-and-these-8-tips-we-can-get-our-kids-on-the-case-192622">value and connect with science</a>. Demonstrations can be inspirational and memorable.</p>
<p>They are valuable tools to link young people with science, but a careful line must be walked to balance spectacle with the expectation that school is a safe place. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/science-education-the-key-to-a-better-public-debate-2474">Science education the key to a better public debate</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Demonstrations have been used in <a href="https://www.rigb.org/christmas-lectures/history-christmas-lectures">science education for centuries</a>, and shown to <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1515/pac-2020-1005">enhance education when students are actively engaged in the experiment</a>.</p>
<p>Scientific demonstrations are the living embodiment of science as an observational practice: seeing is believing.</p>
<p>Participating in an experiment provides direct, lived experience of <a href="https://hooktraining.com/defence-of-science-demonstrations/">scientific principles in action</a>, while also affording an element of mystery and intrigue. This intrigue can open a <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">curiosity-driven</a>, questioning mindset that is central to building hypotheses, understanding, and applying the scientific method.</p>
<h2>Not just ‘scientific theatre’</h2>
<p>For effective learning it is crucial that a demonstration is more than scientific theatre.</p>
<p>Recreating an <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00978">ancient alchemical pyrotechnic based on honey</a> gives a brilliantly violent burst of flames. On its own, this is just noise, flash and smoke. It becomes much more when discussed in the context of the origins of medicine, the development of gunpowder, the ratio of chemicals needed for optimal reaction, and the contribution of alchemy to modern science.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Video showing a plate above a bunsen burner spontaneously burst into flame" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497507/original/file-20221128-305-ulnp1d.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497507/original/file-20221128-305-ulnp1d.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497507/original/file-20221128-305-ulnp1d.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497507/original/file-20221128-305-ulnp1d.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497507/original/file-20221128-305-ulnp1d.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497507/original/file-20221128-305-ulnp1d.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497507/original/file-20221128-305-ulnp1d.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Honey, potassium nitrate, and sulphur provide a demonstration of a brilliant alchemical pyrotechnic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, this is also a potentially dangerous experiment, and should only be attempted by a suitably cautious chemist, with appropriate preparation and assessment of risk.</p>
<p>Assessing risk is an act of imagination. The worst possible outcomes must first be considered before controls are applied to make the activity as safe as possible.</p>
<p>Risk assessments are typically managed through the application of the hierarchy of controls to reduce or eliminate the dangers of an activity.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497497/original/file-20221127-16-uzll7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A rainbow-coloured inverted pyramid listing a series of practices for safety" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497497/original/file-20221127-16-uzll7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497497/original/file-20221127-16-uzll7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497497/original/file-20221127-16-uzll7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497497/original/file-20221127-16-uzll7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497497/original/file-20221127-16-uzll7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497497/original/file-20221127-16-uzll7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497497/original/file-20221127-16-uzll7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The hierarchy of controls as defined by the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_hazard_controls#/media/File:NIOSH%E2%80%99s_%E2%80%9CHierarchy_of_Controls_infographic%E2%80%9D_as_SVG.svg">NIOSH/Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>You might be surprised to see that personal protective equipment (think lab coats, gloves and safety glasses) only come into play at the final step in this process. These are among the first things that come to mind when we think “safety”. But they are most effective only after other elements of control have been implemented before them.</p>
<p>Introducing some controls can be challenging, like finding a suitable substitute for a hazardous material that is uniquely suited to a particular chemical reaction.</p>
<p>But engineering controls, such as increasing the distance between viewer and demonstration, are simple and usually highly effective.</p>
<p>Once we establish the risks and have considered their likelihood and potential consequences, we can decide whether the activity is worth pursuing.</p>
<h2>Training, not banning</h2>
<p>Universities and professional scientific bodies have a role to play in providing training, professional development and mentoring to teachers. </p>
<p>This is especially important for teachers who may be <a href="https://theconversation.com/too-many-teachers-teaching-outside-their-area-of-expertise-39688">teaching outside their direct area of training</a> and who may not have the hands-on experience of experimental risk assessment or chemical handling. </p>
<p>In addition to workplace-specific risk-assessment processes, the American Chemical Society has many <a href="https://institute.acs.org/lab-safety/education-and-training/safer-experiments.html">resources available for school teachers</a>, including highly useful <a href="https://institute.acs.org/content/dam/pldp/center/lab-safety/publications/divched_2018_safetyflyer2pager_proof1.pdf">safety guidelines for chemical demonstrations</a>.</p>
<p>These guidelines show the depth of thought and preparation required before conducting a demonstration in front of others. </p>
<p>Time will tell what factors were responsible for the incidents mentioned above. In the meantime, teachers should be empowered to share the wonder and visual impact of science through demonstrations to their classes.</p>
<p>And while <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/why-i-teach-my-students-about-scientific-failure">failed experiments are an important part of learning how to do science</a>, they can and must be safe.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-is-lava-made-190431">Curious Kids: how is lava made?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195362/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nathan Kilah has received funding from Inspiring Australia to run 'Chemistry of Fireworks' lectures and pyrotechnic displays, funding from the Festival of Bright Ideas for fire and chemical reaction based scientific demonstrations, and funding and administrative support from the Royal Australian Chemical Institute.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Rutledge has received funding for travel and administrative support from the Royal Australian Chemical Institute NSW to present the Nyholm Youth Lectures at high schools across NSW. His lectures included live chemistry demonstrations with student participation.</span></em></p>Inspiring our children to value and connect with science is key to improving society – and there are ways to do this safely in the classroom.Nathan Kilah, Senior Lecturer in Chemistry, University of TasmaniaPeter Rutledge, Professor of Chemistry, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1944082022-11-24T20:39:31Z2022-11-24T20:39:31ZJournalists reporting on the COVID-19 pandemic relied on research that had yet to be peer reviewed<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496833/original/file-20221122-24-oaiosp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6720%2C4476&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Journalists covering scientific research during the COVID-19 pandemic increased their reliance on preprints.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A story on <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-lack-of-confidence-thats-holding-back-women-in-stem-155216">gender inequity in scientific research industries</a>. A deep dive into the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-well-your-immune-system-works-can-depend-on-the-time-of-day-161930">daily rhythms of the immune system</a>. A look at <a href="https://www.news-medical.net/news/20210603/Study-compares-Pfizer-and-Moderna-mRNA-vaccine-elicited-response-to-SARS-CoV-2-variants.aspx">vaccine effectiveness</a> for COVID-19 variants. These are a few examples of news stories based on <em>preprints</em> — research studies that haven’t been formally vetted by the scientific community. </p>
<p>Journalists have <a href="https://www.sciencemediacentre.org/what-should-press-officers-advise-on-preprints-during-a-pandemic/">historically been discouraged</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05789-4">from reporting on preprints</a> because of fears that the findings could be exaggerated, inaccurate or flat-out wrong. But our new research suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic may have changed things by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277769">pushing preprint-based journalism into the mainstream</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/preprints-how-draft-academic-papers-have-become-essential-in-the-fight-against-covid-158811">Preprints: how draft academic papers have become essential in the fight against COVID</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>While this new normal offers important benefits for journalists and their audiences, it also comes with risks and challenges that deserve our attention. </p>
<h2>Peer review and the pandemic</h2>
<p>Traditionally, studies must be read and critiqued by at least two independent experts before they can be published in a scientific journal — a process known as “<a href="https://journalistsresource.org/media/peer-review-research-journalists/">peer review</a>.” </p>
<p>This isn’t the case with preprints, which are posted online almost immediately, without formal review. This immediacy has made preprints a valuable resource for scientists <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000959">tackling the COVID-19 pandemic</a>.</p>
<p>The lack of formal review makes preprints a faster way to communicate science, albeit a potentially riskier approach. While <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/peer-reviewed-scientific-journals-dont-really-do-their-job/">peer review isn’t perfect</a>, it can help scientists identify errors in data or more clearly communicate their findings. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1372904891128160256"}"></div></p>
<p>Studies suggest that <a href="https://morepress.unizd.hr/journals/index.php/pubmet/article/view/3941">most preprints</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.2196/35276">stand up well</a> to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjmed-2022-000309">the scrutiny of peer review</a>. Still, in some cases, <a href="https://journalistsresource.org/media/two-studies-examine-preprints/">findings can change in important ways between the time a study is posted as a preprint and the time it is published in a peer-reviewed journal</a>, which can be on average <a href="https://blog.dhimmel.com/plos-and-publishing-delays/">more than 100 days</a>.</p>
<h2>A ‘paradigm shift’ in science journalism</h2>
<p>As researchers of<a href="https://www.scholcommlab.ca/research/science-communication/"> journalism and science communication,</a> we’ve been keeping a close eye on media coverage of preprints since the onset of the pandemic. In one study, we found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1864892">that a wide range of media outlets reported on COVID-19 preprints</a>, including major outlets like <em>The New York Times</em> and <em>The Guardian</em>. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, many of these outlets failed to mention that these studies were preprints, leaving audiences unaware that the science they were reading hadn’t been peer reviewed.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-the-rush-for-coronavirus-information-unreviewed-scientific-papers-are-being-publicized-152912">In the rush for coronavirus information, unreviewed scientific papers are being publicized</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We dug deeper into how and why journalists use preprints. Through in-depth interviews, we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277769">asked health and science journalists about the strategies</a> they used to find, verify and communicate about preprints and whether they planned to report on them after COVID-19.</p>
<p>Our peer-reviewed, published study found that preprints have become an <a href="https://www.scidev.net/global/learning-series/global-science-journalism-report-2021-2/">important information source</a> for many journalists, and one that some plan to keep using post-pandemic. Journalists reported actively seeking out these unreviewed studies by visiting <a href="https://asapbio.org/preprint-servers">online servers</a> (websites where scientists post preprints) or by monitoring social media. </p>
<p>Although a few journalists were unsure if they would continue using preprints, others said these studies had created “a complete paradigm shift” in science journalism.</p>
<h2>A careful equation</h2>
<p>Journalists told us that they valued preprints because they were more timely than peer reviewed studies, which are often published <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40037-020-00576-2">months after scientists conduct the research</a>. As one freelancer we interviewed put it: “When people are dying, you gotta get things going a little bit.” </p>
<p>Journalists also appreciated that preprints are <a href="https://asapbio.org/preprint-info/preprint-faq#qaef-638">free to access and use</a>, while many <a href="https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4375">peer-reviewed journal articles are not</a>. </p>
<p>Journalists balanced these benefits against the potential risks for their audiences. Many expressed a high level of skepticism about unreviewed studies, voicing concerns about the potential to spread misinformation. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497066/original/file-20221123-2455-5bmk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a row of people seated and holding notebooks and pens" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497066/original/file-20221123-2455-5bmk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497066/original/file-20221123-2455-5bmk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497066/original/file-20221123-2455-5bmk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497066/original/file-20221123-2455-5bmk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497066/original/file-20221123-2455-5bmk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497066/original/file-20221123-2455-5bmk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497066/original/file-20221123-2455-5bmk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Journalists access preprints for a variety of reasons, including tight deadlines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash/The Climate Reality Project)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some journalists provided examples of issues that had become “extremely muddied” by preprints, such as whether to <a href="https://theconversation.com/5-reasons-its-safe-for-kids-to-go-back-to-school-137064">keep schools open during the pandemic</a>. </p>
<p>Many journalists said they felt it was important to label preprints as “preprints” in their stories or mention that the research had not been peer reviewed. At the same time, they admitted that their audience probably wouldn’t understand what the words “preprint” or “peer review” mean. </p>
<p>In addition, verifying preprints appeared to be a real challenge for journalists, even for those with advanced science education. Many told us that they leaned heavily on interviews with experts to vet findings, with some journalists organizing what they described as their “own peer review.” </p>
<p>Other journalists simply relied on their intuition or “gut” instinct, especially when deadlines loomed or when experts were unavailable. </p>
<h2>Supporting journalists to communicate science</h2>
<p>Recently, media organizations have started <a href="https://www.theopennotebook.com/2020/06/01/problems-with-preprints-covering-rough-draft-manuscripts-responsibly/">publishing resources</a> and <a href="https://journalistsresource.org/health/how-media-cover-preprint-studies/">tip sheets</a> for <a href="https://www.researchsquare.com/blog/preprints-in-media">reporting on preprints</a>. While these resources are an important first step, our findings suggest that more needs to be done, especially if preprint-based journalism is indeed here to stay. </p>
<p>Whether it’s through providing specialized training, updating journalism school curricula or revising existing professional guidelines, we need to support journalists in verifying and communicating about preprints effectively and ethically. The quality of our news depends on it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194408/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alice Fleerackers received funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada to conduct this research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren A Maggio does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Preprints are often free to use, making them more accessible for journalists to report on. However, as they have yet to undergo peer review, science journalists take a gamble on their accuracy.Alice Fleerackers, PhD Student, Interdisciplinary Studies, Simon Fraser UniversityLauren A Maggio, Professor, Uniformed Services University of the Health SciencesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1921122022-10-14T14:01:42Z2022-10-14T14:01:42ZWhy the ‘energy price cap’ is confusing – and how it could be better communicated<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488997/original/file-20221010-21-d5cf4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C6000%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alex Yeung / shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you thought energy bills in Britain were capped at £2,500, you are not alone. Even Prime Minister Liz Truss recently made the same mistake, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/sep/30/liz-truss-right-energy-bill-2500-households">incorrectly claiming</a> that no household would pay more.</p>
<p>What Britain has actually done, in common with <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-09-14/france-caps-electricity-gas-price-hikes-at-15-for-next-year">many</a> <a href="https://www.dutchnews.nl/news/2022/09/energy-bills-to-be-partly-capped-from-november-in-government-u-turn/">other</a> <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/poland-energy-prices-idUKL8N30Z1XP">countries</a> facing an energy crisis this winter, is cap the price of <em>units</em> of energy – the amount you pay per watt of electricity or gas. An <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/energy-bills-support/energy-bills-support-factsheet-8-september-2022">energy bills support scheme</a> now caps electricity and gas prices at 34p per kilowatt-hour (kWh) and 10.3p/kWh respectively. </p>
<p>However, the way this has been communicated has led to widespread confusion. Importantly, there is no cap on overall bills – if you use lots of energy, you will still have a large bill, albeit less than without a cap.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1575073078119235584"}"></div></p>
<p>Yet rather than express the interventions as a cap on unit costs, there has been a tendency to refer to the average cost of energy, per household, per year. For instance, for an average household in the UK, the latest cap equates to around £2,500 for a whole year. That meant the price cap is often reported as £2,500 per year – especially in headlines and in short news clips, when space and time are short. </p>
<p>Such reports perhaps explain why Truss and others thought the figure is a maximum, not an average. In response, businesses, charities and government agencies have launched public communications campaigns to stress that <a href="https://fullfact.org/economy/liz-truss-energy-price-cap-2500/">bills will depend on usage</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1580676682943340545"}"></div></p>
<h2>People are assumed to be energy-illiterate</h2>
<p>Besides the waste of energy and effort caused in the near term, this exemplifies a broader, problematic approach to public engagement when it comes to energy, about which the average citizen is assumed to be largely illiterate. There is an assumption held by politicians and the media, and not helped by those in the industry, that energy is a highly technical issue, and units such as kWs and kWhs are beyond the comprehension and interest of the general public.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Confused man looks at energy bill" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489000/original/file-20221010-16-v7ubrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489000/original/file-20221010-16-v7ubrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489000/original/file-20221010-16-v7ubrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489000/original/file-20221010-16-v7ubrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489000/original/file-20221010-16-v7ubrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489000/original/file-20221010-16-v7ubrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489000/original/file-20221010-16-v7ubrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A kilowatt (kW) is a rate of energy at a certain time. A kilowatt-hour (kWh) is an amount of energy consumed over time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">tommaso79 / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This assumption is self-fulfilling. It also goes against the need for greater public engagement on issues of energy and climate change, and related concepts such as <a href="https://www.climateassembly.uk/report/read/final-report.pdf">efficiency and sufficiency (not using any more energy than needed)</a> that will be crucial if the transition to net-zero emissions is to be inclusive and just.</p>
<p>Energy doesn’t have to be complicated. Like any major commodity and essential service, there are various technical aspects relating to generating technologies, electricity transmission and so on. But as a resource that underpins everyday life, it is also a regular topic of conversation. Meaningful public engagement must be underpinned by accessible language and relatable concepts, but it doesn’t need to avoid any technical information. </p>
<p>During the COVID pandemic, technical concepts like <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-englands-r-number-is-creeping-up-does-that-mean-a-second-wave-is-on-the-way-142580">R (reproduction) numbers</a> and infection risk factors were regularly communicated to the public, which helped encourage the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.210678">widespread behaviour change</a> needed to control the pandemic. In the case of the UK government’s energy price caps, attempts to keep things simple has backfired, generating misinformation and widespread confusion.</p>
<h2>People are already engaged</h2>
<p>While <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S146290111530037X">providing information</a> is important, what is needed are more varied modes of engagement. This should begin with the observation that people are already engaged with energy systems <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41560-020-00762-w">in the course of everyday life</a>, have <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32202817/">many diverse capabilities</a>, and have a critical role to play in achieving net zero.</p>
<p>What you know about energy probably comes through everyday experience, rather than technical detail. For instance, people tend to <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0158949">categorise appliances by function</a>, such as cooking or entertainment, rather than by energy consumption. </p>
<p>We should build on this, without dumbing down how energy is discussed in the media. Infographics such as the one below produced by Eurostat can help improve understanding about where most energy is used in the home, and help people to focus on where they might make savings (no, it’s probably not worth <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/christopherhelman/2013/09/07/how-much-energy-does-your-iphone-and-other-devices-use-and-what-to-do-about-it/?sh=6a3ee1442f70">unplugging your phone charger</a>).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488989/original/file-20221010-23-14h4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic comparing different energy use" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488989/original/file-20221010-23-14h4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488989/original/file-20221010-23-14h4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488989/original/file-20221010-23-14h4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488989/original/file-20221010-23-14h4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488989/original/file-20221010-23-14h4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488989/original/file-20221010-23-14h4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488989/original/file-20221010-23-14h4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Most household energy goes into heating.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Energy_consumption_in_households">Eurostat</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://cast.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/CM_UOB_49-CAST-Report_v5_FINAL_27.9.22.pdf">Our research</a> shows that most people in the UK agree that people need to change their domestic energy use to tackle climate change, while the link between energy and emissions is <a href="https://cast.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/CAST-Briefing-09.pdf">broadly understood</a>. We also find strong support for phasing out gas boilers, and for many other net zero policies that would require <a href="https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/publication/documents/2022-06/net-zero-living-ipsos-cast-2022.pdf">behaviour change</a>. </p>
<p>Support for these measures tends to increase when people are given accessible information and time to think about different options, for example, as part of moderated discussions between a representative sample of the population, known as <a href="https://theconversation.com/citizens-assembly-what-weve-learned-about-the-kind-of-climate-action-the-public-wants-to-see-146161">citizens’ assemblies</a>. </p>
<p>The report from the UK Climate Assembly emphasised the need for <a href="https://www.climateassembly.uk/report/read/final-report.pdf">education, fairness and choice</a> to underpin the path to net zero. When it comes to the price cap, people don’t want to be condescended to, but provided with the information they need to fully understand what the government is doing to help them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192112/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sam Hampton receives funding from the Economics and Social Research Council, the UK Energy Research Centre, and Innovate UK. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jan Rosenow is affiliated with the Regulatory Assistance Project.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lorraine Whitmarsh receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council and the European Research Council. </span></em></p>There never was a ‘maximum bill of £2,500’.Sam Hampton, Researcher, Environmental Geography, University of OxfordJan Rosenow, Visiting Research Associate, Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford, University of OxfordLorraine Whitmarsh, Professor of Environmental Psychology, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1895402022-08-31T11:31:05Z2022-08-31T11:31:05ZMapping food supply chains, nanotech cancer diagnosis, and tracking bushfire recovery winners at 2022 Eureka Prizes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481993/original/file-20220831-17-lfuyxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C17%2C1985%2C1311&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Australian Museum</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A microscope slide that can diagnose cancer, mapping how what we eat affects the environment, and a volunteer effort tracking bushfire damage. These were just a few of the scientific projects recognised at the 2022 <a href="https://australian.museum/get-involved/eureka-prizes/">Australian Museum Eureka Prizes</a>, announced in Sydney. </p>
<p>The prizes have been awarded each year since 1990 to recognise contributions to science and the public understanding of science.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481985/original/file-20220831-27-1g2e3x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481985/original/file-20220831-27-1g2e3x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481985/original/file-20220831-27-1g2e3x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481985/original/file-20220831-27-1g2e3x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481985/original/file-20220831-27-1g2e3x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481985/original/file-20220831-27-1g2e3x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481985/original/file-20220831-27-1g2e3x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The NanoMslide will make it easier to diagnose cancer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daniel Calleja</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <strong>ANSTO Eureka Prize for Innovative Use of Technology</strong> went to the NanoMslide team, comprising researchers from La Trobe University, the University of Melbourne, the Garvan Institute of Medical Research, and the Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre. Their invention uses a special nanotechnology coating for microscope slides for quicker, cheaper cancer diagnosis.</p>
<p>Eric Chow, Christopher Fairley, Catriona Bradshaw, Jane Hocking, Deborah Williamson and Marcus Chen, from Monash University and the University of Melbourne, won the <strong>Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre Eureka Prize for Infectious Diseases Research</strong>. Their work on sexually transmitted infections (STIs) uncovered the role of saliva in transmitting STIs and pioneered tailored antibiotic treatments.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481986/original/file-20220831-18-lrmtid.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481986/original/file-20220831-18-lrmtid.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481986/original/file-20220831-18-lrmtid.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481986/original/file-20220831-18-lrmtid.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481986/original/file-20220831-18-lrmtid.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481986/original/file-20220831-18-lrmtid.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481986/original/file-20220831-18-lrmtid.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Manfred Lenzen and team traced billions of food supply chains.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Supplied</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <strong>Eureka Prize for Excellence in Interdisciplinary Scientific Research</strong> was awarded to Manfred Lenzen, David Raubenheimer, Arunima Malik, Mengyu Li and Navoda Liyana Pathirana from the University of Sydney, for their work on how what we eat affects the environment. They traced billions of supply chains that deliver food to consumers.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-worlds-affluent-must-start-eating-local-food-to-tackle-the-climate-crisis-new-research-shows-185410">The world's affluent must start eating local food to tackle the climate crisis, new research shows</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The Environment Recovery Project, run by UNSW and the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research, won the <strong>Department of Industry, Science and Resources Eureka Prize for Innovation in Citizen Science</strong>. The project gathered 1,600 volunteers to survey the damage caused by the devastating bushfires of 2019–20 and gather data on how the environment is recovering.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481983/original/file-20220831-20-gojb45.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481983/original/file-20220831-20-gojb45.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481983/original/file-20220831-20-gojb45.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481983/original/file-20220831-20-gojb45.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481983/original/file-20220831-20-gojb45.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481983/original/file-20220831-20-gojb45.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481983/original/file-20220831-20-gojb45.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Raina MacIntyre.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Supplied</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>UNSW Professor Raina MacIntyre was awarded the <strong>Department of Defence Eureka Prize for Leadership in Science and Innovation</strong> for her “significant leadership role in the international response to the COVID-19 pandemic”. She has written a range of articles for The Conversation, including an <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-contagious-is-the-wuhan-coronavirus-and-can-you-spread-it-before-symptoms-start-130686">early explainer</a> on the novel coronavirus.</p>
<p>The <strong>UNSW Eureka Prize for Scientific Research</strong> went to Justin Yerbury of the University of Wollongong. Since his diagnosis with motor neuron disease in 2016, he has made key discoveries about the molecular causes of the disease.</p>
<p>The Australian Museum Research Institute also awarded two medals. One went to Stephen Keable, a former manager of the Marine Invertebrates Collections at the Australian Museum, for his work on marine invertebrates. The second was awarded to Graham Durant, the recently retired director of Questacon, for his service to Australian science and science education.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/museum-or-not-the-changing-face-of-curated-science-tech-art-and-culture-95507">Museum or not? The changing face of curated science, tech, art and culture</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Other winners included: </p>
<p><strong>NSW Environment and Heritage Eureka Prize for Applied Environmental Research</strong> – Sustainable Farms, Australian National University</p>
<p><strong>Macquarie University Eureka Prize for Outstanding Early Career Researcher</strong> – Tess Reynolds, University of Sydney</p>
<p><strong>Celestino Eureka Prize for Promoting Understanding of Science</strong> – Veena Sahajwalla, UNSW</p>
<p><strong>Australian Museum Eureka Prize for Science Journalism</strong> – Jackson Ryan, CNET</p>
<p><strong>Department of Industry, Science and Resources Eureka Prize for STEM Inclusion</strong> – Kirsten Ellis, Monash University</p>
<p><strong>University of Sydney Sleek Geeks Science Eureka Prize — Primary</strong> – Genevieve S., Bucasia State School, Qld</p>
<p><strong>University of Sydney Sleek Geeks Science Eureka Prize — Secondary</strong> – Iestyn R., St John’s Anglican College, Forest Lake, Qld</p>
<p><strong>Eureka Prize for Emerging Leader in Science</strong> – Sumeet Walia, RMIT University</p>
<p><strong>University of Technology Sydney Eureka Prize for Outstanding Mentor of Young Researchers</strong> – Paul Wood, Monash University</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189540/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
A microscope slide that can diagnose cancer, mapping how what we eat affects the environment, and an effort to track bushfire damage are among the winners at Australia’s leading scientific awards.Michael Lucy, Science EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1868212022-07-14T00:16:42Z2022-07-14T00:16:42ZCongratulations to the Pitch it Clever winners for 2022<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474039/original/file-20220714-2711-1qwm7t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3199%2C1800&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> </figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.pitchitclever.com.au">Pitch it Clever awards</a> celebrate the work of researchers who have produced a one to two minute video explaining their work and its impact on the world.</p>
<p>Each year, hundreds of early-career researchers enter the awards, producing stunning short videos on everything from advances in bionic hearing devices to the next generation of batteries.</p>
<p>The awards are run by Universities Australia and The Conversation sponsors the Vice Chancellor’s award to help researchers develop the skills to share their work with the broader community.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474005/original/file-20220713-17814-cq702n.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=35%2C0%2C4000%2C2664&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474005/original/file-20220713-17814-cq702n.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474005/original/file-20220713-17814-cq702n.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474005/original/file-20220713-17814-cq702n.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474005/original/file-20220713-17814-cq702n.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474005/original/file-20220713-17814-cq702n.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474005/original/file-20220713-17814-cq702n.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Misha Ketchell, editor of The Conversation, accepts the Vice Chancellors’ award for Kasi Yasin from Education Minister Jason Clare (right) and Chair of Universities Australia John Dewar (left).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Image: Universities Australia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The Vice Chancellors’ Award: Kazi Yasin Islam</h2>
<p>Edith Cowan University researcher Kazi Yasin Islam won the Vice Chancellors’ Award for his idea to develop innovative wireless technology that can be used underwater.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/m65bVHWqYXE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>“The realisation that a wide range of research fields can benefit from my own research… has inspired me to pursue research in energy-efficient underwater wireless communications,” he said.</p>
<p>Kazi will now complete an internship at The Conversation’s Melbourne headquarters to continue honing his story pitching and research communication skills, alongside winning $3,500 and a ticket to the 2022 Universities Australia conference.</p>
<h2>The Universities Australia Award: Kristyn Sommer</h2>
<p>Kristyn Sommer from Griffith University won the Universities Australia Award for her research on how robot design and programming impacts children’s learning.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/l7oMr9mL10M?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>“I am ecstatic to be awarded a Pitch it Clever prize for my research,” said Kristyn, who uses <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@drkristynsommer">TikTok</a> and <a href="https://www.instagram.com/drkristynsommer/">Instagram</a> to break down complex scientific problems for her more than 400,000 followers.</p>
<h2>People’s Choice Award: Nirmal Madhavanpillai Sajeevkumar</h2>
<p>Swinburne University of Technology researcher Nirmal Madhavanpillai Sajeevkumar’s won the People’s Choice Award for his research making steelmaking more sustainable, which attracted over 1300 votes from the community.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/OebiJJhuBjY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>“Undertaking this PhD has been a truly life-changing experience for me,” Nirmal said. “The effect of global warming is hitting us and as a researcher, ways to decarburize the steel industry is the need of the hour.</p>
<p>"My research sought to understand the energy aspects of the oxygen steelmaking process which helped us to tackle most of the pressing problems that the industry faces at the moment.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186821/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
The annual Pitch it Clever prizes, awarded by Universities Australia, celebrate the work of three emerging researchers. These are the 2022 winners.Misha Ketchell, Editor, The ConversationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1849582022-06-26T08:09:50Z2022-06-26T08:09:50ZMale voices dominated South African COVID reporting: that has to change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469011/original/file-20220615-18-6seysd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Professor Glenda Gray was the most visible female scientist in South African media coverage during the first six months of COVID. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">South African Medical Research Council</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The onset of the COVID pandemic and the many months of uncertainty, anxiety and push for scientific breakthroughs sent journalists all over the world on the hunt for expert voices. They wanted sources who could explain to audiences what was happening and why.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1157780">Research has shown</a> that when journalists look for sources, they often focus on already visible – and accessible – experts associated with prestigious institutions. These institutions are favoured because they tend to have a demonstrable track record of cooperating and engaging with the media’s demands in terms of time pressures and the need for reliable quotes to get their story published. </p>
<p>One of the problems with this approach is that the visible scientists in question, as research has shown, are <a href="https://sajs.co.za/article/view/3873">mostly men</a>. Also, it’s been found that when female experts are interviewed, they are often judged on their <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0963662508098580">appearance</a> rather than their expertise. They are seen as unusual within competitive research environments. This dovetails with what is more broadly known about gender gaps in research spaces. Men <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09540250500145072">dominate high-level academia</a> and female scientists’ contributions are <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1014871108">under-recognised</a>.</p>
<p>For many scientists, responding to journalists’ demands is <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1212745110">a natural part of a modern scientist’s role</a>. It is also a way to engage with public audiences, achieve policy influence and attract interest from funders and collaborators. </p>
<p>Therefore, by underplaying women’s expertise, the media limits their power and influence. Journalists may unwittingly perpetuate the notion that men are the only experts worth listening to. This also limits the visibility of women in science as role models and dampens young women’s professional aspirations if they’re considering becoming scientists.</p>
<p>So, how did the South African media fare in featuring both male and female voices in coverage about the COVID-19 pandemic? We set out to find the answer. We investigated the South African media’s use of expert sources during the first six months of the pandemic. <a href="https://sajs.co.za/article/view/12480">Our findings</a>, published in a special COVID-themed issue of the <a href="https://sajs.co.za/">South African Journal of Science</a>, show that male academics dominated as featured and quoted experts. Women accounted for only 30% of quoted professors, even though <a href="https://www.naci.org.za/nstiip/index.php/useful-links/117-hi">2019 data show that</a>, across all higher education institutions in South Africa, 48% of all staff responsible for instruction and research were women. These findings echo what’s been <a href="http://sdg.iisd.org/news/covid-19-news-mutes-womens-voices-in-news-coverage-global-study/">reported globally</a> about women experts’ voices in COVID coverage.</p>
<h2>Key findings</h2>
<p>As part of the study we also identified the top 10 most visible expert sources in the South African media. Only two of these were women:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Glenda Gray, the president and CEO of the <a href="https://www.samrc.ac.za/">South African Medical Research Council</a>. </p></li>
<li><p>Cheryl Cohen, professor in epidemiology at the University of the Witwatersrand, and co-head of the Centre for Respiratory Disease and Meningitis at the <a href="https://www.nicd.ac.za/">National Institute for Communicable Diseases</a> in South Africa.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>We acknowledge that women are underrepresented in academia, especially at senior levels, but there are many expert female sources across research fields available in South Africa. Data from the <a href="https://db.crest.sun.ac.za/">South African Knowledgebase</a> show that female professors produced 40% of the publication outputs in 2020. </p>
<p>We also found a skewed representation of experts in terms of their research field: 51% of quoted experts came from health and medicine. Experts from social sciences accounted for only 21% of the professors featured in the media. That’s despite recognition that <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-020-0884-z">social science expertise is crucial</a> in understanding and influencing human behaviour during a pandemic. Social scientists can help policymakers from health sciences to develop <a href="https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2020/08/25/what-is-the-role-of-the-social-sciences-in-the-response-to-covid-19-4-priorities-for-shaping-the-post-pandemic-world/">solutions</a> that people are able and, crucially, willing to follow.</p>
<p>So, how can the South African media do better?</p>
<h2>Promising initiatives</h2>
<p>We have ample evidence that <a href="https://womensmediacenter.com/shesource/">media organisations</a> and <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/02/i-spent-two-years-trying-to-fix-the-gender-imbalance-in-my-stories/552404/">individual science journalists</a> are keen to help remedy gender imbalances in media coverage. </p>
<p>Around the world, major publishers and science organisations are rolling out remedial initiatives. For example, the BBC announced that it was joining other media organisations in striving for a target of equal <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190117-how-bbc-future-is-tackling-gender-imbalance">gender representation</a> across all its programmes and sites. This included an equal split in how many men and women were interviewed on camera and quoted in stories. </p>
<p>In June 2021, the top-tier scientific journal <a href="https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-021-01676-7/d41586-021-01676-7.pdf">Nature</a> announced that it would work harder to overcome gender inequalities. It was responding to studies showing that men were quoted twice as often as women in general news media and in Nature news reports.</p>
<p>Globally, several initiatives have been set up to help journalists who are seeking out female experts to interview. Among them are the <a href="https://womensmediacenter.com/shesource/">Women’s Media Center</a>, <a href="https://www.womenalsoknowstuff.com/">WomenAlsoKnowStuff</a> and an organisation called <a href="https://500womenscientists.org/who-we-are">500 Women Scientists</a>.</p>
<p>In South Africa, a non-profit company, <a href="https://quotethiswoman.org.za/">Quote This Woman+</a>, is growing a database of female experts to promote the inclusion of women’s voices in the mass media. The <a href="http://www.sawise.uct.ac.za/">Association of South African Women in Science and Engineering</a> aims to strengthen the role of women in science and engineering in South Africa. It also seeks to raise the profile of women scientists and engineers. </p>
<p>During Women’s Month in August, the South African Department of Science and Innovation organises events to celebrate and profile female scientists. One of the key initiatives is the <a href="https://stip.oecd.org/stip/interactive-dashboards/policy-initiatives/2021%2Fdata%2FpolicyInitiatives%2F26389">South African Women in Science Awards</a>.</p>
<p>In the longer term, initiatives working towards gender equity in academic leadership positions will increase the presence of female voices in the mass media. But in the meantime, university media offices, editors and journalists – as well as scientists themselves – can contribute to a more balanced representation of scientists’ expertise in the mass media.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184958/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marina Joubert receives funding from The National Research Foundation of South Africa. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lars Guenther receives funding from the German Research Foundation (DFG) and the National Research Foundation (NRF) South Africa. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lili Rademan receives funding from The National Research Foundation of South Africa. </span></em></p>Journalists may unwittingly perpetuate the notion that men are the only experts worth listening to. This limits the visibility of women in science.Marina Joubert, Science Communication Researcher, Stellenbosch UniversityLars Guenther, Postdoc in Science Communication at University of Hamburg; Extraordinary Associate Professor at Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch UniversityLili Rademan, PhD candidate in Science and Technology Studies, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1807492022-04-11T11:18:40Z2022-04-11T11:18:40ZHow poetry can help communicate science to a more diverse audience<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457395/original/file-20220411-16-ph8hya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C61%2C3165%2C2676&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/epidemiologist-scientist-wear-white-robe-writing-1608974998">ivector/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When people think about science communication, they often imagine strategies to get large audiences to see a scientist’s research. But in reality, science communication exists across a wide spectrum, from the one-way transfer of knowledge from scientist to the public to the development of dialogue and participation at the other. In moving across this spectrum, science communication presents an opportunity for scientists to listen to other members of society. It also enables non-scientists to use their knowledge, expertise, and lived experiences to develop diverse solutions. </p>
<p>Imagine if I were a scientist tasked with easing reducing the risk of flooding in a local community. As well as collecting data (rainfall measurements, detailed land maps, satellite imagery, etc.), I might also engage with the community itself. These people would have decades of experience, including an awareness of specific regions that might be prone to flooding. We could collaborate and use this local knowledge and expertise to make any solutions more likely to be effective. This would also grant agency to the community, making them more likely to actively support both current and future flood defence measures. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, this type of dialogue is not always possible, mostly because of perceived “hierarchies of intellect”. These hierarchies occur when non-scientific audiences are made to feel like “non-experts”, or when their knowledge and expertise is seen as being less than that of the scientific “experts”. This is especially likely to happen when drawing on tacit knowledge, by which I mean those skills and abilities gained through experience and which are often difficult to put into words. As I discuss in my latest book <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-96829-8">Science Communication Through Poetry</a>, one of the ways in which we might break down these barriers is through poetry. </p>
<h2>Writing together</h2>
<p>Collaborative poetry workshops between scientists and non-scientists help to level these hierarchies. This approach is particularly effective when working with audiences who have previously been marginalised by science. I know this because of the workshops that I have run. From <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212096317301055">discussing environmental change with refugees</a> to <a href="https://gc.copernicus.org/articles/1/9/2018/">exploring how religious communities might tackle the climate crisis</a>, poetry offers a unique opportunity to listen, share and reconnect. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People writing, sitting on big books and a big typewriter." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457396/original/file-20220411-14-db674k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457396/original/file-20220411-14-db674k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457396/original/file-20220411-14-db674k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457396/original/file-20220411-14-db674k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457396/original/file-20220411-14-db674k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457396/original/file-20220411-14-db674k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457396/original/file-20220411-14-db674k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scientist can engage non-scientific communities in poetry that draws from and enhances their research.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/people-enjoying-reading-literature-writing-poetry-1870317376">iVector/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Take this poem, written by a participant as we explored the steps we might take to reduce our carbon footprints:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Plant a tree<br>
Go Barbados and plant<br>
A palm tree<br>
Turn the water off<br>
Drink booze<br>
Take a shower with<br>
Someone else<br>
Take a shower with<br>
Rhianna</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The author of this poem wanted to explore the likelihood that their individual actions would really make a difference. Or if doing so was as likely as them sharing a shower with a global superstar.</p>
<h2>Re-framing science</h2>
<p>Poetry can also be an effective tool at the other end of the science communication spectrum. Good dissemination can be vital, providing reliable information that can be used to challenge falsehoods. However, as scientific research is primarily written for a scientific audience, many non-scientists can miss out on this information. </p>
<p>Here poetry can also act as a conduit between the science and a wider audience, re-framing the research in a language and format that is more accessible. Initiatives such as <a href="https://thescikuproject.com/">The Sciku Project</a>, <a href="https://www.consilience-journal.com/">Consilience</a>, or my own <a href="https://thepoetryofscience.scienceblog.com/">science and poetry blog</a> and <a href="https://scipoetry.podbean.com/">podcast</a> aim to do just that. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Hands being manicured with various tools." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457398/original/file-20220411-10836-bipx8r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457398/original/file-20220411-10836-bipx8r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=262&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457398/original/file-20220411-10836-bipx8r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=262&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457398/original/file-20220411-10836-bipx8r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=262&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457398/original/file-20220411-10836-bipx8r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457398/original/file-20220411-10836-bipx8r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457398/original/file-20220411-10836-bipx8r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A poem about recent research communicates the danger of the chemicals used in manicures to more diverse audiences.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/set-women-hands-manicure-procedure-female-2135833311">iVector/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, the following poem was inspired by <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.1c04974">recent research</a>, which has found unexpectedly high levels of hazardous chemicals in nail salons. As a result of me writing <a href="https://thepoetryofscience.scienceblog.com/3005/deadly-nails/">this poem</a> more than 60,000 new people were introduced to this research and the impact it might have on their lives.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Give me your hand<br>
<strong>as I mask my concerns,</strong><br>
sit back and relax<br>
<strong>with worries about skin</strong><br>
as I remove old polish<br>
<strong>(how we talk)</strong><br>
trim the nails,<br>
<strong>and reproduce.</strong><br>
Buff the surfaces<br>
<strong>we don’t know</strong><br>
push back cuticles<br>
<strong>and cross our palms.</strong><br>
Let me apply the primer<br>
<strong>with chemicals,</strong><br>
the acrylic<br>
<strong>with toxins,</strong><br>
the colour<br>
<strong>with compounds,</strong><br>
and waves of heat<br>
<strong>that do not belong.</strong><br>
Give me your hand,<br>
<strong>take a breath</strong><br>
take a photo.<br>
<strong>Soon you will be gone</strong><br>
to share my craft,<br>
<strong>and I’ll still be here</strong><br>
maintaining the finish.<br>
<strong>Breathing the fumes.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Perhaps the biggest challenge in using poetry to help communicate science lies in its own diversity. Many people feel excluded (or even bored) by the poetry that they have encountered. It is therefore necessary to work with these audiences to identify poetry that they do like, and which they feel speaks both to and for them. Doing so helps to reinforce the importance of their own knowledge, expertise and lived experiences.</p>
<p>When done properly, poetry can help to make science more diverse, equitable, and inclusive. Not just as a box-ticking exercise because making sure all sorts of people engage with science so that original and community-driven solutions to the complex problems science is committed to solving can be found.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180749/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sam Illingworth does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Poetry might seem like an odd way to communicate science research but the literary form can help engage a wide group of peopleSam Illingworth, Associate Professor in Academic Practice, Edinburgh Napier UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1791132022-03-22T16:52:04Z2022-03-22T16:52:04ZHow to connect social science research to policy in Nigeria<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453260/original/file-20220321-19-d6n9ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/contact-tracing-system-nigeria-3d-rendering-1725136696">Shutterstock </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Research is a means to an end. It produces new knowledge that helps to improve welfare. Social science research in particular connects directly to the challenges of less developed countries like Nigeria. </p>
<p>It is generally aimed at strengthening policies and practices for economic growth, development and societal welfare. Good social science research has <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.279.5350.491">ultimate social relevance</a>. In Nigeria, however, our <a href="http://www.gdn.int/doing-research-nigeria">study</a> shows that research evidence and policies are disconnected. This is due to two main problems. It is evident from <a href="https://globalizationandhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12992-016-0209-1">past research</a> and our findings too corroborate this. </p>
<p>First, the people who make and use policies don’t look for scientific evidence as much as they should. For instance, most lawmakers <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/palcomms201695">do not use scientific evidence</a> on a regular basis. And when they do, policymakers would rather seek expert opinions than read academic journals.</p>
<p>Second, the supply of capacity and skills - this refers to the training and performance of social scientists - for science communication and policy advice is short. This is probably as a result of the general tradition among academics and the low demand for evidence by policymakers. Researchers are still <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08ae3ed915d622c00097d/AusAID-DFID-UKCDS-workshop-report-FINAL.pdf">obsessed with purely academic products</a> like journal papers and books to share their research findings even when they have clear policy implications. </p>
<p>Globally, a research article is read in full by only <a href="https://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/prof-no-one-is-reading-you">about 10 people</a> on average. The researchers should focus more on communicating their results via channels that connect readily with policymakers, such as: <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-021-00885-9">through policy briefs</a>; and in more political and public fora, such as public hearings that Houses of Assembly sometimes organise.</p>
<p>To reduce the gap between social science research and policies, it’s necessary to understand the current research diffusion landscape. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/issj.12318">Our research</a> assessed how social science research is currently being disseminated in Nigeria, the <a href="https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/NGA/nigeria/population-growth-rate#:%7E:text=The%20current%20population%20of%20Nigeria,a%202.55%25%20increase%20from%202020.">most populous country in Africa</a> and the second largest producer of this research in Africa. </p>
<p>Our results highlight the need for consistent capacity building in science communication and broader stakeholder interactions.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nigeria-needs-more-social-science-research-how-to-boost-output-175546">Nigeria needs more social science research: how to boost output</a>
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<h2>Actors and networks</h2>
<p>We <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235234092100216X">gathered data</a> from interviews of 17 key informants and surveys of 684 individuals. These included 506 researchers, 117 research administrators and 61 policymakers. They were asked to present their opinions about how social science research is produced, disseminated and used in Nigeria.</p>
<p>Our results show that the universities and research institutes that produce most of the research are the main disseminators. Foreign donors and civil society organisations contribute to research dissemination through funding and the use of research results in advocacy activities, respectively. Collaboration is pervasive among different stakeholders but is dominated by actors within the national university system. </p>
<p>We found a strong tendency for the research community to be inert. For instance, a senior staff member of the <a href="https://www.nuc.edu.ng/">National Universities Commission</a> noted in an interview that university academics “operate as orphans in their silos and bunkers”. Though social science researchers do collaborate with other professionals, most of their interactions are within the academic circle. Researchers mostly reported co-authorship with someone in their home institution. Far fewer co-wrote with professionals outside the academic circle, such as nongovernmental organisations or donors.</p>
<h2>Research communication products</h2>
<p>Social science researchers in Nigeria do not communicate their research results to policymakers and the general public. Largely as a result of academic tradition and promotion requirements, researchers <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08b24e5274a31e00009ce/AusAID-DFID-workshop-background-paper-FINAL.pdf">mainly share</a> their research findings within academic circles, for academic purposes. </p>
<p>In our study, an average of two policy briefs per researcher was produced by 85 researchers compared with an average of eight research articles per researcher produced by 242 researchers. </p>
<p>Previous research suggests that policymakers and other research users <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/palcomms201695">tend to rely on the Internet</a> as a source of research information. Therefore social science research should be visible online. Most of the local scientific journals do not operate online; thus, most of the research outputs they publish <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14649055.2019.1696629">are not visible</a>. </p>
<p>Only a third of all the surveyed researchers were affiliated with institutions that provided web pages. Fewer than half of the researchers were registered as authors in internationally visible databases or repositories. Any researcher in any discipline can create a free Google Scholar profile. Alternatives like ResearchGate, Academia.edu and ORCiD also exist to enhance the visibility of researchers and their work. ORCiD is a digital identifier that distinguishes a researcher from others. So research visibility is not just a matter of infrastructure or research quality; awareness and capacity also play a role. </p>
<p><a href="https://ingsa.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/INGSA-Africa-Research-Survey-Report-Final.pdf">International Network for Government Science Advice 2020</a> specifically suggests that researchers need to feature more regularly on media programmes to communicate their research findings. Also, they should present research in a way that’s easy to understand, via communication channels like public seminars or roundtables on contemporary issues. Our survey results show that Nigerian research producers perform poorly in this regard. </p>
<p>In general, the proportion of researchers who have had any media exposure at all is small. It ranges from 13% for print media to 22% for radio channels. The average number of media appearances per researcher is about one a year for print media and about three a year for radio channels. This is perhaps due to the costs of media interventions, which are lower for radio than for newspapers or the TV. It may also be because radio channels have wider coverage especially in local languages, compared with the Internet, TV or newspapers. </p>
<p>Taken together, the above results suggest that there is still a big gap in the Nigerian social science research system as far as effective communication of research beyond academic publications is concerned.</p>
<h2>The way forward</h2>
<p>To create a strong connection between research and policy in Nigeria, two steps are critical. </p>
<p>One, changes are required in the assessment of researchers’ contribution to knowledge. Researchers are committed to formal scientific publications because of <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08ae3ed915d622c00097d/AusAID-DFID-UKCDS-workshop-report-FINAL.pdf">globally driven</a> academic traditions and career requirements. A system that objectively weighs and awards points for less conventional outputs such as policy briefs, policy advisory services and media appearances is likely to have a positive effect.</p>
<p>Two, there is a need to build the capacity of researchers to communicate with others outside the academic circle, especially policymakers. The National Universities Commission, which regulates the universities, is well positioned to initiate a capacity-building effort. Moreover, some academics are already advocating science and could train others.</p>
<p>Research donors may help too, by requiring clear dissemination plans as part of research grant applications.</p>
<p>The personnel, practice, products and place for communicating research evidence matter. They are critical links that connect research to development. Having skilled social scientists, who use the right channels to present evidence to policymakers and the general public will benefit everyone, from the researchers to the citizens and the nation as a whole.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179113/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adedayo Olofinyehun received funding from the Global Development Network (GDN) for this study. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Abiodun Egbetokun received funding from the Global Development Network (GDN) for this study. </span></em></p>Social scientists in Nigeria communicate their research results more among themselves than they do to policymakers and the general public.Adedayo Olofinyehun, Researcher, National Centre for Technology Management (NACETEM)Abiodun Egbetokun, Assistant Director, Research, National Centre for Technology Management (NACETEM)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1755962022-02-15T13:23:45Z2022-02-15T13:23:45ZTrust comes when you admit what you don’t know – lessons from child development research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446357/original/file-20220214-23-1v7o8t3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=283%2C55%2C4760%2C3163&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kids figure out who's trustworthy as they learn about the world.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/father-and-young-son-portrait-royalty-free-image/117456173">Sandro Di Carlo Darsa/PhotoAlto Agency RF Collections via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Consider the following situation: Two experts give you advice about whether you should eat or avoid the fat in common cooking oils.</p>
<p>One of them tells you confidently that there are “good” or “bad” fats, so you can eat some oils and not others. The other is more hesitant, saying the science is mixed and it depends on the individual and the situation, so probably just best to avoid them all until more evidence is available, or see your doctor to find out what is best for you.</p>
<p>Whose advice do you follow?</p>
<p>Neither one of these experts is factually incorrect. But the confident source likely has some additional appeal. Research suggests that people are more likely to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xge0000471">follow advice delivered with confidence</a> and to reject advice delivered with hesitancy or uncertainty.</p>
<p>During the pandemic, public health officials <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2022/02/pandemic-communications-public-health/622044/">have seemed to operate on this assumption</a> – that confidence conveys expertise, leadership and authority and is necessary to get people to trust you. But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1864892">public health recommendations about COVID-19</a> are complicated by the rapidly changing scientific understanding of the disease and its spread. Each time there’s new information, some of the old knowledge becomes obsolete and is replaced.</p>
<p>Over the course of the pandemic, Pew Research Center polling has found that the percentage of Americans who <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2022/02/09/increasing-public-criticism-confusion-over-covid-19-response-in-u-s/">feel confused and less confident</a> in public health officials’ recommendations because of changing guidelines has grown.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446359/original/file-20220214-97814-189drvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="masked man and woman stand with American flag" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446359/original/file-20220214-97814-189drvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446359/original/file-20220214-97814-189drvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446359/original/file-20220214-97814-189drvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446359/original/file-20220214-97814-189drvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446359/original/file-20220214-97814-189drvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446359/original/file-20220214-97814-189drvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446359/original/file-20220214-97814-189drvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Anthony Fauci, chief medical adviser to the president, and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Director Rochelle Walensky have needed to update advice as the pandemic continues.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/dr-anthony-fauci-director-of-the-national-institute-of-news-photo/1361356289">Anna Moneymaker via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>In a landscape of constantly changing science, is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1317504111">communicating with total confidence</a> the best way to win public trust? Maybe not. Our research suggests that, in many cases, people trust those who are willing to say “I don’t know.”</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=TMuSMXoAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">We are</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=DxmHk08AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">psychological</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ibmI_W0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">scientists</a> who study the emergence, in childhood, of what is termed “epistemic trust” – which is trusting that someone is a knowledgeable and reliable source of information. Infants learn to trust their caregivers for other reasons – attachment bonds are formed based on love and consistent care. </p>
<p>But, from the time children are 3 or 4 years old, they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00334">also begin to trust people</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034191">based on what they claim to know</a>. In other words, from early in life our minds separate the love-and-care kind of trust from <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674503830">the sort of trust you need</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00849.x">to get reliable, accurate information</a> that helps you learn about the world. These are the origins of adult trust in experts – and in science.</p>
<h2>Observing trust in the lab</h2>
<p>The setup of our lab studies with kids is similar to our starting example above: Kids meet people and learn facts from them. One person sounds confident and the other sounds uncertain. The children in our studies are still in preschool, so we use simple “lessons” appropriate to the age group, often involving teaching children new made-up vocabulary words. We’re able to vary things about the “teachers” and see how children respond differently.</p>
<p>For instance, in the lab we find that children’s brain activity and learning are responsive to differences in tone between confidence and uncertainty. If you teach a 4-year-old a new word with confidence, they will learn it in one shot. But if you say “hmm, I’m not sure, I think this is called a …,” something changes.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12544">Electrical activity in the brain shows</a> that children both remember the event and learn the word when someone teaches with confidence. When someone communicates uncertainty, they remember the event but don’t learn the word. </p>
<p>If a speaker says they are unsure, it can actually help a listener separate memory of a specific thing they heard from facts they think must be widely known.</p>
<h2>Effects of acknowledging uncertainty</h2>
<p>In addition to forming accurate impressions in your memory, communicated uncertainty also helps you learn about cases that are uncertain by their nature. Disease transmission is one of these cases.</p>
<p>Our research shows that even 5-year-old children learn about uncertain data better from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105183">someone who expresses that uncertainty outright</a> than someone who is confident that things will always work the same way.</p>
<p>In this study, kids saw cause-and-effect relations – objects turned on a music machine. Some objects (black ones) always made it go, others (yellow ones) never made it go, and still others made it go sometimes. For instance, red objects were 66% effective, and white objects were 33% effective. </p>
<p>One group of kids heard a contrast between red and white objects communicated with too much certainty: “Red ones make it go and white ones do not.” Later, kids in this group were confused when they had to distinguish these uncertain causes from more certain black and yellow ones. </p>
<p>Another group of kids heard the contrast communicated with uncertainty: “Maybe the red ones sometimes make it go, and the white ones sometimes do not.” Kids in this group were not confused. They learned that these objects were effective only sometimes, and they could distinguish them from objects that were always or never effective.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446360/original/file-20220214-112758-fjid2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="close-up of woman listening to young boy" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446360/original/file-20220214-112758-fjid2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446360/original/file-20220214-112758-fjid2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446360/original/file-20220214-112758-fjid2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446360/original/file-20220214-112758-fjid2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446360/original/file-20220214-112758-fjid2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446360/original/file-20220214-112758-fjid2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446360/original/file-20220214-112758-fjid2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Children become skeptical of adults who are mixed up but confident.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/little-boy-uses-sign-language-to-talk-to-a-woman-royalty-free-image/1318193583">Catherine Falls Commercial/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Overconfidence undermines trust</h2>
<p>The studies above show that appropriately communicated uncertainty can influence trust in the short term. But pandemic communication is complicated mainly because no one can predict what information will change in the future. What is better in the long term – admitting what you don’t know, or being confident about information that might change?</p>
<p>[<em>Research into coronavirus and other news from science</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?nl=science&source=inline-science-corona-research">Subscribe to The Conversation’s new science newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>In a recent study, we showed that over the long term, when you have a chance of being wrong, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000294">too much confidence carries risk</a>. One group of 4-year-olds saw an adult who admitted not knowing the names for common objects: a ball, a book, a cup. Another group saw an adult who claimed to know what the objects were called but got them all wrong – for example, calling a ball “a shoe.”</p>
<p>When the adult admitted ignorance, 4-year-olds were willing to keep learning all sorts of things from them, even more words. But when the adult was confident and inaccurate, she lost all credibility. Even when children knew she could help them find a hidden toy, they wouldn’t trust her to tell them where it was.</p>
<h2>Safeguarding trust by saying ‘I don’t know’</h2>
<p>The lesson from our research is that speaking with confidence about information that will likely change is a bigger threat to earning trust than expressing uncertainty. When health officials confidently enact a policy at one time, and then confidently enact a different, even contradictory, policy later on, they are acting like the “unreliable informants” in our studies. </p>
<p>Public health communication can have two goals. One is to get people to act fast and follow best practices based on what’s known now. A second is to gain the sustained, long-term trust of the public so that when fast action is needed, people have faith that they are doing the right thing by following guidelines. Rhetoric that is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1864892">designed to convey certainty</a> in hopes of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/10755470211063628">earning widespread compliance</a> may be counterproductive if it risks mortgaging the long-term trust of the public.</p>
<p>While we recognize the difficulty of communicating in uncertain times, and doing so to an increasingly polarized public, we think it’s important to heed the lessons from the earliest psychology of trust. </p>
<p>The good news is that, based on our research, we believe the human mind doesn’t balk at hearing communicated uncertainty – quite the opposite. Our minds and brains are made to handle the occasional “I think so,” “I’m not sure” or “I don’t know.” In fact, our ability to do this emerges early in child development and is a cornerstone of our ability to learn from others.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175596/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tamar Kushnir receives funding from NSF, NIH, John Templeton Foundation and the Dept. of Agriculture.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dave Sobel receives funding from NSF.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Sabbagh receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada. </span></em></p>People often try to seem confident and certain in their message so it will be trusted and acted upon. But when information is in flux, research suggests you should be open about what you don’t know.Tamar Kushnir, Professor of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke UniversityDavid Sobel, Professor of Cognitive, Linguistic & Psychological Sciences, Brown UniversityMark Sabbagh, Professor of Psychology, Queen's University, OntarioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1705112021-11-10T16:18:43Z2021-11-10T16:18:43ZHow an online quiz became the best tool to convince 18- to 30-year-olds to get the COVID-19 vaccine<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430902/original/file-20211108-23-1wszpkt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C14%2C1355%2C668&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The "Which Virus Are You" website was a fun and informative way to talk to young people about the benefits of the COVID-19 vaccines.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Marion Cossin)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A lot of false information is spread on social media, which means that using social media to provide reliable scientific data on COVID-19 is not an easy task. The danger is all the greater for young people, who get a lot of their information from social media. </p>
<p>People aged 18 to 29 are among the least vaccinated in Québec. As of Sept. 17, <a href="https://mobile.inspq.qc.ca/sites/default/files/covid/vaccination/vigie-vaccination-20210917.pdf">72.9 per cent</a> had received two doses, compared to 89 per cent of 50- to 59-year-olds and 73.8 per cent of 12- to 17-year-olds. Many are concerned about vaccination.</p>
<p>To respond to this group’s unease, we wanted to find an effective tool we could use to reach them and answer their questions.</p>
<p>So, we created the “<a href="https://www.quelvirusestu.com/home-page">Which Virus Are You</a>” website, which explains COVID-19 in an interactive and entertaining way with the help of experts. It took off and became very popular within weeks after being launched. Here’s how it all started.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://theconversation.com/ca/topics/vaccine-confidence-in-canada-107061">Click here for more articles in our series about vaccine confidence.</a></span>
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<p>When Québec’s research agency Fonds de Recherche du Québec launched a call for projects <a href="https://frq.gouv.qc.ca/jeunes-covid/">“Jeunes dans la lutte contre la Covid-19” (Youth fighting COVID-19</a>, we, a group of science communicators, thought about submitting an idea right away. The goal of the competition was to help students create innovative and creative digital communication projects that would address the COVID-19 concerns of people between 18 and 30.</p>
<p>Before the call went out for projects, our small team of PhD students had already had some science communication projects under out belt, including <a href="https://www.comsciconqc.com/">ComSciCon-QC</a>. So, the ideas started flowing right away. </p>
<p>We quickly saw that while there were already many information sources about COVID-19, what was missing was a tool that made information attractive to young people, one that would make it possible for them to exchange and share ideas. </p>
<h2>Two-way communication</h2>
<p>From the outset we wanted to “think interactive,” to get out of the straitjacket of the printed word and traditional reading, and actively involve the user. The other principle that was important to us was to have two-way communication: to listen, and not just provide information. We felt that traditional communication approaches around COVID-19 lacked reciprocity.</p>
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À lire aussi :
<a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-vaccine-hesitancy-can-be-overcome-through-relatable-stories-and-accessible-information-169221">COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy can be overcome through relatable stories and accessible information</a>
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<hr>
<p>Yet how do you get young people to share their feelings without generating an unmanageable amount of data? We knew an open forum would require hours of time to moderate and could potentially open the door to abuse. Direct virtual interaction with experts could only be sporadic and limited.</p>
<p>After a few hours of brainstorming, we came up with the idea of a multiple choice quiz. Quizzes are entertaining and can be fun. Most of us like to test our knowledge and share our opinions. It’s hard to resist a quiz like “Which Disney princess are you?” or “Which Hogwarts house do you belong to?”</p>
<h2>Four virus avatars</h2>
<p>The plan was clear: to design a question-and-answer quiz that would assign each user a “virus avatar” that represented their feelings about the COVID-19 pandemic. The next challenge was to build characters that represented the diversity of people taking the quiz while avoiding being judgmental. After doing preliminary research in media reports, and thinking about our own experiences and those of our family and friends, we came up with four “pandemic behaviours” that would be represented by our avatars: the super-informed, the worried, the skeptic and the detached.</p>
<p>In addition to the quiz, we also had to provide quality information to our audience. To do this, we needed the help of scientific experts on the subjects we wanted to cover. Under the leadership of <a href="https://www.chumontreal.qc.ca/en/crchum/researchers/nathalie-grandvaux">Nathalie Grandvaux</a>, director of the Host Response to Viral Infections Laboratory at the CHUM hospital’s research centre, our team of experts wrote the material and provided us with reliable up-to-date sources.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
À lire aussi :
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-9-psychological-barriers-that-lead-to-covid-19-vaccine-hesitancy-and-refusal-168643">The 9 psychological barriers that lead to COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and refusal</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It took a lot of work to synthesize and popularize this information to create accessible infographics. We then handed the material over to Impakt Scientifik to design the <a href="https://www.quelvirusestu.com/tell-me-more">10 infographics</a>. For each of the avatars presented at the end of the quiz, we provide three fact sheets to answer users’ questions. The idea was to use the quiz as a fun tool to lure young people to the site, then suggest that they learn more by exploring the rest of the content.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A cartoon character in glasses and reading." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430904/original/file-20211108-23-1vwxq1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430904/original/file-20211108-23-1vwxq1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430904/original/file-20211108-23-1vwxq1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430904/original/file-20211108-23-1vwxq1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430904/original/file-20211108-23-1vwxq1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430904/original/file-20211108-23-1vwxq1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430904/original/file-20211108-23-1vwxq1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The super-informed individual is always on the lookout for additional reliable information.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Marion Cossin)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Opening the dialogue on vaccination</h2>
<p>We launched the website on July 16 and set up a social media strategy to reach a wide audience of young people who would have very different opinions than our own. To do so, we had to know their codes and the tools they were using. We were very active on our social networks all summer, posting every day. We received more comments than we were expecting on our posts.</p>
<p>The posts generated over 20,000 interactions (reactions, shares and comments), with some users questioning our content and others jumping in to defend it. The comments we got on the Facebook page were more aggressive or based on false information from dubious sources, which meant we had to spend time moderating them.</p>
<p>The platform allowed conversations about vaccines to happen between individuals with opposing views. It also allowed information to be shared between populations that do not generally interact. That convinced us we had chosen the right approach.</p>
<h2>A formula that works</h2>
<p>To date, our project has reached over 265,000 people through a combination of social networks (Twitter, Instagram and Facebook) and our website. The majority of users were between the ages of 18 and 34 and located in Québec, but our geographic reach was very wide and included other Canadian provinces, Europe and French-speaking Africa. We also got very positive feedback from science communication professionals. Some important institutions offered to help spread the word about our project.</p>
<p>While access to scientific information is an essential condition to get people to adopt public health behaviours, misinformation is rampant on social networks and confuses people. So it is essential to provide quality scientific information in an accessible and attractive format. In this way, we can stimulate young people’s interest in science and reduce the distance that still exists between experts and the public.</p>
<p>Important messages will only get across if you create a climate of trust and mutual listening, giving young people the tools they need to make good decisions and become the citizens of tomorrow’s society. The question that remains is how to encourage scientists to use these new forms of communication and give them the tools they need to do so.</p>
<p><em>Alexandra Gellé, a chemistry student at McGill University, and Émilie Dubois, founder <a href="https://www.impaktsci.co/">IMPAKT Scientifik</a>, contributed to this project.</em></p>
<hr>
<p><em>Do you have a question about COVID-19 vaccines? Email us at <a href="mailto:ca-vaccination@theconversation.com">ca-vaccination@theconversation.com</a> and vaccine experts will answer questions in upcoming articles.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170511/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marion Cossin received funding from the Fonds de Recherche du Québec for her PhD and for the "Which Virus Are You" project.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexia Ostrolenk received funding from the Fonds de Recherche du Québec for her PhD and for the "Which Virus Are You" project.. </span></em></p>To convince 18- to 30-year-olds to get vaccinated, three doctoral students designed an innovative, fun, non-judgmental quiz.Marion Cossin, Étudiante au doctorat et ingénieure de recherche en cirque au Centre de recherche d’innovation et de transfert en Art du Cirque (CRITAC), Université de MontréalAlexia Ostrolenk, Candidate au PhD en Sciences Psychiatriques / Communicatrice Scientifique, Université de MontréalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1676492021-10-11T15:52:36Z2021-10-11T15:52:36ZTo save forests, researchers are hooking trees up to Twitter<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423652/original/file-20210928-19356-1wucdam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1917%2C1279&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Huge amounts of revealing data can be collected from sensors attached to trees.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/trees-tree-canopy-forest-branches-5605176/">Gennaro_Leonardi/Pixabay</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In July 2018, a century-old red oak went live on Twitter. The account <a href="https://twitter.com/awitnesstree?lang=en">@awitnesstree</a>, tweeting from the <a href="https://harvardforest.fas.harvard.edu/witness-tree-social-media-project">Harvard Forest</a> in Petersham, Massachusetts, introduces itself in its bio:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Witnessing life as a tree in a changing environment for more than a century. Views are my own – sort of (data translated by scientists and communicators at HF).</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Every few days, the tree updates its 9,118 followers. On February 24 2020 <a href="https://twitter.com/awitnesstree/status/1231972496305340417">it posted</a>: “The last 2 days were extremely hot for February. When is this heatwave going to end?”</p>
<p>The day before, it had <a href="https://twitter.com/awitnesstree/status/1224079168406806529">complained</a> even more: </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1224079168406806529"}"></div></p>
<p>Now, after a hiatus due to COVID-related challenges, the Witness Tree is coming back online. </p>
<p>The tree’s messages are based on data from a suite of sensors on and around its trunk, using a real-time approach to tree monitoring pioneered by Witness Tree’s inspiration and sister project <a href="https://treewatch.net/">TreeWatch.net</a>. Led by Ghent University, TreeWatch.net set up its first <a href="https://twitter.com/TW_Britz">tweeting tree</a> in 2016, and currently monitors sensor data from 21 trees across Belgium, Germany, India, the Netherlands and the UK.</p>
<p>The sensors fitted to Harvard’s Witness Tree include a ribbon embedded in its trunk to track water flow, a spring-loaded pin pushing against its bark to monitor shrinkage and swelling and a camera to capture leaf growth. Continuous data streams from these sensors tell us how the tree is affected by changes in its immediate environment. This technology is still in its infancy, but it shows <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2016.00993/full">exceptional promise</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423352/original/file-20210927-23-16982vd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423352/original/file-20210927-23-16982vd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423352/original/file-20210927-23-16982vd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423352/original/file-20210927-23-16982vd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423352/original/file-20210927-23-16982vd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423352/original/file-20210927-23-16982vd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423352/original/file-20210927-23-16982vd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Real-time sensors monitor the Witness Tree’s wellbeing.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By analysing data from Witness Tree and TreeWatch.net, we have already <a href="https://arboretum.harvard.edu/stories/witness-tree-what-a-single-100-year-old-oak-tells-us-about-climate-change/">learned</a> that drought can cause a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/stomata#:%7E:text=Stomata%20are%20cell%20structures%20in,between%20plants%20and%20the%20atmosphere.">tree’s stomata</a> – the openings on the underside of its leaves – to close. The closed stomata block water intake, disrupting tree growth. More frequent droughts may therefore lead to less <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/117/40/24649">carbon uptake</a> by trees and forests. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423351/original/file-20210927-25-6ge0d0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423351/original/file-20210927-25-6ge0d0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423351/original/file-20210927-25-6ge0d0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423351/original/file-20210927-25-6ge0d0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423351/original/file-20210927-25-6ge0d0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423351/original/file-20210927-25-6ge0d0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423351/original/file-20210927-25-6ge0d0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Harvard Forest’s Witness Tree.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Forthcoming studies even indicate that individual trees respond differently to the same heat waves, and that water transport in trees can react instantly to the presence of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/four-ways-to-enjoy-a-solar-eclipse-162379">solar eclipse</a>. With the sun obscured by the moon, stomata close as they would do at night, immediately reducing water intake.</p>
<p>As we continue to assess incoming data from Witness Tree and TreeWatch.net, we will surely learn even more about how trees affect – and are affected by – their surroundings.</p>
<h2>Science communication</h2>
<p>The red oak at Harvard Forest, along with its Asian and European cousins at TreeWatch.net, is first and foremost a rich source of scientific data. But at the same time that data, when converted to tweets by custom-built algorithms, turns the Witness Tree into a platform for science communication research. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1188666816014368768"}"></div></p>
<p>Behind the scenes, a computer program analyses the incoming numbers from Witness Tree’s sensors: cross-checking against pre-programmed thresholds for normal activity, looking for abrupt changes and compiling summaries. </p>
<p>For each key data feature, including daily water use, sap flow dynamics, stem shrinkage and trunk growth, the researchers at Harvard Forest have provided the program with several different prewritten message templates. The program chooses one of these templates, inserts the relevant data, and posts the completed message on Twitter as if in the tree’s own voice. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1153112522419052546"}"></div></p>
<p>Because the messages are chosen from templates at random, they can be used as a testing ground to study how the public prefers to engage with different topics and writing styles.</p>
<p><a href="https://eco.confex.com/eco/2020/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/81719">Preliminary results</a> suggest, somewhat surprisingly, that the Witness Tree’s followers engage equally with data-driven and narrative-based tweets. The addition of multimedia – through images, videos or data visualisation – generates more responses, likes and retweets. Any posts that directly concern climate change seem to attract the most attention.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1191943858835394560"}"></div></p>
<h2>The future</h2>
<p>To gain access to even more data, both the Witness Tree project and TreeWatch.net are expanding. The single Witness Tree will soon become part of a forest network spread over urban, suburban and rural areas to study how trees function in different environments.</p>
<p>Future witness trees with fine <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7730878/">particulate matter sensors</a> sensitive to poor air quality could help grow awareness about environmental stress factors faced by humans and trees alike.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1176537138227081216"}"></div></p>
<p>New trees monitored by TreeWatch.net will measure carbon lost due to tree respiration, paving the way for more accurate <a href="https://supplychain.edf.org/resources/carbon-accounting/#:%7E:text=Carbon%20accounting%20is%20the%20process,carbon%20or%20greenhouse%20gas%20inventory.">carbon accounting</a>. By cementing our understanding of how trees contribute to the carbon cycle, we will be in a better position to reduce carbon output globally.</p>
<p>Long-term, Witness Tree and TreeWatch.net aim to work together to build a vast, international network of tweeting trees: in other words, an <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2053951720904871">internet of trees</a>. The data from this “internet” will provide invaluable insights into the wellbeing of our forest ecosystems – from detecting early signs of drought and tracking the impact of pests and pathogens to forecasting <a href="https://serc.carleton.edu/eslabs/weather/1d.html">sap flow</a> for maple syrup production. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423353/original/file-20210927-21-pijddh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423353/original/file-20210927-21-pijddh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423353/original/file-20210927-21-pijddh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423353/original/file-20210927-21-pijddh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423353/original/file-20210927-21-pijddh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423353/original/file-20210927-21-pijddh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423353/original/file-20210927-21-pijddh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The trees currently monitored by TreeWatch.net, spread across Europe and Asia.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As we have learned more about how trees interact with the ecosystems that they visually define, trees have often been represented as <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/the-secrets-of-the-wood-wide-web">social creatures</a> in recent research and popular writing. In a way, Witness Tree and TreeWatch.net play into this idea by giving their trees a human-like voice. They use personification as a tool to communicate effectively with a wide audience. </p>
<p>But it would be <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-idea-that-trees-talk-to-cooperate-is-misleading/">counterproductive</a> to take this metaphor too seriously, because each tree’s voice is in fact a fiction fed by automated messages. Really, it’s the data talking – and the story that data tells is the brutally honest reality of environmental change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167649/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Rademacher research is funded by the National Science Foundation (DEB- 1741585, HF LTER DEB-1237491 and DEB-1832210), the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (416397182) and an "AI for Earth" grant (271089) by Microsoft. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Grace Field receives funding from the Harding Distinguished Postgraduate Scholarship Programme and from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kathy Steppe works at Ghent University, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering and manages and guides the Laboratory of Plant Ecology. She receives research funding from the Special Research Funds (BOF) of Ghent University (grant 01J07919; TreeWatch.net) and from the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) (research program G063720N).</span></em></p>Hooking trees up to internet-connected sensors provides a new way to study how they interact with the environment - and how the public interacts with their tweets.Tim Rademacher, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Harvard Kennedy SchoolGrace Field, PhD Candidate in History and Philosophy of Science, University of CambridgeKathy Steppe, Professor of Applied Plant Ecophysiology, Ghent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1671592021-10-06T20:35:52Z2021-10-06T20:35:52ZHow rainbow colour maps can distort data and be misleading<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424607/original/file-20211004-14-1wgjbej.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C13%2C1495%2C766&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">One of the most popular default colour palettes, rainbow, can actually produce misleading information.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The choice of colour to represent information in scientific images is a fundamental part of communicating findings. However, a number of colour palettes that are widely used to display critical scientific results are not only dangerously misleading, but also unreadable to a proportion of the population. </p>
<p>For decades, scientists have been pushing for <a href="https://www.climate-lab-book.ac.uk/2014/end-of-the-rainbow/">a lasting change to remove such palettes from public consumption</a>, but the battle over universal accessibility in science communication rages on.</p>
<p>A colour map is a palette of multiple different colours that assign values to regions on a plot. An example of a misleading colour map is <em>rainbow</em>, which generally starts with blue for low values, then passing through cyan, green, yellow, orange, and finally red for high values. This colour combination is neither diverging, which would allow us to visually perceive a central value, nor sequential, which would make organizing values from low to high intuitive. </p>
<h2>Colour brings life to data</h2>
<p>Using colour bar graphs can allow scientists to transform their collected data into something meaningful to be shared widely. This could be the first direct impression of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/first-black-hole-photo-confirms-einsteins-theory-of-relativity-115167">black hole</a>, the mapping of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/11/04/upshot/senate-maps.html">votes cast in political elections</a>, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JE001426">planning of an expensive rover route on Martian topography</a>, the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/519291d">essential communication of climate change</a> or the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2011.192">critical diagnosis of heart disease</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421205/original/file-20210914-21-1yesiu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a map the surface of mars that uses rainbow colours" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421205/original/file-20210914-21-1yesiu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421205/original/file-20210914-21-1yesiu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421205/original/file-20210914-21-1yesiu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421205/original/file-20210914-21-1yesiu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421205/original/file-20210914-21-1yesiu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421205/original/file-20210914-21-1yesiu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421205/original/file-20210914-21-1yesiu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Martian surface topography represented with <em>rainbow</em> colour bar.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://attic.gsfc.nasa.gov/mola/images.html">(NASA)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite the clear importance of colour, scientists often choose the default palette setting of the visualization software that is being used. </p>
<h2>Distorted data</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/app9204228"><em>Rainbow</em> — or <em>jet</em> — colour palettes</a> are often the default setting on software, but the beautiful sweep of blue to red is misleading when displaying scientific data. </p>
<p>Fundamentally, the change between the colours in the palette is not smooth. For example, the change between blue and green and then between yellow and red occurs over a short distance. <em>Vik</em> and <a href="https://www.fabiocrameri.ch/batlow"><em>batlow</em></a>, are examples of even colour palettes, where the colours change smoothly across the colour bar. </p>
<p>To put this into context, having a palette that changes between colours wildly is like having a position x or y axis with numbers that are not evenly spaced. In jet colour maps, this would be the equivalent of having numbers one to four close together and eight to 10 far apart. Such an uneven colour gradient means that certain parts of the palette would be naturally highlighted over others, distorting the data. The RGB colour space based on which such uneven colour gradients are created is mathematically simple, but not in tune with how we perceive colours and see the differences between them. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421199/original/file-20210914-15-3l3vzw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="comparison of an apple, Marie Skłodowska Curie and the Earth in three different colour maps: original, jet, and batlow." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421199/original/file-20210914-15-3l3vzw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421199/original/file-20210914-15-3l3vzw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421199/original/file-20210914-15-3l3vzw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421199/original/file-20210914-15-3l3vzw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421199/original/file-20210914-15-3l3vzw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421199/original/file-20210914-15-3l3vzw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421199/original/file-20210914-15-3l3vzw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The impact of an uneven (jet) and an even (batlow) colour scheme on a greyscale image of Earth, Marie Skłodowska Curie and an apple. Batlow replicates the image due to its smooth colour gradient, whereas jet distorts the image.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Fabio Crameri)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Inaccessible science</h2>
<p>Another issue with an uneven colour palette like <em>rainbow</em> is that data presented using these colours may be unreadable or inaccurate for people with a vision deficiency or <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-colour-blindness-7651">colour blindness</a>. Colour maps that include both red and green colours with similar lightness cannot be read by a large fraction of the population.</p>
<p>The general estimate is that 0.5 per cent of women and eight per cent of men worldwide are subject to a <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2010.12.002">colour-vision deficiency</a>. While these numbers are lower and almost disappear in populations from sub-Saharan Africa, they are likely significantly higher in populations with a larger fraction of white people as, for example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.86.3.983">in Scandinavia</a>. </p>
<p>It is needless to state that scientific results should be able to viewed by as many people as possible, and such colour-vision deficiencies should be taken into account. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423294/original/file-20210927-13-82iht7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Collection of colour palettes as seen by people with Colour vision deficiency" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423294/original/file-20210927-13-82iht7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423294/original/file-20210927-13-82iht7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423294/original/file-20210927-13-82iht7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423294/original/file-20210927-13-82iht7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423294/original/file-20210927-13-82iht7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423294/original/file-20210927-13-82iht7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423294/original/file-20210927-13-82iht7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Colour maps as seen with either of the three common forms of human colour-vision deficiency (deuteranopia, protanopia and tritanopia), and for grey-scale (representing total colour-blindness or simple black-and-white prints). Rainbow, the most-widely used colour map, doesn’t produce a smooth gradient and is not universally readable.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Fabio Crameri)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The winding road to the end of the rainbow</h2>
<p>The issues with <em>jet</em>, <em>rainbow</em> and other uneven colour palettes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2004EO400002">have been known for years</a>. Although certain fields of science have made significant changes to <a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4549-2021">best practices on colour policy</a>, other areas have stuck with their default settings. </p>
<p>As researchers interested in more effective data communication, we outline approaches that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19160-7">scientists can make to communicate their findings more efficiently</a>: avoid using <em>jet</em> or <em>rainbow</em> default colour palettes; if it is necessary to use red and green, make sure they are not the same luminosity for accessibility; and use a palette that changes evenly between the colours.</p>
<p>There is growing recognition of the challenges associated with rainbow palettes. Some academic publications — like <a href="https://www.nature.com/ngeo/for-authors/preparing-your-submission"><em>Nature Geoscience</em></a> — have adopted a more even colour palette policy for new submissions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/04/IPCC-visual-style-guide.pdf">colour-blind friendly guidelines for figures</a>. </p>
<p>Software packages such as MATLAB and Python have removed <em>rainbow</em> as their default colour palette for data visualization features. However, old habits die hard and vigilance is still required — it is important to call out poor colour choices when noticed (otherwise the trends keep repeating). </p>
<h2>Better science communication, better outcomes</h2>
<p>The importance of accurately sharing scientific data in an accessible manner cannot be understated. Uneven colour gradients are often chosen to artificially highlight potential danger zones, such as the boundaries of a hurricane track or the current virus spread. </p>
<p>Decisions based on data being unfairly represented could produce, for instance, a Martian rover being sent over terrain that is too steep as the topography was inaccurately visualized, or a medical worker making an inaccurate diagnosis based on uneven colour gradients.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424859/original/file-20211005-30173-hog6m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two maps of the Earth's surface displaying temperature anomaly data with annotations" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424859/original/file-20211005-30173-hog6m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424859/original/file-20211005-30173-hog6m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424859/original/file-20211005-30173-hog6m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424859/original/file-20211005-30173-hog6m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424859/original/file-20211005-30173-hog6m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=621&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424859/original/file-20211005-30173-hog6m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=621&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424859/original/file-20211005-30173-hog6m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=621&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Comparison of two maps showing temperature anomalies using <em>jet</em> and <em>vik</em> colour maps — with <em>jet</em>, the data is distorted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Fabio Crameri)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Accessible science for all starts with moving away from defaults. This can start with students learning to pick even colour gradients for term projects, to international publishers rejecting papers for misleading figures. One day, it may even include the Meteorological Service of Canada <a href="https://weather.gc.ca/map_e.html?layers=radar">moving away from dramatic uneven palettes to highlight weather changes</a>.</p>
<p>Fundamentally, using an inaccurate colour map is equivalent to a wilful misleading of the public by distorting data, and this has significant potential consequences.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167159/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s important for scientists to present their data in a accessible and comprehensible manner. However, the colour palettes commonly used to communicate information can also distort and misrepresent it.Philip Heron, Assistant Professor, Environmental Geophysics, University of TorontoFabio Crameri, Researcher in geophysics, University of OsloGrace Shephard, Research fellow, Geology and Geophysics, University of OsloLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1681772021-09-23T17:37:48Z2021-09-23T17:37:48ZPowerful, local stories can inspire us to take action on climate change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422722/original/file-20210922-21-bd4s81.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C0%2C4935%2C3287&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Stories about the impact of climate change can help spur people to action.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 175px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/powerful--local-stories-can-inspire-us-to-take-action-on-climate-change" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>The climate emergency has put the world in grave peril, but that is hard to tell when <a href="https://www.mediamatters.org/broadcast-networks/how-broadcast-tv-networks-covered-climate-change-2020">watching the news</a> or looking at the overall global response to the climate crisis, which <a href="https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma2021_08_adv_1.pdf">continues to be lax</a>. </p>
<p>Climate change is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.11">complex and difficult problem to communicate</a>. It is slow-moving, it does not always feel urgent and there is often very little gratification for acting to mitigate it. </p>
<p>For decades, the assumption has been that members of the public, politicians and policy makers would take the matter more seriously if only there was <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.301">more information about the impacts and consequences of a warming planet</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/2021/08/09/ar6-wg1-20210809-pr/">science, now, is unequivocal</a>. Humans are responsible for <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter_11.pdf">climate change and the extreme weather events it generates</a>. </p>
<p>We need to rethink the way we communicate climate change. The best tool at our disposal is a simple one: storytelling. Stories have the power to transform complex subject matters into something that feels personal, local, relatable and solvable. </p>
<p>But stories about the climate crisis – for example, about how people are responding in real time and making a difference – are still few and far between.</p>
<p>That needs to change. </p>
<h2>The role of emotions</h2>
<p>Traditionally, emotions have been seen as separate from rational judgment. Sabine Roeser, an ethics researcher, investigates the role of emotions in communicating climate change: “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2012.01812.x">Emotions are generally considered to be irrational states and are hence excluded from communication and political decision making</a>.”</p>
<p>Emotions, Roeser argues, play a very important role in how people engage with risk. As urgent as it is, the climate crisis does not always garner the same attention as other topics, such as COVID-19 or the economy. Climate change can still feel abstract, personal and even distant. </p>
<p>But that is rapidly changing. Around the world, more people are starting to agree that the climate crisis is not just a distant threat, but one that will affect them personally and directly. </p>
<p>In Canada, concern about the personal impacts of climate change has risen <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2021/09/14/in-response-to-climate-change-citizens-in-advanced-economies-are-willing-to-alter-how-they-live-and-work/">seven percentage points over the past six years</a>. In 2015, 27 per cent of Canadians felt “very concerned” that the climate crisis was going to affect them personally. This past spring, that had risen to 34 per cent.</p>
<p>This growing concern over the personal impacts of climate change represents an excellent opportunity for journalists, policy makers and environmental advocates to localize and personalize climate communication to engage people more effectively through the power of storytelling.</p>
<p>As important as it is to communicate information about the impacts of climate change, it is also important to include stories that people can relate to and draw inspiration from.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/vStrC4FVFTk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Global News looks at Canadian attitudes and beliefs about climate change.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Improving science communication</h2>
<p>Enric Sala spent years as a university professor, doing research on ocean life. He thought that his increasingly alarming reports on the state of the world’s oceans would spur policy makers into action. But that did not happen so Sala left academia.</p>
<p>“When I was an academic, I thought that science was all we needed,” <a href="http://www.outrageandoptimism.org/episodes/the-nature-of-nature?hsLang=en">he said in an interview on the podcast <em>Outrage and Optimism</em></a>. “That if we continued providing the scientific papers, that for some miraculous reason, leaders would read the papers.”</p>
<p>Sala finally realized what science communicators already know: that the relationship between how much people know about the climate crisis and how they act is not necessarily linear. </p>
<p>“I thought that having enough information, leaders would be able to make rational decisions,” Sala said. But he quickly realized that “the world doesn’t work like this and most decisions are made in an irrational way.” </p>
<p>In their book <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.ca/books/89308/thinking-fast-and-slow-by-daniel-kahneman/9780385676533"><em>Thinking Fast and Slow</em></a>, psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky famously describe the interplay between the “System One” brain — the intuitive, emotive, non-analytic response mechanism in our brains — and the “System Two” brain — the analytic mechanism. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1377156835203895301"}"></div></p>
<p>As journalist Dan Gardner succinctly puts it, the challenge for science communicators is to “help System 1 feel what System 2 calculates” — <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-why-dont-we-care-about-climate-change/">to make climate change feel personal, relatable and local</a>.</p>
<h2>Ecological crisis stories</h2>
<p>Most communication about the climate crisis builds on communicating facts and figures at people on the consequences and impacts of a warming planet. </p>
<p>What is missing are stories about ordinary people who are grappling with the crisis in deeply personal ways and doing something about it. Examples include stories of Indigenous communities <a href="https://www.nationalobserver.com/2019/07/02/news/tsilhqotin-nation-sends-mining-company-home-peaceful-protest">fighting to protect environments from irreparable harm</a> and <a href="https://www.yesmagazine.org/environment/2019/03/13/climate-strikes-led-by-students-of-color">students rallying for climate action</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422720/original/file-20210922-19-1mqjxkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Young person photographed from behind holding a sign saying WE NEED A CHANGE" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422720/original/file-20210922-19-1mqjxkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422720/original/file-20210922-19-1mqjxkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422720/original/file-20210922-19-1mqjxkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422720/original/file-20210922-19-1mqjxkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422720/original/file-20210922-19-1mqjxkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422720/original/file-20210922-19-1mqjxkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422720/original/file-20210922-19-1mqjxkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Global youth protests have brought the urgency of the climate crisis to the foreground.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These can be very mobilizing narratives about solutions to the climate crisis. They do not gloss over the fact that the world is in grave peril, or focus on <a href="https://learninglab.solutionsjournalism.org/en/courses/basic-toolkit/introduction/how-do-i-know-its-not-solutions-journalism">technological quick fixes or hero worship</a>. These stories both communicate facts and underscore the crisis the world faces. </p>
<p>That facts-based approach is necessary. As journalist Chris Hatch observes: “<a href="https://www.nationalobserver.com/newsletters/zero-carbon/2021/07/16/canada-fire-why-isnt-our-politics">Most people still have a muddled understanding of climate breakdown – of its urgency, that it’s caused overwhelmingly by fossil fuel burning, and that carbon pollution from oil, gas and coal needs to be phased out entirely</a>.”</p>
<p>Fear can also play a productive role, as there is still <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/16/opinion/sunday/fear-panic-climate-change-warming.html">far too much complacency</a>. Fear can mobilize action. </p>
<p>But what is consistent is the power storytelling has to engage. </p>
<h2>Effective communication</h2>
<p>Climate scientists — passionate about the work they do — are reacting with <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/8154343/canadian-rockies-glacier-melt/">sadness and disbelief</a> to the speed with which glaciers are receding in the Canadian Rockies. Coral researchers are <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aGGBGcjdjXA&t=4328s">emotionally worn out by witnessing drastic coral bleaching</a>. And firefighters are <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2020/10/22/tough-fire-season-takes-toll-on-firefighters-mental-health">reaching breaking points</a>. </p>
<p>Stories can connect us to ecological crisis on a deeply personal level. Luckily, those personal and emotional connections are being made with increasing frequency in the news media, in documentary films and even on social media.</p>
<p>“I am an Incident Commander with the #BCWildfire Service,” Kyle Young of the B.C. Wildfire Service tweeted during this past wildfire season. “I am writing this post rather than sharing a video message because, frankly, it would be too emotional for me.”</p>
<p>Kyle described the physical and emotional toll the ever-intensifying wildfires in British Columbia had taken on him and his colleagues. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1426361376394592260"}"></div></p>
<p>These stories of sacrifice and courage are among the many relatable and personalized narratives that can connect us to the climate crisis. Climate scientist Michael Mann observes that <a href="http://www.outrageandoptimism.org/episodes/ipcc-the-tipping-point-action?hsLang=en">it took elementary and high school students protesting in the streets for the adults to finally take note of the urgency of the crisis</a>.</p>
<p>It is no longer an abstraction. It is is affecting people directly, and stories are one of the best ways to capture and communicate that urgency.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168177/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kamyar Razavi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Storytelling can be a powerful tool to communicate complicated crises like climate change. Telling relatable and local stories can help motivate people to action.Kamyar Razavi, PhD candidate in the School of Communication, Simon Fraser UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1676812021-09-15T23:01:00Z2021-09-15T23:01:00ZA researcher’s view on COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy: The scientific process needs to be better explained<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420655/original/file-20210912-27-1x5nmgm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C45%2C3798%2C2644&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In the reluctance to vaccinate, there is a lack of trust and understanding of the scientific process. Better communication would help rebuild bridges. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Canadian Press/Paul Chiasson</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 175px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/a-researcher’s-view-on-covid-19-vaccine-hesitancy--the-scientific-process-needs-to-be-better-explained" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/what-scientists-are-doing-to-develop-a-vaccine-for-the-new-coronavirus-131255">When I first wrote about the arrival of SARS-CoV-2</a> in early March 2020, the question was whether or not the new virus would become a pandemic. At the time, most experts believed that we had already reached the point of no return.</p>
<p>Today, 18 months later, the answer is clear. You don’t need to be a scientist to know it. This pandemic is the worst public health emergency of international concern that our modern society has faced. To date, <a href="https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019?adgroupsurvey=%7Badgroupsurvey%7D&gclid=EAIaIQobChMIyfmOzMHy8gIVkYjICh3I8wo5EAAYAiAAEgKQ3_D_BwE">more than 215 million cases have been confirmed and 4.5 million deaths have been reported globally</a>.</p>
<p>These are just the reported cases. In reality, the number of cases is higher, and for a variety of reasons: lack of diagnostic capacity, infection without symptoms, unwillingness or inability to be tested or to visit a health facility, etc. The number of deaths due to COVID-19 is probably underestimated, both <a href="https://www.cp24.com/mobile/news/death-certificates-don-t-accurately-reflect-the-toll-of-the-pandemic-experts-say-1.5326970?cache=/7.363087">in Canada</a> and <a href="https://www.who.int/data/stories/the-true-death-toll-of-covid-19-estimating-global-excess-mortality">worldwide</a>.</p>
<p>In addition to changing the way we live our daily lives, the pandemic has brought scientific processes to public attention. Researchers, used to working in the shadows, now had to provide solutions — and explanations — to a very real threat, and they have been doing this under the watchful eye of the public.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410911/original/file-20210712-19-geybnm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://theconversation.com/ca/topics/vaccine-confidence-in-canada-107061">Click here for more articles in our series about vaccine confidence.</a></span>
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<p>One of these solutions, vaccination, is far from new. Yet no matter what the context, <a href="https://timesofsandiego.com/opinion/2021/09/08/anti-vax-movement-has-a-long-deadly-history-from-smallpox-to-covid/">it has always generated news</a>. So where are we now?</p>
<p>Still in our laboratories! I recently completed my PhD in microbiology-immunology at Laval University, research that I conducted under the supervision of <a href="https://ipolitics.ca/2020/09/21/leading-vaccine-developer-walks-out-on-federal-vaccine-task-force/">Professor Gary Kobigner</a>, who is known for co-developing an effective vaccine and treatment for Ebola. This fall, I will begin a postdoctoral fellowship at the Galveston National Laboratory in Texas, where I will continue my work on the transmission of, and vaccine development against, severe pathogens.</p>
<h2>Relevant questions</h2>
<p>The World Health Organization (WHO) currently lists <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/coronavirus-disease-covid-19">13 available COVID-19 vaccines, based on four different platforms, including mRNA vaccines and viral vector vaccines</a>. Globally, more than five billion doses of vaccines have been administered. In Canada, five of these vaccines are currently approved for use: <a href="https://health-infobase.canada.ca/covid-19/vaccine-administration/">Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, AstraZeneca, COVISHIELD and Janssen</a>, with <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/prevention-risks/covid-19-vaccine-treatment/vaccine-rollout.html#a4">Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna and AstraZeneca</a> in wide distribution. Combined, these vaccines have been administered to approximately <a href="https://health-infobase.canada.ca/covid-19/vaccination-coverage/">70 per cent</a> of Canadians.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman administers a vaccine to another woman, seated, from behind" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420137/original/file-20210909-23-1miromd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420137/original/file-20210909-23-1miromd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420137/original/file-20210909-23-1miromd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420137/original/file-20210909-23-1miromd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420137/original/file-20210909-23-1miromd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420137/original/file-20210909-23-1miromd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420137/original/file-20210909-23-1miromd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A woman receives her COVID-19 vaccine at Olympic Stadium in Montréal. Five vaccines have been approved in Canada and about 70 per cent of the population is doubly vaccinated.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Canadian Press/Paul Chiasson</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>However, <a href="https://theconversation.com/i-work-at-a-covid-19-vaccine-clinic-heres-what-people-ask-me-when-theyre-getting-their-shot-and-what-i-tell-them-167046">many people have raised questions about these vaccines</a>. And it is fair to do so! The unknown has always been a source of anxiety for human beings, it is normal to <a href="https://theconversation.com/astrazeneca-covid-19-vaccine-faq-why-do-the-age-recommendations-keep-changing-does-it-cause-vipit-blood-clots-is-it-effective-against-variants-158302">ask questions</a>.</p>
<p>So, after working tirelessly to develop vaccines against COVID-19, what are scientists and doctors doing now?</p>
<p>They are doing what they have always done: Practising the best science they can within the limits of current knowledge. This scientific practice means continuing to evaluate the effectiveness of these vaccines <a href="https://www.who.int/en/activities/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants/">against new variants</a> in labs, as the virus continues to mutate. </p>
<p>It means continuing to record who has experienced side-effects (serious or not) from vaccination and continuing to investigate the potential links between these side-effects and the vaccine. The science they are practising involves studying the virus day and night to understand how it makes people sick, how we can prevent infection and what our options are for getting rid of it as quickly as possible.</p>
<p>The term “current knowledge” is very important here. It is possible that more side-effects related to vaccination will be discovered much later. Here’s why.</p>
<h2>The scientific method</h2>
<p>When vaccines are initially developed in the laboratory and tested on animals, it is normal that <em>not</em> all side-effects are identified. A mouse is not a human, after all, and models cannot account for all the variables that can be found in a human. Humans live in a complex environment and society where individuals each have their own genetics, immunity and lifestyle (exercise, smoking, nutrition).</p>
<p>Furthermore, the more people are vaccinated, the greater the likelihood of detecting a serious side-effect. Clinical trials, where <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-clinical-trials-test-covid-19-vaccines-146061">drugs and vaccines are evaluated in a small group of individuals</a> before being made available to the general population, are designed to be safe. Volunteers are usually healthy adults, without serious <a href="https://www.inspq.qc.ca/en/publications/3082-impact-comorbidities-risk-death-covid19">pre-existing medical conditions</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
À lire aussi :
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-clinical-trials-test-covid-19-vaccines-146061">Explainer: How clinical trials test COVID-19 vaccines</a>
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<p>Vaccination is now widespread in many countries. It is therefore statistically normal that rarer effects (for example, ones that one in a million people develop) are now being observed. These effects are too rare to have been detected in a clinical trial of 10,000 people. This is the case for rare side-effects such as <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/siladityaray/2021/09/09/european-medicines-agency-lists-nerve-disorder-as-very-rare-side-effect-of-astrazeneca-covid-19-vaccine/?sh=5fd603e61a7b">Guillain-Barré syndrome</a> and <a href="https://healthycanadians.gc.ca/recall-alert-rappel-avis/hc-sc/2021/76203a-eng.php">Bell’s palsy</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/science-fair/steps-of-the-scientific-method">scientific method</a> requires that the following process is followed: Observe a problem, formulate a hypothesis about its possible causes, evaluate it experimentally by controlling the variables, interpret the results and draw a conclusion.</p>
<p>It can turn out that our initial hypothesis is wrong, and that is equally acceptable. This is how science was designed. I think that before the pandemic, people considered science infallible. Opening up research to the general public has greatly changed this perception, especially as science quickly became embroiled in politics, particularly over <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus/origins-of-the-virus">the question of the origin of the pandemic</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Justin Trudeau is surrounded by scientists, in a lab" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420138/original/file-20210909-21-17ccvfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420138/original/file-20210909-21-17ccvfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420138/original/file-20210909-21-17ccvfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420138/original/file-20210909-21-17ccvfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420138/original/file-20210909-21-17ccvfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420138/original/file-20210909-21-17ccvfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420138/original/file-20210909-21-17ccvfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Prime Minister Justin Trudeau with scientists during a visit to the National Research Council of Canada (NRC), in Montréal, August 2020. The scientific method makes it possible to observe a problem, formulate a hypothesis about its causes, evaluate it experimentally by controlling the variables, interpret the results and draw a conclusion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Canadian Press/Graham Hughes</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Knowing how to communicate</h2>
<p>And that’s where the problem comes from, among other things. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-00452-3">The key to effective scientific communication is not the science. It’s the communication</a>. The results of laboratory experiments and clinical trials are what they are. Either the vaccine or drug works to reduce mortality, or it doesn’t work, and we go back to the drawing board.</p>
<p>So where does the reluctance about vaccines come from? One of the main problems is not the lack of information about the safety of the vaccine. Almost everyone has access to this information on internet. The problem is the lack of trust in institutions, <a href="https://www.cairn-int.info/journal-revue-internationale-de-politique-comparee-2003-3-page-433.htm">which has been growing globally in recent years</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
À lire aussi :
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-better-conversations-can-help-reduce-vaccine-hesitancy-for-covid-19-and-other-shots-159321">How better conversations can help reduce vaccine hesitancy for COVID-19 and other shots</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But this trust can be earned — or regained. It just takes time, respect and empathy. A study by researchers at the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2018.1549451">Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Sherbrooke</a> shows that an educational session about immunization that used motivational interviewing techniques with parents of infants resulted in a nine per cent increase in immunization rates compared with families who did not receive the sessions.</p>
<h2>Finding the right answer to a question</h2>
<p>Ultimately, the goal of science is to find the right answer to a question.</p>
<p>Of course, human nature being what it is, we are not immune to conflicts of interest. We need to ensure transparency about things like funding and links between scientists and potential investors. This is especially important since we are all responsible for funding research, whether through federal subsidies, which are partly derived from taxes paid by citizens, or through the ordinary purchase of drugs in pharmacies.</p>
<p>Since this concerns everyone, it is high time that the public became more involved. After all, scientific discoveries and health measures are everybody’s business. For example, few citizens are familiar with “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK285579/">gain-of-function research</a>.” These studies can involve a level of risk ranging from very low to very high. For example, producing a drug from a bacterium carries little risk and much benefit. However, increasing the virulence or transmissibility of a virus such as Ebola or Influenza could carry a lot of risk if such research were carried out by individuals with bad intentions, or in poorly secured laboratories.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
À lire aussi :
<a href="https://theconversation.com/origins-of-sars-cov-2-why-the-lab-leak-idea-is-being-considered-again-161947">Origins of SARS-CoV-2: Why the lab-leak idea is being considered again</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>As with any aspect of science, a risk-benefit analysis must be carried out. Note that in the vast majority of institutions where research is done, the committees assessing whether or not a study is worth doing are not only composed of scientists and students, but also members of the public.</p>
<p>Now each side just has to do its part. Scientists need to do a better job of communicating their results and the interpretation of them, as well as specifically answering questions of interest to the public and regaining their trust. They need to listen and stop hiding behind mountains of data, complicated words and scientific articles that are not easily accessible to the general public.</p>
<p>To those who are hesitant about vaccination, scientists should ask: “What data would make you change your mind?”, “Why do you think the current data are insufficient?”, “Why do you trust this individual, but not another or the institutions?” This is how constructive dialogue can be initiated and more in-depth reflection can begin.</p>
<p>For their part, citizens can adopt better practices when it comes to getting information and not only consider information that fits into their personal narrative. It is also important to avoid falling into a spiral of conspiracy theories and trust in false experts. It is important to not be afraid to doubt, to find other sources to confirm or refute what you have just read and to ask trusted experts around you what they think.</p>
<p><em>Do you have a question about COVID-19 vaccines? Email us at <a href="mailto:ca-vaccination@theconversation.com">ca‑vaccination@theconversation.com</a> and vaccine experts will answer questions in upcoming articles.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167681/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marc-Antoine De La Vega ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Before the pandemic, the public perceived science as infallible and inaccessible. But the opening up of research to the general public has changed that perception.Marc-Antoine De La Vega, PhD Student in Microbiology-Immunology, Université LavalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1668812021-09-09T18:55:30Z2021-09-09T18:55:30Z18 months of the COVID-19 pandemic – a retrospective in 7 charts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420094/original/file-20210908-23-8ctbwx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2355%2C1269&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">September 11, 2021 marks the 18 month anniversary of the WHO declaring the COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/coronavirus-covid-19-2019-ncov-on-calendar-april-royalty-free-image/1216610197">summerphotos/Stock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A year and a half into what the <a href="https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020">World Health Organization officially declared a pandemic</a> on March 11, 2020, it’s an understatement to say that Americans are exhausted.</p>
<p>I’m an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=t3nqdNQAAAAJ&hl=en">epidemiologist</a> and an internationally recognized <a href="https://yourlocalepidemiologist.substack.com/about">science communicator</a>, and I’ve often found myself running between COVID-19 meetings asking “how did we get here?” </p>
<p>Figuring out the “how” is essential to preparing for the future. In trying to make sense of these past 18 months, I’ve found it helpful to broadly categorize the U.S. pandemic journey thus far into five phases: Scramble, Learn, Respond, Test and Hope.</p>
<p><iframe id="yD6Be" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/yD6Be/6/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Scramble: What’s going on?</h2>
<p>In early 2020, SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, hit the United States. The first documented case was a traveler who landed in Seattle from Wuhan, China on <a href="https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/first-confirmed-case-of-coronavirus-found-in-us-washington-state">Jan. 15</a>. Only later did public health officials find that SARS-CoV-2 was already <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6922e1">spreading throughout the community</a>. </p>
<p>It wasn’t until March that Americans were forced to take the pandemic seriously, as states began to implement <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/us/coronavirus-stay-at-home-order.html">stay-at-home orders</a>. While civilians were struggling to figure out <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/10/parenting/virus-day-care-bright-horizons.html">child care</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/telecommuting-could-curb-the-coronavirus-epidemic-133308">working from home</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/declining-antibodies-and-immunity-to-covid-19-why-the-worry-143323">Immunology 101</a>, epidemiologists started to react.</p>
<p>But maybe a better word is “scramble.” The U.S. did not have the public health infrastructure in place to effectively respond. A <a href="https://www.tfah.org/report-details/publichealthfunding2020/">chronically underfunded</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/theres-a-name-for-trump-playing-down-the-threat-and-failing-to-take-action-against-the-virus-institutional-betrayal-133909">politicized public health system</a> hampered the nation’s real-time response.</p>
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<p>Epidemiologists were scrambling, left to <a href="https://covidtracking.com/thank-you">rely on volunteers</a> to report national level public health data because there was <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2021/08/15/inside-americas-covid-data-gap-502565">no centralized public health data system</a> in the U.S. Public health officials were scrambling to enact safety recommendations and contact trace because of <a href="https://www.ama-assn.org/about/leadership/pandemic-exposes-dire-need-rebuild-public-health-infrastructure">limited resources</a>. Data scientists, like those at <a href="https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/about">Johns Hopkins University</a>, were scrambling to share accessible data for decision-making. Scientists were scrambling to <a href="https://theconversation.com/there-are-many-covid-19-tests-in-the-us-how-are-they-being-regulated-134783">develop COVID-19 tests</a>. And everyone was scrambling to figure out <a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-public-health-messages-have-been-all-over-the-place-but-researchers-know-how-to-do-better-150584">how to communicate</a> the evolving threat of the virus to American lives. From the beginning, the seeds were sown for a reactive, rather than proactive, approach. </p>
<h2>Learn: Are we doing anything right?</h2>
<p>Once the Northeast started to get <a href="https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#datatracker-home">under control</a>, June 2020 was fairly quiet across the nation. Is this done? Maybe the decrease is <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-may-wane-this-summer-but-dont-count-on-any-seasonal-variation-to-end-the-pandemic-136218">due to weather</a>? People started relaxing. </p>
<p>Then July hit. In one month, cases in the South <a href="https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#datatracker-home">were as high</a> as they had been in the Northeast months earlier. The West started creeping up, too. The game of whack-a-mole began as there still wasn’t a coordinated, national response. </p>
<p>Health departments were <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/global-covid-19/rtt-management-introduction.html">expanding capacity</a> for testing, tracing and surveillance. A multitude of multidisciplinary, academic teams were forming to understand COVID-19 from <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-virus-detectives-trace-the-origins-of-an-outbreak-and-why-its-so-tricky-161387">microscopic-level virology</a> all the way to <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-coronavirus-could-be-generation-zs-9-11-133740">population-level social implications</a>.</p>
<p>This is when published, peer-reviewed data on COVID-19 started coming through. In fewer than five months, scientific literature database Scopus indexed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03706-z">more than 12,000</a> publications. Researchers started discovering <a href="https://theconversation.com/deciphering-the-symptoms-of-long-covid-19-is-slow-and-painstaking-for-both-sufferers-and-their-physicians-164754">long COVID-19 symptoms</a> and figuring out effective protective measures like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31142-9">social distancing and wearing a mask</a>. Researchers also learned more about <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6945a5">superspreader events</a> and how COVID-19 is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa939">transmitted through the air</a> – although this wasn’t officially recognized by the <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/coronavirus-disease-covid-19-how-is-it-transmitted">WHO</a> or the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/science/science-briefs/sars-cov-2-transmission.html">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> until about a year later.</p>
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<p>While the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abc7839">flood of evidence</a> provided scientists and clinicians with critical information, a <a href="https://retractionwatch.com/retracted-coronavirus-covid-19-papers/">wave of retractions</a> pulling papers with erroneous or unreliable data began to appear. This, coupled with lack of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2103798">accurate scientific communication</a> from unbiased sources, fueled a <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic#tab=tab_1">concurrent infodemic</a> – an epidemic of misinformation and public health threats that researchers, social media companies and public health officials are still learning how to identify, mitigate and treat.</p>
<h2>Respond: Bring it on, virus!</h2>
<p>Then came winter, which proved to be a perfect storm of <a href="https://theconversation.com/sick-of-covid-19-heres-why-you-might-have-pandemic-fatigue-148294">pandemic fatigue</a> and holiday travel. This resulted in our biggest pandemic wave yet. <a href="https://usafacts.org/articles/the-us-has-averaged-more-than-3000-deaths-per-day-in-2021/">More than 3,000 people were dying per day</a> in the U.S.</p>
<p>Thankfully, help was on its way: vaccines. And not just pretty good vaccines – vaccines that blew efficacy out of the water. The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine proved to have an <a href="https://www.fda.gov/media/144245/download?fbclid=IwAR3RqVgP7tAcHKj5-oWhrPqhkkDPvDekJZ60UXCisFlJb5iOoY6uil9hBRI">efficacy of 95%</a>, significantly above the <a href="https://www.afro.who.int/news/what-covid-19-vaccine-efficacy">threshold target of 50%</a>. Thanks to <a href="https://time.com/5894798/need-volunteers-covid-19-vaccine-trials/">over 500,000</a> clinical trial volunteers, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-021-00358-0">decades of mRNA research</a>, an estimated <a href="https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hblog20210512.191448/">US$39.5 billion</a> and fast-moving scientists, the vaccines got to the public in <a href="https://www.ifpma.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/IFPMA-ComplexJourney-2019_FINAL.pdf">record time</a>. And, while the <a href="https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/22213208/covid-19-vaccine-rollout-coronavirus-distribution">vaccine rollout was rough</a>, <a href="https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#vaccination-trends_vacctrends-total-cum">more than 260 million</a> doses were administered by May 2021 in the U.S.</p>
<p>With vaccines, though, came new challenges: a new fight against disinformation (no, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-01221-y">mRNA does not change your DNA</a>) and a struggle to understand <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-breakthrough-infection-6-questions-answered-about-catching-covid-19-after-vaccination-164909">breakthrough infections</a>.</p>
<p>In the meanwhile, <a href="https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#variant-proportions">new COVID-19 variants</a> arrived on the scene. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-02478-z">Suboptimal genomic surveillance</a> made it <a href="https://theconversation.com/genomic-surveillance-what-it-is-and-why-we-need-more-of-it-to-track-coronavirus-variants-and-help-end-the-covid-19-pandemic-157540">difficult to identify where and what variants</a> were spreading. The race between vaccination and variant spread was upon us. The fight was far from over.</p>
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<h2>Test: We’re tired</h2>
<p>Early summer 2021 for Americans was blissful. The U.S. reached an <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/health/2021/06/08/covid-vaccine-variant-lab-leak-cdc/7594625002/">all-time pandemic low in terms of COVID-19 cases</a>. People who were vaccinated were told they could <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2021/07/19/mask-mandates-returning/">take off their masks</a>, while some unvaccinated people took this carte blanche. More Americans started <a href="https://www.tsa.gov/coronavirus/passenger-throughput">traveling again</a> and getting back to <a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-as-offices-reopen-heres-what-to-expect-if-youre-worried-about-getting-sick-on-the-job-142154">working in person</a>. </p>
<p>But then the delta variant knocked on the door. Significantly <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/991135/3_June_2021_Risk_assessment_for_SARS-CoV-2_variant_DELTA.pdf">more transmissible</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01358-1">severe</a> than the original strain of the coronavirus, it first created a <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/articles/2021-09-02/delta-surge-hits-southern-states-the-hardest">tsunami of cases in the South</a> that then spread to every corner of the United States.</p>
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<p>Unfortunately, <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-we-can-deal-with-pandemic-fatigue/">pandemic fatigue</a> has settled in. And the pandemic is pushing the U.S. response to its limits. It’s testing the amount of pressure <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-02261-8">vaccines can withstand</a>. It’s testing <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2021/09/05/1034210487/covid-surge-overwhelming-hospitals-raising-fears-rationed-care">health care system capacity</a>. It’s testing the <a href="https://www.newschannel10.com/2021/08/30/healthcare-workers-dealing-with-post-traumatic-stress-delta-variant-takes-hold/">resilience of public health and health care workers</a>. It’s testing the ability of scientists to effectively communicate <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.12535">ever-evolving research findings</a>. And it’s testing the public’s patience as <a href="https://theconversation.com/kids-arent-just-littler-adults-heres-why-they-need-their-own-clinical-trials-for-a-covid-19-vaccine-162821">pediatric vaccines undergo clinical trials</a>.</p>
<h2>Hope: This will end</h2>
<p>Every <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/training/quicklearns/epimode/">epidemic curve comes down</a>. And this one will too. But even after it comes down, the pandemic will still be far from over.</p>
<p>There’s still <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2021/05/pandemic-trauma-summer/618934/">trauma to be addressed</a>. Families were robbed of <a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/coronavirus/ct-coronavirus-funerals-20201202-q52w5txzyvbuxio2rxucaxm5r4-story.html">proper funerals and goodbyes</a>. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/13/i-dont-want-friends-who-put-others-at-risk-has-lockdown-wrecked-friendships">Friendships were ripped apart</a> by politically charged misinformation and disinformation. Millions of people <a href="https://theconversation.com/pandemic-hardship-is-about-to-get-a-lot-worse-for-millions-of-out-of-work-americans-167165">lost their jobs</a>. And <a href="https://khn.org/morning-breakout/health-care-workers-may-suffer-more-ptsd-trauma-during-pandemic/">frontline workers</a> are still not OK. A survey of public health workers across the U.S. found that <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7026e1">more than half</a> reported symptoms of at least one mental health condition from March to April 2021.</p>
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<p>The U.S. will also need to self-reflect as a nation. In order to deal effectively with the next infectious disease crisis, the U.S. will need to create centralized public health systems and expand genomic surveillance, hospital networks and testing capabilities. Scientists need to revamp how they accessibly communicate science and research so the CDC can build public trust again. And by removing politics from public health, science might be able to infiltrate echo chambers instead of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2281-1">feeding them</a>. </p>
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<p>Americans need to prepare so <a href="https://www.statnews.com/2021/05/18/luck-is-not-a-strategy-the-world-needs-to-start-preparing-now-for-the-next-pandemic/">when the next pandemic hits</a>, everyone will be ready to mount a proactive, effective fight against a common enemy: the virus.</p>
<p>[<em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-corona-important">Get The Conversation’s most important coronavirus headlines, weekly in a science newsletter</a></em>]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166881/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katelyn Jetelina receive(s/d) research funding from NIH, CDC, DOJ, DHHS, Merck, and several non-profits (THR, HABRI, MMHPI, Arnold Foundation, HOGG). She is the sole founder and owner of Your Local Epidemiologist. She is the Senior Scientific Advisor to Judge Lina Hidalgo in Harris County.</span></em></p>A lot has happened since the WHO declared the coronavirus outbreak a pandemic. A portrait in data highlights trends in everything from case counts, to research publications, to variant spread.Katelyn Jetelina, Assistant Professor of Epidemiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at HoustonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.