tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/victims-10429/articlesvictims – The Conversation2023-08-23T14:22:06Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2119802023-08-23T14:22:06Z2023-08-23T14:22:06ZLucy Letby: the focus has been on her unspeakable crimes – but we should think about the victims and their families<p>The understandable response of many to the horrendous crimes of <a href="https://theconversation.com/after-lucy-letby-what-are-new-parents-entitled-to-expect-when-their-newborn-needs-specialist-care-211946">Lucy Letby</a> has been: “Lock her up and throw away the key.” Letby, a former NHS nurse, has been given 14 whole-life sentences for the murder of seven babies and the attempted murder of six others while working in a hospital’s neonatal unit between 2015 and 2016.</p>
<p>Much of the media coverage of Letby’s trial has included <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/aug/18/lucy-letby-rational-explanation-inquiry">incomprehension</a> and <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-12430655/DAILY-MAIL-COMMENT-Letbys-final-insult-grieving-families.html">anger</a>, with discussions as to what her motivations could possibly have been and <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2023/08/21/lucy-letby-victim-impact-statement-manchester-sentencing/">whether she is</a> “evil” – along with what that might actually mean. </p>
<p>Questions have also been raised as to Letby’s mental health status – and if she is a <a href="https://talk.tv/news/26322/lucy-letby-had-psychopathic-traits-she-was-very-controlled-it-was-all-about-her">psychopath</a>. The judge said Letby showed a “<a href="https://twitter.com/BBCBreaking/status/1693598688558342354?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">malevolence bordering sadism</a>”. And Letby’s crimes seem all the worse because they strike at the innocent – hospitalised babies and their worried families – by someone who is in a position of trust and responsibility. </p>
<p>A person who ostensibly has a vocation to care has harmed and killed. She has acted alone, albeit within <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/aug/19/observer-editorial-lucy-letby-statutory-inquiry-nhs-failings">a system</a> that enabled her to continue her crimes. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/aug/21/lucy-letby-murders-victims-families-and-experts-call-for-statutory-inquiry">The official inquiry into the murders</a> is likely to demonstrate the context in which her crimes were committed and whether some or all of them could have been prevented. But any findings are unlikely to quell the anger and disgust that many may feel on behalf of her victims. </p>
<h2>The demands of justice</h2>
<p>In my work, I focus on what justice looks like and what it means. In cases such as Letby’s, it’s worth revisiting what we mean by justice. Letby will be incarcerated for the rest of her natural life and won’t have any opportunities for early release or parole unless the justice secretary rules there are “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/law/2017/jan/17/european-judges-uphold-uk-right-to-impose-whole-life-jail-sentences#:%7E:text=The%20judges%20therefore%20concluded%20that,to%20inhumane%20or%20degrading%20treatment.">exceptional circumstances</a>” to justify her release. This is the most severe punishment that can be received and at best she will have to try and adapt to prison life.</p>
<p>It may be that over time a psychiatric diagnosis emerges to help us to understand why these events have occurred. But as forensic psychologist <a href="https://theconversation.com/peter-sutcliffe-cannot-have-been-cured-of-schizophrenia-51765">Ruth Tully</a> has argued, violence is always complex and cannot simply be explained by a psychiatric diagnosis. </p>
<p>More importantly, we know that no amount of punishment – however severe – will undo Letby’s crimes, or heal the victims and their families. There can be no satisfaction here, though maybe some small comfort in knowing that Letby will never be able to harm anyone else in the same way again.</p>
<h2>The law and language</h2>
<p>In the UK, the courtroom is a public space where the victims and the accused, with the help of court personnel, engage in ceremony and interpretation to make sense of and judge alleged crimes. </p>
<p>The development of these processes in the UK’s justice system and our understanding of morality and punishment have been heavily influenced by the country’s history and the culture of the established church as part of the state. My work focuses on this <a href="https://bristoluniversitypress.co.uk/redemptive-criminology">link between religion and the law</a> and looks at what this means in terms of criminal justice.</p>
<p>Public shaming and condemnation is a <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003361534/framework-criminal-justice-michael-king">key feature</a> of our criminal justice system. The language used to communicate and justify punishment also frequently becomes explicitly religious due to the limits of rational explanation and the need to express deep-felt emotions. Indeed, I’ve seen post-trial statements, particularly by police officers, include religious-sounding phrases such as “truly evil” or “beyond redemption.”</p>
<p>Despite our natural and justified emotions, Letby still has [basic human rights] enshrined in law which must be observed. It will be up to the personnel in the prison estate who work with her and any family or friends who keep contact with her to ensure these are observed.</p>
<p>More important by far, though, are the rights of the bereaved and traumatised families of Letby’s victims. Living through Letby’s prosecution and experiencing the media coverage will have caused fresh trauma and it is important that they receive the appropriate support. </p>
<p>The UK parliament is currently debating amendments to the UK victims and prisoners bill, which <a href="https://www.catch-22.org.uk/resources/catch22-responds-to-the-victims-and-prisoners-bill/">has been criticised</a> by some advocacy groups for folding an original victims bill into legislation concerning the rights of prisoners as well.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-66570308">one mother</a>, who lost one of two twin brothers attacked by Letby said in her victims’ impact statement, she feels she is “living with a life sentence because of Letby’s crimes”. This will be a common emotional reaction among the victims’ families. Many reported being on medication to help deal with the trauma. There are also families whose babies have been <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/ng-interactive/2023/aug/18/lucy-letby-timeline-attacks-babies-when-alarm-raised">left with permanent disability</a> by Letby’s attempts to murder them. These are the people whose rights must be paramount if true justice is to be observed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211980/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aaron Pycroft does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As humans, we want a rational explanation to help us understand why someone would commit these horrific crimes.Aaron Pycroft, Reader in Criminal Justice and Social Complexity, University of PortsmouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1163162019-05-02T11:42:45Z2019-05-02T11:42:45ZStreet drinking, fly-tipping and nuisance neighbours: who experiences anti-social behaviour?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272207/original/file-20190502-103049-1e429kp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Anti-social. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">J Walters/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For some people who repeatedly experience or witness anti-social behaviour it can have a devastating affect on their lives. A new report from the Victims’ Commissioner for England and Wales has <a href="https://victimscommissioner.org.uk/published-reviews/anti-social-behaviour-living-a-nightmare/">called it a “living nightmare”</a>. Findings from our ongoing research were included in the Commissioner’s report and they help to explain who is experiencing anti-social behaviour and in what context. </p>
<p>Anti-social behaviour is <a href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2014/12/contents/enacted">defined</a> in UK law as “conduct that has caused, or is likely to cause, harassment, alarm or distress to any person”. This might include, for example, nuisance neighbours, street drinking, fly tipping or evidence of drug use. The latest figures from the <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/crimeinenglandandwales/yearendingdecember2018">Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW)</a> suggest that 37% of those who responded to the survey had experienced or witnessed some form of anti-social behaviour in their local area in the year ending December 2018 – the highest percentage since this data was first collected. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/surveys/informationforhouseholdsandindividuals/householdandindividualsurveys/crimesurveyforenglandandwales">CSEW</a> is widely considered to be the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/legal-information-management/article/choosing-and-using-statistical-sources-in-criminology-what-can-the-crime-survey-for-england-and-wales-tell-us/BBCB2D03249DC8C7CAFBA16D4B8C2FBD">best source </a> of victimisation data internationally. Conducted since 1981, the survey collects information on experiences of crime and anti-social behaviour, and other contextual information on victims, such as their household and where they live. </p>
<p>Respondents are asked if they have experienced or witnessed anti-social behaviour within a 15-minute walk of their home in the previous 12 months, how often the incidents happened, and what happened next. In our analysis of data on anti-social behaviour from the CSEW, we found that five key themes emerged. </p>
<h2>Repeated behaviour</h2>
<p>First, certain types of anti-social behaviour are more common than others. These include street drinking or drunken behaviour – which accounted for 11.5% of those who reported experiencing or witnessing some form of anti-social behaviour. Other common behaviour were the category of youths, teenagers or groups “hanging about on the streets” (9.5%), inconsiderate behaviour, such as repeated use of fireworks or people throwing stones (7.1%), and anti-social behaviour related to vehicles, such as inconvenient parking or speeding cars (5.1%).</p>
<p>Second, we also found that certain types of anti-social behaviour were more prone to repetition, including environmental nuisances – such as litter, fly tipping or dog fouling – as well as begging, behaviour related to vehicles, and people using or dealing drugs. </p>
<p><iframe id="UhkIH" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/UhkIH/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>As the graph above shows, for the majority of the types of anti-social behaviour that we analysed, more than half of those experiencing or witnessing the behaviour, did so at least once a month. This highlights the repetitive and persistent nature of much anti-social behaviour. It also underlines the importance of not viewing incidents in isolation, a point echoed in the Victims’ Commissioner’s report.</p>
<p>Third, certain people and households are more likely to experience anti-social behaviour – and this varies depending on the type of behaviour. Those more likely to witness street drinking or drunken behaviour, for example, tend to be younger, white people with educational qualifications. They also tend to have lived in a terraced house or flat in an urban, income-deprived, higher-crime area for more than 12 months.</p>
<p>Those more likely to witness youths, teenagers or groups hanging about, also tend to be younger with educational qualifications. However, they tend to have a household income of more than £30,000 and have lived in a flat in an area with higher-income deprivation for more than 12 months. Having said this, the households who are more likely to experience anti-social behaviour are not necessarily the same as those who report the highest impact on their quality of life.</p>
<h2>Quality of life</h2>
<p>Fourth, we found that nuisance neighbours and out of control or dangerous dogs are the types of anti-social behaviour that have the greatest impact on quality of life. The <a href="https://s3-eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/victcomm2-prod-storage-119w3o4kq2z48/uploads/2019/04/ASB-report.pdf">report</a> from the Victims’ Commissioner presents a number of case studies illustrating the devastating impact anti-social neighbours can have on a person’s life. One victim, for example, said: “The stress and sleep deprivation he caused wrecked my mental and physical health.”</p>
<p>The CSEW provides a more accurate picture of the extent and nature of crime and anti-social behaviour than data records of police incidents do. The final evidence our analysis showed was that approximately 31% of incidents of anti-social behaviour are reported to the police, local authority or to a housing association or private landlord.</p>
<p>While it’s still unclear why so few incidents are reported, one potential reason, highlighted by victims interviewed in the Victims’ Commissioner <a href="https://s3-eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/victcomm2-prod-storage-119w3o4kq2z48/uploads/2019/04/ASB-report.pdf">report</a>, could relate to issues regarding the 101 non-emergency phone line which costs 15p per minute. While victims are encouraged to call 101, rather than the free 999 service used to report crime, often they can face long delays.</p>
<p>In relation to crime, the CSEW reveals a variety of reasons why <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/adhocs/007750reasonsfornotreportingcrimetothepolice2016to2017crimesurveyforenglandandwales">some victims don’t report incidents to the police</a>, including that they felt the incident was too trivial, that the police couldn’t do anything, or that they dealt with the incident themselves. It’s possible the same reasons could apply to anti-social behaviour.</p>
<p>Understanding who is most likely to experience anti-social behaviour can inform interventions to prevent the recurrence of incidents and the accumulation of the harms it causes. At a time when many organisations’ resources are stretched, it makes sense to focus efforts where they are most needed: towards victims of potentially high harm, repeated and persistent anti-social behaviour.</p>
<p>Our findings also highlight the diverse nature of anti-social behaviour. They suggest that an approach involving a range of partners including the police, local authority, housing associations, landlords, businesses, the National Health Service and the voluntary sector, is needed to develop and implement effective responses.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116316/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Becky Thompson has received funding for this research from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) (project reference: ES/P001556/1). The research upon which this article is based was funded by the ESRC (project reference: ES/P001556/1). Previous, related research was also funded by the College of Policing, Higher Education Funding Council for England and Home Office Police Knowledge Fund. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andromachi Tseloni has received funding for this research from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) (project reference: ES/P001556/1). The research upon which this article is based was funded by the ESRC (project reference: ES/P001556/1). Previous, related research was also funded by the Home Office, College of Policing and Higher Education Funding Council for England Police Knowledge Fund. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Hunter has received funding from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), Innovate UK, the Home Office, College of Policing, and Higher Education Funding Council for England. Research upon which this article is based was funded by the ESRC (project reference: ES/P001556/1).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Tilley received funding for this research from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Puneet Tiwari received funding for this research from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC). </span></em></p>New analysis reveals the most common types of anti-social behaviour, and who the victims are.Becky Thompson, Senior Lecturer in Criminology, Nottingham Trent UniversityAndromachi Tseloni, Professor of Quantitative Criminology, Nottingham Trent UniversityJames Hunter, Principal Lecturer in Public Policy, Nottingham Trent UniversityNick Tilley, Principal Research Associate, Department of Security and Crime Science, UCLPuneet Tiwari, Lecturer in the School of Social Sciences, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1118612019-02-19T14:01:43Z2019-02-19T14:01:43ZHelping to rehabilitate sex offenders is controversial – but it can prevent more abuse<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259505/original/file-20190218-56226-oadm99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/panorama-therapist-talking-aggressive-young-man-1135926740?src=30ScpO_bZaItoRrEHNyr6A-1-23">Photographee.eu/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When it was announced that a centre had opened in Nottingham in February to support the reintegration of people convicted of sexual offences into the community, it understandably caused controversy. </p>
<p>We are both trustees and part of a group who co-founded the charity behind the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/feb/09/university-pioneers-scheme-to-rehabilitate-sex-offenders">Corbett Centre for Prisoner Reintegration</a>, which will offer support and mentoring and help people acquire new skills. The aim is to keep communities safer and reduce reoffending through reintegration – and research shows this approach can be an effective way of achieving this.</p>
<p>But the announcement was met with concern and anger from the public and some <a href="https://www.nottinghampost.com/news/nottingham-news/anger-victims-abuse-new-centre-2529833">victims</a> of abuse. </p>
<p>It’s vital that survivors and victims are given the support, care and treatment they need to come to terms with what has happened to them, and to find some healing. Yet, preventing further victims being created and more lives being ruined is a huge social challenge. </p>
<h2>The scale of the problem</h2>
<p>Approximately <a href="https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN04334/SN04334.pdf">15% of the prison population</a>, or 12,750 people, in England and Wales have sexual convictions. A further <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/10/27/up-to-10-sex-offenders-released-into-the-community-everyday-new/">50,000 are on the Sex Offenders’ Register</a> – people who offended after the register was introduced in 1997 and currently live in the community. There are thousands more who committed sexual offences before 1997 and approximately 55,000 people thought to be under investigation for committing a sexual offence. Approximately <a href="https://www.childabuseroyalcommission.gov.au/sites/default/files/EXH.015.022.0031.pdf">one in ten</a> of those released back into the community will go on to commit another sexual offence.</p>
<p>Society needs to engage seriously with how to reintegrate those who have offended and to stop future offending. The way to do this is by considering the evidence and understanding what does and doesn’t work. But, there is one huge obstacle standing in the way – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359178917300265">public opinion and perceptions</a> around this sensitive, emotive and often traumatic topic. If there was a more general sense of public support for rehabilitation this could assist with the reintegration process, which in turn can help keep communities safer.</p>
<h2>What doesn’t work</h2>
<p>There are numerous examples of unproven methods used in the rehabilitation of those with sexual convictions. Such practices tend to be based on “intuitive beliefs” such as it “feels right”, but there is little evidence they reduce reoffending. </p>
<p>Some of the traditional approaches to working with people with sexual convictions have an unproven evidence base. These include programmes that focus on encouraging <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1079063212455669">victim empathy</a> and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0886260513511530">tackling denial</a>, rather than on skills to lead a good and better life. While getting a person to admit to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359178912000213">their offending feels right</a>, for example, it’s not related to reducing reoffending. </p>
<p>Notification schemes that enable members of the public to request information about people who are in contact with their child, also “feel” like a good idea. They may bring comfort to people, but there is limited evidence for their effectiveness and some to suggest they are <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0093854810363570">ineffective</a>.</p>
<p>Research in the US shows that for most offenders, prison doesn’t reduce <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0032885511415224">reoffending</a> and harsh environments can also have a negative impact upon both prisoners and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0306624X10388383">staff</a>. </p>
<p>For those with sexual convictions, prison can be a brutal experience dominated by a struggle for <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0306624X05275829">survival</a>. While the public are naturally concerned that once somebody is a sex offender they will always be a sex offender, this is <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-47339-001">not always the case</a>. </p>
<p>While it may seem publicly appealing to put convicted sex offenders in prison for long periods and to make that experience hostile, this doesn’t work to reduce risk of reoffending and may instead increase their risk by increasing <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/cjccj55&div=25&g_sent=1&casa_token=sti7SIz7ymoAAAAA:dsBfdwnq_UxsSXjzlBkhMItHkdbxAi64Ha7lcJBht0vll1FB9iMQ9XpECdsieMAqpn_RSmE&collection=journals">social isolation</a>. In our own research, we found that prisons that only house those with sexual convictions allowed <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0306624X14553227">people the “headspace”</a> to change. Research has also shown that prisons with a more therapeutic climate are more likely to help those with sexual convictions address their <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0093854813520544">offending behaviour</a> and make personal changes – which could reduce reoffending.</p>
<h2>What does work</h2>
<p>Some of the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13552600.2013.870242?needAccess=true">key factors</a> that lead people to reoffend are social and emotional isolation, emotional immaturity, and general problems relating to others. Having a job, or something meaningful to do in your life, can help to protect people against a downward spiral that <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0264550515600545">leads to sexual reoffending</a>. </p>
<p>Research shows that interventions with people with sexual convictions appear to be more effective in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11292-015-9241-z">community than in prison</a>, which is why there is a real need for better community reintegration and rehabilitation. </p>
<p>This is why initiatives such as <a href="https://www.circles-uk.org.uk/">Circles of Support and Accountability</a> (CoSA) have been shown to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1079063212453942">work</a>. In these interventions, between three and five trained volunteers provide social, emotional and practical support for high-risk sexual offenders. In one evaluation in Minnesota, those taking part in a CoSA programme had their risk of rearrest for a sexual offence <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11292-018-9325-7">reduced by 88%</a>. </p>
<p>Sexual abuse can destroy lives and devastate families. Victims of sexual crimes should be given access to the help and support they need for their recovery as a priority. But funding is also needed for programmes and interventions that can prevent future victims. “Helping” sex offenders may feel like a bitter pill to swallow, but if the prescription is based on robust evidence, the end result will be fewer victims of sexual crime. This is something that benefits everyone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111861/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span> Nicholas Blagden is affiliated with the Safer Living Foundation charity which works to prevent sexual offending and reoffending. As Associate Head of the Sexual Offences, Crime and Misconduct Research Unit, he receives funding to research people with sexual convictions and evaluate interventions with this group</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Belinda Winder is affiliated with the Safer Living Foundation charity which works to prevent sexual offending and reoffending. As Head of the Sexual Offences, Crime and Misconduct Research Unit, she receives funding to research people with sexual convictions and evaluate interventions with this group.</span></em></p>What research shows does and doesn’t work to prevent people convicted of sexual offences from reoffending.Nicholas Blagden, Associate Professor Psychology & Associate Head of Sexual Offences Crime and Misconduct Research Unit, Nottingham Trent UniversityBelinda Winder, Professor of Forensic Psychology & Head of the Sexual Offences, Crime and Misconduct Research Unit, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1102582019-01-25T14:44:00Z2019-01-25T14:44:00ZDomestic abuse bill: proposed changes to protect victims explained<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/255378/original/file-20190124-135151-1kw61xa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?u=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.shutterstock.com%2Fgatekeeper%2FW3siZSI6MTU0ODM1NTk4NSwiYyI6Il9waG90b19zZXNzaW9uX2lkIiwiZGMiOiJpZGxfMTc1MTU4MjYwIiwiayI6InBob3RvLzE3NTE1ODI2MC9tZWRpdW0uanBnIiwibSI6MSwiZCI6InNodXR0ZXJzdG9jay1tZWRpYSJ9LCJaYmRITWRBYlNMY1lUY3hvVU9XZTVHa1NEdVEiXQ%2Fshutterstock_175158260.jpg&ir=true&pi=33421636&m=175158260&src=6BD15wXtbxUEDyu5jznKMA-1-26">Sinisha Karich/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Domestic abuse is one of the most prevalent crimes in England and Wales, accounting for 33% of violent crime recorded by the police <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/domesticabuseinenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2018">in the year to March 2018</a>. </p>
<p>The introduction of a new bill to protect victims was part of the Conservative Party’s <a href="https://www.conservatives.com/manifesto">2017 manifesto</a>. After a three-month public consultation in 2018, the government published its draft <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/772202/CCS1218158068-Web_Accessible.pdf">Domestic Abuse Bill</a> on January 21 2019. </p>
<p>The draft bill puts a greater focus on children, the diverse identities of victims and on interventions for perpetrators of domestic abuse. It creates an assumption that domestic abuse victims will be automatically be eligible for special measures in court – such as giving evidence behind a screen, via live link or video-recorded interview, or in private. It also prohibits domestic abuse perpetrators from cross-examining their victims in family courts.</p>
<p>The proposed legal changes will create a new statutory definition of domestic abuse which includes economic abuse, and establish a <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/search-on-for-commissioner-to-lead-response-on-domestic-abuse">domestic abuse commissioner</a>. </p>
<p>The bill will also reform the system for serving protection orders against domestic abuse perpetrators, and <a href="https://kar.kent.ac.uk/66683/">provide a statutory footing</a> for an existing scheme, known as Clare’s Law, that allows people to request information on whether their partner has a history of domestic violence. The law is named after <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2013/apr/21/a-history-of-violence-clares-law">Clare Wood</a>, who was murdered by her former partner. </p>
<h2>Protection orders strengthened</h2>
<p>A proposed new Domestic Abuse Protection Order (DAPO) will be easier to obtain through a variety of courts than the current <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/17/content">eviction</a> and <a href="https://www.familylaw.co.uk/news_and_comment/emergency-barring-orders-in-domestic-violence-cases-what-can-england-and-wales-learn-from-other-european-countries-2015-cflq-25">protection orders</a>, and will allow authorities to impose requirements on a perpetrator to protect the victim. These requirements may be prohibitive, such as restricting movement or communication, or positive, for example requiring the perpetrator to participate in a treatment programme. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/s-upport-programmes-for-perpetrators-of-domestic-abuse-are-controversial-but-new-research-finds-they-bring-benefits-88092">Support programmes for perpetrators of domestic abuse are controversial, but new research finds they bring benefits</a>
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<p>Information held on the perpetrator as part of the DAPO will range from their name and address through to new relationships, visa applications and firearms licences. Electronic monitoring may also feature where a court deems it necessary to protect the victim. </p>
<p>Victims’ wishes will now be considered if a DAPO is breached, for example if a perpetrator misses an anger management programme, or contacts a victim. Such breaches will either be treated – as they are now – as a civil offence and punished by two months in prison, or as a criminal offence, penalised by up to five years in prison. The extra flexibility is to avoid victims being reticent about reporting a breach due to the much harsher penalty. </p>
<h2>Improving access to information</h2>
<p>Under the Clare’s Law scheme, or <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/domestic-violence-disclosure-scheme-pilot-guidance">Domestic Violence Disclosure Scheme</a> which was rolled out nationally in 2014, victims or potential victims can obtain information via two different routes. One is the “right to ask”, through which members of the public proactively request information, and the second is the “right to know” where the police initiate a disclosure on safeguarding grounds. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0269758017749116?journalCode=irva">Discrepancies</a> that I’ve identified in my research between these two routes in terms of access, support and the amount of information provided, are likely to remain unaffected by the draft bill. </p>
<p>Approximately a third of <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/772202/CCS1218158068-Web_Accessible.pdf">respondents</a> to the government’s consultation on the bill hadn’t heard of the DVDS or Clare’s Law, despite the fact that two-thirds were victims. </p>
<p>The new statutory footing for the DVDS means that a duty will be placed on the police to have regard for the scheme’s guidance. But this remains quite woolly, and it’s not yet clear what kind of penalty the police would face for not following the guidance. </p>
<p>The DVDS doesn’t give people the right to a disclosure. Instead, a threshold of credible risk of violence or harm must be determined by a multi-agency team before information that would otherwise be considered private can be shared with a member of the public on safeguarding grounds. </p>
<p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0269758017749116?journalCode=irva">Inconsistencies</a> surrounding the use of the scheme have been identified <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/505434/2016-03-08_DVDS_report__final_.pdf">nationally</a> across police forces and among applicants. Coupled with the <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/domesticabuseinenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2018">low volume of disclosures</a>, this means more public awareness is needed about how the DVDS operates. </p>
<p>Not all victims of domestic abuse may recognise the seriousness or severity of the behaviour a partner is demonstrating. If the information they provide on the nature of their partner’s behaviour as part of a “right to ask” DVDS application does not meet the risk threshold, then their application will be rejected. As the draft bill proposes that online DVDS applications should be made easier, it’s vital that online applicants know to provide as much detail as possible. This can be promoted alongside improving the DVDS’s visibility and uptake, which 32% of respondents to the consultation suggested be done via social media. </p>
<p>The changes outlined in the draft bill indicate that the government is listening to domestic abuse victims, advocates and experts. The key will be whether or not these proposals can be sufficiently implemented, as they require a significant amount of ongoing funding and investment across public services and the voluntary sector.</p>
<p><em>Correction: This article originally said Clare’s Law was named after Clare Brown, rather than Clare Wood.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/110258/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marian Duggan received funding from the Socio-Legal Studies Association for a research project into the Domestic Violence Disclosure Scheme in 2016. </span></em></p>But questions remain on how well a scheme to provide victims with information about abusive partners is working.Marian Duggan, Senior Lecturer in Criminology, University of KentLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1062332018-11-20T23:23:52Z2018-11-20T23:23:52ZWe need to learn from the men who rape<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/246535/original/file-20181120-161633-fkcv6a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">This Nov. 14, 2018 photo shows six women who have filed a lawsuit against Dartmouth College in New Hampshire for allegedly allowing three professors to create a culture in their department that encouraged drunken parties and subjected female graduate students to harassment, groping and sexual assault. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Mary Altaffer)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Approximately five times more women than men are <a href="https://www.swc-cfc.gc.ca/svawc-vcsfc/issue-brief-en.pdf">victims of sexual assault</a> and <a href="http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2010/statcan/85F0033M/85f0033m2010024-eng.pdf">young adults are at especially high risk</a>. </p>
<p>The impact on young people’s psychological and physical health can be devastating, especially given that this developmental period is when young people should be developing and refining intimacy skills in close relationships.</p>
<p>What is striking about sexual assault is that, despite decades of research and public health interventions, there has been <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2015001/article/14241/tbl/tbl04-eng.htm">little change in rates since we first began studying it in earnest during the 1980s and 1990s</a>.</p>
<p>This is a time when the discourse around sexual harassment and assault is garnering more headlines and dominating more dinner table conversations than ever before —spurred in no small part by <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/people/2017/10/27/weinstein-scandal-complete-list-accusers/804663001/">sexual assault charges against high profile figures such as Harvey Weinstein</a> and <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/09/25/us/bill-cosby-sentence-assault/index.html">Bill Cosby</a>, the <a href="https://www.vogue.com/article/president-donald-trump-nafta-press-conference-misogyny-women-reporters">misogyny spewed by the U.S. President Donald Trump</a> and the unleashed fury of so many women (and men) who want real accountability at long last for these crimes.</p>
<p>As a researcher, my instincts are to turn again to the scientific literature and assess what we know — to look for solutions or at least a clear way forward.</p>
<h2>Enough focus on the female victim</h2>
<p>Here’s a thumbnail sketch. An extraordinary amount of research on sexual violence — a concept that encompasses sexual harassment, assault and coercion — focuses on victims’ experiences. It asks <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2017001/article/14842-eng.htm">how many have experienced violence</a>, what <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.04.003">factors put them at risk</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.253-A1">how they adjusted afterwards</a>. </p>
<p>This focus on female victims leaves one with the strong impression that they are the protagonists in this story, as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14681990500037246">I have long argued</a>. </p>
<p>The lessons that these studies propagate are: women should avoid alcohol and drugs at parties, women should never wear tight or revealing clothes, women should essentially live a life avoiding young men because, well, young men.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/246533/original/file-20181120-161609-e3lpz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/246533/original/file-20181120-161609-e3lpz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246533/original/file-20181120-161609-e3lpz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246533/original/file-20181120-161609-e3lpz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246533/original/file-20181120-161609-e3lpz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246533/original/file-20181120-161609-e3lpz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246533/original/file-20181120-161609-e3lpz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Harvey Weinstein, centre, arrives to court in New York on Oct. 11, 2018, set to appear before a judge as his lawyers try to get the charges dismissed in his criminal case.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Seth Wenig)</span></span>
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<p>What is staggering to me is how little we know about the men who knowingly assault. What little we do know comes mostly from studies of incarcerated men. But, given how few incidents of sexual violence are even reported to the police and how few of those even make it to a conviction, these crimes and the men who perpetrate them are likely very different beasts altogether from most crimes of sexual assault.</p>
<p>Other studies have examined perpetration indirectly. We have studies of “proclivity” to commit assault and these usually measure responses to questions such as: “<a href="https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1981.tb01075.x">How likely would you be to commit rape if you know you would not be caught?</a>” </p>
<p>We also have delved deeply into rape myth acceptance and related constructs, such as <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-016-0679-x">sympathy for a rape victim and the perceived guilt of a rape perpetrator</a>. </p>
<p>What we need are studies of non-incarcerated men who knowingly rape. These are the men who work to inebriate and isolate women, for example, often soliciting the help of friends. </p>
<p>There are certainly studies that have assessed behaviours among <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0039998">undetected perpetrators</a> but most of these have relied on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2018.1500406">university samples receiving course credit for participating</a>. </p>
<p>Who really are the men who will divulge how they plan and enact a crime that is in the news each day, without some assurance that they won’t be identified?</p>
<h2>Time to study men who assault</h2>
<p>I am certainly encouraged by the work on consent and efforts to ensure that young people learn to distinguish whether a potential sexual partner has given clear and free consent to proceed. </p>
<p>I am even more heartened by the accounts from men of late who <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/10/18/opinion/men-metoo-high-school.html?action=click&module=Opinion&pgtype=Homepage">regret blithely disregarding a woman’s lack of consent</a>, assuming a power differential that gives them licence to do what they want. </p>
<p>But the consent education perpetuates to some degree a view that <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/02/12/is-there-a-smarter-way-to-think-about-sexual-assault-on-campus">women (as gatekeepers) give consent and men (as agents) secure it</a>, and that if communication of consent is clear, assault will likely be averted.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/246532/original/file-20181120-161633-e8kjv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/246532/original/file-20181120-161633-e8kjv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246532/original/file-20181120-161633-e8kjv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246532/original/file-20181120-161633-e8kjv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246532/original/file-20181120-161633-e8kjv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246532/original/file-20181120-161633-e8kjv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246532/original/file-20181120-161633-e8kjv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">In this Sept. 25, 2018 photo, Bill Cosby is escorted out of the Montgomery County Correctional Facility in Eagleville, Pa., following his sentencing to three-to-10-year prison sentence for sexual assault.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Jacqueline Larma)</span></span>
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<p>To date, we have a situation in which one of our most effective approaches to the prevention of assault relies on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018789153">the willingness of bystanders to intervene on a target’s behalf</a>. </p>
<p>This writing constitutes a call for researchers to dig deeper. We need to hear from the men who assault. Yes, we can reach them. No, we should not assume that they are vested in helping eliminate sexual assault. </p>
<p>However, one feature that emerges from <a href="https://www.davidlisak.com/wp-content/uploads/pdf/RepeatRapeinUndetectedRapists.pdf">the few studies that we do have in hand</a> is that men who knowingly assault tend to do so repeatedly. They often have well-formulated strategies and, with the vanity of the con artist and bully combined, can be induced in some contexts to tell all. Or tell alot. And we need that information in order to make a difference.</p>
<p>Let’s stop surveying women about their experiences as victims; it’s time to really zero in on the men who perpetrate these crimes at long last.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106233/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lucia O'Sullivan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s time to stop surveying women about their experiences as rape victims, time to research the men who perpetrate these crimes and work to inebriate and isolate women.Lucia O'Sullivan, Professor of Psychology, University of New BrunswickLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/842002017-10-31T00:46:33Z2017-10-31T00:46:33ZWomen can be psychopaths too, in ways more subtle but just as dangerous<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189706/original/file-20171011-2024-wfpf1a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Behavioural differences in female psychopaths could cause them to slip under society’s radar.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Hear the word psychopath and most of us think of violent, dominant men. There are lots of male psychopathic monsters from movies to illustrate this point. Think Alex in A Clockwork Orange, or Patrick Bateman in American Psycho.</p>
<p>But we do have some female examples: Annie Wilkes in Misery, and who could forget Alex Forrest’s bunny-boiling character in Fatal Attraction? These frightening fictional femme fatales stay with us – I’ve heard the term “bunny boiler” used to signify a woman behaving irrationally and violently – but they are unusual. We largely expect psychopaths to be men.</p>
<p>Research indicates <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14999013.2014.951105">there are likely</a> to be fewer female psychopaths than male. This may well be true. However, a compounding factor leading to the underestimation of the true occurrence rate of psychopathy in women could be behavioural differences that cause them to slip under society’s radar. This is important to acknowledge as female psychopaths can be just as dangerous as their male counterparts.</p>
<h2>What is psychopathy?</h2>
<p>Psychopathy is a personality disorder characterised by a number of abnormal behavioural traits and emotional responses. These include lack of empathy, guilt or remorse, and being manipulative and deceitful. People with psychopathy are often irresponsible and have a disregard for laws or social conventions.</p>
<p>Psychopaths often get away with these behaviours because they can be superficially quite charming. They are true observers of human behaviour, often <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40806-015-0012-x">being able to mimic</a> love, fear, remorse and other emotions well enough to go undetected. </p>
<p>Current thinking suggests psychopaths’ behaviour patterns result from variations in the structure of their brains at birth. A <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/07/170705123121.htm">recent study</a> from Harvard University indicated their brains are wired in a way that can lead to violent or dangerous actions. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191563/original/file-20171024-20397-1yt8qwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191563/original/file-20171024-20397-1yt8qwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191563/original/file-20171024-20397-1yt8qwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191563/original/file-20171024-20397-1yt8qwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191563/original/file-20171024-20397-1yt8qwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191563/original/file-20171024-20397-1yt8qwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191563/original/file-20171024-20397-1yt8qwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191563/original/file-20171024-20397-1yt8qwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Psychopaths, like Patrick Bateman in American Psycho, are keen observers of the human condition and can mimic normal behaviour.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0144084/mediaviewer/rm1804592384">Am Psycho Productions Edward R. Pressman Film Lions Gate Films, Muse Productions, P.P.S. Films, Quadra Entertainment, Universal Pictures</a></span>
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<p>Researchers used MRI scans to determine if activity and connections between areas of the brain associated with impulsivity and assessing the value of choices differed between those who scored highly for psychopathy and those who didn’t. The scans showed psychopaths make more short-sighted, impulsive decisions based on short-term gain, when compared to non-psychopaths, and that it is the structure of their brains that leads them to make these kinds of poor decisions. </p>
<p>Add this to their lack of empathy and it means if violence or dangerous behaviour will help a psychopath achieve a short-term goal, that is the path they will take. There is also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2933872/">evidence genetics</a> are at least partly responsible for the development of psychopathic traits. In essence, psychopaths are born, not made.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/psychopaths-versus-sociopaths-what-is-the-difference-45047">Psychopaths versus sociopaths: what is the difference?</a>
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<h2>Case studies</h2>
<p>Certain case studies show how women psychopaths present in the real world. “Amy” is a 20-year-old female <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14999013.2012.746755">serving a life sentence</a> for murder. She has been diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder with psychopathic traits. </p>
<p>Amy fits the description of having extreme psychopathic tendencies. She was showing antisocial behaviour in her teens, including running away from home and engaging in substance abuse. Before her conviction for murder, Amy had numerous convictions for fraud and assault. </p>
<p>The authors who assessed her case described Amy as deceitful and boastful, with a strong sense of self-entitlement. She was also described as having an extreme lack of empathy and remorse, while taking no responsibility for her actions. </p>
<p>Amy is physically and verbally violent to those around her, preying on vulnerable prisoners through bullying behaviours. Perhaps most striking is that Amy is noted to be very domineering, predominantly seeking power and control over others, sometimes using sexual charm to get what she wants. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191565/original/file-20171024-30565-1mnafiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191565/original/file-20171024-30565-1mnafiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191565/original/file-20171024-30565-1mnafiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191565/original/file-20171024-30565-1mnafiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191565/original/file-20171024-30565-1mnafiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191565/original/file-20171024-30565-1mnafiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191565/original/file-20171024-30565-1mnafiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191565/original/file-20171024-30565-1mnafiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Female psychopaths seem to be more hidden than their male counterparts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
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<h2>Female psychopaths</h2>
<p>Research, limited though it is, suggests female psychopaths are manipulative and controlling, cunning, deceitful, don’t take responsibility for their actions, are exploitative and, of course, they lack empathy. Studies of incarcerated women suggest psychopathic females <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14999013.2014.951105">commit crimes at a younger age</a> compared to women without psychopathic traits. </p>
<p>They can have a history of being bullied and their behavioural traits <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1998-00292-006">tend to develop</a> (or at least express themselves) in their teenage years.</p>
<p>Female psychopaths commit crimes across multiple categories – robbery, drug crimes, assault. Other female inmates largely have only one offence type in their history. And psychopathic offenders’ crimes are more often motivated by power, dominance or personal gain than for non-psychopathic females. Female psychopaths are also <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1998-00292-006">more likely</a> to repeat-offend than those without psychopathic tendencies.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/understanding-others-feelings-what-is-empathy-and-why-do-we-need-it-68494">Understanding others' feelings: what is empathy and why do we need it?</a>
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<p>Many of these traits apply to male psychopaths too. But there are differences. In terms of occurrence rates, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3379858/">studies show</a> female inmates with psychopathy make up 11-17% of the overall prison population, compared to their male counterparts at 25-30%. </p>
<p>This may be because female psychopaths are likely to be more <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14999013.2014.951105">relationally or verbally aggressive</a> than physically violent, and therefore commit less violent crimes than male psychopaths. This might help explain the initially surprising fact that women with psychopathy are found to be less likely to commit murder than non-psychopathic women.</p>
<p>Female psychopaths can also be <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=LSiBsdxcGigC&pg=PA175&lpg=PA175&dq=hare+parasitic+lifestyle&source=bl&ots=noR2Be9f-V&sig=5eueM48iI3ssLNgQk_yK0F62HOc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiQ2dTB3oXXAhXEX5QKHemFDqEQ6AEIMTAC#v=onepage&q=hare%20parasitic%20lifestyle&f=false">jealous and parasitic</a>, meaning they feel entitled to live off other people, using threat and coercion to get support. </p>
<p>So, while female psychopaths are not all like Glenn Close’s character in Fatal Attraction, they certainly exist and can be as violent, cunning and calculated as their male counterparts. But they more often express their psychopathy in more covert and manipulative ways, meaning their true natures are rarely identified.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84200/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Xanthe Mallett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While research indicates there are likely to be fewer female psychopaths than male, this may be because their traits are less visible than their male counterparts.Xanthe Mallett, Forensic Criminologist, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/855972017-10-13T00:24:52Z2017-10-13T00:24:52ZWhat the Harvey Weinstein case tells us about sexual assault disclosure<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/190068/original/file-20171012-31446-84jypg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The power disparity between Harvey Weinstein and his alleged victims plays into a range of myths and stereotypes about women.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Mario Anzuoni</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Explosive reports from <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/05/us/harvey-weinstein-harassment-allegations.html">The New York Times</a> and <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/from-aggressive-overtures-to-sexual-assault-harvey-weinsteins-accusers-tell-their-stories">The New Yorker</a> in recent days have revealed decades of alleged sexual harassment and assault perpetrated by high-profile Hollywood movie executive Harvey Weinstein. In the wake of these reports, a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/oct/11/the-allegations-against-harvey-weinstein-what-we-know-so-far">flood of disclosures</a> from celebrities, including Angelina Jolie and Gwyneth Paltrow, has emerged.</p>
<p>The Weinstein case follows an emerging pattern of powerful men being outed for their sexually violent behaviour. In such cases, men have been able to abuse with relative impunity, despite many in the entertainment industry appearing to know or have suspicion of their behaviour.</p>
<p>These instances raise several pertinent questions about sexual violence and harassment. They include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>why it’s so difficult for victim-survivors to come forward</p></li>
<li><p>why they aren’t believed when they do</p></li>
<li><p>why we tend to see a flood of reporting once the case is broken</p></li>
<li><p>how men such as Weinstein are able to offend with impunity for so long</p></li>
<li><p>and most importantly, what we can do to prevent such cases from reoccurring.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>‘Why didn’t you say anything?’</h2>
<p>Victim-survivors face a <a href="http://www.police.vic.gov.au/content.asp?Document_ID=43367">wide range of barriers</a> to disclosing their experiences, regardless of the context in which the assault occurred. <a href="http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/previous%20series/publications-archive/2000s/no%20longer%20silent.html">Commonly identified barriers</a> include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>fear of not being believed</p></li>
<li><p>fear their experience will be dismissed or trivialised</p></li>
<li><p>belief the incident wasn’t “serious” enough to tell anyone about</p></li>
<li><p>fear of retaliation from the perpetrator</p></li>
<li><p>believing there was nothing that could be done about it</p></li>
<li><p>wanting to move on from or forget the incident</p></li>
<li><p>confusion about what happened</p></li>
<li><p>shock</p></li>
<li><p>self-blame.</p></li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21061869">Many barriers</a> are heavily informed by misconceptions and stereotypes about sexual violence. The narrow framing of “real” rape as involving extreme violence or physical force and penetrative sex, or that the perpetrator is a stranger, can prevent victim-survivors from speaking out or even identifying and labelling their experience as sexual violence in the first place.</p>
<p>Although victim-survivors face substantial barriers to disclosure, most <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15299732.2012.642738">eventually tell somebody</a> about their experience. How that person reacts can be vital in informing <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0886260512471085">what happens next</a>. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.apa.org/pubs/books/4318073.aspx">Positive responses</a>, such as an expression of belief and validation, can aid in recovery and encourage further disclosure and reporting to authorities. <a href="http://www.apa.org/pubs/books/4318073.aspx">Negative responses</a>, such as blaming the victim or disbelief, can shut down any further discussion or disclosure.</p>
<h2>Navigating power and disclosure</h2>
<p>All forms of sexual violence feature an imbalance of power. This is heightened in Weinstein’s case. As a high-ranking Hollywood producer, he was often <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/from-aggressive-overtures-to-sexual-assault-harvey-weinsteins-accusers-tell-their-stories">in direct control</a> of the careers of his victims, many of whom were young women. </p>
<p>It is reasonable to assume that many did not disclose for fear of losing their careers, or otherwise facing the wrath of a well-connected, wealthy and powerful man. Weinstein’s position enabled him to reportedly <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/oct/12/rose-mcgowan-twitter-suspended-ben-affleck-harvey-weinstein">buy the silence</a> of several victims.</p>
<p>However, this is not to say these women did or said nothing in response to Weinstein’s actions. It appears his behaviour was an <a href="http://www.vulture.com/2017/10/kate-winslet-judi-dench-condemn-harvey-weinstein-harassment.html">open secret</a> among women in Hollywood, who warned each other about him.</p>
<p>Rather than not disclosing, it would seem that Weinstein’s victims were <em>selective</em> about who they told. Their disclosure practices sought to protect other women, rather than openly exposing their perpetrator.</p>
<p>The power disparity between Weinstein and his victims plays into a range of <a href="https://aifs.gov.au/publications/victimsurvivor-focused-justice-responses-and-reforms-cri/3-literature-review">myths and stereotypes</a> about women. Namely, there is a myth that women routinely lie about sexual assault as a form of revenge or – in the case of wealthy perpetrators – as a means of “gold-digging”, attention-seeking, or advancing their own status.</p>
<p>These myths are not borne out in the substantial research evidence on sexual violence. False reporting <a href="http://www.police.vic.gov.au/content.asp?Document_ID=43367">is rare</a>. Victim-survivors are often blamed for their own experiences, routinely dismissed or disbelieved, and the criminal justice system is commonly encountered as a <a href="https://aifs.gov.au/publications/victimsurvivor-focused-justice-responses-and-reforms-cri">site of retraumatisation</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading: <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-nauru-files-why-dont-we-believe-victims-of-sexual-abuse-63946">The Nauru files: why don’t we believe victims of sexual abuse?</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>It is difficult to conceive what benefit victim-survivors may garner from “false” disclosure in such circumstances. And perpetrators in a position of such cultural and economic power can overtly exploit this to facilitate and enable their offending with relative impunity.</p>
<p><a href="https://aifs.gov.au/publications/insights-sexual-assault-perpetration/chapter-3-victimsurvivor-narratives">Research</a> has illustrated how perpetrators draw on their position to silence victims, often by reinforcing the notion that no-one will believe them if they do disclose, or by threatening to destroy their reputation or livelihood. </p>
<p>Under these circumstances, it is unsurprising that many of Weinstein’s victims did not disclose widely earlier. It is equally unsurprising that the initial media reports have sparked a flood of disclosures from women who Weinstein targeted. </p>
<p>In taking women’s experiences seriously, this reporting – and the subsequent public outcry – has opened up a space for other women to disclose. It signifies to these women that they will be believed and taken seriously, with the weight of collective disclosure making it more difficult for their experiences to be dismissed or downplayed. </p>
<h2>Dismantling cultures of sexual violence</h2>
<p>Given that Weinstein’s actions were an open secret for so long, this also raises questions of how he was able to continue offending with impunity.</p>
<p>Weinstein’s position of power played a key role here, and ensured that many of his victims were effectively silenced. However, it is also apparent that <a href="http://www.elle.com/culture/a12823778/harvey-weinstein-and-the-crisis-of-complicity/">others within the industry</a> condoned or at least tolerated his behaviour. It is vital that we imbue bystanders with the <a href="https://theconversation.com/bystanders-often-dont-intervene-in-sexual-harassment-but-should-they-72794">confidence and skills to intervene</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading: <a href="https://theconversation.com/bystanders-often-dont-intervene-in-sexual-harassment-but-should-they-72794">Bystanders often don’t intervene in sexual harassment – but should they?</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Weinstein’s actions were further enabled by a cultural context that normalised abusive behaviour through <a href="http://www.elle.com/culture/a12823778/harvey-weinstein-and-the-crisis-of-complicity/">references to the “casting couch”</a> and stereotypes of the lecherous industry figure who “takes advantage” of young actresses as a matter of course. </p>
<p>Such attitudes normalise and rationalise the occurrence of sexual harassment and assault, reframing it as acceptable. This can prevent potential bystanders from stepping in, and obscures the problematic nature of such behaviour. It is vital that we work to disrupt and challenge cultures that normalise sexual violence. </p>
<p>Finally, we must ensure women are able to disclose their experiences without fear of disbelief, blame or dismissal. Such systematic and widespread abuse might be avoided if only we were willing to believe women, and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/oct/12/harvey-weinstein-alleged-assault-sophie-dix-english-actor-ruined-career">listen when they do disclose</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85597/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bianca Fileborn does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Men like Harvey Weinstein have been able to abuse with relative impunity, despite many in the entertainment industry appearing to know or have suspicion of their behaviour.Bianca Fileborn, Lecturer in Criminology, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/641092016-08-23T03:44:54Z2016-08-23T03:44:54ZThe victims’ verdict: what happens when they try to report online fraud<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134925/original/image-20160822-18702-1iunjpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Authorities need to do more when people try to report they're a victim of online fraud.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/SFIO CRACHO</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Reporting a crime should not be as traumatic as the experience of the crime itself. But unfortunately this is the sad reality for many victims of online fraud. </p>
<p>Australians reported more than A$229 million lost to fraud according to a <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/publications/targeting-scams-report-on-scam-activity/targeting-scams-report-of-the-accc-on-scam-activity-2015">report</a> published last year by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC).</p>
<p>But behind every statistic is a person, and there are millions of victims globally who experience a wide range of online fraud. </p>
<p>Romance fraud and investment fraud remain the two highest categories of victimisation in <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/publications/targeting-scams-report-on-scam-activity/targeting-scams-report-of-the-accc-on-scam-activity-2015">Australia</a>, with offenders using the guise of genuine relationships or the offer of investment opportunities to coerce people to send their money. </p>
<p>It is well established that online fraud has a <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/72186/1/tandi474.pdf">very low reporting rate</a>. Based on the results of research that we have <a href="http://www.crg.aic.gov.au/reports/201617.html#1314-29">published this month</a>, it is not difficult to see why.</p>
<p>It was the first Australian study to examine the reporting experiences and support needs of online fraud victims.</p>
<p>We spoke to 80 online fraud victims, aged from 30 to 77, from across Australia who had reported losses from A$10,000 to A$500,000 to <a href="https://www.scamwatch.gov.au/report-a-scam">Scamwatch</a>, part of the ACCC set up to help provide information and help on scams. The findings from this research shine a much needed light on current responses to and understandings of, online fraud. </p>
<h2>Difficulty in lodging a complaint</h2>
<p>Many victims we interviewed spoke of the frustration and anger they felt in trying to report their fraud to authorities.</p>
<p>Fraud is unique in that complaints can be lodged with a large number of agencies including police, consumer protection, banks and other financial institutions. </p>
<p>In reality, this meant that many victims were continually passed among agencies, with each one refusing to accept a report. As the interviews we conducted show:</p>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Interview 21:</strong> There was no one. It did not matter what section of the police that I called, whether it was local or federal, state whatever there was no one there they just kept passing it onto someone else.</p>
<p><strong>Interview 48:</strong> I mean it was made pretty clear to me that there weren’t many places that were actually interested in your story anyway.</p>
<p><strong>Interview 59:</strong> So, that’s a pretty serious thing where you go along and say, ‘I’m 20 grand out of pocket and it’s fraud, and there’s criminal activity involved,’ and you go to the police and they say, ‘We won’t even accept your report.’</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Victims who were required to tell their story over and over again to no avail felt immense hurt and anger. When asked why victims had reported to Scamwatch, the response was simple. </p>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Interview 50:</strong> And so I registered a report and you could only do that online, on Scamwatch. So that’s only an online thing which is a very impersonal thing. And that’s really a report rather than a ‘hey would somebody help me’. So I did that.</p>
<p><strong>Interview 52:</strong> It [Scamwatch] was the last person I reported it to. I wasn’t expecting anything anymore.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>It appears the majority of victims reported to the Scamwatch website as it was an online tool that did not require any personal intervention, therefore, victims could not be turned away. </p>
<p>But a report to Scamwatch does not initiate any type of investigation or receive a type of response desired by those reporting in the first place. </p>
<h2>Victim blaming</h2>
<p>There is a strong <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/83702/">victim blaming attitude</a> against online fraud victims and a <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/61011/">negative stereotype</a> that portrays victims as greedy, gullible and to blame for their victimisation. Sadly, this was readily apparent in our research findings. </p>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Interview 27:</strong> I said it was an investment fraud and she [the police officer] said she had much more important things than that to deal with. [She said] ‘We have people robbed at knife point’. I said [I had been defrauded of] A$20,000. She said, ‘but you gave it away sir’, and I said, ‘I didn’t give it away, it was an investment’. She said it was voluntary and I gave it away.</p>
<p><strong>Interview 43:</strong> I expect [the police] to be sympathetic, but these two police guys, they just laugh, I was humiliated […] I submitted a police report, and I made a statement and they tell me ‘we cannot do anything about this with you and your lover boy in [overseas country], you just write to Scamwatch’.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These are two examples in which victims were directly blamed for their situation. The reaction of authorities to these victims exacerbated the level of trauma and harm they were already experiencing.</p>
<p>These two instances are by no means isolated events, with the vast majority of our 80 participants reporting similar experiences. </p>
<h2>More than money</h2>
<p>The impact of online fraud can be devastating. Far from simple monetary losses, victims experience a deterioration of physical health and well-being, depression, relationship breakdown, unemployment, homelessness and in extreme cases can take their own lives. </p>
<p>Despite the severity of harm suffered, there are limited support services globally to assist in recovery. This was painfully demonstrated in our current research.</p>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Interview 49:</strong> I [was] sort of really despairing and about to commit suicide […] I was desperate, I mean I was considering suicide. I was that distraught with what I’d actually done.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This example is not a unique event, with a small number of victims in our study admitting to suicidal thoughts. </p>
<p>Their ability to seek support, either informally or formally, was restricted, based on the shame and embarrassment of being a victim, anxiety about how others would react and a lack of knowledge about where they might seek help. </p>
<h2>Moving forward</h2>
<p>These findings have highlighted the traumatic and overwhelmingly negative experiences that victims face when attempting to report online fraud. They demonstrate a clear need for change to improve the current response.</p>
<p>Since our victim interviews, the Australian Cybercrime Online Reporting Network (<a href="https://www.acorn.gov.au/">ACORN</a>) has been established. This is now the central reporting mechanism for all cybercrime in Australia, which includes online fraud.</p>
<p>While this is a positive step forward, it is unlikely to resolve the many issues that we identified in our research. </p>
<p>Victims clearly articulate a need to be acknowledged and to be heard. This doesn’t require any additional resources on the part of any agency. Rather it requires a shift in thinking about online fraud victimisation – one that recognises the skill of offenders in manipulating and exploiting victims and doesn’t attribute blame to victims themselves. </p>
<p>There is also a need to establish support services to assist victims with recovery. Too often, victims suffer in silence and isolation.</p>
<p>Online fraud is a complex issue and one that is unlikely to recede in coming years. Our research suggests there is a long way to go to improving current responses to this type of victim.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The authors wish to acknowledge <a href="http://www.aic.gov.au/about_aic/research_programs/staff/smith_russell.html">Dr Russell G Smith</a>, from the Australian Institute of Criminology, who contributed to the original <a href="http://www.crg.aic.gov.au/reports/201617.html#1314-29">research project</a> on which this article is based.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64109/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cassandra Cross received funding from the Criminology Research Grant Scheme to complete this research project.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kelly Richards received funding from the Criminology Research Grant Scheme to undertake this project. </span></em></p>Victims of online fraud say they’re passed from one authority to another when they try to report it, and they’re still made to feel they are to blame for being caught out by a scam.Cassandra Cross, Senior Lecturer in Criminology, Queensland University of TechnologyKelly Richards, Senior lecturer, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/596702016-05-19T05:36:10Z2016-05-19T05:36:10ZWhy we need to do more for the victims of online fraud and scams<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/123139/original/image-20160519-22310-1ld1xrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=939%2C0%2C3285%2C1776&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Online fraud can lead to desperate measures for the victims so we need to do more to help them.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Photographee.eu</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As we come to the end of <a href="https://www.scamwatch.gov.au/news/wise-up-to-scams-national-consumer-fraud-week-2016">National Consumer Fraud Awareness Week</a>, I can’t help but reflect on my own work researching this difficult and often fraught area.</p>
<p>Imagine if you had a close friend or relative who went online looking for a relationship. They find someone special, spend weeks, months and even years dating, communicating via email, Skype, telephone and text.</p>
<p>At some stage, they are asked for a small amount of money for a medical emergency, a family drama or one of many other possible scenarios. Without hesitation, they comply. </p>
<p>Before long, they have lost everything, including their savings or their superannuation, and are now left with a second mortgage on the family home.</p>
<p>Or imagine if your partner was approached with an investment opportunity. They do their research, do “due diligence”, and it seems to check out. There are glossy brochures, a website of testimonials, and an array of staff to whom they speak on a regular basis. </p>
<p>So they invest thousands of dollars and are able to log in to an account to track the progress of their investment. But one day the website disappears – along with all of your combined savings.</p>
<h2>A common story</h2>
<p>These stories are not unique and they are, by no means, uncommon. </p>
<p>For the past eight years, I have been researching online fraud. Much of my work has been done sitting at kitchen tables across Australia, as victims share intimate details of their fraud and the impact it has had on their lives with me. </p>
<p>For many, it was the first time they were able to talk about what had happened. The shame and stigma associated with fraud victimisation means that most suffer in silence. </p>
<p>Despite what you may think, these are not foolish people. They are intelligent and educated. And they are successful. </p>
<p>They simply made one decision that saw everything unravel, and this one decision became the defining moment of their life.</p>
<p>With fraud, there are obvious financial losses. But it also affects their physical health and their psychological well-being, with all experiencing some degree of depression.</p>
<p>It can lead to relationship breakdown, unemployment and homelessness. In worst case scenarios, victims take their own lives.</p>
<p>It is hard to imagine that we currently have a justice system, where the barriers to reporting fraud outweigh the ability of victims to be heard and where fraud victims are often directly blamed for their situation. Where what has happened is trivialised, minimised or not even acknowledged, by law enforcement, other agencies, families and friends. </p>
<p>But this is the stark reality for most victims.</p>
<h2>Think of the victims</h2>
<p>The stories the victims tell me clearly highlight the inadequacies of the current system and should provide a much needed catalyst for change.</p>
<p>It is impossible not to be moved by their experiences as they detail the many hardships they have faced, both as a result of fraud, and as a result of the current system and societal responses to their victimisation.</p>
<p>I am often invited to share my research with Probus, Rotary and Neighbourhood Watch meetings. Without fail, I will have someone privately share their own personal story, a confession of their own victimisation experience. </p>
<p>It illustrates the importance of talking about fraud in a non-threatening and non-judgemental manner. It is about giving reassurance and legitimacy to those who have experienced this, to know that they are not alone.</p>
<p>In my most recent <a href="http://crg.aic.gov.au/applications/Current_Recent_Research.pdf">project</a>, a colleague and I interviewed 80 fraud victims across Australia, who had each lost A$10,000 or more.</p>
<p>Participants were genuinely shocked that there were another 79 people across Australia who had experienced a similar incident. I know the statistics and 80 victims doesn’t even begin to encompass all of those who are find themselves victims of fraud.</p>
<p>The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission released its <a href="http://www.accc.gov.au/publications/targeting-scams-report-on-scam-activity/targeting-scams-report-of-the-accc-on-scam-activity-2015">annual report</a> earlier this week, quoting losses of more than <a href="http://www.accc.gov.au/media-release/australians-lose-over-229-million-to-scams-in-2015">A$229 million</a> to fraud and scams in 2015 alone.</p>
<p>We know that fraud has one of the <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10611-008-9112-x">lowest reporting rates</a> across all crime categories, with less than one third ever reported. So this is likely the tip of a giant iceberg. </p>
<p>Despite the statistics, fraud remains hidden. Too often the dominant discourse around fraud is that of victim blaming. This excludes the role of the offender, who deceived the victim, and who manipulated and exploited them for financial gain.</p>
<h2>Time for change</h2>
<p>We need a shift in thinking to recognise fraud for the crime it is and as one that places culpability on the offenders who deserve it.</p>
<p>I am in a privileged position where victims have entrusted me with their stories. They have opened up to me to share the overwhelmingly painful and traumatic experiences of their victimisation. </p>
<p>Many have done this with the hope of assisting others and of improving the situation for other fraud victims. </p>
<p>I am also in a privileged position where I can share their stories. I have the power to advocate for change on their behalf, to give them a voice out of the silence.</p>
<p>Despite the heartache and trauma, I am optimistic for the future. I am continually reminded of the courage and bravery of fraud victims who speak to me, and who sometimes go public with their story. </p>
<p>It is the strength of these victims that motivates me to pursue this work. While I cannot prevent their victimisation, I can seek to influence the response to these victims and the level of support they are able to access.</p>
<p>There are pockets of work being done by some authorities that provide hope. <a href="http://www.scamnet.wa.gov.au/scamnet/Fight_Back-Project_Sunbird.htm">Project Sunbird</a> in Western Australia and a dedicated <a href="https://fraudandcybersafety.com.au/support_and_recovery/">fraud support group</a> run by the Queensland Police Service are worthy examples. But this is limited and there is much more that can be done to improve the situation of fraud victims. </p>
<p>It is my hope that my research will contribute to the change that needs to occur, for fraud victims to be acknowledged and receive a response that is commensurate with the harm they have experienced, rather than one that exacerbates the trauma they have already suffered.</p>
<p>Think back to your friend, relative or partner. If they were victims of fraud, how would you like them to be treated? What type of response to their victimisation would you want them to experience? </p>
<p>It is likely that you think they deserve better than what is currently on offer and my ongoing challenge is to improve that.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/59670/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cassandra Cross receives funding from the Criminology Research Grant Scheme. </span></em></p>Too often the impact of online fraud on people is trivialised, minimised or not even acknowledged by law enforcement agencies, families and friends. But we can do more to help them.Cassandra Cross, Senior Lecturer in Criminology, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/337702014-11-19T18:38:29Z2014-11-19T18:38:29ZUnreported crime stats show a fundamental problem can’t be fixed with ‘efficiency’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/64996/original/image-20141119-31623-1vww274.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Still shady after all these years.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brian A Jackson</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A report from Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary has revealed that police in England and Wales fail to record in excess of 800,000 crimes a year. That’s <a href="http://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmic/news/news-feed/victims-let-down-by-poor-crime-recording/">one in five offences</a>; over one-quarter of all crimes reported to the police.</p>
<p>As a police detective in the 1970s and 1980s, an important part of my role, indeed mission, was to “massage” crime figures, apparently in the interests of effectiveness and efficiency. And while major changes have been pushed through since that time, it seems the same old problem remains.</p>
<p>Back then, high detection and low reporting was an accepted part of the detective’s “craft”. Although the crime report book was available to the uniform department, CID officers strictly monitored what was, and was not recorded in it. Detectives were the guardians of the figures and those figures had to reflect success rather than failure, at all cost.</p>
<p>This occupational culture of manipulated success existed extensively throughout the police at the time. Individual police officers have also been attributed traits such as <a href="http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/28013/">suspicion, cynicism and machismo</a>. These influenced decisions about whether or not to record allegations of crime from “risky” individuals.</p>
<p>Of course this was not just a culture on the ground. It was an endemic culture which must have received the nod and the wink from the highest officers in the force and officials in the Home Office.</p>
<p>The late 1980s and early 1990s, however, heralded a neo-liberal culture change in policing. Effectiveness and efficiency became the buzzwords as the philosophy of <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9299.1991.tb00779.x/abstract">New Public Management</a> took hold. This approach is fundamentally about reducing local autonomy and discretion and handing greater power back to central government.</p>
<p>In the police service, it meant redistributing power away from the autonomous detective through business-like management and accountancy of his/her functions. </p>
<p>Thousands of staff have been shed along the way and <a href="http://college.pressofficeadmin.com/component/content/article/45-press-releases/746">citizen volunteers</a> have been increasingly brought in.</p>
<p>But when we hear the details of the report published this week, effectiveness and efficiency are far from the first words that spring to mind. Among the samples included in the report are 37 rape allegations not recorded as a crime. There were 3,842 reported crimes for which offenders were given a caution or a penalty notice, 500 of which should have resulted in a heavier penalty.</p>
<p>On top of that, 3,246 incidents had been recorded and then deemed to be “no crimes” even though in around 20% of cases a crime had indeed been committed. The incidents recorded as “no crimes” included 200 reports of rape and 250 of violent crime. More than 800 of the victims were not told of the decision to record their allegation as “no crime”.</p>
<p>This follows a report just last year from MPs that warned police were <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-25002927">fixing crime statistics</a> to meet targets.</p>
<p>And now, in the wake of this latest report, some officers and staff have said performance and other pressures are distorting their crime-recording decisions. A number of forces admitted this. Inspectors were told that pressure to hit crime-reduction targets had the effect of limiting the number of crimes recorded.</p>
<p>Chief Superintendent Irene Curtis, president of the Police Superintendents’ Association, said that recorded crime was a measure of demand on police resources rather than police performance. Chief Constable Jeff Farrar, lead for crime recording at the Association of Chief Police Officers, said: “Pressures from workload and target culture, use of professional judgement in the interests of victims, lack of understanding of recording rules or inadequate supervision can all lead to inaccurate crime recording”.</p>
<p>This will all sound familiar to police officers who served in an earlier cultural period. Indeed, in a statement which had inferences of the police institutional culture of that earlier time, Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary said the police should immediately institutionalise the presumption that the victim is to be believed.</p>
<p>It has been argued that because police work involves so many tasks, they can’t all be accomplished effectively. The police instead have to <a href="http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2392375?uid=3738032&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21105243109663">manipulate their appearance</a> to seem effective and efficient.</p>
<p>This report from HMIC appears to confirm the problem. Despite attempts to change the face of the police, they continue to manipulate their image as the guardians of the status quo in British society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/33770/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael McManus does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A report from Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary has revealed that police in England and Wales fail to record in excess of 800,000 crimes a year. That’s one in five offences; over one-quarter of…Michael McManus, Teaching Fellow in The School of Applied Social Sciences, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.