tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/water-pollution-4432/articlesWater pollution – The Conversation2024-02-16T04:57:13Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2230792024-02-16T04:57:13Z2024-02-16T04:57:13ZAustralians are washing microplastics down the drain and it’s ending up on our farms<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576094/original/file-20240215-30-6i3a89.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C34%2C5725%2C3794&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-young-woman-doing-laundry-home-1491577367">Pixel-Shot, Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australian wastewater treatment plants produce thousands of tonnes of treated sewage sludge every year. This nutrient-rich material is then dried to make “biosolids”, which are used to fertilise agricultural soil. </p>
<p>Unfortunately every kilogram of biosolids also contains thousands of tiny pieces of plastic. These pieces are so small they can only be seen under a microscope, so they’re called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/microplastics">microplastics</a>.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135423015117">our new research</a>, we sampled biosolids from three states and calculated the average contribution of microplastics per person: 3g in New South Wales and 4.5g in Queensland. But the average in South Australia was 11.5g – that’s about the same amount of plastic as a plastic bag.</p>
<p>Roughly 80% of this microplastic comes from washing clothes. We need to protect agricultural soil from contamination by making simple changes at home, mandating filters on washing machines and introducing more effective wastewater treatment. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/microplastics-are-common-in-homes-across-29-countries-new-research-shows-whos-most-at-risk-189051">Microplastics are common in homes across 29 countries. New research shows who's most at risk</a>
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<h2>Biosolids as fertiliser</h2>
<p>Most domestic wastewater comes from household kitchens, bathrooms and laundries. </p>
<p>Wastewater treatment separates most of the water and leaves sewage sludge behind. This mixture of water and organic material can then be sent to landfill for disposal or dried to form a material called “biosolids”.</p>
<p>In Australia, two-thirds of the <a href="https://www.biosolids.com.au/guidelines/australian-biosolids-statistics/">340,000 tonnes produced annually</a> are used on farms to improve soil quality and stimulate plant growth. This not only boosts agricultural productivity but also allows for more sustainable disposal of treated sewage sludge. The waste becomes a resource, a useful and economically viable fertiliser, rather than ending up in landfill.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-than-1-200-tonnes-of-microplastics-are-dumped-into-aussie-farmland-every-year-from-wastewater-sludge-137278">More than 1,200 tonnes of microplastics are dumped into Aussie farmland every year from wastewater sludge</a>
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<h2>Microplastics in Australian biosolids</h2>
<p>Wastewater treatment plants can capture anywhere from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2022.107831">60% to more than 90%</a> of the microplastics in sewage before the wastewater is discharged. But plastic is durable and does not degrade during treatment. So the microplastic particles removed from the wastewater are simply transferred to the sludge. </p>
<p>We assessed the abundance, characteristics and size ranges of microplastics in biosolids collected from 13 wastewater treatment plants across three states.</p>
<p>We found every kilogram of biosolid contains between 11,000 and 150,000 microplastic particles. </p>
<p>Most of the microplastics found were invisible to the naked eye, ranging from 20 to 200 micrometres in size. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Grid showing four separate microscopy images of microplastics in biosolid samples" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Various microplastic particles from biosolid samples can be as seen under the microscope.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shima Ziajahromi</span></span>
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<p>The most common type of microplastic was microfibres from fabric. We found more microplastic fibres during cold seasons. We suspect this corresponds to people washing more synthetic fleece clothing and blankets. </p>
<p>Microbeads are tiny balls of microplastic sometimes added to personal care products and detergents. We did not find any microbeads in samples from South Australia and New South Wales. These states were among the first to support a <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/waste/plastics-and-packaging/plastic-microbeads">voluntary industry phase-out of plastic microbeads</a>. </p>
<p>In contrast, we found a small amount of microbeads in samples from Queensland, which only <a href="https://statements.qld.gov.au/statements/98573">banned microbeads in September last year</a>. That was more than a year after samples were collected for this study.</p>
<p>We estimate Australians release between 0.7g and 21g of microplastics per person into wastewater every year. This wide range is based on our results, which varied from state to state: 0.7g to 5.9g in NSW, 1g to 7.2g in Queensland and 1.9g to 21g in SA. We don’t know why it varies so much between states.</p>
<p>This contributes to the amount of microplastics in biosolids. Our biosolid samples contained anywhere from 1kg to 17kg of microplastics per tonne. Remember this is being transported into our farmlands.</p>
<h2>What’s the problem?</h2>
<p>Microplastics are steadily accumulating in agricultural soils, where they will remain for hundreds of years. While natural weathering processes such as sunshine and rain will slowly break down microplastics into smaller and smaller particles, that only makes matters worse. Smaller particles cause more harmful effects to soil organisms.</p>
<p>Eating small pieces of plastic can cause internal abrasions and blockages in the digestive tract. In very small aquatic animals such as zooplankton, microplastics can reduce absorption of nutrients from food, <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.est.7b03574">decrease reproduction rates, and cause death</a>.</p>
<p>These tiny particles also contain a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7355763/">cocktail of toxic chemicals</a>, either added during manufacturing to improve the product or soaked up from the environment. This makes them <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389420319026?casa_token=4Ny10i4YQ_UAAAAA:71b3vKN1UUA7TaSKkWQ76Up0TiRR_MoE6enVmKLeynDLo_2alsz_5aWeNS_Eal5LchEt91Gedg">even more dangerous</a>.</p>
<p>Smaller microplastics (less than 100 micrometres in size) are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304389423005113">even more harmful for soil organisms</a>. </p>
<p>Microplastics in soil can be ingested by soil organisms such as earthworms and cause harmful effects on these vital organisms. Microplastic exposure has also been shown to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149338">adversely affect soil health and plant growth</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.biosolids.com.au/wp-content/uploads/Emerging-Contaminants-in-Biosolids-Research-report.pdf">Australian regulations</a> govern the amounts of heavy metals, nutrients, pathogens and some emerging contaminants allowed in biosolids, but there is no guideline for microplastics concentrations. We think that has to change. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Stockpiles of biosolids from sludge lagoons with a tractor in the background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Biosolids from sludge lagoons in South Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">SA Water</span></span>
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<h2>Here’s what we can do</h2>
<p>Our research shows biosolids are a significant source of microplastics in agricultural systems. More research is needed to better understand the risks. </p>
<p>We need to put effective control measures in place to minimise the accumulation of microplastic in productive agricultural soils. </p>
<p>The most effective way to do this is to reduce the level of microplastics in biosolids at the source. </p>
<p>We know most microplastics in biosolids come from washing clothes. While it may not be possible to eliminate the use of synthetic fabrics, there are some measures we can all take to reduce the amount of microplastic washing off our clothes into the wastewater stream. Properly installed <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.777865">filters in washing machines</a> have been shown to significantly reduce microplastic levels in wastewater. </p>
<p>Australia’s <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/national-plastics-plan-2021.pdf">National Plastics Plan</a> recommends the Australian government work with industry to “phase-in” microfibre filters on all washing machines by 2030. But why wait until 2030? </p>
<p>Several jurisdictions, including <a href="https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/loda/id/JORFTEXT000041553759">France</a>, <a href="https://www.ola.org/en/legislative-business/bills/parliament-42/session-1/bill-279">Ontario</a> and <a href="https://fastdemocracy.com/bill-search/ca/20212022/bills/CAB00022073/">California</a>, have already made microfibre filters on washing machines mandatory. It’s time Australia did the same. </p>
<p>In the meantime, there are simple things everyone can do at home. Wash clothes in cold water, avoid running the machine for light loads if you can wait to do a full load, and wash synthetic fabrics less frequently. These steps will also save energy and money. </p>
<p>It’s far better to stop microplastics entering the wastewater stream than <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2213343722007047?via%3Dihub">trying to remove them at the wastewater treatment plant</a>. Prevention is always better than a cure. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/humanitys-signature-study-finds-plastic-pollution-in-the-worlds-lakes-can-be-worse-than-in-oceans-209487">'Humanity's signature': study finds plastic pollution in the world's lakes can be worse than in oceans</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223079/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shima Ziajahromi receives funding from the Queensland Government through Advance Queensland Industry Research Project. This project was co-sponsored by Urban Utilities, Sydney Water, SA Water, Water Corporation (WA) and Eurofins Environment Testing Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frederic Leusch receives funding related to this research topic from the Queensland Government through an Advance Queensland Industry Research Project, Water Research Australia, and various Australian water utilities. This project was co-sponsored by Urban Utilities, Sydney Water, SA Water, Water Corporation (WA) and Eurofins Environment Testing Australia.</span></em></p>We sampled sewage sludge from 13 wastewater treatment plants across three states. We found every resident adds microplastics to farmland, in dried sewage sludge (biosolids) used as fertiliser.Shima Ziajahromi, Advance Queensland Research Fellow, Griffith UniversityFrederic Leusch, Professor of Environmental Science, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2151272024-02-13T13:20:14Z2024-02-13T13:20:14ZFlowers grown floating on polluted waterways can help clean up nutrient runoff and turn a profit<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573604/original/file-20240205-30-14awa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6173%2C4087&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The cut flowers could pay for themselves and even turn a profit.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Margi Rentis</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Flowers grown on inexpensive floating platforms can help clean polluted waterways, over 12 weeks extracting 52% more phosphorus and 36% more nitrogen than the natural nitrogen cycle removes from untreated water, according to our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envadv.2023.100405">new research</a>. In addition to filtering water, the cut flowers can generate income via the <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/chart-gallery/gallery/chart-detail/?chartId=106472">multibillion-dollar floral market</a>. </p>
<p>In our trials of various flowers, giant marigolds stood out as the most successful, producing long, marketable stems and large blooms. Their yield matched typical <a href="https://www.lsuagcenter.com/articles/page1662131594449">flower farm production</a>.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.epa.gov/nps/basic-information-about-nonpoint-source-nps-pollution">Water pollution</a> is caused in large part by runoff from farms, urban lawns and even septic tanks. When it rains, excess phosphorus, nitrogen and other chemicals wash into lakes and rivers.</p>
<p>These nutrients feed algae, leading to widespread and harmful algae blooms, which can severely lower oxygen in water, creating “<a href="https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2021/goal-14/">dead zones</a>” where aquatic life cannot survive. Nutrient runoff is a critical issue as urban areas expand, affecting the health of water ecosystems. </p>
<p>Water pollution is an escalating crisis in our area of Miami-Dade and Broward counties in Florida. The <a href="https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/b5d43852c8984a4c8db4d077ec04bd35">2020 Biscayne Bay fish kill</a>, the largest mass death of aquatic life on record for the region, serves as a stark reminder of this growing environmental issue.</p>
<h2>How we do our work</h2>
<p>We study <a href="https://case.fiu.edu/earth-environment/agroecology/">sustainable agriculture</a> and <a href="https://crestcache.fiu.edu/">water pollution</a> in South Florida.</p>
<p>Inspired by traditional floating farm practices, including the Aztecs’ <a href="https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20221009-the-return-of-aztec-floating-farms">chinampas in Mexico</a> and the <a href="https://www.pbs.org/video/the-secret-islands-of-the-everglades-lncj6r/">Miccosukees’ tree island settlements in Florida</a>, we tested the idea of growing cut flowers on floating rafts as a way to remove excess nutrients from waterways. Our hope was not only that the flowers would pay for themselves, but that they could provide jobs here in Miami, the center of the U.S. cut-flower trade.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An outdoor tank contains a large floating perforated mat. Each hole contains a young plant." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Chemical conditions in the test tanks were the same as in nearby polluted waterways.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jazmin Locke-Rodriguez</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>We floated 4-by-6-foot (1.2-by-1.8-meter) mats of inexpensive polyethylene foam called <a href="http://www.beemats.com/">Beemats</a> in 620-gallon (2,300-liter) outdoor test tanks that mirrored water conditions of nearby polluted waterways. Into the mats we transplanted flower seedlings, including zinnias, sunflowers and giant marigolds. The polluted tank water was rich in nutrients, eliminating the need for any fertilizer. As the seedlings matured into plants over 12 weeks, we tracked the tanks’ improving water quality. </p>
<p>Encouraged by the success of the marigolds in our tanks, we moved our trials to the nearby canals of Coral Gables and Little River. We anchored the floating platforms with 50-pound (22.7-kilograms) weights and also tied them to shore for extra stability. No alterations to the landscape were needed, making the process simple and doable.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Closeup photo of base of a marigold plant showing a tangle of visible roots." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Some plants grow roots in places – such as the stem – other than where their original roots began.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jazmin Locke-Rodriguez</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>The success of the giant marigolds might be linked to the extra roots that grow from their stems known as <a href="https://propg.ifas.ufl.edu/05-cuttings/01-terminology/01-cuttingterms-adventitiousroot.html">adventitious roots</a>. These roots likely help keep the plants stable on the floating platforms. Identifying additional plants with roots like these could help broaden plant choices. </p>
<p>Future raft designs may also need modifications to ensure better stability and growth for other cut-flower and crop species. </p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>Our promising findings show floating cut-flower farms could be a sustainable option for mitigating water pollution. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Nim52wi_4z4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">How floating cut-flower farms can clean polluted waterways.</span></figcaption>
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<p>One of us (Locke-Rodriguez) is expanding this research and working to scale up floating farms in South Florida as a demonstration of what could take place in the many locations facing similar issues worldwide.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215127/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jazmin Locke received funding from the USDA-NIFA-NNF and NSF-CREST as a PhD student to help fund this dissertation research at Florida International University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span><a href="mailto:jayachan@fiu.edu">jayachan@fiu.edu</a> receives funding from USDA-NIFA. </span></em></p>Phosphorus and nitrogen contribute to water pollution and cause harmful algal blooms. New research shows how mats of floating flower beds can take advantage of these nutrients while cleaning the water.Jazmin Locke-Rodriguez, Post Doctoral Associate in the Institute of Environment, Florida International UniversityKrishnaswamy Jayachandran, Professor of Agroecology, Florida International UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2207402024-02-07T13:26:16Z2024-02-07T13:26:16ZGhana: Kumasi city’s unplanned boom is destroying two rivers – sewage, heavy metals and chemical pollution detected<p>Ghana’s urban population has <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/opinion/2015/05/14/rising-through-cities-in-ghana-the-time-for-action-is-now-to-fully-benefit-from-the-gains-of-urbanization">more than tripled</a> in the past three decades, from 4 million to nearly 14 million people. Competition for land in cities has increased among various land uses. These trends have led to encroachment in ecologically sensitive areas such as wetlands.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kumasi">Kumasi</a>, Ghana’s second largest city, has a high level of encroachment and this has led to the pollution of water bodies. Kumasi’s population growth has been rapid because of its central and strategic location and its functions as a major commercial, traditional and administrative centre. In 2022, the <a href="https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/kumasi-population">population of Kumasi</a> was 3,630,326 with a growth rate of 4.02%. The city’s growth puts pressure on its natural assets.</p>
<p>As scholars of urban planning and chemistry, we conducted a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19463138.2022.2146121">study</a> in the <a href="https://www.luspa.gov.gh/media/plan/EIJR13206_Greater_Kumasi_01.pdf">greater Kumasi metropolis</a> to understand the extent of encroachment and pollution of two rivers, Subin and Wiwi. We wanted to understand how cities can be developed and functional without destroying natural resources. We also wanted to know more about the extent of water pollution, land-use dynamics and water resources regulations, and how they influence the quality of water resources. </p>
<p>We found that people were building homes in informal settlements along the rivers. Liquid and solid waste was being dumped into the rivers. People were using land on the river banks for agriculture and industrial activities, which had a negative effect on water quality. </p>
<p>We recommend that the city authorities monitor what is happening better and do more to prevent degradation of Kumasi’s water bodies.</p>
<h2>Effects of land use on the quality of water bodies</h2>
<p>We discovered that, in the greater Kumasi metropolis, more land alongside the rivers was being used for industrial, residential and commercial purposes than for green spaces. City authorities were ineffective in controlling development in these areas despite the fact that <a href="https://www.luspa.gov.gh/media/document/ZONING_GUIDELINES_final_DESIGN.pdf">Ghana’s zoning guidelines</a> say there should be a buffer of 100 feet (30 metres) along water bodies. </p>
<p>Land values in Kumasi are increasing due to rapid urban growth, but values are lower for wetlands. This difference has contributed to city residents building in wetlands. Also, the intense pressure of urbanisation on the available land has resulted in a <a href="https://www.modernghana.com/news/483045/wetlands-in-kumasi-metropolis-under-siege.html">high level of encroachment</a> in wetlands. The study revealed that 35.4% of the land uses within the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/River-Wiwi-and-some-other-streams-that-drain-the-Kumasi-Metropolis-Department-of_fig2_257939998">River Wiwi</a> buffers were residential development. </p>
<p>This research further confirmed that the Wiwi and Subin rivers had been heavily polluted with faecal coliforms over the years. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing-and-health-professions/fecal-coliform">Coliform counts</a> are an indicator of possible faecal contamination, and reflect hygiene standards. </p>
<p>The mean of the coliform counts surpassed the limits of 400 total coliforms/100ml and 10 faecal coliforms/100ml allowed by the <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9241546743">World Health Organization standard</a>. The two rivers are extremely polluted with faecal matter. </p>
<p>The research also confirmed that heavy metals in the water bodies were above the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535301/table/ch8.tab2/">WHO’s recommended standard</a> of 0.01mg/litre. For example, the average concentration of lead (Pb) recorded in the Wiwi and Subin rivers was 0.018–0.031 mg/l and 0.035–0.055, respectively. Exposure to lead is <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/lead-poisoning-and-health">dangerous</a> to health. </p>
<p>As a result of limited investment in sewage plants, most of the city’s untreated waste water is discharged into the surface water bodies. This has implications for the quality and sustainability of these water bodies. </p>
<p>The study also showed that some city residents dump their <a href="https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/Resolving-dying-water-bodies-Dealing-with-waste-pollutants-through-lucrative-means-569358">waste near the city’s wetlands</a>. During heavy rains, the refuse runs off into the water, affecting water quality and flow. </p>
<p>The inability of city authorities to enforce land-use regulations and legislation has allowed people to carry out agricultural activities close to the rivers. The use of agrochemicals threatens aquatic habitats. Chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers are likely to seep or be washed into the rivers. The use of polluted water from the rivers for irrigation also poses a threat to human health. </p>
<p>The industrial activities along the water bodies include washing bays, auto-mechanical activities, welding and wood processing. These pose a threat of chemical pollution due to likely seepage of petroleum products into the water.</p>
<h2>Time for Kumasi to wake up</h2>
<p>The development of sustainable cities relies on the ability of city authorities to plan for social, environmental and economic growth. Urban growth can coexist with natural resources if human activities located near water bodies don’t threaten their quality and continued existence. </p>
<p>Our study shows that Kumasi has developed with little regard for its natural assets. This is a threat to the city’s sustainability. City authorities ought to put in place measures to clean the water bodies and convert buffer areas into parks and green spaces. Environmentally friendly urban agriculture can also be promoted along the water bodies. </p>
<p>Activities such as disposal of liquid and solid waste must be stopped. <a href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/explainers/what-is-the-polluter-pays-principle/#:%7E:text=The%20%27polluter%20pays%27%20principle%20is,human%20health%20or%20the%20environment">The “polluter must pay” principle</a> must be applied to people who contravene environmental regulations. </p>
<p>Urban centres in Ghana need a water resource management policy. Regulatory institutions such as the Physical Planning Department and the <a href="https://www.epa.gov.gh/epa/">Environmental Protection Agency</a> should be restructured and equipped to respond to emerging complex environmental problems in cities. There should be continuous environmental monitoring and regulations must be strictly enforced. The <a href="https://westindiacommittee.org/historyheritageculture/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Contents-and-Introduction.pdf">River Thames Policing model</a> in the UK can be adopted to ensure the continuous monitoring of the water bodies. To monitor and enforce the zoning regulations, city authorities and policy-makers must invest in technologies such as drones. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.luspa.gov.gh/media/document/ZONING_GUIDELINES_final_DESIGN.pdf">Zoning Guideline and Planning Standards</a> provide standard setback average distances for a buffer zone of 50–100 feet from the water bodies. We recommend that the buffer should rather be 100 feet (30 metres) away from the wetland. The wetlands are an important <a href="https://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/library/services_00_e.pdf">ecosystem service</a> that needs to be protected. Ecologically sensitive areas that are 100 feet away from wetlands should be compulsorily acquired as natural assets for the public interest.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220740/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The inability of city authorities to enforce land-use regulations has allowed people to carry out ecologically unfriendly activities along the water bodies.Stephen Appiah Takyi, Senior Lecturer, Department of Planning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST)Owusu Amponsah, Senior Lecturer, Department of Planning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2170722024-01-12T13:28:09Z2024-01-12T13:28:09ZLaundry is a top source of microplastic pollution – here’s how to clean your clothes more sustainably<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568922/original/file-20240111-28-mex9ej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C5028%2C3334&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Laundry washwater is a major source of microplastic fibers that can end up in water and soil.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/view-inside-the-washing-machine-while-washing-royalty-free-image/862037340">Venca-Stastny/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Microplastics are turning up everywhere, from <a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/plastics-remote-places-microplastics-earth-mount-everest">remote mountain tops</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.180667">deep ocean trenches</a>. They also are in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani13040661">many animals</a>, <a href="https://www.undp.org/kosovo/blog/microplastics-human-health-how-much-do-they-harm-us">including humans</a>. </p>
<p>The most common microplastics in the environment are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/microfiber">microfibers</a> – plastic fragments shaped like tiny threads or filaments. Microfibers come from many sources, including cigarette butts, fishing nets and ropes, but the biggest source is synthetic fabrics, which constantly shed them.</p>
<p>Textiles shed microfibers while they are manufactured, worn and disposed of, but <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5173">especially when they are washed</a>. A single wash load can release <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158511">several million microfibers</a>. Many factors affect how many fibers are released, including fabric type, mechanical action, detergents, temperature and the duration of the wash cycle. </p>
<p><a href="https://sites.rutgers.edu/judith-weis/research-career/">My research</a> focuses on coastal ecology and water pollution, including work in New York and New Jersey marshes and estuaries that are heavily affected by human activities. Here are some things to know about reducing microplastic pollution from your washing machine.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568928/original/file-20240111-17-j58o84.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tangle of red fibers under a microscope." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568928/original/file-20240111-17-j58o84.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568928/original/file-20240111-17-j58o84.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568928/original/file-20240111-17-j58o84.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568928/original/file-20240111-17-j58o84.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568928/original/file-20240111-17-j58o84.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=738&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568928/original/file-20240111-17-j58o84.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=738&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568928/original/file-20240111-17-j58o84.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=738&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Red microfibers collected from coastal waters in a towed sample off Newport, Ore.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/science-blog/mysterious-microfibers">NOAA Fisheries</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>From fabric to water and soil</h2>
<p>Once garments release microfibers in washing machines, the fibers enter the wastewater stream, which generally goes to a wastewater treatment plant. Advanced treatment plants <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100264">can remove up to 99% of microfibers</a> from water. But since a single laundry load can produce millions of fibers, treated water discharged from the plant still contains a huge number of them.</p>
<p>Microfibers that are removed during treatment end up in <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/what-is-sewage-sludge-and-what-can-be-done-with-it">sewage sludge</a> – a mix of solid materials that is processed to remove pathogens. In many cases, treated sewage sludge is applied to soil as a fertilizer. This allows microfibers to enter air and soil, and to be transferred to soil organisms and up the terrestrial food web or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109677">taken up by crops</a>. </p>
<p>Microplastics that wash into rivers, lakes and bays can have many harmful effects. They may be consumed by fish and other aquatic animals, affecting their <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.13503">biochemistry, physiology, reproduction, development or behavior</a>. These microplastics contain chemical additives, including substances like <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/Phthalates_FactSheet.html">phthalates</a> and <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/BisphenolA_FactSheet.html">bisphenol A</a> that can leach out and may have health effects in humans and animals, including <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/supported/exposure/endocrine">effects on the endocrine system</a>.</p>
<p>Textile microfibers also contain additional chemicals that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2023/jul/02/fashion-chemicals-pfas-bpa-toxic">have been shown to be toxic</a>, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biori.2019.09.001">fabric dyes</a>, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxics10070361">anti-wrinkle agents</a> and <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/flame_retardants">flame retardants</a>. In addition, contaminants that are present in the water, such as metals and pesticides, can stick to microplastic particles, turning them into a veritable cocktail of contaminants that may be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/srep03263">transferred into animals that eat them</a> </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/83NL-8hZcFE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Textiles are a major source of microfiber pollution, which now is widely distributed throughout the world’s oceans.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Washing more sustainably</h2>
<p>Not all fabrics shed microfibers at the same rate. A loosely woven fabric that feels fluffy or fuzzy, such as fleece, sheds more than a tightly woven one. While garments made of natural fibers, such as cotton and wool, would appear to be a solution, unfortunately they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250346">also shed microfibers</a> that can pick up pollutants in the environment.</p>
<p>Some textile scientists and manufacturers are developing <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Polluting-Textiles-The-Problem-with-Microfibres/Weis-De-Falco-Cocca/p/book/9780367760755">fabrics that shed less than existing ones</a>, thanks to features such as longer fibers and coatings to reduce shedding. Meanwhile, here are some ways to reduce microfiber shedding from your laundry:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Do laundry less often. Washing full loads instead of partial loads reduces release of microfibers because garments are <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/laundry_microplastics.htm">exposed to less friction</a> during the wash cycle.</p></li>
<li><p>Use cold water, which <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233332">releases fewer microfibers</a> than hot water.</p></li>
<li><p>Use less detergent, which increases microfiber release.</p></li>
<li><p>Use a front-loading washing machine, whose tumbling action <a href="https://www.neefusa.org/story/water/what-you-should-know-about-microfiber-pollution">produces less microfiber release</a>. </p></li>
<li><p>Dry laundry <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.09.025">on a clothesline</a>. Running clothes in dryers releases additional microfibers into the air from the dryer vent.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Several types of products collect microfibers in the washer before they are released with wastewater. Some are laundry bags made of woven monofilament, a single-polyamide filament that does not disintegrate into fibers. Laundry is washed while enclosed in the bag, which traps microfibers that the garments release. A study of one such product, <a href="https://guppyfriend.us/">Guppyfriend</a>, found that it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158412">collected about one-third of released microfibers</a>. </p>
<p>Another device, the <a href="https://coraball.com/">Cora Ball</a>, is a plastic ball with spines topped with soft plastic discs that capture microfibers. It <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.12.012">reduces microfibers by about 25% to 30%</a>, but may not be suitable for loose knits because it can snag on threads and damage clothing. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568965/original/file-20240111-19-i3c3vg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A white box with a dial sits on top of a washing machine." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568965/original/file-20240111-19-i3c3vg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568965/original/file-20240111-19-i3c3vg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568965/original/file-20240111-19-i3c3vg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568965/original/file-20240111-19-i3c3vg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568965/original/file-20240111-19-i3c3vg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568965/original/file-20240111-19-i3c3vg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568965/original/file-20240111-19-i3c3vg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">External filters, like this Samsung version, can be attached to washing machines to remove most microfibers from wastewater.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://news.samsung.com/us/press-resources/media-library/?searchTerm=microfiber">Samsung U.S.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Filter your washwater</h2>
<p>Several brands of <a href="https://www.triplepundit.com/story/2023/washing-machine-microplastic-filter/782986">external filters</a> <a href="https://celsious.com/products/planetcare-microfiber-filter">are available</a> that can be <a href="https://www.trendwatching.com/innovation-of-the-day/samsungs-laundry-filter-works-with-any-brands-washers-and-captures-98-percent-of-microfibers">retrofitted onto existing washing machines</a>. External filters can <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym15143023">remove up to 90% of microfibers from rinse water</a>. Their average cost is about US$150. Owners need to clean the filters periodically and dispose of the collected microfibers with other solid waste, not down the drain, which would put them back into the wastewater stream.</p>
<p>In a 2021 study, researchers installed washing machine filters in 97 homes in a town in Ontario, Canada, which represented about 10% of the households in the community. They found that this <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.777865">significantly reduced microfibers in treated water</a> from the local treatment plant.</p>
<p>Some companies are now manufacturing washers with <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s9ZmO1fN8t8">built-in microfiber filters</a>. France has <a href="https://www.textiletechnology.net/fibers/trendreports/eu-whitepaper-challenges-commission-to-tackle-microplastic-pollution-33929">enacted a requirement</a> for all new washing machines to be equipped with filters by 2025, and Australia has announced that <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/8185735/washing-machine-filters-a-no-brainer-to-cut-pollution/">filters will be required</a> in commercial and residential washers by 2030. </p>
<p>In the U.S., a similar requirement was passed by the California legislature in 2023, but Gov. Gavin Newsom <a href="https://www.ehn.org/microplastic-filter-for-washing-machine-2666047363.html">vetoed the bill</a>, saying he was concerned about the cost to consumers. An economic study commissioned by Ocean Conservancy found that filters would increase the price of washing machines by <a href="https://tnc.app.box.com/s/jnf42lcjxjc1h5y168csa8dm31knf9y8">only $14 to $20 per machine</a>. Several states are <a href="https://dealerscope.com/2023/10/microplastics-may-lead-to-big-changes/">considering regulations that would require filters in washers</a>.</p>
<p>In my view, requiring manufacturers to add filters that can trap microfibers to washing machines is a reasonable and affordable step that could rapidly reduce the enormous quantities of microfibers in wastewater. The eventual solution will be reengineered textiles, which won’t shed, but it will take some time to develop them and move them into clothing supply chains. In the meantime, filters are the most effective way to tackle the problem.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217072/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Judith Weis is affiliated with. Beyond Plastics, Ocean Conservancy</span></em></p>Your washing machine is polluting the ocean.Judith Weis, Professor Emerita of Biological Sciences, Rutgers University - NewarkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2146882023-12-19T18:13:36Z2023-12-19T18:13:36ZShipwrecks teem with underwater life, from microbes to sharks<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555600/original/file-20231024-25-xo8h4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=30%2C15%2C5061%2C3534&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A school of grunts on a sunken World War II German submarine in the Atlantic Ocean off North Carolina.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/diver-and-schooling-tomtates-on-wwii-u-352-german-royalty-free-image/153943111">Karen Doody/Stocktrek Images via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Humans have sailed the world’s oceans for thousands of years, but they haven’t all reached port. Researchers estimate that there are <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000152883">some three million shipwrecks</a> worldwide, resting in shallow rivers and bays, coastal waters and the deep ocean. Many sank during catastrophes – some during storms or after running aground, others in battle or collisions with other vessels.</p>
<p>Shipwrecks like <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Titanic">the RMS Titanic</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lusitania-British-ship">RMS Lusitania</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/monitor-ship-type#ref51448">USS Monitor</a> conjure tales of human courage and sacrifice, sunken treasure and unsolved mysteries. But there’s another angle to their stories that doesn’t feature humans. </p>
<p>I have <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=wZ-kv2AAAAAJ&hl=en">studied the biology of shipwrecks</a> in the United States and internationally for 14 years. From this work, I have learned that shipwrecks are not only cultural icons but can also be biological treasures that create habitat for diverse communities of underwater life. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/FTYyzAxt3JI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The USS Monitor, which sank off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, in a storm on Dec. 31, 1862, is now a center for sea life.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Recently, I led an international team of biologists and archaeologists in disentangling the mysteries of how this transformation happens. Drawing on scientific advances from our team and international colleagues, our <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/biosci/biad084">new study</a> describes how wrecked vessels can have second lives as seabed habitats.</p>
<h2>A new home for underwater life</h2>
<p>Ships are typically made of metal or wood. When a vessel sinks, it adds foreign, artificial structure to the seafloor. </p>
<p>For example, the World War II tanker <a href="https://monitor.noaa.gov/shipwrecks/clark.html">E.M. Clark</a> sank on a relatively flat, sandy seabed in 1942 when it was torpedoed by a German submarine. To this day, the intact metal wreck looms over the North Carolina seafloor like an underwater skyscraper, creating an island oasis in the sand. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Bx_uzNvNU1s?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In this video narrated by NOAA research scientist Avery Paxton, sand tiger sharks hover above the wreck of the E.M. Clark off North Carolina, with vermilion snapper schooling nearby. Jacks and an invasive lionfish also appear.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The creatures that reside on and around sunken ships are so diverse and abundant that scientists often colloquially call these sites “<a href="https://3d-shipwreck-data-viewer-noaa.hub.arcgis.com/">living shipwrecks</a>.” Marine life ranging from microscopic critters to some of the largest animals in the sea use shipwrecks as homes. Brilliantly colored corals and sponges blanket the wrecks’ surfaces. Silvery schools of baitfish dart and shimmer around the structures, chased by sleek, fast-moving predators. Sharks sometimes cruise around wrecks, likely resting or looking for prey. </p>
<h2>The origin of a second life</h2>
<p>A ship’s transformation from an in-service vessel into a thriving metropolis for marine life can seem like a fairy tale. It has a once-upon-a-time origin story – the wrecking event – and a sequence of life arriving on the sunken structure and beginning to blossom.</p>
<p>Tiny microbes invisible to the naked human eye initially settle on the wreck’s surface, forming a carpet of cells, called a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/biofilm">biofilm</a>. This coating helps to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00048">make the wreck structure suitable</a> for larval animals like sponges and corals to settle and grow there.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555611/original/file-20231024-23-oqeoj2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Shellfish, deepwater coral and anemones cling to the surface of a sunken wreck." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555611/original/file-20231024-23-oqeoj2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555611/original/file-20231024-23-oqeoj2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555611/original/file-20231024-23-oqeoj2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555611/original/file-20231024-23-oqeoj2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555611/original/file-20231024-23-oqeoj2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555611/original/file-20231024-23-oqeoj2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555611/original/file-20231024-23-oqeoj2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Diverse sea creatures living on the 19th-century, wooden-hulled Ewing Bank wreck, which lies 2,000 feet (610 meters) deep in the Gulf of Mexico.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/19microbial-stowaways/background/archaeology/media/img2-hires.jpg">NOAA</a></span>
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<p>Larger animals like fish sometimes appear within minutes after a ship sinks. <a href="https://coastalscience.noaa.gov/news/artificial-reefs-may-help-tropical-fish-expand-geographic-range-video/">Small fish</a> hide in the structure’s cracks and crevices, while <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fooweb.2020.e00147">large sharks</a> glide around it. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.104916">Sea turtles</a> and marine mammals such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130581">fur seals</a> have also been spotted on wrecks.</p>
<h2>Hot spots for biodiversity</h2>
<p>Shipwrecks host quantities and varieties of marine life that can make them hot spots for biodiversity. The microbes that transform the wreck structure into habitat also enrich the surrounding sand. Evidence from deep Gulf of Mexico wrecks shows that a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41396-021-00978-y">halo of increased microbial diversity</a> radiates outward anywhere from 650 to 1,000 feet (200-300 meters) from the wreck. In the Atlantic Ocean, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12548">thousands of grouper</a>, a type of reef fish highly valued by fishers, congregate around and inside shipwrecks.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555613/original/file-20231024-29-aaqe3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Fish hover above a wrecked ship's surface." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555613/original/file-20231024-29-aaqe3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555613/original/file-20231024-29-aaqe3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555613/original/file-20231024-29-aaqe3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555613/original/file-20231024-29-aaqe3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555613/original/file-20231024-29-aaqe3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555613/original/file-20231024-29-aaqe3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555613/original/file-20231024-29-aaqe3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Groupers and a conger eel, bottom center, on the wreck of the German submarine U-576 off the coast of North Carolina.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/16battlefield/logs/sept7/sept7.html">NOAA</a></span>
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<p>Shipwrecks can also serve as stepping stones across the ocean floor that animals use as temporary homes while moving from one location to another. This has been documented in areas of the world with dense concentrations of shipwrecks, such as off North Carolina, where storms and war have sunk hundreds of ships.</p>
<p>In this part of the ocean, popularly known as the “<a href="https://www.ncpedia.org/graveyard-atlantic">Graveyard of the Atlantic</a>,” reef fish likely <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-019-0398-2">use the islandlike shipwrecks as corridors</a> when moving north or south away from the equator to find favorable water temperatures as climate change <a href="https://theconversation.com/ocean-heat-is-at-record-levels-with-major-consequences-174760">warms the oceans</a>. Scientists have also observed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.2687">sand tiger sharks</a> traveling from one wreck to another, possibly using the shipwrecks like rest stops during migration.</p>
<p>In the deep sea, life growing on shipwrecks can even generate energy. Tube worms that grow on organic shipwreck materials such as paper, cotton and wood host symbiotic bacteria that produce chemical energy. Such tube worm colonies have been documented in the Gulf of Mexico on the steel <a href="https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/boem-newsroom/Library/Ocean-Science/Ocean-Science-Jul-Aug-Sep-2014.pdf">luxury yacht Anona</a>. </p>
<h2>Biological mysteries abound</h2>
<p>Despite their biological value, shipwrecks can also threaten underwater life by altering or destroying natural habitats, causing pollution and spreading invasive species.</p>
<p>When a ship sinks, it can damage existing seafloor habitats. In a well-documented case in the Line Islands of the central Pacific, an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2011.114">iron shipwreck</a> sank on a healthy coral reef. The iron infusion substantially decreased coral cover, and the reef was overcome by algae.</p>
<p>Ships may carry pollutants as fuel or cargo. As shipwrecks deteriorate in seawater, there is a risk that these pollutants may be released. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112087">level of risk</a> depends on how much of the pollutant the ship was carrying and how intact the wreck is. One recent investigation revealed that effects from shipwreck pollutants can be detected in microbes up to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.1017136">80 years after the wreck</a>.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/JTq4b9c3Z00?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Ships and planes wrecked in wartime can leak toxic materials for decades after they come to rest in the ocean.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Shipwrecks may also inadvertently assist the spread of invasive plants and animals that wreak biological havoc. Wrecks are new structures that invasive species can settle on, grow and use as a hub to expand to other habitats. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111394">Invasive cup coral</a> has spread on World War II shipwrecks off Brazil. In Palmyra Atoll in the Pacific, a type of anemone called a corallimorph <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002989">rapidly invaded</a> a shipwreck and now <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-018-1696-1">threatens healthy coral reefs</a>.</p>
<h2>The future of shipwreck exploration</h2>
<p>Shipwrecks create millions of study sites that scientists can use to ask questions about marine life and habitats. One of the greatest challenges is that many wrecks are undiscovered or in remote locations. Advances in technology can help researchers see into the most inaccessible areas of the ocean, not only to find shipwrecks but to better understand their biology. </p>
<p>Maximizing discovery will require biologists, archaeologists and engineers to work together to explore these special habitats. Ultimately, the more we learn, the more effectively we can conserve these historical and biological gems.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214688/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Avery Paxton is affiliated with NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science. </span></em></p>When ships sink, they add artificial structures to the seafloor that can quickly become diverse, ecologically important underwater communities.Avery Paxton, Research Marine Biologist, National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2182532023-11-24T02:53:56Z2023-11-24T02:53:56ZAustralian dolphins have the world’s highest concentrations of ‘forever chemicals’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561466/original/file-20231123-15-7lw4an.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=89%2C19%2C4185%2C2824&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Burrunan dolphin</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.marinemammal.org.au/gallery">Marine Mammal Foundation</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As predators at the top of the food chain, dolphins tend to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/bioaccumulation#:%7E:text=Bioaccumulation%20is%20a%20process%20of,dietary%20intake%20(trophic%20transfer).">accumulate and magnify</a> high levels of toxins and other chemicals in their bodies. So health problems in dolphins can be a warning that all is not well in the system as a whole. </p>
<p>One group of persistent pollutants has been dubbed “forever chemicals” because they almost never break down in the environment. Commonly known by the acronym PFAS, these per- and polyfluorinated substances are globally recognised as an environmental hazard and a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4890">potential human health issue</a>.</p>
<p>In our new research, we found dolphins with the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168438">highest concentration of PFAS</a> in the world live in Australian waters. One young Burrunan dolphin had liver concentrations almost 30% higher than any other dolphin ever reported.</p>
<p>This is a critically endangered species endemic to southeast Australia. While the consequences for dolphin health and the implications for humans remain unknown, the record-breaking concentrations are cause for alarm. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/controversial-forever-chemicals-could-be-phased-out-in-australia-under-new-restrictions-heres-what-you-need-to-know-210697">Controversial ‘forever chemicals’ could be phased out in Australia under new restrictions. Here’s what you need to know</a>
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<h2>The case of the Burrunan dolphin</h2>
<p>The Burrunan dolphin was recognised as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024047">separate species in 2011</a>. Fewer than 200 individuals remain. Two small, isolated and genetically distinct populations reside in coastal Victoria, Australia. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168438">our research</a>, we took liver samples from Burrunan dolphins and three other dolphin species found dead and washed up on beaches. </p>
<p>We found the critically endangered <a href="https://www.marinemammal.org.au/burrunan-dolphin">Burrunan dolphin</a> had 50–100 times more PFAS than other dolphins in the same region. Their PFAS concentrations were the highest reported globally. </p>
<p>In 90% of these dolphins, the liver concentrations of these chemicals (1,020–19,500 nanograms per gram) were above those thought to cause <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b06076">liver toxicity</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.2122">altered immune responses</a>. </p>
<p>These record-breaking and potentially health-compromising PFAS concentrations are a major concern for the survival of the species. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graphic illustrating the results of PFAS testing in Victorian dolphins" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The Burrunan dolphin had the highest global PFAS concentrations in the study.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723070663?via%3Dihub">Science of The Total Environment</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>Results from Australia and around the world</h2>
<p>By far the highest PFAS concentrations in the dolphins we studied were of a particular compound called PFOS (perfluorooctane sulfonate). PFOS is one of the most studied PFAS compounds. It is listed on the <a href="https://chm.pops.int/Implementation/IndustrialPOPs/PFAS/Overview/tabid/5221/Default.aspx">Stockholm Convention</a>, a global treaty on environmental pollutants, with international restrictions on use. </p>
<p>While Australia does not manufacture PFOS, heavy use of PFOS-containing firefighting foams occurred until the early 2000s. The Australian government <a href="https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/for-community/environmental-information/pfas/pfas-use-in-australia#:%7E:text=While%20PFOS%2C%20PFOA%20and%20other,as%20mist%20suppressants%20and%20coatings.">still allows PFOS import</a> for permitted purposes, such as mist suppressants in manufacturing and metal plating. </p>
<p>In recent years, public concern has prompted <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.canep.2022.102296">ongoing investigations</a> into areas of high firefighting foam use, such as Royal Australian Airforce training facilities and airports. </p>
<p>While firefighting foam is a probable source of PFAS in waterways, there are others. <a href="https://theconversation.com/pfas-forever-chemicals-are-getting-into-ocean-ecosystems-where-dolphins-fish-and-manatees-dine-we-traced-their-origins-216254">Recent research in Florida</a> in the United States found leaking septic and wastewater systems in urban areas were sources of PFAS runoff into the aquatic environment. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pfas-forever-chemicals-are-getting-into-ocean-ecosystems-where-dolphins-fish-and-manatees-dine-we-traced-their-origins-216254">PFAS 'forever chemicals' are getting into ocean ecosystems, where dolphins, fish and manatees dine – we traced their origins</a>
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<p>The Burrunan dolphins are not alone. In 2017, the <a href="https://www.epa.sa.gov.au/files/12580_report_pfas_marine.pdf">South Australian Environment Protection Authority investigated</a> PFOS concentrations in dolphins from Western Australia, South Australia and New South Wales. Dolphins in the Swan-Canning River Estuary in Perth, and in Port River or Barker Inlet, SA, had high PFOS levels (2,800–14,000ng per gram and 510–5,000ng per gram, respectively). These PFOS levels are similar to those in the Burrunan dolphin (between 494ng and 18,700ng per gram).</p>
<p>The globally significant PFAS and PFOS concentrations in multiple Australian dolphin populations demonstrates potential widespread contamination. This highlights our limited understanding of the short- and long-term consequences in our oceans and estuaries. </p>
<p>It is crucial we understand where different PFAS compounds are coming from, particularly PFOS, and whether the contamination is from a time when we didn’t know better (known as legacy sources) or if we are still releasing them. </p>
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<h2>Isn’t PFOS getting banned anyway?</h2>
<p>The Australian government has <a href="https://theconversation.com/controversial-forever-chemicals-could-be-phased-out-in-australia-under-new-restrictions-heres-what-you-need-to-know-210697">expressed an intention</a> to further regulate PFOS and two other PFAS. This marks a significant step forward. However, the problem with forever chemicals is they will be around for a really long time. </p>
<p>Typically, these chemicals are substituted with alternatives believed to be less detrimental, but unfortunately that is not always the reality. For example, early replacements for PFOS were initially thought to be less readily absorbed by body tissues and pose lower health concerns. But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.est.3c00374">studies</a> have shown their high <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/biomagnification">biomagnification</a> potential (with levels increasing higher up the food chain) and accompanying <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2023.107846">health risks</a>.</p>
<p>While PFOS levels were highest in the Burrunan dolphins we studied, emerging contaminants such as PFMPA, PFECHS, and 6:2 Cl-PFESA were also detected. The presence of these emerging and replacement compounds in dolphins shows they are accumulating within our waterways and suggests it is more than our historic usage that might be a problem. </p>
<h2>It’s not too late</h2>
<p>Dolphins are the “canary in the coal mine” for coastal ecosystems. They live their lives in these inshore waterways and they consume tonnes of fish within their lifetimes. Finding these alarming contaminant concentrations is an important first step to highlighting the problem. </p>
<p>So now we know there’s a problem, we need to ask why. Then we need to determine what can be done about it. </p>
<p>The next step is mapping sources of PFAS so we can more effectively manage this threat to our wildlife and ecosystems. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-found-long-banned-pollutants-in-the-very-deepest-part-of-the-ocean-204447">We found long-banned pollutants in the very deepest part of the ocean</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218253/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chantel Foord receives funding from a Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment Grant. She is affiliated with the Marine Mammal Foundation. </span></em></p>Researchers are finding alarming concentrations of persistent pollutants such as PFAS in Australian dolphins. These record-breaking levels are cause for concern.Chantel Foord, Research Associate, Marine Mammal Foundation, PhD researcher, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2158442023-11-16T10:40:17Z2023-11-16T10:40:17ZWhy the Pyrenees’ mountain lakes are turning green<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554285/original/file-20230921-21-xzmfew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=39%2C63%2C5232%2C3880&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Ayès lake, in the Ariège region of the Pyrenees.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dirk S. Schmeller</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>I first set foot <a href="https://theconversation.com/pourquoi-le-rechauffement-climatique-saccelere-dans-les-pyrenees-173362">in the Pyrenees</a> in 2006. Two years later, I began a large-scale survey of mountain lakes and amphibian populations: from east to west, I covered more than 100 mountain lakes located in the eastern Pyrenees to the Béarn region (Pyrénées-Atlantiques).</p>
<p>For our various projects, we came back to sample the same lakes at least once a year. Over time, we noticed changes, in particular the increased growth of algae <a href="https://theconversation.com/dans-les-eaux-de-baignade-les-cyanobacteries-amies-ou-ennemies-204352">cyanobacteria</a> and sometimes dinoflagellates, the blue-green algae that turn many lakes green. Back in 2012, we informed the Pyrenees National Park (PNP) about our observations.</p>
<p>Over the years, I’ve seen many of these lakes change colour. Some have lost the clarity and blue we’ve all come to expect from a mountain lake, while others have started to take on a greenish hue or even a bright green, particularly at the end of summer.</p>
<p>This trend does not affect any one region more than another: it can be found in the Ariège Pyrenees, the central mountains of the Pyrenees, as well as the western Béarn region. This is not a rare, localised phenomenon, but a large-scale event that is set to spread over the coming years. We’re also seeing it on the other side of the border, in the Catalan Pyrenees, where my colleague Marc Ventura has been leading the <a href="http://www.lifelimnopirineus.eu/es/inicio">European Limnopirineus project</a>.</p>
<p>In the Alps, colleagues at the research centre for high-altitude ecosystems (<a href="https://creamontblanc.org/">in French: Centre de recherche des écosystèmes d’altitude, Crea</a>) have made a similar observation. Even in the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/algal-booms-mountain-lakes.htm">Canadian Rockies</a>, a clear growth in algae has been observed.</p>
<p>We have identified four main causes of this greening of the lakes.</p>
<h2>1. More fish and algae, fewer crustaceans</h2>
<p>On the Catalan side, Marc Ventura first noticed that the presence of fish was contributing to the phenomenon, and that their eradication was turning the lakes back to a bluish hue. For those of you who might have a problem with the idea of “eradication”, it should be pointed out that the presence of fish in mountain lakes is not natural: it is the result of fish stocking carried out to promote recreational fishing.</p>
<p>To better understand the mechanisms at work, it is important to realise that the species present in mountain lake communities form a highly complex system, with a bewildering number of interactions. The disappearance of one species or a group of species from an aquatic system can lead to radical changes of the overall ecosystem (in this case, a mountain lake).</p>
<p>In the lakes studied, for example, it was observed that crustaceans were much less numerous or even absent in the presence of fish, particularly minnows, a very commonly introduced species in mountain lakes. Microcrustaceans in aquatic ecosystems filter water to ingest food, which is essentially made up of algae: in their absence, this imbalance allows algae to proliferate.</p>
<h2>2. Insecticides that kill crustaceans</h2>
<p>According to our <a href="https://theconversation.com/pyrenees-francaises-un-cocktail-toxique-impressionnant-detecte-dans-les-lacs-de-montagne-181860">own work</a> carried out in certain lakes, the absence or sharp reduction in crustaceans is also due to pollution. It is thought two insecticides in particular shoulder the blame: <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969722015492">permethrin and diazinon</a>, which are either used on livestock to protect them from stinging insects or are present in insect repellents used by tourists.</p>
<p>We have identified many other chemical molecules in lake water – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969722015492">141 in total</a> – and the effect of this cocktail on aquatic food webs is currently unknown. It should be noted, however, that we are currently only able to detect a small proportion of the organic molecules, due to methodological limitations. The cumulative toxicity of all the pollutants emitted by humans in these environments therefore remains a mystery.</p>
<p>It is therefore likely that we are underestimating the overall impact of the large number of organic molecules on aquatic ecosystems in the mountains and elsewhere. But there is no doubt that, in the lakes we are studying, the increase in pollution is encouraging the disappearance of microcrustaceans and therefore the proliferation of algae.</p>
<h2>3. Livestock waste, nutrients for algae</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969722015492">Research</a> has indicated pollutants may come from livestock, which are treated against biting insects with Butox or similar veterinary treatments containing deltamethrin or permethrin. Applied to the skin, these insecticides penetrate the animal’s bloodstream before being excreted in urine and faeces.</p>
<p>The active molecule remains largely unchanged and enters the water, even though it is <a href="https://enveurope.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s12302-022-00710-3">highly toxic to crustaceans in mountain lakes</a> starting from a concentration of the order of a few nanograms per litre, which is tiny. By killing crustaceans, these insecticides profoundly alter the aquatic food web.</p>
<p>But that’s not all. Algae also need nutrients to grow. Cattle provide them by drinking from lakes before urinating and defecating in the water: these discharges contain a high concentration of nutrients (nitrates and phosphates, among others), and especially phosphates are needed by cyanobacteria, filamentous algae.</p>
<h2>4. Climate change</h2>
<p>Finally, algae appreciate the heat: they multiply with high growth rates during the summer months, particularly when the water temperature exceeds 20°C. The rise in temperature caused by climate change is therefore adding to the other factors. In 2022, the edge of Lake Lhurs, in the Béarn region of France, reached over 25°C at an altitude of almost 1,800 metres – a blessing for algae.</p>
<p>These are the main factors, but my research could uncover more in the future. The most important thing is to understand that they act in synergy: we kill crustaceans by introducing fish, we pollute by treating livestock and then, once the mountain aquatic ecosystems have been weakened, we contribute through our activities to increasing the temperature of the lakes: algae then find the ideal conditions for growth. Some of these <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135423009879">algae are toxic</a> and therefore present a health risk.</p>
<p>Our lakes thus change from blue to greenish, from greenish to bright green: no mystery to this, their colour simply reveals what we are inflicting on our mountain lakes, our water resources, wildlife, livestock and ourselves.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Mountain lake ecosystem health indicators (“Mountains, a fragile source of life”, 21 September 2023).</span></figcaption>
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<h2>How to get clear, blue lakes back</h2>
<p>Fortunately, all is not lost. The work of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361705726_Non-native_minnows_cause_much_larger_negative_effects_than_trout_on_littoral_macroinvertebrates_of_high_mountain_lakes">Marc Ventura</a> highlights that it is still possible to turn back the clock and return lakes to a blue colour and healthy ecosystems. But this means changing the management of all the mountain lakes.</p>
<p>First, it is essential to limit fish stocking to certain large lakes and ban it in the others, so that they are reserved for local flora and fauna. Even in the large lakes, areas that are inaccessible to fish can be created to encourage invertebrates, amphibians and other aquatic and semi-aquatic species.</p>
<p>The next step is to reduce the pollution caused by tourists, livestock and industry. In particular, by communicating and discussing with the various stakeholders, alerting them to the risks and working with them to find real solutions rather than unsatisfactory compromises.</p>
<p>For example, the Ariège Pyrenees Regional Nature Park has begun to raise awareness among tourists, at least about the use of sun creams. This is a first step, albeit an insufficient one given the range of problems explained here. Another step forward would be to limit cattle access to mountain lakes, which would also help to restore the ecosystems. Finally, on a larger scale, the phenomenon is yet another reminder of the urgent need to combat climate change…</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em>Created in 2007 to help accelerate and share scientific knowledge on key societal issues, the Axa Research Fund has supported nearly 700 projects around the world conducted by researchers in 38 countries. To learn more, visit the site of the Axa Research Fund or follow on Twitter @AXAResearchFund.</em></p>
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<p><em>The <a href="https://anr.fr/Projet-ANR-21-BIRE-0002">BiodivRestore</a> project is supported by the French National Research Agency (ANR), which funds project-based research in France. Its mission is to support and promote the development of fundamental and applied research in all disciplines, and to strengthen the dialogue between science and society. For more information, visit the <a href="https://anr.fr/">ANR website</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215844/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dirk S. Schmeller has received funding from the ANR and AXA Research Fund.</span></em></p>Many mountain lakes in the Pyrenees have turned green, a phenomenon that is a warning about the multiple pressures on ecosystems.Dirk S. Schmeller, Directeur de recherche CNRS, Expert for Conservation Biology, Axa Chair for Functional Mountain Ecology at the École Nationale Supérieure Agronomique de Toulouse, Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2133262023-11-07T13:38:21Z2023-11-07T13:38:21ZEngineered ‘living materials’ could help clean up water pollution one day<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556959/original/file-20231031-27-mncpgs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=18%2C0%2C2048%2C1358&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Researchers at the University of California, San Diego have developed a new 'living' material.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsoe/53172954946/in/album-72177720311058323/">David Baillot/UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Water pollution is a growing concern globally, with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2022.01.005">research estimating</a> that chemical industries discharge <a href="https://cleanwaterinternational.org/water-pollution-everything-we-need-to-know/amp/">300-400 megatonnes</a> (600-800 billion pounds) of industrial waste into bodies of water each year. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.pokorskilab.com/">team of materials scientists</a>, we’re working on an engineered “living material” that may be able to transform chemical dye pollutants from the <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/04/21/middleeast/textile-wastewater-pollutant-cleaner-hnk-scn-spc-intl/index.html">textile industry</a> into harmless substances.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.safewater.org/fact-sheets-1/2017/1/23/industrial-waste">Water pollution</a> is both an environmental and humanitarian issue that can affect ecosystems and human health alike. We’re hopeful that the materials we’re developing could be one tool available to help combat this problem.</p>
<h2>Engineering a living material</h2>
<p>The “<a href="https://www.nature.com/collections/fhcabedjaa">engineered living material</a>” our team has been working on <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/24494-bacteria">contains programmed bacteria</a> embedded in a soft hydrogel material. We first published a paper showing the potential effectiveness of this material in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40265-2">Nature Communications</a> in August 2023.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.snexplores.org/article/explainer-what-is-a-hydrogel">The hydrogel</a> that forms the base of the material has similar properties to Jell-O – it’s soft and made mostly of water. Our particular hydrogel is made from a natural and biodegradable <a href="https://dalchem.com.au/how-to/what-is-alginate/">seaweed-based polymer called alginate</a>, an ingredient common <a href="https://kitchen-theory.com/sodium-alginate-spherification/">in some foods</a>.</p>
<p>The alginate hydrogel provides a solid physical support for bacterial cells, similar to how <a href="https://theconversation.com/mapping-the-100-trillion-cells-that-make-up-your-body-103078">tissues support cells</a> in the human body. We intentionally chose this material so that the bacteria we embedded could grow and flourish. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556960/original/file-20231031-15-o1t0v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A green polymer, arranged in a square with a 5 by 5 grid of smaller squares, sits on a clear surface." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556960/original/file-20231031-15-o1t0v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556960/original/file-20231031-15-o1t0v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556960/original/file-20231031-15-o1t0v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556960/original/file-20231031-15-o1t0v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556960/original/file-20231031-15-o1t0v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556960/original/file-20231031-15-o1t0v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556960/original/file-20231031-15-o1t0v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The grid shape of the material helps the bacteria take in carbon dioxide.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsoe/53173442373/in/album-72177720311058323/">David Baillot/UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<p>We picked the seaweed-based alginate as the material base because it’s porous and can retain water. It also allows the <a href="https://www.microscopemaster.com/photosynthetic-bacteria.html">bacterial cells</a> to take in nutrients from the surrounding environment.</p>
<p>After we prepared the hydrogel, we embedded photosynthetic – or sunlight-capturing – bacteria called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/blue-green-algae">cyanobacteria</a> into the gel.</p>
<p>The cyanobacteria embedded in the material still needed to take in light and carbon dioxide <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/photosynthesis/">to perform photosynthesis</a>, which keeps them alive. The hydrogel was porous enough to allow that, but to make the configuration as efficient as possible, we <a href="https://www.cellink.com/3d-bioprinting/">3D-printed</a> the gel into custom shapes – grids and honeycombs. These structures have a higher surface-to-volume ratio that allow more light, CO₂ and nutrients to come into the material. </p>
<p>The cells were happy in that geometry. We observed higher cell growth and density over time in the alginate gels in the grid or honeycomb structures when compared with the default disc shape.</p>
<h2>Cleaning up dye</h2>
<p>Like all other bacteria, cyanobacteria has different <a href="https://www.ibiology.org/bioengineering/genetic-circuits/">genetic circuits</a>, which tell the cells what outputs to produce. Our team <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/genetic-engineering/Process-and-techniques">genetically engineered</a> the bacterial <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/definition/dna/">DNA</a> so that the cells created a specific enzyme <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laccase">called laccase</a>. </p>
<p>The laccase enzyme produced by the cyanobacteria works by performing a chemical reaction with a pollutant that transforms it into a form that’s no longer functional. By breaking the chemical bonds, it can make a toxic pollutant nontoxic. The enzyme is regenerated at the end of the reaction, and it goes off to complete more reactions. </p>
<p>Once we’d embedded these laccase-creating cyanobacteria into the alginate hydrogel, we put them in a solution made up of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10532910/">industrial dye pollutant</a> to see if they could clean up the dye. In this test, we wanted to see if our material could change the structure of the dye so that it went from being colored to uncolored. But, in other cases, the material could potentially change a chemical structure to go from toxic to nontoxic. </p>
<p>The dye we used, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10532910/">indigo carmine</a>, is a common industrial wastewater pollutant usually found in the water near textile plants – it’s the main pigment in blue jeans. We found that our material took all the color out of the bulk of the dye over about 10 days.</p>
<p>This is good news, but we wanted to make sure that our material wasn’t adding waste to polluted water by leaching bacterial cells. So, we also engineered the bacteria to produce a protein that could damage the cell membrane of the bacteria – a programmable kill switch. </p>
<p>The genetic circuit was programmed to respond to a harmless chemical, called <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pcp/article/54/10/1724/1908151">theophylline</a>, commonly found in caffeine, tea and chocolate. By adding theophylline, we could destroy bacterial cells at will. </p>
<p>The field of engineered living materials is still developing, but this just means there are plenty of opportunities to develop new materials with both living and nonliving components.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213326/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan K. Pokorski receives funding from the National Science Foundation and Department of Energy.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Debika Datta does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>‘Living materials’ made with genetically engineered bacteria and Jell-O-like gel could make pollutants in water bodies nontoxic.Jonathan K. Pokorski, Professor of Nanoengineering, University of California, San DiegoDebika Datta, Postdoctoral Scholar in Nanoengineering, University of California, San DiegoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2155062023-10-24T10:51:21Z2023-10-24T10:51:21ZDoing laundry by hand sheds just as many microfibres as machine washing – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555254/original/file-20231023-17-xkvoz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C63%2C1076%2C783&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most of the world washes their clothing by hand.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/woman-washing-river-female-water-3447847/">elJad/Pixabay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Between <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-023-25246-8#Sec10">6,500 and 87,000 tonnes</a> of microfibres are shed during domestic laundering every year in the UK. Many of these minuscule fibres end up in rivers and oceans, with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0269749119340552?via%3Dihub">devastating consequences</a> for aquatic animals and environments.</p>
<p>As a result, environmental advocacy groups in the <a href="https://bills.parliament.uk/bills/3077">UK</a>, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiehailstone/2023/04/21/eu-urged-to-mandate-microplastic-filters-in-new-washing-machines/">EU</a> and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/filters-on-laundry-machines-lead-to-significant-cut-in-microfibre-pollution-ontario-study-finds-1.6241689">North America</a> are campaigning for legislation to mandate microfibre-catching filters for all new washing machines. </p>
<p>But microfibre pollution isn’t limited to machine washing. Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139391">new research</a> shows that washing clothing by hand can shed just as many microfibres as laundry washed in a machine. </p>
<p>This is an issue. More than half of the global population <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652623035497?via%3Dihub">doesn’t have regular access to a washing machine</a> and so launder “off-grid”, such as by hand. Hand washing laundry often involves a lot of scrubbing and abrasion that sheds fibres. Wastewater from hand laundering may flow directly into rivers or onto concrete and stone “laundry decks”, bypassing wastewater treatment facilities even where such facilities are available.</p>
<p>Resolving the microfibre pollution problem necessitates more than just installing washing machine filters. It requires changes in how textiles are designed, manufactured and traded on a global scale.</p>
<h2>Fibres shed from hand laundry</h2>
<p>Scientific research into fibre shedding often overlooks people that hand launder their clothes, with the predominant focus being on the fibres shed by conventional electric washing machines. Although scientists from countries where many people wash by hand <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2023.1020919/full">have observed</a> that these methods result in fibre shedding, they have seldom received the necessary support to measure or compare the quantity of fibres shed. </p>
<p>Our research was conducted with colleagues from Isabela State University in the Philippines, Wollongong University in Australia and seven other universities across the UK. We held a workshop and observed hand laundering practices in the Cagayan River Valley in the northern Philippines. We then replicated the hand laundering techniques demonstrated by the local community within a laboratory. </p>
<p>Our experiments measured the fibres shed from both pre-washed and brand-new 100% polyester trousers purchased from a UK high street store. These trousers closely resembled the polyester clothing we found in markets in the Philippines and the garments we observed being hand laundered there.</p>
<p>We found that hand washing these trousers using a plastic scrub brush led to fibre shedding levels of between <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652623035497?via%3Dihub">6,499 and 64,500</a> individual fibres per garment. This is comparable to the levels reported for machine laundering. It is evident that hand laundering is not necessarily gentler on textiles than machine laundry.</p>
<h2>Measuring ‘sheddability’</h2>
<p>People who hand wash their clothes employ various techniques. These are based on the textiles they are washing and the purpose an item of clothing serves. Clothing that is covered in dust or mud, like garments worn for farm work, may require vigorous scrubbing.</p>
<p>Our research could not recreate all of the ways people launder by hand. We were also unable to explore the impact of every textile variable on fibre shedding, including colouration method, dye type, specific knit or weave structure, and mechanical or chemical finishing. </p>
<p>Among the variables we did examine, our results demonstrated that the structure of the textiles had a more pronounced effect on fibre shedding than the type of fibre itself. Fibre type had no significant influence on shedding. Notably, woven textiles shed fewer fibres compared to their knitted counterparts.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1620346289681481730"}"></div></p>
<p>It’s not just synthetic textiles that shed problematic fibres. Plant-based textiles like cotton and animal-based textiles such as wool shed fibres in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652623035497?via%3Dihub">similar quantities</a> to plastic fibres. <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2022.991650/full">Some research</a> even suggests that cellulose-based fibres such as cotton may impose comparable, if not more severe, consequences on organisms that ingest them when compared to synthetic microfibres.</p>
<p>Despite often being marketed as “biodegradable”, cotton fibres <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mercerization">undergo modifications</a> for use in the textile industry that alter the structure of the cellulose they are composed of. Most cottons also have <a href="https://oecotextiles.blog/2012/12/05/what-does-mercerized-cotton-mean/">chemical dyes</a> and finishes added during processing. </p>
<p>As a result, cotton textile fibres do not readily biodegrade in natural surroundings. And any degradation that does occur will probably release chemicals from their production into the environment. This holds true regardless of the laundering method used for the textiles.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/plastic-free-fashion-is-not-as-clean-or-green-as-it-seems-139082">'Plastic-free' fashion is not as clean or green as it seems</a>
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<h2>Solving the microfibre problem</h2>
<p>Solving the issue of textile fibre shedding is complex. There is a massive global trade in used clothing, worth about <a href="https://oec.world/en/profile/hs/used-clothing">US$5 billion (£4.1 billion) per year</a>. Even when care labels and fashion designers have considered electric machine washing, potential washing machine filters and wastewater treatment, the export of used clothing takes these textiles away from that established infrastructure.</p>
<p>But the people we observed hand washing clothing need the affordable and durable work attire that this used clothing trade provides. This means that, to address textile fibre shedding, we require a complete rethink not only of the ways we launder our clothes, but of how clothing is made.</p>
<p>The fundamental problem lies not in the secondhand clothing trade, but in the design of textiles themselves. We could make headway in tackling the microfibre issue by designing low-shed fabrics to make garments that can better withstand the rigours of hand washing. Another approach is the development of <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-environments-new-clothes-biodegradable-textiles-grown-from-live-organisms/">new truly biodegradable fibres</a> that will break down naturally in the environment.</p>
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<img alt="A secondhand clothing store." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555259/original/file-20231023-19-alhu6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555259/original/file-20231023-19-alhu6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555259/original/file-20231023-19-alhu6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555259/original/file-20231023-19-alhu6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555259/original/file-20231023-19-alhu6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555259/original/file-20231023-19-alhu6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555259/original/file-20231023-19-alhu6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A secondhand clothing store in the Philippines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dumaguete-philippines-9-september-2017-cheap-713736202">Davdeka/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the meantime, those who pride themselves on avoiding synthetic fabrics should recognise that the microfibre problem <a href="https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wat2.1490">extends beyond the materials we wear</a>. Textile marketing should not greenwash by conflating “natural” and “biodegradable”. And relying on washing machine filters alone will not solve the problem of microfibre shedding. </p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<hr>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=158&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=158&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=158&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=198&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=198&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=198&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em>Created in 2007 to help accelerate and share scientific knowledge on key societal issues, the AXA Research Fund has supported nearly 700 projects around the world conducted by researchers in 38 countries. To learn more, visit the site of the AXA Research Fund or follow on Twitter @AXAResearchFund.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215506/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Deirdre McKay receives funding from the British Academy, the Leverhulme Trust, and UKRI via the Arts and Humanities Research Council and Global Challenges Research Fund. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kelly Sheridan receives funding from UKRI (NERC / AHRC / Innovate UK) via their Circular Fashion and Textiles Network Plus funding. In addition to Northumbria University she also works for The Microfibre Consortium.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Stanton receives funding from the AXA Research Fund and UKRI (NERC / AHRC / Innovate UK) via their Circular Fashion and Textiles Network Plus funding. </span></em></p>Simply trying to avoid synthetic clothing won’t fix our microfibre pollution problemDeirdre McKay, Professor of Sustainable Development, Keele UniversityKelly Sheridan, Associate Professor in Forensic Science, Northumbria University, NewcastleThomas Stanton, Axa Research Fund Fellow, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2151132023-10-09T17:19:25Z2023-10-09T17:19:25ZLough Neagh: UK and Ireland’s largest lake is being suffocated by business and agricultural interests<p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Lough-Neagh">Lough Neagh</a> is the largest freshwater lake in the UK and Ireland. It is a protected area of special scientific interest and the source of <a href="https://www.niwater.com/news-detail/12350/Your-water-is-safe-to-drink/">40% of Northern Ireland’s drinking water</a>. </p>
<p>But it’s also the site of a severe environmental crisis and a public health emergency. Located about 20 miles west of Belfast, the lough has turned thick with <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/algal-blooms-advice-for-the-public-and-landowners/algal-blooms-advice-for-the-public-and-landowners">toxic blue-green algae</a>, resulting in the demise of both <a href="https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/environment/out-of-control-lough-neaghs-poisonous-bacteria-now-killing-swans-foxes-and-dogs/a1026634162.html">its own wildlife and people’s pets</a>. </p>
<p>This situation has brought about a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-66835897">sense of mourning</a> among local people and activists who, in September 2023, held a “wake” to highlight their fears that the lough is dying. Lough Neagh’s historic fishing industry, which is known for its <a href="https://www.loughneagheels.com/sustainability/">use of sustainable and traditional methods</a>, also faces the <a href="https://www.irishnews.com/news/northernirelandnews/2023/09/15/news/fishing_for_lough_neagh_eels_world_renowned_has_collapsed_fishermen_locals-3617503/">threat of collapse</a> unless conditions improve.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1703407961547100355"}"></div></p>
<p>Multiple factors have made Lough Neagh particularly vulnerable to these perilous algal blooms, including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135411004386#bib63">rising water temperatures</a> linked to global warming. However, the root causes of this crisis are decades of <a href="https://friendsoftheearth.uk/nature/lough-neagh-why-europes-wildlife-jewel-needs-space-breathe#:%7E:text=Dredging%20is%20a%20risk%20to%20waterfowl%2C%20fish%20populations%2C,Lough%20Neagh%20could%20fill%20over%2010%2C000%20volleyball%20courts.">sand dredging</a> and pollution stemming from <a href="https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.4319/lo.2007.52.1.0354">agricultural runoff</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/15/7m-tonnes-of-raw-sewage-a-year-discharged-into-northern-irish-rivers">sewage treatment</a> and <a href="https://niopa.qub.ac.uk/bitstream/NIOPA/3436/1/11015.pdf">septic tanks</a>. These activities have flooded the lough with nutrients on which the blue-green algae are thriving.</p>
<p>This crisis is far from a freak accident. It is the consequence of political negligence and institutional mismanagement, driven by an economy that has long prioritised growth over all else. </p>
<p>The same dynamic is responsible for the fragile state of nature throughout the rest of Northern Ireland. A <a href="https://stateofnature.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/TP25999-State-of-Nature-main-report_2023_FULL-DOC-v12.pdf">recent report</a> found that 12% of Northern Ireland’s wild species are now facing extinction. </p>
<p>Any economy that presupposes the exploitation of finite natural resources to fuel the endless exponential growth it needs to function and survive cannot be sustained indefinitely. The crisis at Lough Neagh illustrates the grave consequences of attempting to do so. </p>
<p>It has become a place for extracting resources and a dump site for the chemical byproducts of agricultural activities that seek to produce as much as possible at the lowest financial cost. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Farm machinery collecting silage in a field." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552748/original/file-20231009-25-8awptl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552748/original/file-20231009-25-8awptl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552748/original/file-20231009-25-8awptl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552748/original/file-20231009-25-8awptl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552748/original/file-20231009-25-8awptl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552748/original/file-20231009-25-8awptl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552748/original/file-20231009-25-8awptl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Northern Ireland’s landscape and biodiversity have been altered by the agricultural and food manufacturing industry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/ballycastle-uk-0622-agriculture-collecting-silage-1523474765">Steve Allen/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Going for Growth</h2>
<p>Much of the groundwork for Northern Ireland’s current environmental crisis was laid in 2013 by the Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs’ (Daera) landmark “<a href="https://www.daera-ni.gov.uk/publications/going-growth-strategic-action-plan-support-ni-agri-food-industry">Going for Growth</a>” policy. </p>
<p>The policy promotes more market-led innovation and sales growth in highly competitive international markets. As a result, it has spurred the greater use of phosphates, nitrogen and other inputs within Northern Ireland’s agricultural system. </p>
<p>It has also provided farmers with an incentive to <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10612-020-09488-3">intensify their beef and dairy production</a>. This has led to the increased production of slurry. When slurry leaks into the environment, it has the potential to pollute water catchments and waterways.</p>
<p>The Going for Growth strategy was developed in the context of a general push for economic growth as part of Northern Ireland’s “<a href="https://labourafterconflict.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/DoubleTransition.pdf">double transition</a>”, from war to peace and towards neoliberalism. Declared as “open for business” by political leaders, Northern Ireland has since become an attractive destination for various forms of socially and environmentally detrimental extractive economic activities.</p>
<p>These activities include <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-53213878">gold mining in the Sperrin Mountains</a>. Dalradian, the company proposing the project, claims the mine could provide a £750 million boost to the Northern Ireland economy.</p>
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<img alt="Cows by the roadside in Northern Ireland." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552751/original/file-20231009-21-ekha7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552751/original/file-20231009-21-ekha7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552751/original/file-20231009-21-ekha7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552751/original/file-20231009-21-ekha7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552751/original/file-20231009-21-ekha7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552751/original/file-20231009-21-ekha7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552751/original/file-20231009-21-ekha7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Beef and dairy production in Northern Ireland has intensified since 2013.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cows-by-roadside-northern-ireland-1151460356">AU Media/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Institutional mismanagement</h2>
<p>The environmental impact of the Going for Growth strategy has been compounded by a general lack of regulatory oversight, policing and punishment of the pollution that accompanies it. </p>
<p>Still today, Northern Ireland does not have an independent environmental protection agency. The regulatory body it does have, the Northern Ireland Environment Agency, is part of Daera, the very government department tasked with promoting growth within and through the agriculture and food manufacturing industry.</p>
<p>The unfettered way in which growth is promoted and pursued shows how short-term economic interests have been prioritised to the detriment of the future viability of sustainable food production and ecological stability in Northern Ireland. There is an absence of suitable policies and initiatives to support rapid change towards a sustainable food system and a just transition for farmers. </p>
<h2>Powerful vested interests</h2>
<p>These failures of governance are further complicated at Lough Neagh by a messy network of stakeholders with vested interests in its economic, rather than social and ecological value. This includes a colonial legacy of ownership, through which the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-northern-ireland-67006058">Earl of Shaftesbury</a> enjoys the rights of an “absentee landlord” over the lough’s bed and soil, even though its water is publicly owned. </p>
<p>The earl profits from these “business assets” through royalties from sand dredging. However, he argues that the current state of the water in Lough Neagh is not his responsibility and won’t relinquish his private ownership without significant compensation from public funds. In the past, the amount of compensation he would require has been estimated to stand at £6 million.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1709670221823254618"}"></div></p>
<p>This network of stakeholders also includes a politically powerful agricultural sector. The sector has been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016720301340?casa_token=MRJIMlj84J4AAAAA:N6xfFl70q8BmGO64LJff29uNZpLCEa6s2Gdqls0J1aMpuCTpElReKRRtX_Efj0Omf60RWLyf">successful in lobbying</a> for reduced government oversight and increased state financial support. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, local people are disenfranchised in their ability to influence how the lough, the largest ecological commons on the island of Ireland, is managed and to whose benefit. </p>
<p>Given the political, regulatory and powerful vested interests involved, alongside issues with mismanagement, perhaps the real question here is not how and who is responsible for killing Lough Neagh but rather why this decline did not happen sooner.</p>
<p>Our only hope now is that this situation serves as a catalyst for Northern Ireland to rectify its practices and start on a path towards environmental restoration.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Barry receives funding from the ESRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Founder of Love Our Lough, a collective set up to cherish, protect and celebrate the beautiful Lough Neagh. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Calum McGeown does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The largest lake in the UK and Ireland has been blighted by toxic blue-green algae.Calum McGeown, Research Assistant at the Centre for Sustainability, Equality and Climate Action, Queen's University BelfastJohn Barry, Professor of Green Political Economy, Queen's University BelfastLouise Taylor, Early Career Researcher and Ecotherapist., Queen's University BelfastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2125052023-09-01T13:36:25Z2023-09-01T13:36:25ZWhy the UK government is relaxing rules for river pollution<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545753/original/file-20230831-17-8az3mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=702%2C0%2C3890%2C2582&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">New homes under construction in Rochester, Kent.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/temple-wharf-rochester-kent-uk-may-1094719550">Flyby Photography/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK government has <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/100000-more-homes-to-be-built-via-reform-of-defective-eu-laws">announced plans</a> to enable the delivery of 100,000 new homes by 2030 that are currently being held up by a controversial EU law designed to protect water bodies from pollution. </p>
<p>This move will undoubtedly benefit the housing sector, delivering an estimated £18 billion to the economy and also helping the government meet its housing targets. But will it lead to further water pollution at a time when just <a href="https://jncc.gov.uk/our-work/ukbi-b7-surface-water-status/">36% of the UK’s surface water bodies</a> are in “good” or better condition?</p>
<p>Since 2019, all new housing developments in the UK have been required by EU law to demonstrate that they would not add additional nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus to water bodies as part of their planning applications.</p>
<p>Wastewater from new homes, as well as run-off from construction sites, can cause nutrients to seep into nearby waterways. This can lead to <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/eutrophication.html">eutrophication</a> – a process where excessive algae growth degrades water quality. </p>
<p>Developers must calculate how much nutrient pollution the planned accommodation would create and demonstrate how that pollution would be treated or offset. If developers cannot prove that new housing projects are going to be nutrient neutral, planning application is refused. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A small river choked with algae growth." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545755/original/file-20230831-3944-1dq3tl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545755/original/file-20230831-3944-1dq3tl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545755/original/file-20230831-3944-1dq3tl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545755/original/file-20230831-3944-1dq3tl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545755/original/file-20230831-3944-1dq3tl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545755/original/file-20230831-3944-1dq3tl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545755/original/file-20230831-3944-1dq3tl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The River Wantsum in Kent choked with algae growth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tiny-river-wantsum-near-birchington-uk-1446898913">Muddy knees/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The main response has been “farmland offsetting” – a scheme where developers pay farmers for parts of their land, which are then rewilded to prevent future farming. The savings made by preventing future nutrient pollution on that farmland would offset the nutrients leaching into the environment from the new housing projects.</p>
<p>Natural England’s <a href="https://naturalengland.blog.gov.uk/2022/07/22/nutrient-mitigation-scheme-can-help-provide-the-nature-and-housing-we-need/">nutrient neutrality programme</a> has expanded access to these offsetting schemes in recent years. Nonetheless, not all developers have access to offsetting schemes in their area. Thousands of applications – including many already in the system – have been <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-hampshire-48634596">suspended or rejected</a> as a result.</p>
<p>To re-start many of those stalled applications, the government is proposing an amendment to the law, removing the requirement for developers to prove <a href="https://haroldbenjamin.com/2022/06/30/nutrient-neutraliity-what-is-it-and-how-is-it-relevant-to-property-developers/">nutrient neutrality</a>. </p>
<p>The government will instead take responsibility for nutrient offsetting itself – mainly by doubling funding for Natural England’s offsetting scheme. This would enable houses currently stuck in the planning system to be granted permission and begin building.</p>
<p>The government announced that it will also take additional measures to “tackle nutrient pollution at source” by upgrading wastewater treatment works and reducing nutrient pollution from farming.</p>
<p>The implementation of the nutrient neutrality guidelines, and the accompanying burden on developers, has <a href="https://www.hbf.co.uk/news/new-report-finds-natural-england-significantly-overestimates-impact-new-housing-development-nutrient-pollution/">attracted plenty of criticism</a>. Hence, the change in approach in itself is not necessarily a bad thing. However, there is justified concern that the new plans may be less effective if not implemented properly.</p>
<h2>Taking control</h2>
<p>At a glance, the government’s proposal certainly seems a short-term reaction to a political issue. The government is <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/61407508">falling well behind</a> its own housing targets and removing nutrient neutrality from planning applications will release the current deadlock. </p>
<p>But it could also have the potential to do genuine good. By offsetting nutrient pollution itself, the government could deliver more sensible schemes overall than the piecemeal approach delivered by thousands of small planning applications submitted at different times.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A pipe releasing wastewater into a river." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545966/original/file-20230901-25-jbiemz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545966/original/file-20230901-25-jbiemz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545966/original/file-20230901-25-jbiemz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545966/original/file-20230901-25-jbiemz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545966/original/file-20230901-25-jbiemz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545966/original/file-20230901-25-jbiemz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545966/original/file-20230901-25-jbiemz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Whether offsetting schemes achieve nutrient neutrality is murky.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/water-flows-pipe-into-river-against-1729638664">kizer13/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, the long-term success of the offsetting schemes in genuinely achieving nutrient neutrality has been <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2384196-river-pollution-offsets-for-homes-in-england-and-wales-may-not-work/">questioned</a>. The calculations are based on a small scientific base. And even if these calculations are correct, offsetting schemes replace pollution that is spread across farmlands with pollution concentrated at the end of a wastewater pipe.</p>
<h2>Questioning the new approach</h2>
<p>Any potential benefits of the new approach will also rely on it being delivered properly. There are already concerns that may not happen. </p>
<p>A lot of the new environmental measures mentioned in the government’s initial press release are already taking place. For instance, upgrading wastewater treatment works for nutrient removal was <a href="https://committees.parliament.uk/committee/62/environmental-audit-committee/news/172265/comment-government-plans-to-address-nutrient-pollution-in-waterways/">made a legal duty in 2022</a> and is already being planned and implemented by all water companies. </p>
<p>Another – looking at more sustainable drainage solutions – is part of <a href="https://www.susdrain.org/delivering-suds/using-suds/legislation-and-regulation/england-and-wales.html">existing planning policy</a>.</p>
<p>Three of the eight actions identified by the government also target farming practices. Agriculture does cause more nutrient pollution than housing – in the Solent region of southern England the <a href="https://southerncoastalgroup-scopac.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/EA_Overview-of-Solent-Eutrophication-and-Recovery_V3_Jan2023-FINAL.pdf">Environment Agency estimates</a> that 50% of nutrient pollution can be attributed to agriculture and just 10% to wastewater releases. </p>
<p>However, the purpose of nutrient neutrality was to ensure housing developments dealt with their own pollution so they weren’t adding to the problems already caused by agriculture. Nutrient pollution caused by farming practices is already being addressed through initiatives such as <a href="https://catchmentbasedapproach.org/learn/catchment-sensitive-farming/">catchment-sensitive farming</a> – a scheme of training and funding to help farmers reduce nutrient pollution.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aerial view of a wastewater treatment works." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545758/original/file-20230831-27-p4zng6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545758/original/file-20230831-27-p4zng6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545758/original/file-20230831-27-p4zng6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545758/original/file-20230831-27-p4zng6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545758/original/file-20230831-27-p4zng6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545758/original/file-20230831-27-p4zng6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545758/original/file-20230831-27-p4zng6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Upgrading wastewater treatment works is already being planned and implemented by water companies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-view-directly-above-waste-water-2192363487">Clare Louise Jackson/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By taking nutrient neutrality off the “front lines” of the planning process, the concern is that the outcome – away from the same level of scrutiny and urgency – may not be as <a href="https://www.endsreport.com/article/1835501/campaigners-slam-governments-broken-promises-following-nutrient-neutrality-axe">effective</a>.</p>
<p>Building new homes is important. And it’s also true that new housing developments are not the largest contributor of nutrient pollution in the UK. So a more centralised plan to deal with nutrient pollution has potential benefits, if undertaken seriously. </p>
<p>However, the short-term benefits of building more homes must not overshadow the longer-term commitments the government will need to make in order to properly address the issue of nutrient pollution.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Cruddas currently receives funding from Ofwat through their Innovation Fund for 'Alternative approaches to phosphorus removal on rural wastewater treatment works'. He has previously received funding from ESRC, EPSRC and the EU FP7 scheme for research into sustainable sanitation. </span></em></p>Developers will no longer have to offset nutrient pollution from new housing projects – the UK government say this won’t degrade water quality.Peter Cruddas, Senior Lecturer in Environmental Engineering, University of PortsmouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2089232023-08-16T12:26:33Z2023-08-16T12:26:33ZMichigan pipeline standoff could affect water protection and Indigenous rights across the US<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542481/original/file-20230813-175390-x00yus.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C0%2C4446%2C2884&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A ferry arrives at Mackinac Island in the Straits of Mackinac, Michigan's largest tourist draw.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Travel-Trip-MackinacIsland/9896e61c897e4175ba9ce529bd127562/photo">AP Photo/Anick Jesdanun</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Should states and Indigenous nations be able to influence energy projects they view as harmful or contrary to their laws and values? This question lies at the center of a heated debate over <a href="https://www.michigan.gov/egle/about/featured/line5/overview">Enbridge Energy’s Line 5 pipeline</a>, which carries oil and natural gas across Wisconsin and Michigan. </p>
<p>Courts, regulatory agencies and political leaders are deciding whether Enbridge should be allowed to keep its pipeline in place for another 99 years, with upgrades. The state of Michigan and the <a href="http://www.badriver-nsn.gov/">Bad River Tribe</a> in Wisconsin want to <a href="https://content.govdelivery.com/attachments/MIEOG/2020/11/13/file_attachments/1600920/Notice%20of%20%20Revocation%20and%20Termination%20of%20%20Easement%20%2811.13.20%29.pdf">close the pipeline down immediately</a>.</p>
<p>My expertise is in Great Lakes water and energy policy, environmental protection and sustainability leadership. I have analyzed and taught these issues as a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YKC4V5gAAAAJ&hl=en">sustainability scholar</a>, and I have worked on them as the National Wildlife Federation’s <a href="https://nwf.org/greatlakes">Great Lakes regional executive director</a> from 2015 until early 2023. </p>
<p>In my view, the future of Line 5 has become a defining issue for the future of the Great Lakes region. It also could set an important precedent for reconciling energy choices with state regulatory authority and Native American rights.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/OCW6fiNSXjs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Tribal leaders and Native community members explain what the Straits of Mackinac mean to their cultures.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A Canadian pipeline through the US Midwest</h2>
<p>Line 5, built in 1953, runs 643 miles from Superior, Wisconsin, to Sarnia, Ontario. It carries up to 23 million gallons of oil and natural gas liquids daily, produced mainly from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/tar-sand">Canadian tar sands in Alberta</a>. </p>
<p>Most of this oil and gas goes to refineries in Ontario and Quebec. Some remains in the U.S. for propane production or processing at refineries in Michigan and Ohio.</p>
<p>Controversy over Line 5 centers mainly on two locations: the Bad River Band Reservation in Wisconsin, where the pipeline crosses tribal land, and the Straits of Mackinac (pronounced “Mackinaw”) in Michigan. This channel between Michigan’s upper and lower peninsulas connects Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541274/original/file-20230804-17305-8y9tf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing the Line 5 route across Wisconsin and Michigan and through the Straits of Mackinac." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541274/original/file-20230804-17305-8y9tf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541274/original/file-20230804-17305-8y9tf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=596&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541274/original/file-20230804-17305-8y9tf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=596&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541274/original/file-20230804-17305-8y9tf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=596&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541274/original/file-20230804-17305-8y9tf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=749&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541274/original/file-20230804-17305-8y9tf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=749&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541274/original/file-20230804-17305-8y9tf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=749&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Enbridge’s Line 5 pipeline from Superior, Wisconsin, to Sarnia, Ontario, is part of a larger regional pipeline network.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.enbridge.com/projects-and-infrastructure/public-awareness/line-5-michigan/about-line-5">Enbridge</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Line 5 crosses through the open water of the straits in twin pipelines that rest on the lake bottom in some stretches and are suspended above it in others. The route lies within an easement <a href="http://mediad.publicbroadcasting.net/p/michigan/files/201409/1953-04-23_Lakehead_Pipe_Line_Company_Easement_through_the_Straits_of_Mackinac.pdf">granted by the state of Michigan in 1953</a>. </p>
<p>The Straits of Mackinac are one of the most iconic settings in the Great Lakes. They include <a href="https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/the-straits-of-mackinac-connecting-people-places-and-so-much-more-msg20-nelson20">hundreds of islands and miles of shorelines</a> rimmed with forests and wetlands. Scenic Mackinac Island in Lake Huron, a <a href="https://www.michigan.org/city/mackinac-island">popular resort area</a> since the mid-1800s, is Michigan’s top tourist destination. </p>
<p>The straits also have long been <a href="https://www.lansingstatejournal.com/story/travel/michigan/2017/03/07/restoring-mackinac-islands-native-american-history/98809484/">spiritually important for Great Lakes tribes</a>. Michigan acknowledges that the Chippewa and Ottawa peoples <a href="https://www.greatlakesnow.org/2021/03/treaty-rights-line-5-oil-pipelines-controversial-history/">hold treaty-protected fishing rights</a> that center on the Mackinac region.</p>
<h2>The Line 6b spill</h2>
<p>In 2010, another Enbridge pipeline, Line 6b, <a href="https://www.mlive.com/news/kalamazoo/2020/07/10-years-ago-kalamazoo-river-oil-spill-was-an-awakening-in-pipeline-debate.html">ruptured near the Kalamazoo River in southern Michigan</a>, spilling over 1 million gallons of heavy crude. Line 6b is part of a parallel route to Line 5, and the cleanup continues <a href="https://www.bridgemi.com/michigan-environment-watch/10-years-later-kalamazoo-river-spill-still-colors-enbridge-pipeline">more than a decade later</a>. </p>
<p>The spill, and Enbridge’s <a href="https://insideclimatenews.org/news/26062012/dilbit-diluted-bitumen-enbridge-kalamazoo-river-marshall-michigan-oil-spill-6b-pipeline-epa/">slow, bungled response and lack of transparency</a>, led to scrutiny of other Enbridge pipelines, <a href="https://www.nwf.org/%7E/media/pdfs/regional/great-lakes/nwf_sunkenhazard.ashx">including Line 5</a>.</p>
<p>In a 2014 analysis, University of Michigan oceanographer <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=wWTpqmEAAAAJ&hl=en">David J. Schwab</a> concluded that the Straits of Mackinac were the <a href="https://news.umich.edu/straits-of-mackinac-worst-possible-place-for-a-great-lakes-oil-spill-u-m-researcher-concludes/">“worst possible place</a>” for a Great Lakes oil spill because of high-speed currents that were unpredictable and reversed frequently. Within 20 days of a spill, Schwab estimated, oil could be carried up to 50 miles (80 kilometers) from the site into Lakes Michigan and Huron, fouling drinking water intakes, beaches and other critical areas.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ELlWwTF9PDs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">This animated video created by David J. Schwab of the University of Michigan Water Center shows how an oil spill beneath the Straits of Mackinac could spread within the first 20 days.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This and other research intensified a burgeoning advocacy campaign by pipeline opponents, including <a href="https://www.oilandwaterdontmix.org/">regional and national environmental organizations</a>, <a href="https://earthjustice.org/feature/bay-mills-fighting-the-good-fight-to-protect-the-great-lakes-line-5-enbridge">Indigenous leaders and advocates</a>, and a newly formed network of <a href="https://glbusinessnetwork.com/">local and regional businesses</a>. </p>
<p>Pipeline supporters include the <a href="https://www.api.org/">American Petroleum Institute</a> and others in the fossil fuel industry, many <a href="https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2021/11/15/enbridge-line-5-shutdown-not-soon/6369707001/">conservative lawmakers</a>, several key <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-canada-pipelines-activists-idUSKBN2A11ED">labor unions</a> and the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-wisconsin-line-5-pipeline-1.6565809">government of Canada</a>. They argue that the current pipeline is safe, violates no federal laws and is a key piece of infrastructure that helps keep <a href="https://www.enbridge.com/projects-and-infrastructure/public-awareness/line-5-michigan/about-line-5">energy costs low</a>.</p>
<h2>Michigan revokes its easement</h2>
<p>After years of scrutiny, including the formation of the <a href="https://mipetroleumpipelines.org/">Michigan Pipeline Safety Advisory Board</a> and two <a href="https://mipetroleumpipelines.org/document/independent-risk-analysis-straits-pipelines-final-report">expert reports</a> commissioned by the state, analyses showed that Enbridge was <a href="https://www.mlive.com/news/2017/06/line_5_unsupported_spans.html">violating provisions of its easement</a>. Most notably, the section of Line 5 that ran under the straits lacked proper anchors and coating, <a href="https://michiganlcv.org/line5/">increasing the threat of a rupture</a>. The state concluded that the easement <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/public_trust_doctrine#:%7E:text=Public%20trust%20doctrine%20is%20a,waters%2C%20wildlife%2C%20or%20land.">violated the public trust doctrine</a> – the idea that government should protect certain natural resources, including waterways, for public use.</p>
<p>State reports concluded that the highest risk for rupture was from <a href="https://mipetroleumpipelines.org/document/independent-risk-analysis-straits-pipelines-final-report">anchor strikes</a>. Environmental nongovernment organizations found that Line 5 had already leaked <a href="https://www.nwf.org/-/media/Documents/PDFs/Press-Releases/2020/11-20-20-Line-5-Report">more than 1 million gallons</a> of oil and natural gas liquids. On April 1, 2018, a boat anchor struck the pipeline and <a href="https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2019/05/15/mackinac-enbridge-oil-pipeline-anchor-damage/3679013002/">nearly ruptured it</a>, temporarily shutting it down. </p>
<p>In 2019, Gov. Rick Snyder was succeeded by Gretchen Whitmer, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2021/05/14/gretchen-whitmer-enbridge-line-5-pipeline-mackinac-time-bomb/">who pledged in her campaign to close Line 5</a>. Seeking to avert a shutdown, Enbridge proposed building a tunnel beneath the lake bed to <a href="https://www.michiganradio.org/environment-science/2018-12-19/mackinac-straits-corridor-authority-approves-enbridge-tunnel-agreements">protect the pipeline</a>.</p>
<p>But after more analysis and <a href="https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/local/michigan/2020/06/19/whitmer-line-5-shut-down-after-significant-damage-anchor-support/3225987001/">another anchor strike</a> that temporarily shut down the pipeline again, Whitmer issued an order in November 2020 <a href="https://www.mlive.com/public-interest/2020/11/enbridge-line-5-ordered-shut-down-by-michigan-gov-whitmer.html">revoking Enbridge’s easement</a> and giving the company six months to close Line 5. The state <a href="https://casetext.com/case/michigan-v-enbridge-energy-ltd-pship">sought a court order</a> to support its decision.</p>
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<h2>Challenging state and tribal authority</h2>
<p>Instead of accepting state orders, <a href="https://www.bridgemi.com/michigan-environment-watch/enbridge-michigan-we-wont-shut-down-line-5">Enbridge resisted</a>. The company argued that Michigan lacked authority to tell it how to manage the pipeline; that the project had not required an easement in 1953; and that building the tunnel would mitigate any risks. </p>
<p>Enbridge <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1DJAw1cNSvCRGxOwJlFl5-U95VVr1jbSV/view">sued Michigan in federal court</a>, arguing that pipeline safety regulation was a federal issue and that the state had no authority to intervene in what was essentially <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMuK5LDlsF4">international commerce</a>.</p>
<p>Enbridge also faced pressure from the <a href="http://www.badriver-nsn.gov/">Bad River Tribe</a> in Wisconsin, where some 12 miles of the pipeline runs through the Bad River Band reservation and across the Bad River. Enbridge’s easement on parts of the reservation expired in 2013, and in 2017 the tribal council <a href="https://insideclimatenews.org/news/16012017/dakota-access-pipeline-standing-rock-enbridge-line-5-native-american-protest/">voted to evict Enbridge from their land</a>, calling the pipeline a threat to the river and their culture. </p>
<p>When Enbridge continued operating Line 5, the tribe <a href="https://www.wpr.org/sites/default/files/7-23-19_lawsuit.pdf">sued the company in federal court</a> in 2019, charging it with trespass, unjust enrichment and other offenses, and sought to get the pipeline closed. </p>
<p>Today, Michigan’s case against Enbridge is <a href="https://www.michigan.gov/ag/news/press-releases/2023/03/03/attorney-general-nessel-asks-court-of-appeals-to-move-enbridge-case-back-to-michigan">bogged down in jurisdictional battles</a>. But on June 16, 2023, the federal judge overseeing the Bad River case <a href="https://www.courthousenews.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/bad-river-vs-enbridge-pipeline-lawsuit-decision.pdf">ruled largely in favor of the tribe</a> and ordered Enbridge to stop operating the pipeline on tribal land within three years. Enbridge vowed to appeal the ruling, but is also seeking permits for a <a href="https://www.wpr.org/judge-orders-enbridge-shut-down-part-wisconsin-oil-pipeline-3-years">41-mile reroute</a> of Line 5 around the reservation.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542373/original/file-20230811-15-nv1ukl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Trudeau and Biden shake hands at the entrance to a stone building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542373/original/file-20230811-15-nv1ukl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542373/original/file-20230811-15-nv1ukl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542373/original/file-20230811-15-nv1ukl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542373/original/file-20230811-15-nv1ukl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542373/original/file-20230811-15-nv1ukl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542373/original/file-20230811-15-nv1ukl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542373/original/file-20230811-15-nv1ukl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Canada’s prime minister, Justin Trudeau, shown welcoming U.S. President Joe Biden to Ottawa on March 24, 2023, strongly supports Line 5, which carries Canadian oil and gas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/BidenCanada/9c3b7f736a704947b4fc2b08c25532f6/photo">AP Photo/Andrew Harnik</a></span>
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<h2>A national precedent</h2>
<p>Line 5 is more than a Midwest issue. It has become a focus for <a href="https://narf.org/bay-mills-line5-pipeline/">national activism</a> and is a <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-11-10/why-a-flowing-pipeline-has-canada-michigan-at-odds-quicktake?sref=Hjm5biAW">major diplomatic issue</a> between Canada and the U.S.
President Joe Biden, who has <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/03/08/974365298/biden-faces-balancing-act-advancing-clean-energy-alongside-labor-allies">worked to balance</a> his ties with organized labor and his support for a clean energy transition, has avoided taking a side to date. </p>
<p>To continue operating Line 5, Enbridge will have to convince the courts that its interests and legal arguments outweigh those of an Indigenous nation and the state of Michigan. Never before has an active fossil fuel pipeline been closed due to potential environmental and cultural damage. </p>
<p>The outcome could set a precedent for other pipeline and fossil fuel infrastructure battles, from the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2023/07/27/supreme-court-mountain-valley-pipeline/">mid-Atlantic</a> to the <a href="https://www.desmog.com/2023/07/20/tcenergy-gtn-pipeline-expansion-northwest-climate-change/">Pacific Coast</a>. Ultimately, in my view, Line 5 is an under-the-radar but critical proxy battle for how, when and under what authority the phasing out of fossil fuels will proceed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208923/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Shriberg previously served from 2015-2022 as the Great Lakes Regional Executive Director for the National Wildlife Federation, where his position included grant and donor funding to work on issues related to the Line 5 pipeline. He also served as a gubernatorial appointee under former Gov. Rick Snyder to the Michigan Pipeline Safety Advisory Board.</span></em></p>A pipeline that has carried Canadian oil and gas across Wisconsin and Michigan for 70 years has become a symbol of fossil fuel politics and a test of local regulatory power.Mike Shriberg, Professor of Practice & Engagement, School for Environment & Sustainability, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2106972023-08-07T20:02:11Z2023-08-07T20:02:11ZControversial ‘forever chemicals’ could be phased out in Australia under new restrictions. Here’s what you need to know<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541416/original/file-20230807-20-siq78h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=50%2C30%2C6659%2C4436&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tasty-food-containers-wooden-knife-fork-2320021427">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s growing global concern about potential risks to human health and the environment from a group of industrial chemicals commonly known as PFAS, or “forever chemicals”.</p>
<p>While the full extent of harm from PFAS is still emerging, the fact these chemicals persist in the environment and accumulate in the body is alarming enough. Some scientists believe they will <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.2c02765">never break down</a>.</p>
<p>Until now, Australia has not restricted the trade or use of most PFAS chemicals. But that’s about to change. </p>
<p>The federal government intends to stop the import, manufacture and use of some types of PFAS within two years. We want to raise awareness and encourage industry to be proactive about finding alternatives. The sooner industry acts on this, the faster we can eliminate PFAS from the products we use and our waste. With untold benefits for people and our planet.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pfas-might-be-everywhere-including-toilet-paper-but-lets-keep-the-health-risks-in-context-201785">PFAS might be everywhere – including toilet paper – but let's keep the health risks in context</a>
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<h2>Hang on, what is PFAS again?</h2>
<p>PFAS (or per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances) are a group of around <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-pfas-the-forever-chemicals-showing-up-in-drinking-water-an-environmental-health-scientist-explains-185015">9,000</a> individual chemical compounds found in many everyday products. </p>
<p>These complex substances are made by joining carbon and fluorine atoms, creating one of the strongest bonds in organic chemistry. As a result, they are stain-resistant, water-resistant, grease-resistant and heat-resistant. That makes them enormously useful in products such as food packaging, non-stick cookware, semiconductors and other electronics, refrigerants, stain or waterproof textiles and cosmetics. PFAS has even been found in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/mar/13/toxic-forever-chemicals-pfas-toilet-paper">toilet paper</a>. </p>
<p>But PFAS chemicals also appear to be toxic. They have been linked to a range of <a href="https://setac.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/etc.4890">human</a> and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2305-6304/10/2/44">environmental health problems</a>. </p>
<p>The use of potentially hazardous chemicals such as PFAS also undermines recycling and the <a href="https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/topics/circular-economy-introduction/overview">circular economy</a>. Compost made from food and garden organics may be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666765722000102">contaminated</a> through packaging and other sources. PFAS in sewage also challenges the use of <a href="https://theconversation.com/forever-chemicals-have-made-their-way-to-farms-for-now-levels-in-your-food-are-low-but-theres-no-time-to-waste-192402">biosolids</a> as fertiliser on farms. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/forever-chemicals-have-made-their-way-to-farms-for-now-levels-in-your-food-are-low-but-theres-no-time-to-waste-192402">'Forever chemicals' have made their way to farms. For now, levels in your food are low – but there's no time to waste</a>
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<h2>What is changing and what will this mean?</h2>
<p>The federal government recently reviewed the industrial chemical regulatory frameworks protecting human and environmental health. As a result, the federal, state and territory governments established the new Australian <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/chemicals-management/national-standard">Industrial Chemical Environmental Management Standard</a> in 2021. </p>
<p>Chemicals with industrial applications are placed into <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/chemicals-management/national-standard/roadmap">one of seven categories</a> or “schedules”, according to the level of environmental risk they represent. The standard sets out the measures required to manage such risks.</p>
<p>Schedule 7 is reserved for industrial chemicals likely to cause serious or irreversible harm to the environment. </p>
<p>Last month, the federal Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water announced its <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/about/news/consultation-open-pfas-pecb-management-standards">intention</a> to regulate three groups of PFAS chemicals and pentachlorobenzene (PeCB) under Schedule 7.</p>
<p>This means businesses will have to stop importing, manufacturing or using these PFAS groups, either as bulk chemicals or in consumer products. </p>
<p>Schedule 7 also states “<a href="https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%201522/volume-1522-i-26369-english.pdf">no essential uses</a>”. This means the chemicals cannot be used, even when it is necessary for the health, safety or functioning of society, or when there are no other available alternatives. </p>
<p>The timing of the proposed Australian restrictions aligns with the <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32019R1021">EU phase-out</a>. The <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/03/14/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-takes-new-action-to-protect-communities-from-pfas-pollution/">United States</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/canada-takes-first-step-to-regulate-toxic-forever-chemicals-but-is-it-enough-207288">Canada</a> are also pursuing similar action. </p>
<p>Increasingly, countries are pursuing coordinated regulatory actions that will shift market standards around industrial chemical use and management.</p>
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<h2>What should business do?</h2>
<p>At this stage, <a href="https://www.uts.edu.au/sites/default/files/2021-04/UTS_Chemical_Sustainability_report_2020_WEB.pdf">research indicates</a> low levels of industry awareness and action globally. Industry risks being caught short, facing the economic and administrative consequences of compliance when new rules come into effect. </p>
<p>Phasing out potentially hazardous chemicals such as PFAS will require careful consideration of both risk and technical function. In many cases, products have been designed around these chemicals. This means substitutions will need to be found. However, businesses also need to be aware of the potential for “regrettable substitution”, where a potentially hazardous chemical is replaced by a similar, but lesser-known chemical that also threatens human health and the environment. </p>
<p>There are some tools available to help find safe alternatives. For example, the European non-government organisation ChemSec has compiled a <a href="https://sinlist.chemsec.org/">database</a> of hazardous chemicals that are likely to be regulated in future, if not already, and a <a href="https://marketplace.chemsec.org/">marketplace</a> for safe substitutions.</p>
<p>In some cases, avoiding regrettable substitution will necessitate rethinking how the function of a product can be delivered in an entirely new way. </p>
<p>Market-leading businesses are experimenting with recent advances in engineering, material sciences, and technology to redesign products without hazardous chemicals. </p>
<p>For example, outdoor-wear companies have redesigned textiles to deliver waterproof products without PFAS chemicals. The North Face has started using an advanced material called “<a href="https://thenorthface.com.au/explore-technologies/technologies-futurelight.html">FUTURELIGHT</a>”, which uses nanotechnology to create a waterproof nano-fibre structure. Helly Hansen introduced “<a href="https://hellyhansen.com.au/pages/lifa-infinity-pro%E2%84%A2">Lifa Infinity Pro</a>” that uses advanced textile engineering to create a hydrophobic (water-hating) material, without having to add chemicals.</p>
<p>Emerging new services design-out problematic products entirely. For example, <a href="https://theconversation.com/recycling-plastic-bottles-is-good-but-reusing-them-is-better-126339">reusable food packaging services</a>, intended to address the environmental impacts of single-use-packaging, generally use reusable materials such as stainless steel that do not require hazardous chemicals to function. </p>
<p>In support of industry action, governments industry, universities and non-governmental organisations are helping support better chemical management.
For example, ChemSec has convened an <a href="https://chemsec.org/knowledge/iihc/">Investor Initiative on Hazardous Chemicals</a> to help reduce the impacts of hazardous chemicals, while also reducing financial risks to investors. Or in Australia, the <a href="https://stewardshipexcellence.com.au/">Product Stewardship Centre of Excellence</a> is providing <a href="https://stewardshipexcellence.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/WHITEPAPER_Chemicals-of-concern_FINAL-1.pdf">tools</a> for business and government to ensure safe, clean supply chains. </p>
<p>Governments also have a role to play in helping business transition away from hazardous chemicals. They can encourage business to take a whole-of-system approach to reducing chemicals across supply chains. This might involve tracking and tracing mechanisms, certification and labelling, or supporting research into <a href="https://www.turi.org/">safer alternatives</a>.</p>
<p>The Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water is inviting <a href="https://consult.dcceew.gov.au/ichems-s17-proposed-decisions">feedback on the proposed scheduling decisions</a> before submissions close on September 1 this year. The government says feedback will help Australian governments and businesses to better manage the environmental risks of these chemicals.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/youve-read-the-scary-headlines-but-rest-assured-your-cookware-is-safe-199967">You've read the scary headlines – but rest assured, your cookware is safe</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210697/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachael Wakefield-Rann receives research funding from various government and non-government organisations. She does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would financially benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond her academic appointment.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Wilson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New restrictions on PFAS and other potentially hazardous chemicals in Australia present an opportunity for industry to develop alternatives for new, safe and clean products.Sarah Wilson, PhD Candidate in Nanotechnology & Innovation Governance, University of Technology SydneyRachael Wakefield-Rann, Senior Research Consultant, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2070642023-06-20T16:00:02Z2023-06-20T16:00:02ZUnprecedented marine heatwave underlines the urgency to clean up UK rivers and coasts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532920/original/file-20230620-17-f21hil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1386%2C0%2C3138%2C2924&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Seagrass meadows are an important part of the UK’s marine environment.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Benjamin Jones/Project Seagrass</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Thousands of people took to the UK’s seas and rivers recently in a <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/sick-sewage-britons-protest-water-companies-pollution-2023-05-20/">nationwide “paddle-out” protest</a> to demand an end to sewage spilling into the country’s waterways. The campaigners were largely concerned about the consequences of this filth for human health and nature.</p>
<p>But as the UK’s coastal seas boil under what is an <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jun/19/marine-heatwave-uk-irish-coasts-threat-oysters-fish-high-temperatures">unprecedented marine heatwave</a>, these calls have new urgency. At the time of writing, some areas off the coast of England are up to 5°C warmer than usual.</p>
<p>The degradation of the UK’s rivers and coasts caused by pollution, coupled with the impact of marine heatwaves, poses a threat to the future of a vital coastal plant species called seagrass. </p>
<p>Seagrasses are plants that have adapted to live in the ocean, forming vast meadows that often span hundreds of hectares. These meadows provide habitats for marine wildlife and nurseries for commercially important species such as Atlantic cod. They also trap carbon from our atmosphere, help reduce coastal erosion and even filter <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00227-021-03963-3">harmful bacteria from seawater</a>. </p>
<p>But unlike humans, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1385110198000045#:%7E:text=In%20low-light%20environments%2C%20the%20respiring%20below-ground%20biomass%20%28which,and%20rhizomes%20may%20undermine%20plant%20vitality%20as%20well.">plants cannot control their body heat</a>. So higher seawater temperatures lead to increased respiration rates (the process living things use to create energy to live and grow) and a greater need for food.</p>
<p>A higher respiration rate is not necessarily a problem for seagrass if it has lots of light to photosynthesise effectively. The problem is that light is often limited in polluted waterways.</p>
<p>Stopping the flow of pollution into our rivers is no longer a luxury for another day, but an urgent necessity. Failing to clean up our water systems now will result in the loss of marine and aquatic life, undermining the functioning of our natural world.</p>
<h2>Algal growth</h2>
<p>Seagrasses also need a supply of nutrients like nitrate and phosphate, without which they will be unable to grow. In UK waterways, the discharge of sewage and farming waste into rivers and streams, and the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2018.00133/full">excessive use of fertilisers</a> on the land contributes to elevated nutrient levels. However, these increased nutrient levels stimulate the growth of various types of algae in seawater, including those in the water, on seagrass leaves and on sediments. </p>
<p>This competition for nutrients puts seagrass at a disadvantage. Seagrasses primarily extract nutrients directly from the sediment, while algae can access them in the water more effectively.</p>
<p>As nutrient concentrations rise, algae populations continue to increase and form extensive blooms. The proliferation of algae turns the water green, covers the seagrass leaves and smothers the habitat. This overload of algae prevents seagrass from photosynthesising at such a rapid rate.</p>
<p>During a marine heatwave, seagrass experiences elevated respiration rates, which increases their need for light. In clear and healthy water, seagrasses respond by raising their photosynthetic rate to meet their additional energy requirements. However, when the water becomes overwhelmed by excessive algae growth, seagrass struggles to keep pace and eventually deteriorates.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Seagrass covered in algae." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532784/original/file-20230619-32911-4a5amn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532784/original/file-20230619-32911-4a5amn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532784/original/file-20230619-32911-4a5amn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532784/original/file-20230619-32911-4a5amn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532784/original/file-20230619-32911-4a5amn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532784/original/file-20230619-32911-4a5amn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532784/original/file-20230619-32911-4a5amn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Seagrass smothered in algae in a lagoon in North Wales.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Richard Unsworth/Project Seagrass</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Seagrass is suffocating</h2>
<p>The UK’s waterways and coastal seas are some of the most heavily polluted in Europe. Over 75% of the country’s rivers and streams <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25737-the-most-polluted-rivers-and-streams-in-europe/">contain levels of organic pollutants</a> that are either lethal to aquatic life or have the potential to cause chronic harm. </p>
<p>However, nutrient pollution affects seagrass far beyond the boundaries of the UK. In 2021, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0258898">one study</a> estimated that 88% of seagrass meadows worldwide are exposed to nutrient inputs from wastewater.</p>
<p>Over the past two years, we’ve been documenting the health of seagrass meadows around the UK at <a href="https://www.projectseagrass.org/">Project Seagrass</a> (a marine conservation charity dedicated to saving the world’s seagrass) and <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk">Swansea University</a>. This research adds to a database initially <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.150596">published in 2016</a>. </p>
<p>Despite being located in <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/marine-protected-areas-mpas#:%7E:text=MPAs%20are%20areas%20of%20the,damage%20caused%20by%20human%20activities.">marine protected areas</a>, most of the seagrass meadows we have studied are in “poor” condition. The levels of nitrogen recorded in these meadows are up to 75% higher than the global average. </p>
<p>By analysing seagrass leaves for nutrients, including nitrogen and a stable isotope of nitrogen called <sup>15</sup>N, we can identify the sources of these nutrients. Notably, sewage and livestock waste exhibit higher levels of <sup>15</sup>N compared to other nutrient sources. These results support our suspicion that the excess nitrogen found in seagrass primarily originates from sewage discharges and nutrients running off farmland.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532886/original/file-20230620-23-3odps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A healthy seagrass meadow." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532886/original/file-20230620-23-3odps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532886/original/file-20230620-23-3odps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532886/original/file-20230620-23-3odps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532886/original/file-20230620-23-3odps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532886/original/file-20230620-23-3odps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532886/original/file-20230620-23-3odps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532886/original/file-20230620-23-3odps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Healthy seagrass meadows can reduce water pollution by sucking up nutrients and harmful bacteria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Benjamin Jones/Project Seagrass</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Costly pollution</h2>
<p>Interestingly, seagrass meadows can also play a crucial role in controlling nutrient pollution. Research has demonstrated the significant financial value of seagrass meadows in terms of their capacity to absorb and store nutrients. </p>
<p>For instance, a study in Sweden observed that the <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ecs2.3658">loss of 1,000 hectares of seagrass</a> over a 20-year period resulted in the release of 60,000 Mg of nitrogen back into the environment. This nitrogen release was more than three times the annual nitrogen load carried by rivers to Sweden’s north-west coastline.</p>
<p>The economic cost associated with this nitrogen release was estimated to be over US$140 million (£110 million). This calculation accounted for the expense required to meet the nitrogen reduction targets set by the <a href="https://water.europa.eu/freshwater/europe-freshwater/water-framework-directive">EU Water Framework Directive</a>, which includes things like the cost of building new wastewater treatment plants.</p>
<p>The loss of seagrass due to more intense marine heatwaves could exacerbate the ongoing deterioration of European waters. In our view, addressing water pollution, specifically from fertilisers and sewage, is just as urgent as tackling the climate and biodiversity crises.</p>
<p>Although we cannot accurately predict the intensity, duration and location of severe marine heatwaves, it seems that they are becoming more frequent as our climate system collapses. The only line of defence for the natural world against the rapidly changing climate is to make species and habitats more able to resist and recover from extreme events. This will require a fundamental change in the polluting practices that currently suffocate aquatic environments.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207064/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard K.F. Unsworth receives funding from the Natural Environment Research Council (UK). He is also Chief Scientific Officer for the marine conservation charity Project Seagrass.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Benjamin L.H. Jones is Chief Conservation Officer for the marine conservation charity Project Seagrass. He is also president of the World Seagrass Association.</span></em></p>Seagrasses need light to remain resilient to marine heatwaves – water pollution disrupts that balance.Richard K.F. Unsworth, Associate professor in marine biology, Swansea UniversityBenjamin L.H. Jones, Chief Conservation Officer, Project Seagrass & Postdoctoral Associate, Florida International UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2064072023-06-15T06:31:01Z2023-06-15T06:31:01ZMany urban waterways were once waste dumps. Restoration efforts have made great strides – but there’s more to do to bring nature back<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529731/original/file-20230602-21-1ed8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=30%2C6%2C3995%2C3011&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Darebin Creek</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Oliver Jones</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the 19th century, many of Australia’s urban creeks and rivers were in poor shape. Melbourne’s major river, the Maribyrnong, was <a href="https://www.melbournewater.com.au/water-and-environment/water-management/rivers-and-creeks/maribyrnong-river">full of waste</a> from abattoirs, tanneries and factories. </p>
<p>I live near Darebin Creek in Melbourne’s north, which was next to a tip and often polluted until cleanup efforts began in the 70s. Now many creatures have returned. </p>
<p>But while many waterways have been cleaned up, others have languished. As late as 2011, Sydney’s notoriously polluted Cooks River was so full of industrial waste and sewage it <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-10-24/sydney-river-given-open-sewer-status/3596832">was dubbed</a> an “open sewer”. Now, it’s <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7934360/transforming-australias-urban-rivers/">starting to improve</a>. </p>
<p>Here’s what the restoration of Darebin Creek shows us about the successes and challenges of bringing life back to our urban waterways.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532107/original/file-20230615-23-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Darebin creek" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532107/original/file-20230615-23-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532107/original/file-20230615-23-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532107/original/file-20230615-23-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532107/original/file-20230615-23-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532107/original/file-20230615-23-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532107/original/file-20230615-23-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532107/original/file-20230615-23-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Darebin Creek isn’t pristine – but it’s come a long way since the 1970s.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rivers or rubbish dumps?</h2>
<p>Many of us, like Mole from <em>Wind in the Willows</em>, find ourselves “<em>intoxicated with the sparkle, the ripple, the scents and the sounds…</em>” of our waterways. </p>
<p>But we don’t always treat them very well. <a href="https://rsv.org.au/melbournes-urban-waterways/">European settlement had a big effect on creeks and rivers</a>, we’ve often used them as convenient waste dumps. Pump industrial waste, chemicals or sewage into them and watch it float away. Once we might have thought “problem solved”. Now we know differently. Treating rivers as dumps can (unsurprisingly) damage or even wipe out the life in it. </p>
<p>In Victoria, their fate started to improve when the state government passed the <a href="https://jade.io/j/?a=outline&id=281879">Environment Protection Act</a> in 1970 (since superseded by the the <a href="https://www.environment.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/334450/Factsheet_Environment-Protection-Amendment-Act-2018.pdf">Environment Protection Amendment Act 2018</a>). Since then, community groups, <a href="https://www.water.vic.gov.au/water-for-victoria/progress-report-waterway-and-catchment-health">government agencies</a>, and <a href="https://www.melbournewater.com.au/water-and-environment/water-management/rivers-and-creeks/river-health-and-monitoring">Melbourne Water</a> have started the repair job. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-tale-of-2-rivers-is-it-safer-to-swim-in-the-yarra-in-victoria-or-the-nepean-in-nsw-130791">A tale of 2 rivers: is it safer to swim in the Yarra in Victoria, or the Nepean in NSW?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Now, we’re starting to see the benefits. My local waterway, Darebin Creek, is typical of many urban creeks and I love spending time here. Running in the morning, I pass ducks, swans, and moorhens. Kookaburras laugh in the trees, insects buzz in the morning light. It’s beautiful. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Kookaburra in a tree" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529749/original/file-20230602-19-z260dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529749/original/file-20230602-19-z260dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529749/original/file-20230602-19-z260dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529749/original/file-20230602-19-z260dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529749/original/file-20230602-19-z260dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529749/original/file-20230602-19-z260dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529749/original/file-20230602-19-z260dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kookaburra in the Darabin Parklands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Oliver Jones</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the creek itself live frogs, invertebrates and fish. Endangered species like the growling grass frog and matted flax-lily can now <a href="https://new.parliament.vic.gov.au/4932e9/contentassets/9b88a28a1b3946ddb707ffdbe6198459/submission-documents/s452---city-of-darebin_redacted.pdf">be found</a>. </p>
<p>There are even <a href="https://www.heraldsun.com.au/leader/north/banyule-park-ranger-snaps-images-of-platypus-in-creek-near-northland-shopping-centre/news-story/01a7eaa66019c6b5bf66ce450903bd67">platypus sightings</a>, which means there’s food there for them like insect larvae and yabbies. </p>
<p>What is now the expansive Darebin Parklands was once was used as a farm, then a quarry, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/radio/programs/pm/darebin-creek:-from-rubbish-dump-to-potential/8308436">then a tip</a> earmarked for a freeway, and the creek was little more than a stormwater drain. Even today, leachate from the old tip <a href="https://archive.md/20121127132744/http://www.dcmc.org.au/parklands/leachate.php#selection-589.0-593.117">seeps out</a>. </p>
<p>The creek’s transformation – especially in its southern reaches – is due in large part to one determined woman, Sue Course, who was rightly <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/mother-of-the-park-among-community-based-honours-heroes-20210125-p56wpw.html">recognised for her work</a> in the 2021 Australia Day honours. </p>
<p>In the 1970s, Sue and her husband Laurie formed a residents’ group and lobbied successfully for the land to be given to the public. The group spent decades removing weeds and rubbish and planting trees.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="freshwater invertebrates" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529981/original/file-20230605-16883-8iqqyz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529981/original/file-20230605-16883-8iqqyz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=184&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529981/original/file-20230605-16883-8iqqyz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=184&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529981/original/file-20230605-16883-8iqqyz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=184&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529981/original/file-20230605-16883-8iqqyz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529981/original/file-20230605-16883-8iqqyz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529981/original/file-20230605-16883-8iqqyz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Three invertebrates I found in Darebin Creek – a bloodworm (chironomid larva), freshwater crab and caddis fly larvae.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Oliver Jones</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many urban waterways in Victoria are now in reasonable health, <a href="https://www.melbournewater.com.au/water-and-environment/water-management/rivers-and-creeks/river-health-and-monitoring">providing habitat</a> for more than <a href="https://www.melbournewater.com.au/water-and-environment/water-management/rivers-and-creeks/know-your-rivers-and-creeks">1,800 species of native plants and 600 species of native animals</a>. But not all. Rivers such as the Ovens and the Murray, and even the Yarra in places, are in poorer condition with <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/snapshot-of-victorias-degraded-rivers-20030430-gdvmky.html">low flows and high sediment and salt levels</a> major issues. </p>
<p>Improvements are often connected to community efforts to revegetate, as well as watching for chemicals or other pollutants pumped into the stream. These efforts have to be ongoing. As recently as 2016, eels and other fish <a href="https://greens.org.au/vic/news/speech/darebin-creek-contamination">died in Darebin Creek</a> due to insecticide being washed into the water. </p>
<p>And the wildlife of the creek has not fully recovered, as the local council <a href="https://new.parliament.vic.gov.au/4932e9/contentassets/9b88a28a1b3946ddb707ffdbe6198459/submission-documents/s452---city-of-darebin_redacted.pdf">points out</a>. The remarkable <a href="https://www.environment.vic.gov.au/conserving-threatened-species/threatened-species/plains-wanderer">plains-wanderer</a> once roamed the creekline, but the last sighting was in 1972. </p>
<h2>How do we fully restore our city waterways?</h2>
<p>Native species reliant on our city waterways still face threats. These include: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>catchment pollution. A catchment is an area of land where water collects when it rains and then flows to a low point (such as a stream). Pollution in a creek or river’s catchment upstream can affect the whole waterway. A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969722076598">recent study</a> on pesticides found the major source was residential use, meaning the chemicals were washed into the wetlands. A similar project used GPS to track plastic bottles <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au/about/schools-colleges/science/research/research-centres-groups/aquatic-environmental-stress/litter-trackers">down Melbourne’s creeks</a>.They found bottles could travel many kilometres downstream, or get stuck and break down locally.</p></li>
<li><p>organic micropollutants. The way we live means we use a large range of chemicals, including cosmetics, <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@dr_oli_jones/video/6995072849769712898">pharmaceuticals</a>, pesticides, fertilisers, and artificial sweeteners. A detailed study of the Yarra, Sydney and Brisbane River estuaries <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X20301326">found</a> traces of these chemicals in the water, including drugs, medication, personal care products, pesticides, and even food additives. Even though they are present in very low concentrations they can still be a worry. A <a href="https://lens.monash.edu/2018/11/07/1364035/pharmaceuticals-in-our-waterways">recent study from Monash University</a> showed that concentrations of pharmaceuticals in rivers, though far below the therapeutic dose can still affect fish behaviour.</p></li>
<li><p>stormwater. When rain runs off hard surfaces like roofs, driveways, and roads, it runs into storm drains and creeks, carrying debris, bacteria, soil, oil, grease, pesticides and other pollutants with it. In 2016 it was estimated that <a href="https://www.ces.vic.gov.au/sotb">95% of litter</a> on Victorian beaches was transported there from suburban areas through stormwater drains.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532108/original/file-20230615-28-2eowb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="stormwater drain" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532108/original/file-20230615-28-2eowb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532108/original/file-20230615-28-2eowb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532108/original/file-20230615-28-2eowb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532108/original/file-20230615-28-2eowb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532108/original/file-20230615-28-2eowb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532108/original/file-20230615-28-2eowb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532108/original/file-20230615-28-2eowb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rubbish on our beaches is nearly all from stormwater runoff.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><p>nutrients. Fertiliser runoff from farms and wastewater spills in urban areas can bring too many nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus into waterways. Overloads of nutrients can trigger sudden plant and algae growth. These block light and reduce oxygen levels, leading to the death of fish and other aquatic animals. Some algae and cyanoabacteria (that also grow in these conditions) produce toxins that can <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/Harmful-algal-blooms">make us sick too</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>invasive species. Many invasive species have been introduced into Australian waters including the infamous <a href="https://vfa.vic.gov.au/education/fish-species/carp">carp</a> and <a href="https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/threatened-species/nsw-threatened-species-scientific-committee/determinations/final-determinations/1996-1999/predation-by-the-plague-minnow-gambusia-holbrooki-key-threatening-process-listing">mosquito fish</a>. These prey on or outcompete native species, damage habitat, and carry diseases and parasites. Careful management to reduce their impact will likely be needed for some time.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532109/original/file-20230615-27-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="gambusia" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532109/original/file-20230615-27-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532109/original/file-20230615-27-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532109/original/file-20230615-27-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532109/original/file-20230615-27-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532109/original/file-20230615-27-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532109/original/file-20230615-27-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532109/original/file-20230615-27-r1j4vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Most of us will have seen schools of invasive mosquitofish (gambusia holbrooki) swimming in our waterways. Originally introduced to control mosquitoes they can crowd out other species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How can we help bring life back?</h2>
<p>If there’s a lesson in the restoration work done so far, it’s that we can’t expect life just to bounce back. Making our waterways healthy again takes effort, ranging from making sure rubbish doesn’t escape into them through to joining your local waterway organisation – or starting one. </p>
<p>Join a local <a href="https://www.waterwatch.org.au/">Waterwatch program</a> to monitor river health, or join the national <a href="https://www.waterbugblitz.org.au">waterbug blitz</a> to learn more about invertebrate life. You can even get involved in efforts to restore riparian vegetation as natural flood dampening measures.</p>
<p>Above all, let’s appreciate our urban creeks and rivers for what they are – and for what they can become, so the next generation will have the same chance to enjoy them as we have.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-if-urban-plans-gave-natural-systems-the-space-to-recover-from-the-cities-built-over-them-it-can-be-done-199388">What if urban plans gave natural systems the space to recover from the cities built over them? It can be done</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206407/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oliver A.H. Jones works on collaborative projects with, and has received funding from, Environment Protection Authority (EPA) Victoria, Melbourne Water and South East Water.</span></em></p>Urban rivers and creeks have bounced back from early colonial use as convenient waste dumps. But the restoration work isn’t done yet, as Melbourne’s Darebin Creek shows.Oliver A.H. Jones, Professor, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2070832023-06-06T12:29:31Z2023-06-06T12:29:31ZProtecting the ocean: 5 essential reads on invasive species, overfishing and other threats to sea life<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530186/original/file-20230605-15-w5h9js.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C15%2C5283%2C3516&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fish in a kelp forest off San Benito Island, Mexico.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/garibaldi-fish-in-kelp-forest-hypsypops-rubicundus-san-news-photo/551022897">Photo by Reinhard Dirscherl/ullstein bild via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Humans rely on the ocean for many things, including food, jobs, recreation and <a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/climate.html">stabilization of Earth’s climate</a>. But although ocean resources may seem infinite, human impacts like pollution, overfishing and climate change are creating what United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres has called an “<a href="https://press.un.org/en/2022/sea2143.doc.htm">ocean emergency</a>.” Climate change is pushing ocean temperatures to <a href="https://phys.org/news/2023-05-sea-surface-surge.html">record levels</a>, many <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc0461en">fisheries are overharvested</a>, and plastic waste is <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/03/science/ocean-plastic-animals.html">accumulating in the deep sea</a>.</p>
<p>These five articles from The Conversation’s archive spotlight urgent challenges for ocean conservation, and describe what researchers are doing to devise effective responses.</p>
<h2>1. A devastating invasion is expanding</h2>
<p>Invasive lionfish are aggressive predators, native to the Indo-Pacific Ocean, that feed on smaller reef fish. They have caused heavy damage in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico since they first appeared in the Atlantic in 1985. Now, they’ve spread south to Brazil, which has many rare endemic fish species and is behind the curve in responding. </p>
<p>“As one of many Brazilian scientists who warned repeatedly about a potential lionfish invasion over the past decade, I’m disheartened that my country missed the window to take early action,” wrote Charles Darwin University marine scientist <a href="https://scholar.google.com.au/citations?user=_ArEYYMAAAAJ&hl=en">Osmar J. Luiz</a>. “Now, however, marine researchers and local communities are stepping up.”</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530188/original/file-20230605-19-vvnm8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A red-and-white striped fish with long spines in closeup." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530188/original/file-20230605-19-vvnm8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530188/original/file-20230605-19-vvnm8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530188/original/file-20230605-19-vvnm8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530188/original/file-20230605-19-vvnm8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530188/original/file-20230605-19-vvnm8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530188/original/file-20230605-19-vvnm8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530188/original/file-20230605-19-vvnm8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Lionfish have venomous spines that protect them against predators.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/u8LkfH">Florida Fish and Wildlife</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One important control strategy was to create an interactive dashboard where anyone can report lionfish sightings. Other steps are likely to include environmental education, organized culls and genetic research to identify distinct lionfish populations and see where they’re moving. With a similar lionfish invasion underway in the Mediterranean, there’s urgent need for effective responses.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/invasive-lionfish-have-spread-south-from-the-caribbean-to-brazil-threatening-ecosystems-and-livelihoods-199229">Invasive lionfish have spread south from the Caribbean to Brazil, threatening ecosystems and livelihoods</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Mining the seabed poses ecological risks</h2>
<p>One of the ocean’s potentially most valuable resources hasn’t been tapped yet – but that could be about to change. </p>
<p>Scattered across large zones of the ocean floor, manganese nodules – lumps that look like cobblestones – contain rich deposits of <a href="https://theconversation.com/deep-seabed-mining-plans-pit-renewable-energy-demand-against-ocean-life-in-a-largely-unexplored-frontier-193273">nickel, copper, cobalt and other metals</a> that are newly in demand for manufacturing batteries and renewable energy components. </p>
<p>“A fierce debate is now playing out as a Canadian company makes plans to launch the first commercial deep sea mining operation in the Pacific Ocean,” Indiana University scholars <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YtgRGx0AAAAJ&hl=en">Scott Shackelford</a>, <a href="https://law.indiana.libguides.com/ochoa">Christiana Ochoa</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=2bs3bogAAAAJ&hl=en">David Bosco</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kerry-Krutilla">Kerry Krutilla</a> warned.</p>
<p>Less than 10% of the deep seabed has been mapped thoroughly, and most life forms discovered there have never been seen before. Collecting materials from the ocean floor could harm these species – for example, by burying them in sediments. “We believe it would be wise to better understand this existing, fragile ecosystem better before rushing to mine it,” the authors concluded.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/deep-seabed-mining-plans-pit-renewable-energy-demand-against-ocean-life-in-a-largely-unexplored-frontier-193273">Deep seabed mining plans pit renewable energy demand against ocean life in a largely unexplored frontier</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1545116502667546630"}"></div></p>
<h2>3. Illegal fishing is common and hard to detect</h2>
<p>Illegal fishing – taking too many fish, or harvesting threatened species – causes economic losses estimated at US$10 billion to $25 billion annually. It also has been linked to human rights violations, such as forced labor and human trafficking. But it’s easy to conduct these activities out of sight on the high seas.</p>
<p>By looking at when and where fishing boats turned off their location transponders at sea, academic and nongovernment researchers showed that these silences can be an important signal. </p>
<p>“Vessels frequently went dark on the high-seas edge of exclusive economic zone boundaries, which can <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-fishing-boats-go-dark-at-sea-theyre-often-committing-crimes-we-mapped-where-it-happens-196694">obscure illegal fishing in unauthorized locations</a>,” wrote <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=L0Ue4hIAAAAJ&hl=en">Heather Welch</a>, a researcher in ecosystem dynamics at the University of California, Santa Cruz. </p>
<p>Ships may also disable their transponders to avoid pirates or avoid drawing competitors to rich fishing sites, so making it illegal to turn their signals off isn’t a practical strategy. But more analysis of where boats go dark could help governments target inspections and patrols, reducing crimes at sea.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-fishing-boats-go-dark-at-sea-theyre-often-committing-crimes-we-mapped-where-it-happens-196694">When fishing boats go dark at sea, they're often committing crimes – we mapped where it happens</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Dozens of dead red snapper arranged in rows on a pier." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Red snapper seized by Coast Guard law enforcement crews that interdicted a Mexican boat crew fishing illegally in federal waters off southern Texas, Nov. 24, 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/ZwEV3B">U.S. Coast Guard</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Scientists are designing an ‘internet of the ocean’</h2>
<p>Just as there are unnumbered life forms in the ocean yet to be discovered, there also are many unanswered questions about its physical processes. For example, scientists know that the ocean <a href="https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/Ocean+Carbon+Storage">pulls carbon from the atmosphere</a> and transfers it to deep waters, where it can remain stored for long periods. But they don’t know how biological and chemical shifts affect this carbon cycling process. </p>
<p>Scientists at the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> in Massachusetts are designing a monitoring system called the Ocean Vital Signs Network that could make it possible to test strategies for storing more carbon in the ocean and tracking how well they work. They envision “a large network of moorings and sensors that <a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-envision-an-internet-of-the-ocean-with-sensors-and-autonomous-vehicles-that-can-explore-the-deep-sea-and-monitor-its-vital-signs-197134">provides 4D eyes on the oceans</a> – the fourth dimension being time – that are always on, always connected to monitor these carbon cycling processes and ocean health,” wrote WHOI director <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Etpzd_UAAAAJ&hl=en">Peter de Menocal</a>, a marine geologist and paleoclimatologist.</p>
<p>The network would include intelligent gliders and autonomous vehicles that could collect data and then dock, repower and upload it. It also would use sensors and acoustic transceivers to monitor dark, hidden reaches of the ocean where carbon is stored. “This network makes observation possible for making decisions that will affect future generations,” de Menocal wrote.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-envision-an-internet-of-the-ocean-with-sensors-and-autonomous-vehicles-that-can-explore-the-deep-sea-and-monitor-its-vital-signs-197134">Scientists envision an 'internet of the ocean,' with sensors and autonomous vehicles that can explore the deep sea and monitor its vital signs</a>
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<h2>5. Ocean plastic waste has a message for humans</h2>
<p>Over the past several decades, plastic pollution has become one of the world’s more widespread environmental crises. Every year, millions of tons of plastic trash end up in the ocean, <a href="https://theconversation.com/newly-hatched-florida-sea-turtles-are-consuming-dangerous-quantities-of-floating-plastic-143785">killing sea creatures</a>, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sciencematters/tiny-plastics-big-threat-how-are-microplastics-impacting-our-coral-reefs">smothering ecosystems</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/hundreds-of-fish-species-including-many-that-humans-eat-are-consuming-plastic-154634">threatening human health</a>.</p>
<p>Georgia State University art professor <a href="https://artdesign.gsu.edu/profile/pamela-longobardi/">Pam Longobardi</a> grew up in New Jersey, where her father brought home plastic trinkets from his job at the chemical company Union Carbide. Today, Longobardi collects plastic waste from shorelines around the world and sculpts it into large-scale installations that are both eye-catching and alarming. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large sculpted anchor in the center of an art gallery, with ties to life preservers mounted on the ceiling." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Albatross’ and ‘Hope Floats,’ 2017. Recovered ocean plastic, survival rescue blankets, life vest straps and steel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pam Longobardi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>“I see plastic as <a href="https://theconversation.com/my-art-uses-plastic-recovered-from-beaches-around-the-world-to-understand-how-our-consumer-society-is-transforming-the-ocean-187970">a zombie material that haunts the ocean</a>,” Longobardi wrote. “I am interested in ocean plastic in particular because of what it reveals about us as humans in a global culture, and about the ocean as a cultural space and a giant dynamic engine of life and change. Because ocean plastic visibly shows nature’s attempts to reabsorb and regurgitate it, it has profound stories to tell.”</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/my-art-uses-plastic-recovered-from-beaches-around-the-world-to-understand-how-our-consumer-society-is-transforming-the-ocean-187970">My art uses plastic recovered from beaches around the world to understand how our consumer society is transforming the ocean</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<p><em>Editor’s note: This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archives.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207083/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Humans rely on the ocean for food, jobs and other resources, but these systems are being stressed to the brink.Jennifer Weeks, Senior Environment + Cities Editor, The ConversationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2006892023-06-05T12:09:06Z2023-06-05T12:09:06ZArsenic contamination of food and water is a global public health concern – researchers are studying how it causes cancer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529435/original/file-20230531-23-iq2312.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C937%2C768&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">One symptom of arsenic poisoning is the growth of plaques on the skin called arsenical keratosis.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/tQzvii">Anita Ghosh/REACH via Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Arsenic is a naturally occurring element found in the Earth’s crust. Exposure to arsenic, often through contaminated food and water, is associated with various negative health effects, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK304375/">including cancer</a>. </p>
<p>Arsenic exposure is a global public health issue. A 2020 study estimated that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aba1510">up to 200 million people wordwide</a> are exposed to arsenic-contaminated drinking water at levels above the legal limit of <a href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/arsenic/standards.html">10 parts per billion</a> set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and World Health Organization. <a href="https://publications.iarc.fr/Book-And-Report-Series/Iarc-Monographs-On-The-Identification-Of-Carcinogenic-Hazards-To-Humans/Some-Drinking-Water-Disinfectants-And-Contaminants-Including-Arsenic-2004">More than 70 countries</a> are affected, including the United States, Spain, Mexico, Japan, India, China, Canada, Chile, Bangladesh, Bolivia and Argentina.</p>
<p>Since many countries are still affected by high levels of arsenic, we believe arsenic exposure is a global public health issue that requires urgent action. <a href="https://stempel.fiu.edu/research/labs/cancer-research/">We study</a> how <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cristina-Andrade-Feraud">exposure to toxic metals</a> like arsenic can <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=v42J5dMAAAAJ&hl=en">lead to cancer</a> through the formation of <a href="https://theconversation.com/triggering-cancer-cells-to-become-normal-cells-how-stem-cell-therapies-can-provide-new-ways-to-stop-tumors-from-spreading-or-growing-back-191559">cancer stem cells</a>. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Arsenic water contamination predominantly affects communities of color in the U.S.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Arsenic contamination of food and water</h2>
<p>Your body can absorb arsenic <a href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/arsenic/what_routes.html">through several routes</a>, such as inhalation and skin contact. However, the most common source of arsenic exposure is through contaminated drinking water or food.</p>
<p>People who live in areas with <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/arsenic">naturally high levels of arsenic in the soil and water</a> are at particular risk. In the U.S., for example, that includes regions in the Southwest such as Arizona, Nevada and New Mexico. Additionally, <a href="https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/solutions/ovid/environmental-and-occupational-medicine-3485">human activities</a> such as mining and agriculture can also increase arsenic in food and water sources.</p>
<p>High levels of arsenic can also be found in <a href="https://theconversation.com/should-we-worry-about-arsenic-in-baby-cereal-and-drinking-water-57948">food and drink products</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2018.01.018">particularly rice</a> and rice-based products like rice cereals and crackers. A 2019 Consumer Reports investigation even found that <a href="https://www.consumerreports.org/water-quality/arsenic-in-some-bottled-water-brands-at-unsafe-levels-a1198655241/">some brands of bottled water</a> sold in the U.S. contained levels of arsenic that exceeded the legal limit. Alarmingly, multiple studies have also found that several <a href="https://www.consumerreports.org/food-safety/most-baby-foods-contain-arsenic-lead-and-other-heavy-metals/">popular baby food brands</a> contained arsenic at concentrations much higher than the legal limit.</p>
<h2>Arsenic and cancer stem cells</h2>
<p>Chronic exposure to arsenic increases the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djx201">risk</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136071">of</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134128">developing</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.epi-13-0234-t">multiple</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.070">types</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/s0041-008x(02)00022-4">of cancer</a>.</p>
<p>The mechanisms by which arsenic causes cancer are complex and not yet fully understood. However, research suggests that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F10408444.2010.506641">arsenic can</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.chemrestox.9b00464">damage DNA</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-013-1131-4">disrupt cell</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfy247">signaling pathways</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-12-73">impair the</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cotox.2018.01.003">immune system</a>, all of which can contribute to cancer development.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529436/original/file-20230531-17-e8zn68.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Microscopy images of ovarian epithelial cells before and after chronic arsenic exposure" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529436/original/file-20230531-17-e8zn68.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529436/original/file-20230531-17-e8zn68.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=235&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529436/original/file-20230531-17-e8zn68.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=235&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529436/original/file-20230531-17-e8zn68.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=235&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529436/original/file-20230531-17-e8zn68.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529436/original/file-20230531-17-e8zn68.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529436/original/file-20230531-17-e8zn68.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The image on the left shows ovarian epithelial cells under normal conditions. The image on the right shows the cells after three weeks of chronic arsenic exposure at 75 parts per billion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cristina M. Andrade-Feraud/Azzam Laboratory at FIU</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Scientists <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.1204987">have also linked</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.0901059">chronic arsenic exposure</a> to the development of <a href="https://theconversation.com/triggering-cancer-cells-to-become-normal-cells-how-stem-cell-therapies-can-provide-new-ways-to-stop-tumors-from-spreading-or-growing-back-191559">cancer stem cells</a>. These are cells within tumors thought to be responsible for cancer growth and spread. Like normal stem cells in the body, cancer stem cells can develop into many different types of cells. At what stage of cellular development a stem cell acquires the genetic mutation that turns it into a cancer stem cell remains unknown.</p>
<p><a href="https://stempel.fiu.edu/research/labs/cancer-research/">Our research</a> aims to identify what type of cell arsenic targets to form a cancer stem cell. We are currently using cell cultures obtained from the same organ at different stages of cellular development to examine how the origins of cells affect the formation of cancer stem cells.</p>
<p>Preventing chronic arsenic exposure is critical to reducing the burden of arsenic-related health effects. Further research is needed to understand arsenic-induced cancer stem cell formation and develop effective strategies to prevent it. In the meantime, continued monitoring and regulation of this toxic metal in food and water sources could help improve the health of affected communities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200689/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Diana Azzam receives funding from the Florida Department of Health and the National Institute of Health.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cristina Andrade-Feraud does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Millions of people worldwide are exposed via soil and water to arsenic, whether naturally occurring or related to pollution. Chronic exposure is linked to the formation of cancer stem cells.Cristina Andrade-Feraud, Ph.D. Candidate in Environmental Health Sciences, Florida International UniversityDiana Azzam, Assistant Professor of Environmental Health Sciences, Florida International UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2058962023-05-26T12:27:40Z2023-05-26T12:27:40ZThe Supreme Court just shriveled federal protection for wetlands, leaving many of these valuable ecosystems at risk<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528434/original/file-20230525-17-782ull.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C15%2C3409%2C2571&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many ecologically important wetlands, like these in Kulm, N.D., lack surface connections to navigable waterways.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/kgatnj">USFWS Mountain-Prairie/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled in <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/598/21-454/">Sackett v. EPA</a> that federal protection of wetlands encompasses only those wetlands that directly adjoin rivers, lakes and other bodies of water. This is an extremely narrow interpretation of the Clean Water Act that could expose many wetlands across the U.S. to filling and development.</p>
<p>Under this keystone environmental law, federal agencies take the lead in regulating water pollution, while state and local governments regulate land use. Wetlands are areas where <a href="https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/what-wetland">land is wet for all or part of the year</a>, so they straddle this division of authority.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/classification-and-types-wetlands#undefined">Swamps, bogs, marshes and other wetlands</a> provide valuable ecological services, such as filtering pollutants and soaking up floodwaters. Landowners must obtain permits to discharge <a href="https://www.fedcenter.gov/assistance/facilitytour/construction/dredging/">dredged or fill material</a>, such as dirt, sand or rock, in a protected wetland. </p>
<p>This can be time-consuming and expensive, which is why the Supreme Court’s ruling on May 25, 2023, will be of keen interest to developers, farmers and ranchers, along with conservationists and the agencies that administer the Clean Water Act – namely, the Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. </p>
<p>For the last 45 years – and under eight different presidential administrations – the EPA and the Corps have required discharge permits in wetlands “adjacent” to water bodies, even if a dune, levee or other barrier separated the two. The Sackett decision upends that approach, <a href="https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20160427_RL33263_e0b1d527d85d13721eb7f29d3e1446c517900c45.pdf">leaving tens of millions of acres of wetlands at risk</a>. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The U.S. has lost more than half of its original wetlands, mainly due to development and pollution.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>The Sackett case</h2>
<p>Idaho residents Chantell and Mike Sackett own a parcel of land located 300 feet from Priest Lake, <a href="https://www.eenews.net/articles/idaho-couple-returns-to-supreme-court-to-wage-new-wotus-war/">one of the state’s largest lakes</a>. The parcel once was part of a large wetland complex. Today, even after <a href="https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2011/nov/06/private-land-public-battle/">the Sacketts cleared the lot</a>, it still has some wetland characteristics, such as saturation and ponding in areas where soil was removed. Indeed, it is still hydrologically connected to the lake and neighboring wetlands by water that flows at a shallow depth underground. </p>
<p>In preparation to build a house, the Sacketts had fill material placed on the site without obtaining a Clean Water Act permit. The EPA issued an order in 2007 stating that the land contained wetlands subject to the law and requiring the Sacketts to restore the site. The Sacketts sued, <a href="https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2011/nov/06/private-land-public-battle/">arguing that their property was not a wetland</a>. </p>
<p>In 2012, the Supreme Court held that the Sacketts had the right to challenge EPA’s order and <a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/11pdf/10-1062.pdf">sent the case back to the lower courts</a>. After <a href="https://cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/opinions/2021/08/16/19-35469.pdf">losing below on the merits</a>, they returned to the Supreme Court with a suit asserting that their property was not federally protected. This claim in turn raised a broader question: What is the scope of federal regulatory authority under the Clean Water Act?</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528437/original/file-20230525-22692-3hhbom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Homes line the edges of a river." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528437/original/file-20230525-22692-3hhbom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528437/original/file-20230525-22692-3hhbom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528437/original/file-20230525-22692-3hhbom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528437/original/file-20230525-22692-3hhbom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528437/original/file-20230525-22692-3hhbom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528437/original/file-20230525-22692-3hhbom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528437/original/file-20230525-22692-3hhbom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Housing encroaches on Caloosahatchee River wetlands in Fort Myers, Fla.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/fort-myers-florida-palm-acres-housing-development-news-photo/1428541733">Jeffrey Greenberg/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>What are ‘waters of the United States’?</h2>
<p>The Clean Water Act regulates <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2020-title33/pdf/USCODE-2020-title33-chap26-subchapIII-sec1311.pdf">discharges of pollutants</a> into “<a href="https://www.epa.gov/wotus/about-waters-united-states">waters of the United States</a>.” Lawful discharges may occur if a pollution source obtains a permit under either <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2011-title33/pdf/USCODE-2011-title33-chap26-subchapIV-sec1344.pdf">Section 404 of the act</a> for dredged or fill material, or <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-1994-title33/pdf/USCODE-1994-title33-chap25-subchapIV-sec1342.pdf">Section 402</a> for other pollutants. </p>
<p>The Supreme Court has previously recognized that the “waters of the United States” include not only navigable rivers and lakes, but also wetlands and waterways that are connected to navigable bodies of water. But many wetlands are not wet year-round, or are not connected at the surface to larger water systems. Still, they can have <a href="https://theconversation.com/small-streams-and-wetlands-are-key-parts-of-river-networks-heres-why-they-need-protection-110342">important ecological connections</a> to larger water bodies.</p>
<p>In 2006, when the court last took up this issue, no majority was able to agree on how to define “waters of the United States.” Writing for a plurality of four justices in U.S. v. Rapanos, Justice Antonin Scalia <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2005/04-1034">defined the term narrowly</a> to include only relatively permanent, standing or continuously flowing bodies of water such as streams, oceans, rivers and lakes. Waters of the U.S., he contended, should not include “ordinarily dry channels through which water occasionally or intermittently flows.” </p>
<p>Acknowledging that wetlands present a tricky line-drawing problem, Scalia proposed that the Clean Water Act should reach “only those wetlands with a continuous surface connection to bodies that are waters of the United States in their own right.” </p>
<p>In a concurring opinion, Justice Anthony Kennedy took a very different approach. “Waters of the U.S.,” he wrote, should be interpreted in light of the Clean Water Act’s objective of “restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s waters.” </p>
<p>Accordingly, Kennedy argued, the Clean Water Act should cover wetlands that have a “significant nexus” with navigable waters – “if the wetlands, either alone or in combination with similarly situated lands in the region, significantly affect the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of other covered waters more readily understood as ‘navigable.’” </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CsmaAv2LpR6/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link\u0026igshid=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Neither Scalia’s nor Kennedy’s opinion attracted a majority, so lower courts were left to sort out which approach to follow. Most applied Kennedy’s significant nexus standard, while a few held that the Clean Water Act applies if <a href="https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46927">either Kennedy’s standard or Scalia’s is satisfied</a>.</p>
<p>Regulators have also struggled with this question. The Obama administration incorporated Kennedy’s “significant nexus” approach into a <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2015-06-29/pdf/2015-13435.pdf">2015 rule</a> that followed an extensive rulemaking process and a <a href="https://theconversation.com/epas-clean-water-rule-whats-at-stake-and-what-comes-next-42466">comprehensive peer-reviewed scientific assessment</a>. The Trump administration then replaced the 2015 rule with <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2020-04-21/pdf/2020-02500.pdf">a rule of its own</a> that <a href="https://theconversation.com/repealing-the-clean-water-rule-will-swamp-the-trump-administration-in-wetland-litigation-123565">largely adopted the Scalia approach</a>. </p>
<p>The Biden administration <a href="https://www.epa.gov/wotus">responded with its own rule</a> defining waters of the United States in terms of the presence of either a significant nexus or continuous surface connection. However, this rule was <a href="https://www.epa.gov/wotus/definition-waters-united-states-rule-status-and-litigation-update">promptly embroiled in litigation</a> and will require reconsideration in light of Sackett v. EPA.</p>
<h2>The Sackett decision and its ramifications</h2>
<p>The Sackett decision adopts Scalia’s approach from the 2006 Rapanos case. Writing for a five-justice majority, Justice Samuel Alito declared that “waters of the United States” includes only relatively permanent, standing or continuously flowing bodies of water, such as streams, oceans, rivers, lakes – and wetlands that have a continuous surface connection with and are indistinguishably part of such water bodies. </p>
<p>None of the nine justices adopted Kennedy’s 2006 “significant nexus” standard. However, Justice Brett Kavanaugh and the three liberal justices disagreed with the majority’s “continuous surface connection” test. That test, Kavanaugh <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/598/21-454/">wrote in a concurrence</a>, is inconsistent with the text of the Clean Water Act, which extends coverage to “adjacent” wetlands – including those that are near or close to larger water bodies. </p>
<p>“Natural barriers such as berms and dunes do not block all water flow and are in fact evidence of a regular connection between a water and a wetland,” Kavanaugh explained. “By narrowing the Act’s coverage of wetlands to only adjoining wetlands, the Court’s new test will leave some long-regulated adjacent wetlands no longer covered by the Clean Water Act, with significant repercussions for water quality and flood control throughout the United States.” </p>
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<p>The majority’s ruling leaves little room for the EPA or the Army Corps of Engineers to issue new regulations that could protect wetlands more broadly. </p>
<p>The court’s requirement of a continuous surface connection means that federal protection may no longer apply to many areas that critically affect the water quality of U.S. rivers, lakes and oceans – including seasonal streams and wetlands that are near or intermittently connected to larger water bodies. It might also mean that construction of a road, levee or other barrier separating a wetland from other nearby waters could remove an area from federal protection. </p>
<p>Congress could amend the Clean Water Act to expressly provide that “waters of the United States” includes wetlands that the court has now stripped of federal protection. However, <a href="https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/R43943.pdf">past efforts to legislate a definition have fizzled</a>, and today’s closely divided Congress is unlikely to fare any better.</p>
<p>Whether states will fill the breach is questionable. Many states have not adopted regulatory protections for waters that are <a href="https://www.eli.org/sites/default/files/files-pdf/52.10679.pdf">outside the scope of “waters of the United States</a>.” In many instances, new legislation – and perhaps entirely new regulatory programs – will be needed. </p>
<p>Finally, a concurring opinion by Justice Clarence Thomas hints at potential future targets for the court’s conservative supermajority. Joined by Justice Neil Gorsuch, Thomas suggested that the Clean Water Act, as well as other federal environmental statutes, lies beyond Congress’ authority to regulate activities that affect interstate commerce, and could be vulnerable to constitutional challenges. In my view, Sackett v. EPA might be just one step toward the teardown of federal environmental law. </p>
<p><em>This is an update of an <a href="https://theconversation.com/which-wetlands-should-receive-federal-protection-the-supreme-court-revisits-a-question-it-has-struggled-in-the-past-to-answer-185282">article</a> originally published on Sept. 26, 2022.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205896/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Albert C. Lin was a trial attorney for the Environment and Natural Resources Division of the U.S. Department of Justice from 1998 to 2003. He served as a law clerk to the Honorable Merrick Garland of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit and to the Honorable James Browning of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.</span></em></p>In Sackett v. EPA, a suit filed by two homeowners who filled in wetlands on their property, the Supreme Court has drastically narrowed the definition of which wetlands qualify for federal protection.Albert C. Lin, Professor of Law, University of California, DavisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2035702023-05-07T12:38:08Z2023-05-07T12:38:08ZAs Alberta’s oilsands continue leaking toxic wastewater, aquatic wildlife face new risks<p>Three months ago, <a href="https://www1.aer.ca/compliancedashboard/enforcement/202302-02_Imperial%20Oil%20Resources%20Limited_Kearl_Order.pdf">5.3 million litres of industrial wastewater was reported to have overflowed from an Imperial Oil storage pond</a> into a muskeg and forested area. This industrial wastewater could have filled more than two Olympic-sized swimming pools, and is now one of the largest known spills of its kind in Alberta’s history. </p>
<p>Then came news of <a href="https://thenarwhal.ca/imperial-oil-kearl-aer/">a separate incident</a> where an unknown amount of industrial wastewater has been leaking from an Imperial Oil tailings pond for the last 12 months. The leakage flows underground and then resurfaces to contaminate surface waters outside the Kearl Oil Sands Processing Plant and Mine. </p>
<p>These waters flow into the Athabasca River, which is part of an important waterway that supports communities in Alberta and the Northwest Territories. In addition to its significance to the Indigenous communities here, this waterway also provides crucial habitats for endangered wildlife species.</p>
<p>While <a href="https://www.imperialoil.ca/en-ca/company/operations/kearl/kearl-epo#:%7E:text=Imperial%20continues%20to%20work%20with,indication%20of%20impact%20to%20wildlife.">Imperial Oil</a> and <a href="https://www.aer.ca/providing-information/news-and-resources/news-and-announcements/announcements/announcement-february-07-2023">Alberta’s energy regulator</a> have reported no impacts on wildlife or waterways yet, the federal government believes the leaking waste is harmful to aquatic life, and <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/news/2023/03/ministers-provide-a-status-update-on-federal-action-to-address-ongoing-situation-at-kearl-oil-sands-mine.html">has ordered Imperial Oil</a> to take immediate action in preventing any further seepage of toxic water.</p>
<p>Scientists, including <a href="https://qe3research.ca/">our group at Queen’s University</a>, have been studying the chemicals in oilsand tailings ponds for decades to better understand their dangers and to protect wildlife from their effects.</p>
<h2>Fish struggle to survive in contaminated waters</h2>
<p>The mining and extraction of <a href="https://www.capp.ca/oil/what-are-the-oil-sands/">bitumen</a> — a heavy crude oil with the consistency of cold molasses — produces industrial wastewater with high concentrations of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2015-0060">several dangerous components</a>, including salts, dissolved organic compounds and heavy metals like cadmium and lead. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521684/original/file-20230418-18-jg306z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A fish in a hand" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521684/original/file-20230418-18-jg306z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521684/original/file-20230418-18-jg306z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521684/original/file-20230418-18-jg306z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521684/original/file-20230418-18-jg306z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521684/original/file-20230418-18-jg306z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521684/original/file-20230418-18-jg306z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521684/original/file-20230418-18-jg306z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wastewater chemicals are toxic to fathead minnows, an important prey species in the oilsands region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fathead_Minnow_(8741579480).jpg">(NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Research and <a href="https://edmonton.ctvnews.ca/alberta-energy-regulator-suncor-has-reported-dead-birds-at-oilsands-tailings-pond-1.6367072">real-world incidents</a> have found that oilsands wastewater is toxic to wildlife including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.024">mammals, fish, frogs and birds</a>.</p>
<p>A group of organic compounds, referred to as naphthenic acids, are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b02586">responsible for most of the toxicity</a> of wastewater. These compounds exist naturally in the region, but accumulate to harmful, unnatural levels in wastewater during the mining process. Despite this, environmental guidelines for “safe” naphthenic acid concentrations do not exist. </p>
<p>The concentrations of these acids in wastewater are studied to determine the extent of the threats to wildlife, and in particular to aquatic species, as their habitats are extremely susceptible to accumulating harmful pollutants.</p>
<p>Studies have found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.04.024">fathead minnow</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.08.022">walleye</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2005.07.009">yellow perch</a> experience increased mortality, physical deformities and reduced growth when exposed to naphthenic acids. These are all species commonly found in the oilsands region.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A researcher samples the content of tanks as a part of a field experiment" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524228/original/file-20230503-27-zpuo5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524228/original/file-20230503-27-zpuo5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524228/original/file-20230503-27-zpuo5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524228/original/file-20230503-27-zpuo5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524228/original/file-20230503-27-zpuo5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524228/original/file-20230503-27-zpuo5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524228/original/file-20230503-27-zpuo5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A researcher samples tanks as a part of a field experiment testing the effects of oilsands wastewater on aquatic animals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Chloe Robinson)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In one investigation, these chemicals <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2012.03.002">altered hormone levels and reduced spawning success in fish</a>. This effect could have population-level consequences in the wild. Meanwhile, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5314">in another study</a>, the fish showed reduced survival and abnormal swimming behaviours, even after being held in clean lake water for one month following a week-long exposure to sublethal levels of naphthenic acids.</p>
<p>The science clearly suggests that fish are negatively impacted by wastewater contaminants and even short-term contact can have lasting effects on animals in the affected area.</p>
<h2>Canada’s declining amphibians face new threats</h2>
<p>Amphibians are one of the most <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.108022">rapidly disappearing groups of animals in Canada</a>, as their wetland habitats often face the threat of pollution, among other stressors. Research on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2012.640092">wood frogs</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2012.04.002">Northern leopard frogs</a> has raised numerous concerns. </p>
<p>Like with fish, studies have found that exposure to wastewater and naphthenic acids can <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2015.1074970">interfere with sexual development</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coac030">impair breeding</a> in adult frogs. Tadpoles exposed to these chemicals are more likely to die, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2023.106435">behave abnormally when escaping predators</a> and are less likely to develop into frogs.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120455">One of our studies</a> found that exposure to these chemicals can also cause developing frogs to develop striking malformations, including kinked spines and missing toes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521677/original/file-20230418-14-n1z16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Malformed tadpoles with missing toes and shorter limbs." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521677/original/file-20230418-14-n1z16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521677/original/file-20230418-14-n1z16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521677/original/file-20230418-14-n1z16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521677/original/file-20230418-14-n1z16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521677/original/file-20230418-14-n1z16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521677/original/file-20230418-14-n1z16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521677/original/file-20230418-14-n1z16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tadpoles exposed to wastewater chemicals (right) show malformations not present in tadpoles raised in clean water (left) like shorter limbs, swollen bodies, and missing toes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Chloe Robinson)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Science suggests that if pollutants reach dangerous levels due to spills, it could impair the survival and health of aquatic wildlife in affected areas. Over time, these impacts could cause wildlife population declines and even local species extinctions. Long-term monitoring will be crucial to determine the full impact of these spills.</p>
<h2>A need for transparent oilsands waste management</h2>
<p>In addition to wildlife, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-019-0059-6">industrial activities in the oilsands region have affected the Indigenous communities</a> over the years as well.</p>
<p>Indigenous Nations located downstream of recent oil spills in Alberta — including the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/alberta-first-nation-angry-at-imperial-s-silence-while-tailings-pond-leaked-for-9-months-1.6766007">Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation</a> and <a href="https://www.mikisewcree.ca/press-release-mcfn-sounds-alarm-bells-following-albertas-largest-oil-sands-seepage/">Mikisew Cree First Nation</a> — voiced their concern over this pollution and its impact on the plants and animals they harvest for food.</p>
<p>While these communities rely on the lands and waters near the spill, they <a href="https://www.nationalobserver.com/2023/03/03/news/alberta-oilsands-spill-hidden-first-nation-act-environmental-racism">were only notified of the contamination</a> when the provincial regulator issued an <a href="https://www1.aer.ca/compliancedashboard/enforcement/202302-02_Imperial%20Oil%20Resources%20Limited_Kearl_Order.pdf">environmental protection order</a> in February.</p>
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<p><a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9601276/alberta-energy-regulator-emergency-response-kearl/">The lack of transparency and delayed responses</a> surrounding these current spills raises questions about how many undocumented incidents could be taking place every year.</p>
<p>In April, while Alberta continued to deal with the aftermath of these incidents, <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2023/04/18/suncor-reports-release-of-water-from-sediment-pond-on-alberta-oilsands-mine.html">another 6 million litres of water</a> spilled from a Suncor settling pond into the Athabasca River. The current method of managing wastewater is neither safe nor sustainable. </p>
<p>Change is needed to ensure that economic activities do not jeopardize the environment further. <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/first-nations-blast-alberta-energy-regulator-at-hearing-minister-promises-reform-1.6813307">As government, industry and Indigenous partners begin the process of building new management and monitoring plans,</a> which will likely include guidelines for <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/bakx-oilsands-tailings-release-mining-effluent-regulations-1.6271537">treating and releasing oilsands wastewater back into waterways</a>, it is important that the science is not forgotten.</p>
<p>Evidence-informed policies, built on what we know about the toxic extent of wastewater, have the potential to make accidental spills, and the environmental and social injustices they perpetuate, a thing of the past.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203570/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Diane Orihel received funding from Environment and Climate Change Canada for her lab's research on the effects of oilsands contaminants on aquatic biota.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chloe Robinson received funding from Queen's University (Craigie Fellowship), and the Government of Ontario (Ontario Graduate Scholarship). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris K. Elvidge is affiliated with the Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory at Carleton University. </span></em></p>As toxic water continues to spill from tailings ponds across mining developments, decades of scientific research provides evidence of how wildlife will be affected.Diane Orihel, Assistant Professor, Department of Biology & School of Environmental Studies, Queen's University, OntarioChloe Robinson, Junior Research Associate, Experimental Ecology and Ecotoxicology Research Team, Queen's University, OntarioChris K. Elvidge, Postdoctoral Researcher in Freshwater Ecology, Carleton UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2034922023-05-03T12:07:00Z2023-05-03T12:07:00ZHeading to a beach this summer? Here’s how to keep harmful algae blooms from spoiling your trip<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523475/original/file-20230428-22-cp3c0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=35%2C0%2C5862%2C3926&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Warning sign at Lido Key Beach in Sarasota, Fla., March 15, 2023, during a toxic algae bloom.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/sign-warning-of-the-red-tide-risk-is-displayed-at-lido-key-news-photo/1248835855"> Jesus Olarte/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Plunging into the ocean or a lake is one of the great joys of summer. But arriving at the beach to find water that’s green, red or brown, and possibly foul-smelling, can instantly spoil the party.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brad-Reisfeld">toxicologist</a>, I study health risks from both synthetic and natural substances. I’ve conducted research into <a href="https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.abstractDetail/abstract_id/11137/report/0">early detection of harmful algal blooms</a>, or HABs, which are an increasing threat to humans, animals and the environment. </p>
<p>Toxins produced during these blooms have been implicated in human and animal illnesses in at least 43 states. Scientists have estimated that in the U.S. alone, freshwater HABs cause more than <a href="https://meetings.pices.int/publications/other/members/HAB-PolicyMakers.pdf">US$4.6 billion in damage yearly</a>. Here’s what to know about them if you’re bound for the water’s edge this summer.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/KfbM32b50fY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Harmful algal blooms have become a regular occurrence along large stretches of Florida’s coast in recent years.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Tiny organisms, big impacts</h2>
<p>Algae and cyanobacteria – often called blue-green algae – are simple, plantlike organisms that live in water. They can grow out of control, or “bloom,” especially when the water is warm and slow moving. Climate change is <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/">making water bodies warmer</a>, increasing the risk of HABs. </p>
<p>The other major factor that drives blooms is high levels of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, which fertilize algae. <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-03/documents/facts_about_nutrient_pollution_what_is_hypoxia.pdf">Nutrient pollution</a> comes mainly from agriculture, wastewater treatment plants, septic systems and fossil fuel combustion.</p>
<p>Sometimes these blooms contain organisms that produce toxins – an umbrella term for many poisonous substances that <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002331.htm">come from animals or plants</a> and can make people and animals sick and adversely affect the environment. These events are called harmful algal blooms. </p>
<p>HABs occur <a href="https://hab.whoi.edu/maps/regions-us-distribution/">throughout the U.S.</a> and <a href="https://hab.whoi.edu/maps/regions-world-distribution/">worldwide</a>, in both saltwater and freshwater environments. They pose significant health risks to human, pets, livestock and wildlife; damage ecosystems; increase water treatment costs; restrict recreational activities; and cut into economic revenues.</p>
<p>People and animals can be exposed to HAB toxins through many routes. These include skin contact during activities such as swimming or boating; inhaling airborne droplets that contain toxins; swallowing contaminated water; or eating food or supplements that contain toxins. The most severe effects generally result from <a href="https://hab.whoi.edu/impacts/impacts-human-health/">consuming contaminated seafood</a>.</p>
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<h2>An array of toxins</h2>
<p>There are numerous <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/habs/pdf/ohhabs-algae-algal-toxins-and-other-pathogens-lists.pdf">HAB toxins</a>, including substances such as microcystin, saxitoxin, cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin-A and domoic acid. Each has a different action on the body, so HABs can have <a href="https://mywaterquality.ca.gov/habs/resources/docs/humanhealth/hab_physician_guide_may2020.pdf">diverse harmful effects</a>.</p>
<p>Typical <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/habs/illness.html">symptoms of illness</a> from exposure to HAB toxins can include stomach pain, vomiting or diarrhea; headache, fever, tiredness or other general symptoms; skin, eye, nose or throat irritation; and neurological symptoms such as muscle weakness or dizziness. Depending on the toxin, higher levels of exposure can result in tremors or seizures, respiratory distress, kidney toxicity, liver toxicity and even death.</p>
<p>As with many environmental exposures, children and older people may be especially sensitive to HAB toxins. People who regularly consume seafood caught in HAB-prone areas are also at risk of long-term health effects from potentially frequent, low-level exposures to HAB toxins.</p>
<h2>Recognizing and responding to HABs</h2>
<p>It’s not possible to tell whether a bloom is harmful just by looking at it, but there are some warning signs. If the water appears green, red, brown or yellowish in color; has a strong musty or fishy odor; has foam, scum, algal mats or paintlike streaks on the surface; or if there are dead fish or other marine life in the water or washed up on the shoreline, it’s likely that a HAB may be occurring.</p>
<p>If you are unsure whether a bloom is harmful or not, contact your local health department or environmental agency for guidance. As a general rule, it’s good to check with local agencies to see whether there are any relevant warnings when you go to the beach. </p>
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<p>If you are notified of a bloom in a nearby body of water or in your public drinking water supply, the most important thing you can do to reduce your chances of getting sick is to follow local or state guidance. If you see signs of a bloom, stay out of the water and keep your pets out of the water.</p>
<p>It’s also important to follow local guidelines about consuming seafood caught through recreational fishing. It’s important to be aware that cooking contaminated seafood or boiling contaminated water <a href="https://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/food-poisoning/red-tide">does not destroy the toxins</a>. </p>
<h2>Be informed</h2>
<p>The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention provides <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/habs/general.html">resources and recommendations</a> related to HABs and ways to stay safe. Pet owners should also learn <a href="https://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/water_pdf/habspets.pdf">how to protect their dogs from HABs</a>. </p>
<p>Other federal agencies that offer information about HABs include <a href="https://hab.whoi.edu/">the U.S. National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms</a> and the <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/algal-blooms/index.cfm">National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences</a>.</p>
<p>Many states conduct <a href="https://www.epa.gov/cyanohabs/state-habs-monitoring-programs-and-resources">HAB monitoring programs</a>, especially in areas that are known to be vulnerable to blooms, such as <a href="https://ohioseagrant.osu.edu/products/1h6jc/what-are-habs">western Lake Erie</a>. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency offers <a href="https://www.epa.gov/cyanohabs/state-habs-resources">HAB resources by state</a>. Apps used by water quality managers and state officials who make management decisions about public water supply safety, including <a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.topcoder.epa">CyAN Android</a> and <a href="https://qed.epa.gov/cyanweb/">CyANWeb</a>, may contain useful information about HABs in your area.</p>
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<h2>What’s being done about HABs?</h2>
<p>Many efforts are underway to prevent, control and mitigate HABs and provide early warnings to water system managers and health officials. </p>
<p>One example in the U.S. is the
<a href="https://www.epa.gov/water-research/cyanobacteria-assessment-network-cyan">Cyanobacteria Assessment Network, or CyAN</a>, a collaborative effort across several government agencies to develop an early warning indicator system to detect algal blooms in freshwater systems. There are also several ongoing projects for <a href="https://coastalscience.noaa.gov/science-areas/habs/hab-forecasts/">HAB forecasting by region</a>.</p>
<p>At the global scale, the <a href="https://data.hais.ioc-unesco.org/">Harmful Algal Information System</a> will eventually include harmful algal events and information from harmful algae monitoring and management systems worldwide.</p>
<p>Citizen scientists can provide invaluable help by monitoring local waters. If you would like to participate, consider joining the <a href="https://coastalscience.noaa.gov/monitoring-and-assessments/pmn/">Phytoplankton Monitoring Network</a> or <a href="https://cyanos.org/bloomwatch/">the Cyanobacteria Monitoring Collaborative</a>, and download and use the
<a href="https://cyanos.org/bloomwatch/">Cyanobacterial bloom app</a> to report potential HABs in bodies of water you visit.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203492/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brad Reisfeld received funding from the US Environmental Protection Agency to work on a project related to HABs detection</span></em></p>The tiny organisms that cause harmful blooms of algae can have a big impact on your trip to the shore. A toxicologist explains what causes these events and how to keep people and pets safe.Brad Reisfeld, Professor of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, and Public Health, Colorado State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2032352023-04-19T20:08:18Z2023-04-19T20:08:18ZFloods of nutrients from fertilisers and wastewater trash our rivers. Could offsetting help?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521780/original/file-20230419-22-4cypca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=32%2C48%2C5384%2C3946&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The rivers running through the hearts of Australia’s major cities and towns are often carrying heavy loads of nutrients and sediments. </p>
<p>This is a problem. While nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus are essential to life in small quantities, in large quantities they become destructive to river and ocean ecosystems. </p>
<p>When rivers are pumped too full of nutrients washing out from farms or from wastewater treatment, bacteria and algae numbers soar. We see the effects in dangerous blue-green algal blooms and in oxygen levels dropping so low that millions of fish can die, as we <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-did-millions-of-fish-die-gasping-in-the-darling-after-three-years-of-rain-202125">saw recently</a> in Menindee, New South Wales. </p>
<p>Fixing the problem can be expensive and difficult for landholders. That’s where a new idea could help: nutrient offsetting. Here, large wastewater plants can meet stringent requirements to keep nutrient levels low by fixing eroded riverbanks and gullies upstream, creating wetlands, and preventing fertiliser runoff. The end result: cleaner rivers. </p>
<p>While offsetting schemes for carbon have come under <a href="https://theconversation.com/now-we-know-the-flaws-of-carbon-offsets-its-time-to-get-real-about-climate-change-181071">significant scrutiny</a>, nutrient offsetting is a simpler market, with fewer participants and clear ways of measuring success. </p>
<p>Early trials in southeast Queensland by water utilities have proven it can work, as our <a href="https://www.wsaa.asn.au/publication/how-nutrient-trading-regime-can-deliver-environmental-outcomes">new report</a> shows. </p>
<h2>Why are our rivers too full of nutrients?</h2>
<p>In the early industrial period, rivers around the world were seen as dumping grounds, from factory chemicals to tannery waste. Since then, many countries have worked hard to clean up their waterways, with major successes including the UK’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-biologically-dead-to-chart-toppingly-clean-how-the-thames-made-an-extraordinary-recovery-over-60-years-180895">Thames river</a>. </p>
<p>It’s comparatively easy to stop the dumping of chemicals. You can see the pipes and pinpoint who’s doing it. But nutrient overloading is a harder problem, which is why we’re still wrestling with it. </p>
<p>Our cities and towns are growing. Almost seven million more people live in Australia now compared to the year 2000. As our population grows, we need more food, and we create more human waste. Our agriculture sector has also boomed and is exporting more and more food. To make our famously poor soils fertile requires fertiliser. When too much fertiliser is applied, heavy rains can wash it into rivers. Erosion on riverbanks and in gullies make the problem worse. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/would-a-nature-repair-market-really-work-evidence-suggests-its-highly-unlikely-199975">Would a nature repair market really work? Evidence suggests it's highly unlikely</a>
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<p>Some rivers, estuaries and coastal waters are in real trouble, such as parts of the Murray-Darling, and some urban creeks in our capital cities. We’ve hit their natural limit to handle nutrient loads and gone past it. This can cause algal blooms, fish kills and water too disgusting to drink without expensive treatment. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Erosion in queensland" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Erosion accelerates nutrient runoff from farms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Why do we need offsetting at all?</h2>
<p>Chemical dumping can be solved with laws and enforcement. But while we can fix degraded river catchments to reduce nutrient loads, this is rarely done. That’s because the costs are too high to be borne by any one sector, such as farmers. </p>
<p>By contrast, regulations on nutrients discharged by sewage treatment plants place limits of how much can be released into rivers and estuaries. The costs of further upgrades to sewage treatment plants to reduce nutrients to the required low levels is prohibitively expensive, because ratepayers would end up paying much more for water treatment. </p>
<p>That’s why offsetting can be useful, as it offers a win-win. Urban polluters like wastewater treatment plants can meet their regulatory requirements by restoring eroded and degraded catchment areas upstream to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus flows from farmland. Better, this can be done reasonably cheaply when done at scale. Depending on the available sites, this can be done along rivers and creeks on rural properties, or on council owned land in cities and towns. </p>
<p>Making this viable means using a market. Polluters looking for low-cost ways to comply with regulation of nutrient flows are linked with landholders upstream with degraded land. </p>
<p>This is an emerging solution, but early trials show it has promise. Population-dense south east Queensland has large waterways like the Brisbane and Logan Rivers. Wastewater plant operators such as Logan Water, Urban Utilities and Unity Water have replanted shrubs, grasses and trees along riverbanks, as well as undertaking engineering work to stabilise eroding banks. </p>
<p>This led to significant cost savings. Urban Utilities avoided spending A$8 million in upgrading a sewage treatment plant to cut nutrients and got the same result by spending $800,000 in <a href="https://www.wsaa.asn.au/sites/default/files/publication/download/Case%20study%206%20Using%20nutrient%20offsets%20to%20improve%20the%20Logan%20River.pdf">erosion control and revegetation</a> upriver, which prevented five tonnes of nitrogen entering waterways. Operational costs were also much lower, saving $5 million over ten years. </p>
<p>Controlling erosion keeps nutrients in the soil to help crops and grasses to grow, benefiting farmers, rather than having it washed downstream. Healthier riverbanks create better habitat for birds, reptiles and mammals and makes rivers healthier for fish and other species. </p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>Nutrient offsetting is still new in Australia. For it to gain traction across Australia means working to make sure the systems and science are mature. </p>
<p>To maximise benefits and give participants certainty, we’ll need to shift from a piecemeal trial approach to a coordinated trading scheme. Successful overseas examples typically have a third party coordinating buying and selling, and ensure there’s a robust structure to set up and assess these projects. </p>
<p>Canada has seen successes here, such as the South Nation River <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2010.00511.x">trading program</a> which has reduced phosphorus in the river, while America has examples such as the nutrient credit trading program in Chesapeake Bay. In Australia, a voluntary <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/coasts-waterways/reef/reef-credit-scheme">reef trading scheme</a> is underway in the catchments of rivers flowing into the waters of the Great Barrier Reef, involving farmers and a range of investors. </p>
<p>To make sure this works, we need detailed scientific knowledge on comparing nutrient pollution from different sources. Catchment runoff nutrients are mostly bound to soil particles, while sewage treatment plants have much more dissolved nutrients. As yet we don’t know how these sources differ. </p>
<p>We also need to know what methods of land management are best suited to stopping nutrients from washing into rivers, to ensure the best outcome for the money spent. </p>
<h2>Creative solutions are necessary</h2>
<p>Despite our efforts in cleaning up many of our rivers, traditional approaches haven’t been enough to stop nutrient pollution. It’s time to explore creative new approaches to make our rivers and reefs healthier.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-did-millions-of-fish-die-gasping-in-the-darling-after-three-years-of-rain-202125">How did millions of fish die gasping in the Darling – after three years of rain?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203235/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michele Burford receives funding from an Australian Research Council Linkage grant, and a Water Services Association of Australia grant</span></em></p>Many of our rivers are overloaded with nutrients from fertiliser run off and wastewater. Algal blooms, fish kills and poor water follow. One solution? Nutrient offsetting.Michele Burford, Professor - Australian Rivers Institute, and Dean - Research Infrastructure, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2018552023-03-16T16:34:44Z2023-03-16T16:34:44ZNew PFAS guidelines – a water quality scientist explains technology and investment needed to get forever chemicals out of US drinking water<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515625/original/file-20230315-3073-baa7d7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C111%2C8218%2C5363&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">PFAS can be found in hundreds of water systems in the U.S.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/close-up-of-young-asian-woman-pouring-water-from-royalty-free-image/1299286918?phrase=pouring%20water%20into%20glass&adppopup=true">d3sign/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Harmful chemicals known as PFAS can be found in everything from <a href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/health/medical/dangerous-chemicals-found-in-baby-supplies-pet-food-packaging/ar-AA18o3wY">children’s clothes</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140017">soil</a> to <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-pfas-and-why-is-the-epa-warning-about-them-in-drinking-water-an-environmental-health-scientist-explains-185015">drinking water</a>, and regulating these chemicals has been a <a href="https://theconversation.com/pfas-forever-chemicals-are-widespread-and-threaten-human-health-heres-a-strategy-for-protecting-the-public-142953">goal of public and environmental health researchers</a> for years. On March 14, 2023, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency proposed what would be the first set of <a href="https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/biden-harris-administration-proposes-first-ever-national-standard-protect-communities">federal guidelines regulating levels of PFAS in drinking water</a>. The guidelines will be open to public comment for 60 days before being finalized.</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=edLoshMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Joe Charbonnet</a> is an environmental engineer at Iowa State University who develops techniques to remove contaminants like PFAS from water. He explains what the proposed guidelines would require, how water utilities could meet these requirements and how much it might cost to get these so-called forever chemicals out of U.S. drinking water.</em></p>
<h2>1. What do the new guidelines say?</h2>
<p>PFAS are <a href="https://theconversation.com/regulating-forever-chemicals-3-essential-reads-on-pfas-201263">associated with a variety of health issues</a> and have been a focus of environmental and public health researchers. There are thousands of members of this class of chemicals, and this proposed regulation would set the allowable limits in drinking water for six of them.</p>
<p>Two of the six chemicals – PFOA and PFOS – are <a href="https://www.epa.gov/assessing-and-managing-chemicals-under-tsca/fact-sheet-20102015-pfoa-stewardship-program">no longer produced in large quantities</a>, but they <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-pfas-and-why-is-the-epa-warning-about-them-in-drinking-water-an-environmental-health-scientist-explains-185015">remain common in the environment</a> because they were so widely used and break down extremely slowly. The new guidelines would allow for no more than four parts per trillion of PFOA or PFOS in drinking water.</p>
<p>Four other PFAS – GenX, PFBS, PFNA and PFHxS – would be regulated as well, although with higher limits. These chemicals are common replacements for PFOA and PFOS and are their close chemical cousins. Because of their similarity, they cause harm to human and environmental health <a href="https://pfastoxdatabase.org/">in much the same way</a> as legacy PFAS.</p>
<p>A few states have already established their own limits on levels of PFAS in drinking water, but these new guidelines, if enacted, would be the first legally enforceable federal limits and would affect the entire U.S. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515627/original/file-20230315-2738-19docw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A water droplet sitting on a piece of fabric." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515627/original/file-20230315-2738-19docw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515627/original/file-20230315-2738-19docw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515627/original/file-20230315-2738-19docw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515627/original/file-20230315-2738-19docw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515627/original/file-20230315-2738-19docw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=635&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515627/original/file-20230315-2738-19docw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=635&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515627/original/file-20230315-2738-19docw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=635&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Chemicals used to create water-repellent fabrics and nonstick pans often contain PFAS and leak those chemicals into the environment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_water_droplet_DWR-coated_surface2_edit1.jpg#/media/File:A_water_droplet_DWR-coated_surface2_edit1.jpg">Brocken Inaglory/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<h2>2. How many utilities will need to make changes?</h2>
<p>PFAS are harmful <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.est.2c02765">even at extremely low levels</a>, and the proposed limits reflect that fact. The allowable concentrations would be comparable to a few grains of salt in an Olympic-size swimming pool. Hundreds of utilities all across the U.S. <a href="https://www.ewg.org/interactive-maps/pfas_contamination/map/">have levels of PFAS above the proposed limits</a> in their water supplies and would need to make changes to meet these standards. </p>
<p>While many areas have been tested for PFAS in the past, many systems have not, so health officials don’t know precisely how many water systems would be affected. A recent study used existing data to estimate that about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00713">40% of municipal drinking water supplies</a> may exceed the proposed concentration limits.</p>
<h2>3. What can utilities do to meet the guidelines?</h2>
<p>There are two major technologies that most utilities consider for removing PFAS from drinking water: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sdwa/overview-drinking-water-treatment-technologies">activated carbon or ion exchange systems</a>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515628/original/file-20230315-20-qih6p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A membrane treatment system." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515628/original/file-20230315-20-qih6p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515628/original/file-20230315-20-qih6p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515628/original/file-20230315-20-qih6p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515628/original/file-20230315-20-qih6p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515628/original/file-20230315-20-qih6p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515628/original/file-20230315-20-qih6p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515628/original/file-20230315-20-qih6p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Water treatment systems can use activated carbon or ion exchange to remove PFAS from drinking water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/industry-sustainability-water-purification-filter-royalty-free-image/1382353791?phrase=water%20purification%20plant&adppopup=true">Paola Giannoni/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Activated carbon is a charcoal-like substance that PFAS stick to quite well and can be used to remove PFAS from water. In 2006, the town of Oakdale, Minnesota, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12940-020-00591-0">added an activated carbon treatment step</a> to its water system. Not only did this additional water treatment bring PFAS levels down substantially, there were significant improvements in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-020-00591-0">birth weight and the number of full-term pregnancies</a> in that community after the change. </p>
<p>Ion exchange systems work by flowing water over charged particles that can remove PFAS. Ion exchange systems are typically even better at lowering PFAS concentrations than activated carbon systems, but they are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1039/D2EW00080F">also more expensive</a>.</p>
<p>Another option available to some cities is simply finding alternative water sources that are less contaminated. While this is a wonderful, low-cost means of lowering contamination, it points to a major disparity in environmental justice; more rural and less well-resourced utilities are <a href="https://perma.cc/3HTS-8E3H">unlikely to have this option</a>.</p>
<h2>4. Is such a major transition feasible?</h2>
<p>By law, the EPA must consider not just human health but also the feasibility of treatment and the potential financial cost when <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/national-primary-drinking-water-regulations">setting maximum contaminant levels in drinking water</a>. While the proposed limits are certainly attainable for many water utilities, the costs will be high.</p>
<p>The federal government has made available <a href="https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/biden-harris-administration-announces-2-billion-bipartisan-infrastructure-law-funding">billions of dollars</a> in funding for treating water. But some estimates put the total cost of meeting the proposed regulations for the entire country at around <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2022/09/13/the-battle-over-who-pays-to-clean-up-chemicals-00056136">US$400 billion</a> – much more than the available funding. Some municipalities may seek financial help for treatment from nearby polluters, while others may raise water rates to cover the costs.</p>
<h2>5. What happens next?</h2>
<p>The EPA has set a 60-day period for public comment on the proposed regulations, after which it can finalize the guidelines. But many experts expect the EPA to <a href="https://www.eenews.net/articles/pfas-rule-sets-up-sprawling-legal-war/">face a number of legal challenges</a>. Time will tell what the final version of the regulations may look like. </p>
<p>This regulation is intended to keep the U.S. in the enviable position of having some of the <a href="https://epi.yale.edu/epi-results/2020/component/h2o">highest-quality drinking water</a> in the world. As researchers and health officials learn more about new chemical threats, it is important to ensure that every resident has access to clean and affordable tap water.</p>
<p>While these six PFAS certainly pose threats to health that merit regulation, there are thousands of PFAS that likely have very <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EBjQYUjEUb4">similar impacts on human health</a>. Rather than playing chemical whack-a-mole by regulating one PFAS at a time, there is a growing consensus among researchers and public health officials that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00255">PFAS should be regulated as a class of chemicals</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201855/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joe Charbonnet receives funding from the US EPA for research that is not directly related to PFAS. This article contains links to resources from the Green Science Policy Institute, which previously employed Dr. Charbonnet. </span></em></p>The drinking water systems serving over 70 million people may not meet newly proposed water quality standards. It could cost hundreds of billions of dollars to fix that.Joe Charbonnet, Assistant Professor of Environmental Engineering, Iowa State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2014572023-03-15T12:21:28Z2023-03-15T12:21:28ZFines for breaking US pollution laws can vary widely among states – that may violate the Constitution<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514750/original/file-20230310-26-a6l0xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C4%2C3000%2C1994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Clean Water Act was meant to keep pollution out of U.S. waters.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/oil-surrounds-the-feet-of-local-resident-morgan-miller-as-news-photo/474029566">David McNew/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s expensive to pollute the water in Colorado. The state’s median fine for companies caught violating the federal Clean Water Act is over US$30,000, and violators can be charged much more. In Montana, however, most violators get barely a slap on the wrist – the median fine there is $300.</p>
<p>Similarly, in Virginia, the typical Clean Water Act violation issued by the state is $9,000, while across the border in North Carolina, the median is around $600.</p>
<p>Even federal penalties vary significantly among regions. In the South (EPA Region 6) the median Clean Water Act penalty issued by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regional office is $10,000, while in EPA Region 9 (including California, Nevada, Arizona and Hawaii), the median is over six times as high.</p>
<p>We discovered just how startling the differences are in <a href="http://law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/I_Anderson-Vaughan_web_2-20.pdf">a new study</a>, published in the Stanford Environmental Law Journal. My colleague <a href="https://www.drake.edu/zimpleman/about/facultystaff/facultybydepartment/amygracevaughan/">Amy Vaughan</a> and <a href="https://www.drake.edu/law/facstaff/directory/jerry-anderson/">I reviewed</a> 10 years of <a href="https://echo.epa.gov/trends/comparative-maps-dashboards/state-water-dashboard">EPA data on penalties</a> issued under the Clean Water Act.</p>
<p><iframe id="qTRcu" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/qTRcu/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>The degree of disparity we found in environmental enforcement is disturbing for many reasons. Persistent lenient penalties can lead to lower compliance rates and, therefore, more pollution. At the extreme, a lax enforcement regime can <a href="https://capitalandmain.com/can-california-avoid-another-toxic-waste-disaster">lead to environmental disasters</a>. Disparate enforcement is also unfair, leaving some companies paying far more than others for the same behavior. Without a level playing field, competitive pressure may lead companies to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/publius/pjaa031">locate in areas with more lenient enforcement</a>.</p>
<p>There is a relatively simple solution, and another good reason to implement it: These disparities may violate the U.S. Constitution.</p>
<h2>Why such big differences?</h2>
<p>We think the main reason for the differences is that the EPA has not fulfilled its duty to require robust state enforcement.</p>
<p>Many federal environmental statutes – including the <a href="http://epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-clean-water-act">Clean Water Act</a>, the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-clean-air-act">Clean Air Act</a> and toxic substances laws – enable the EPA to delegate enforcement to state agencies. In fact, state agencies undertake the <a href="https://www.ecos.org/documents/state-delegations/">vast majority of enforcement actions</a> of these federal laws.</p>
<p>However, the EPA is supposed to delegate enforcement only to states that are deemed capable of taking on this responsibility, including having the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/cwa-404/clean-water-act-section-402-national-pollutant-discharge-elimination-system">ability to issue permits and conduct inspections</a>. Importantly, the states must have laws authorizing an agency or the courts to impose sufficient penalties on violators.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Water spills out of a pipe into a river." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514751/original/file-20230310-28-s5u712.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514751/original/file-20230310-28-s5u712.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514751/original/file-20230310-28-s5u712.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514751/original/file-20230310-28-s5u712.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514751/original/file-20230310-28-s5u712.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514751/original/file-20230310-28-s5u712.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514751/original/file-20230310-28-s5u712.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Federal laws like the Clean Water Act helped end corporate practices of pouring toxic wastewater into rivers, as this paper plant was doing near International Falls, Minn., in 1937.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/paper-plants-sewer-outlet-emitting-sewage-into-the-rainy-news-photo/964952020">Smith Collection/Gado/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>Most state delegations occurred long ago, in the 1970s and ‘80s, shortly after Congress passed these major environmental statutes. In 1978, EPA decided that it would <a href="https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-40/chapter-I/subchapter-C/part-70#70.11">require states to have a minimum</a> of $5,000-per-day penalty authority before they would be delegated enforcement power for the Clean Water Act. Forty-five years later, that required minimum is still the same.</p>
<p>In contrast, the Clean Water Act gives the EPA and federal courts much <a href="https://www.epa.gov/cwa-404/clean-water-act-section-309-federal-enforcement-authority">higher penalty authority</a> – it started at $25,000 per day and, because of congressionally mandated <a href="https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-01/2022amendmentstopenaltypoliciesforinflation_0.pdf">annual inflation adjustments</a>, had risen to $56,540 by the end of 2022.</p>
<p>That difference shows up in the fines: We found the <a href="http://law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/I_Anderson-Vaughan_web_2-20.pdf">average penalty issued by states</a> is about $35,000, while the average penalty issued by the federal EPA is over five times as high at $186,000. The median state penalty is $4,000, while the median federal penalty is almost $30,000. While the EPA tends to be involved in the most serious cases, we believe low state penalties can also be traced to more lenient state penalty provisions.</p>
<p><iframe id="5KduF" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/5KduF/6/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>There is also a <a href="http://law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/I_Anderson-Vaughan_web_2-20.pdf">wide disparity among state</a> penalty statutes. At one end, Idaho law limits civil penalties to $5,000 per day, while Colorado’s law allows for penalties of up to $54,833 per day.</p>
<p>In some cases, penalty differences might have a legitimate explanation. However, the degree of disparity among statutes and penalties that we found with the Clean Water Act suggests the U.S. doesn’t have uniform federal environmental law. And that can run afoul of the Constitution.</p>
<h2>A question of unconstitutional unfairness</h2>
<p>The EPA has the power to require states to have more robust penalty provisions, more in line with federal penalties. The EPA also can provide better guidance to the states about how those penalties should be calculated. Without guidance, virtually any penalty could be justified.</p>
<p>As an environmental law expert, I believe the U.S. Constitution requires EPA to take these steps.</p>
<p>A basic tenet of fairness holds that like cases should be treated alike. In federal criminal law, for example, <a href="https://www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/about/overview/Overview_Federal_Sentencing_Guidelines.pdf">sentencing guidelines</a> help limit the disparity that can result from unlimited judicial discretion.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, environmental law doesn’t have a similar system to provide uniform treatment of pollution violations by government agencies. Extreme penalties, at both the high and low ends, may result.</p>
<p>The U.S. Supreme Court has held that disparate fines can reach a degree of randomness that violates the fairness norms embodied in the <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/amdt14-S1-3/ALDE_00013743/">due process clause</a> of the Constitution’s 14th Amendment.</p>
<p>In a case in the 1990s, the <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/517/559/">Supreme Court determined</a> that a $4 million punitive damage award in a complaint involving only $4,000 in actual damages violated the due process clause. The court held that the amount of punitive damages imposed must bear some relationship to the actual harm caused by the conduct. Moreover, the court noted that punitive damages must be reasonable when compared to penalties imposed on others for comparable misconduct.</p>
<p>I believe the same test should apply to environmental penalties. </p>
<p>Unless we have some uniform system of calculating penalty amounts, the discretion allowed results in vastly different penalties for similar conduct. Our study focused on the Clean Water Act, but the results should trigger more research to determine whether these issues arise in other environmental areas, such as the Clean Air Act or hazardous waste laws.</p>
<p>The comparatively lenient enforcement we discovered in some states is not only unfair, it’s ultimately bad for the environment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201457/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jerry Anderson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new study reveals wide disparities among state-issued Clean Water Act fines, and even among federal fines from regions to region. A law professor explains why it may be illegal.Jerry Anderson, Dean and Professor of Law, Drake UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2017852023-03-15T02:31:55Z2023-03-15T02:31:55ZPFAS might be everywhere – including toilet paper – but let’s keep the health risks in context<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515332/original/file-20230314-6135-dl3ib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C33%2C4452%2C2997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hand-reaching-empty-toilet-paper-holder-1680475540">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The United States Environmental Protection Agency has <a href="https://www.ewg.org/news-insights/news-release/2023/03/epa-proposes-bold-new-limits-tackling-forever-chemicals-drinking">announced</a> new limits on the toxic “forever chemicals” – perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) – in drinking water. </p>
<p>The announcement comes amid rising concern about PFAS, which persist in the environment, are <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.0c08035">ubiquitous</a> and do not break down over time. </p>
<p>The carbon and fluorine PFAS compounds have been used in myriad <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pfas/our-current-understanding-human-health-and-environmental-risks-pfas">domestic and industrial products</a> from non-stick cookware to cosmetics to firefighting foams and fabric treatments. This week, a group of researchers said <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/mar/13/toxic-forever-chemicals-pfas-toilet-paper">toilet paper</a> should be considered a potential source (but more on that later). </p>
<p>Every household is more likely than not to have dusts containing PFAS chemicals at low concentrations; forming a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135061">route of exposure</a> for the people living there. But how worried should we be about the risks to our personal health linked to these forever chemicals?</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/regulating-forever-chemicals-3-essential-reads-on-pfas-201263">Regulating 'forever chemicals': 3 essential reads on PFAS</a>
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<h2>Harmful impacts</h2>
<p>Three specific PFAS chemicals of concern: perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) are listed on the <a href="http://www.pops.int/TheConvention/Overview/tabid/3351/Default.aspx">Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants</a>. The convention is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife, and have harmful impacts on human health or on the environment. </p>
<p>To address PFAS risks and set acceptable limits, Australia has <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/publications/pfas-nemp-2">environmental</a> and <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/health-based-guidance-values-for-pfas-for-use-in-site-investigations-in-australia?utm_source=health.gov.au&utm_medium=callout-auto-custom&utm_campaign=digital_transformation">health guidelines</a> for food, drinking water and recreational water exposures – like those just announced in the US.</p>
<p>The effects of PFAS exposure remain a matter of debate, specifically around the causal links between exposure and poorer human health. Nonetheless, there are <a href="https://www.hbm4eu.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Factsheet_PFAS.pdf">clear associations</a> to health outcomes <a href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pfas/health-effects/index.html">including</a> low fetal weight, impaired immune response, thyroid function abnormalities, obesity, increased lipid levels and liver function and impaired vaccine response. </p>
<p>These associations to disease <a href="https://apo.org.au/sites/default/files/resource-files/2018-05/apo-nid171461_1.pdf">have been disputed</a>, but it nevertheless remains prudent to minimise exposure to all potentially harmful chemicals. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515335/original/file-20230314-3619-8os7mj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="pan with cooked eggs sliding off" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515335/original/file-20230314-3619-8os7mj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515335/original/file-20230314-3619-8os7mj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515335/original/file-20230314-3619-8os7mj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515335/original/file-20230314-3619-8os7mj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515335/original/file-20230314-3619-8os7mj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515335/original/file-20230314-3619-8os7mj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515335/original/file-20230314-3619-8os7mj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Non-stick pans may expose people to PFAS.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-fried-eggs-pan-olive-oil-700699756">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-evidence-shows-blood-or-plasma-donations-can-reduce-the-pfas-forever-chemicals-in-our-bodies-178771">New evidence shows blood or plasma donations can reduce the PFAS 'forever chemicals' in our bodies</a>
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<h2>What about toilet paper though?</h2>
<p>The issue in regard to the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.estlett.3c00094#">PFAS in toilet paper</a> study is that consumers do not know the products they are buying contain PFAS. Toilet roll PFAS may have entered the paper as an additive as part of the pulping and <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/acs.estlett.3c00094">manufacturing process</a>. Toilet paper with PFAS adds to the total burden found in <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsestwater.1c00377">wastewater</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129143">biosolids</a>. But should we really give a crap? </p>
<p>Yes and no. Yes because it’s not unreasonable for consumers to demand to know if the products they are buying (and rubbing on their nether regions) contain potentially toxic compounds. Some chemicals such as BPA (Bisphenol-A, an industrial chemical used in plastics manufacturing) have been <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer/chemicals/bpa/pages/regulationandmonitor5377.aspx">voluntarily phased out</a> and products that are BPA-free are labelled accordingly. </p>
<p>One concern when swapping out chemicals is that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c09435">subsitutions</a> are actually more <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-that-bpa-free-label-isnt-telling-you-34725">acceptable</a> and are not replaced by something <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/bpa-substitutes-may-be-just-bad-popular-consumer-plastic">equally concerning</a>. And we should do everything we can to minimise adding persistent, bioaccumalative and toxic chemicals to our environment that are hard to remediate.</p>
<p>On the other hand, we should not worry overly because <a href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pfas/health-effects/index.html">dermal exposure</a> to PFAS is negligible even from wiping your bum. Most assessments show food and water are the primary <a href="https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/for-community/environmental-information/pfas">sources of PFAS exposure</a> for humans. </p>
<p>And harm from exposure is determined by the dose. Although for some chemicals there is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.2003066">no safe acceptable threshold</a>, ultra low concentrations are typically present in the wider environment away from PFAS sources such as fire stations and training grounds and airports. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515336/original/file-20230314-2595-ew1deb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="plastic containers labelled BPA free" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515336/original/file-20230314-2595-ew1deb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515336/original/file-20230314-2595-ew1deb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515336/original/file-20230314-2595-ew1deb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515336/original/file-20230314-2595-ew1deb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515336/original/file-20230314-2595-ew1deb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515336/original/file-20230314-2595-ew1deb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515336/original/file-20230314-2595-ew1deb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">BPA-free plastic is now widely available.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/plastic-reusable-cutlery-flat-lay-bpa-1504558490">Shutterstock</a></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/house-dust-from-35-countries-reveals-our-global-toxic-contaminant-exposure-and-health-risk-172499">House dust from 35 countries reveals our global toxic contaminant exposure and health risk</a>
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<h2>Levels are falling</h2>
<p>Australian population exposure levels to regulated PFAS chemicals – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.03.004">PFOA, PFOS and PFHxS</a> – have been falling over the last 20 years despite the fact these chemicals are still present in cosmetics, food packing, cookware, clothes and carpets. </p>
<p>In addition, the <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/Documents/27th%20ATDS%20report.pdf">Australian Total Diet Study</a> showed only PFOS was detected in five of 112 food types and in less than 2% of all samples. The daily intake of PFOS in the population was identified as being well below public health and safety concerns. Australian food PFAS values were consistently lower than those reported from Europe, the US, United Kingdom and China.</p>
<p>Population exposure concentrations – outside of <a href="https://pfas.australianmap.net/">known contamination hotspots</a> – are low and the risks have been reducing over time. Our prime focus should be improving modifiable <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/social-determinants-of-health#tab=tab_1">social determinants of health</a> such as income, education, employment security, relationships with friends and family. These will result in tangible beneficial health outcomes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201785/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Patrick Taylor is a full-time employee of EPA Victoria, appointed to the statutory role of Chief Environmental Scientist. He is also an Honorary Professor at Macquarie University.</span></em></p>Every household is more likely than not to have dusts containing PFAS chemicals at low concentrations. But how worried should we be about the risks to our personal health?Mark Patrick Taylor, Victoria's Chief Environmental Scientist, EPA Victoria; Honorary Professor, School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1979972023-03-13T13:36:22Z2023-03-13T13:36:22ZFrom waste to clean water: tiny carbon particles can do the job<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512388/original/file-20230227-20-kep09i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Clean water is in short supply around the world. But it doesn't have to be.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">borgogniels/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many futuristic novels and films have explored what the world might look like without water. But water scarcity isn’t a problem for the far-off future: it’s already here.</p>
<p>In its <a href="https://www.unwater.org/publications/summary-progress-update-2021-sdg-6-water-and-sanitation-all">2021 report</a> UN Water outlined the scale of the crisis: 2.3 billion people live in water-stressed countries and 733 million of those people are in “high and critically water-stressed countries”.</p>
<p>In 2018 Cape Town, where I live and conduct my research, residents found themselves staring down “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/may/04/back-from-the-brink-how-cape-town-cracked-its-water-crisis">day zero</a>”, when household water supplies would run dry. Good rains spared the South African city, but now other parts of the country face <a href="https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2022-10-04-day-zero-comes-to-parts-of-joburg-as-water-cuts-roll-through-city-and-taps-run-dry/">similarly dire</a> predictions of empty taps. </p>
<p>This scenario is threatening to play out across Africa. In the <a href="https://climatechampions.unfccc.int/is-eastern-africas-drought-the-worst-in-recent-history-and-are-worse-yet-to-come/">Horn of Africa</a> region, for example, large areas of Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya have seen four consecutive rainy seasons pass without decent rains. The rise of “<a href="https://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/particularly-exposed-climate-shocks-african-cities-are-turning-adaptation-and-resilience-56462">megacities</a>” in Africa – with millions moving into city areas – puts further pressures on already limited infrastructure.</p>
<p>And the crisis extends <a href="https://www.unwater.org/publications/summary-progress-update-2021-sdg-6-water-and-sanitation-all">far beyond the African continent</a>. </p>
<p>There is no one solution for this grim reality. A multi-pronged approach will be necessary, as Cape Town’s experience <a href="https://www.businessinsider.co.za/water-tips-2022-10">illustrated</a>.</p>
<p>Technology will be a key part of solving the global water scarcity crisis. Technological solutions can run the gamut from the most basic, like water leak detectors for households, to highly sophisticated, like ways to <a href="https://borgenproject.org/top-4-technologies-solving-water-scarcity/">pull moisture out of the air</a> to produce clean drinking water, or convert the planet’s abundant salt water into fresh water.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/cben.202100003">recent paper</a> colleagues and I outlined another potentially powerful technology: carbon nanomaterials, which have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221478532100420X">been shown</a> to remove organic, inorganic and biological pollutants from water. </p>
<h2>Contamination threatens water sources</h2>
<p>Contamination is one of the factors putting strain on water sources. All water supplies contain some microbes and pathogens. But industrial waste is a huge problem: vehicles release heavy metal pollutants, for instance, and <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/news/latest-news/research-news/2018/2018-05/the-heat-of-acid-mine-drainage.html#:%7E:text=The%20water%20becomes%20acidic%20and,the%20drinking%20water%20supply%20system">acid mine drainage</a> seeps into water sources. This results in contaminated ground and surface water that cannot be safely used for most human activities, much less for drinking or washing food.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/marine-life-in-a-south-african-bay-is-full-of-chemical-pollutants-182791">Marine life in a South African bay is full of chemical pollutants</a>
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<p>Some current technologies make the treatment of water too expensive. Others are simply not up to the job and are unable to remove microorganisms. In removing organic pollutants like pharmaceutical waste, organic dyes, plastics and detergents from wastewater, for instance, some conventional techniques such as membrane filtration have been found wanting. </p>
<p>That’s where carbon nanomaterials come in. With others, I am exploring their use and finding that they are more efficient and economically viable than conventional materials.</p>
<h2>Nanomaterials</h2>
<p>Nanomaterials are broadly defined as materials that contain particles of between 1 and 100 nanometres (nm) in size. One nanometre equals one-billionth of a metre. Different nanomaterials are composed of different atoms – some, like those I research, are made up of carbon atoms.</p>
<p>Carbon is, by mass, the second most abundant <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/most-abundant-element-in-the-universe-602186">element</a> in the human body after oxygen. It is also a common element of all known life. Carbon nanotechnologies are environmentally friendly because they hold less risk of secondary pollution than some adsorbents (solid substances used to remove contaminants from liquid or gas).</p>
<p>Engineered into nanomaterial form, carbon nanomaterials are being <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nanomaterials-could-combat-climate-change-and-reduce-pollution/">hailed</a> by many scientists around the world for their superior physical and chemical properties. They are increasingly prized for their potential to remove heavy metals from water thanks to their large <a href="https://www.diffen.com/difference/Absorption_vs_Adsorption">surface area and adsorption</a> capabilities, their nano-scaled size and their chemical properties. </p>
<p>Carbon nanomaterials have all been <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2053-1591/ac48b8#:%7E:text=Carbon%20nanomaterials%20are%20applied%20in,with%20the%20rise%20of%20nanotechnology.">shown</a> to be effective in the treatment of wastewater.</p>
<h2>Tackling water scarcity</h2>
<p>I work with carbon-coated magnetic nanomaterials. This blended composite plays a crucial role in decontaminating water. At the same time, it removes materials such as heavy metals. That makes it ideal for water treatment, as do its easy, fast recovery and recyclability, thanks to what’s known as magnetic filtration. In this process, the magnetic nanomaterials added to the contaminated water are recovered after treatment by an external strong magnet. The recovered materials can be regenerated and be reused again.</p>
<p>Carbon-based nanomaterials still have shortcomings. Nanomaterials tend to clump together into large particles, reducing their capacity to adsorb (attract and hold) pollutants. And nanoparticles are not always fully recovered from treated water, leading to secondary contamination. We’re still not sure how to separate exhausted – fully utilised – nanomaterials from treated water.</p>
<p>The work continues in our lab and others all over the world. Scientists dislike timelines, since breakthroughs rarely happen within set deadlines. But our hope is that more and more advances will be made with carbon-based nanonmaterials in the years to come, giving the world an important tool to tackle water scarcity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197997/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Salam Titinchi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Technology will be a key part of solving the global water scarcity crisis.Salam Titinchi, Professor, University of the Western CapeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.