tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/branch-campuses-21671/articlesBranch campuses – The Conversation2016-06-23T04:44:47Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/614352016-06-23T04:44:47Z2016-06-23T04:44:47ZReport urges India to allow overseas universities to open up campuses<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/127856/original/image-20160623-30272-1gt7afh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">India is being urged to reverse a policy that doesn't allow foreign universities to open up a campus.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last year, the Indian government <a href="http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/former-cab-secy-to-head-panel-to-draft-new-education-policy/">called for a review</a> into how to best reform its education system. The findings and recommendations <a href="http://www.livemint.com/Education/UtNYdM0Ng8EZSFGa5l1cXP/10-recommendations-of-Subramanian-Committee-on-new-education.html">reported in the media this week</a> reflect the momentum building in India for change in the sector. </p>
<p>The report addresses a longstanding civil society concern within India to raise the percentage of GDP per capita spent on education. The proposal is to raise it from the current level of about 4% to something closer to the worldwide standard of 6%.</p>
<p>It calls for reforms to teacher education, suggesting mandatory certification of teacher qualifications for both public and private schools. It further recommends regulatory changes that would allow greater financial autonomy for top universities in India and improved research funding. </p>
<p>It also recommends extending the successful “Midday Meals Programme” , which gives primary school children lunchtime meals free of charge in school, to secondary students. </p>
<h2>Setting up roots in India</h2>
<p>The report also put forward the idea that the <a href="https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2016/world-ranking#!/page/0/length/25/sort_by/rank_label/sort_order/asc/cols/rank_only">world’s top 200 universities</a> should be given permission to open campuses in India, reversing a previous policy of not allowing them entry.</p>
<p>This recommendation reflects a longstanding interest among Indian policymakers in creating greater competition within India’s university sector. It also serves to meet surging domestic demand for high quality international education.</p>
<p>It is a recommendation, too, that responds to the interests of many foreign higher education providers. </p>
<p>The report should please Australian universities, particularly our <a href="https://go8.edu.au/">Group of Eight</a>. This group represents Australia’s elite universities, ll of which are in the top 200 of global university rankings.</p>
<p>Opening campuses in India not only provides opportunities for Australian universities to raise revenue through improved access to the growing market for international education in India. It also allows them to deepen their engagement with India in terms of learning, teaching and research. And it facilitates cultural exchange between Australia and India.</p>
<h2>The challenges</h2>
<p>Challenges remain for Australian universities to engage more fully in India. Most notably, India has no national system for course accreditation and qualification recognition. This makes it difficult for Australian universities to assess students’ prior learning when making decisions about degree entry requirements. </p>
<p>It’s also worth noting that this is not the first time that the Indian government has been advised to permit foreign universities to open campuses on the subcontinent. Such legislation has been repeatedly stalled since it was first proposed in 2010. This has created uncertainty for Australian universities, making them more hesitant to engage with India. </p>
<p>Within the next five years, it may be possible for some universities to open campuses in India. </p>
<p>Australian universities already have substantive involvement with India. For example, the University of Melbourne, Deakin, RMIT and Monash University have been collaborating extensively with some of India’s most prestigious centres of learning and research. This includes efforts to facilitate increasing student exchanges, develop joint degree programs and foster long-term research collaborations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61435/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Trent Brown works as a research assistant at the Australia India Institute which receives funding from The Commonwealth Government of Australia, Victorian Government, University of Melbourne and other private sources.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Craig Jeffrey is Director of the Australia India Institute which receives funding from The Commonwealth Government of Australia, Victorian Government, University of Melbourne and other private sources.</span></em></p>A new report offers recommendations for how to best reform the education system in India.Trent Brown, Research Assistant, Australia India Institute, The University of MelbourneCraig Jeffrey, Director and CEO of the Australia India Institute; professor of development geography, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/462892015-10-19T05:12:55Z2015-10-19T05:12:55ZUniversities that set up branch campuses in other countries are not colonisers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96838/original/image-20150930-5809-8jwiua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The University of Nottingham has spread its wings to Malaysia. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/60625416@N06/5527362395/sizes/l">catmonkey2011/www.flickr.com</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The Conversation’s international teams are collaborating on a series of articles about the Globalisation of Higher Education, examining how universities are changing in an increasingly globalised world. Read the rest of the articles in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/globalisation-of-higher-education-series">series here</a>.</em></p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/branching-out-why-universities-open-international-campuses-despite-little-reward-46129">growth of international branch campuses</a> set up by universities in other countries is the most concrete evidence of how higher education has become a global business. </p>
<p>As of August 2015, there were 229 international branch campuses around the world with another 22 in development, <a href="http://www.globalhighered.org/branchcampuses.php">according to</a> the Cross-Border Education Research Team (C-BERT) at SUNY Albany, which monitors their spread. The US and the UK are the largest “exporters” of international branch campuses, with 50 and 27 respectively. But Russia, with 13 campuses in countries such as Belarus, Albania and Azerbaijan, has now overtaken Australia’s 11. </p>
<p>Some developing countries, notably India, have also entered the market – SP Jain has campuses in Dubai, Singapore and Sydney – while Malaysia’s Limkokwing University has opened in London.</p>
<p>It is tempting to see these branch campuses as the educational equivalent of the globalisation of business, with powerful universities establishing networks of subsidiary campuses. Given the growing demand for higher education, which has seen global enrolments <a href="http://data.uis.unesco.org">quadruple from 50m to 198m</a> since 1980, the implication is that the number of these campuses will continue to climb.</p>
<h2>How the business works</h2>
<p>Before jumping to this conclusion, it is helpful to understand how international branch campuses are set up and the alignment of interests that are driving their growth. These campuses generally have two defining characteristics: they trade under the “brand name” of the home university (University of Wollongong in Dubai or UNLV Singapore); and they teach and award the qualifications of the home university.</p>
<p>But there are some secondary characteristics which are less well-known. They are incorporated as private education companies, in which the home university has an equity stake. Branch campuses also normally have local partners, often commercial property companies (in China, for example, a local majority partner is mandated by legislation), and they are registered as private education providers under the jurisdiction of the host ministry of education.</p>
<p>Branch campuses overseas have been often derided as colonial outposts of the home university, representing the “<a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/The_Mcdonaldization_of_Higher_Education.html?id=BS8bwfsmXEkC">McDonaldization of higher education</a>”. But the reality is that most campuses are legally established as private universities in the host countries, controlled by local majority shareholders. Most of the <a href="http://jsi.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/08/25/1028315315602928.abstract">staff are employed by the local entity</a>, not the home university, and are hired locally.</p>
<p>The campus functions under the watchful eye of the host ministry of education, which can variously require the teaching of specific courses (such as <a href="http://www.moe.edu.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_2803/200905/48454.html">cultural courses in China</a>) and set tuition fees and enrolment quotas, such <a href="http://www.agc.gov.my/Akta/Vol.%2012/Act%20555%20-%20Private%20Higher%20Educational%20Institutions%20Act%201996.pdf">as in Malaysia</a>.</p>
<h2>No cash cow</h2>
<p>For the home university, the cost of setting up an international branch campus is generally much lower than commonly supposed. This is partly because the university has local joint venture partners to share setup costs, but mainly because the campus is incorporated as a legal entity. With the backing of its local shareholders, the campus can raise capital on its own account to buy land, build the campus and fund its operating costs until it breaks even.</p>
<p>On the downside, these financial arrangements mean that there is no “pot of gold” for the home university. It may take a number of years for enrolments to build to the level where the campus is breaking even and, thereafter, the bulk of any profits will go to servicing the campus’s debt. Any residual profit will be split between the shareholders, with capital controls and other restrictions often limiting the ability of the home university to repatriate their minority share.</p>
<p>All this begs the obvious question: why have so many universities opened campuses overseas? Making easy money is not the motivation. In general, the growth has been driven by universities seeking to build their global brands, and so attracting international students and staff. But the more important player in the mix is the host government.</p>
<h2>Friends in high places</h2>
<p>Higher education remains a highly regulated, politicised sector and international branch campuses exist because they serve the interests of the host governments. In some countries, <a href="http://uaecd.org/higher-education">notably the United Arab Emirates</a>, branch campuses provide education to the children of a majority expatriate population barred from tuition-free Emirati universities. In China, branch campuses transfer educational technology and teaching skills to the Chinese higher education system, which the government hopes will help to improve quality overall.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96839/original/image-20150930-5790-zuvna3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96839/original/image-20150930-5790-zuvna3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96839/original/image-20150930-5790-zuvna3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96839/original/image-20150930-5790-zuvna3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96839/original/image-20150930-5790-zuvna3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96839/original/image-20150930-5790-zuvna3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96839/original/image-20150930-5790-zuvna3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Former first minister of Scotland, Alex Salmond, opens the Heriot-Watt campus in Dubai in 2011.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/scottishgovernment/6308639970/sizes/l">Scottish Government</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Seen in this light, branch campuses are not a manifestation of a relentless globalisation of higher education, but a transitory alignment of motivations: universities seeking to build their brands by extending their global reach and host governments seeking to accelerate the development of their higher education systems.</p>
<p>It is difficult to predict how long this trend will continue, but the experience of the British Commonwealth suggests a downturn will come as the higher education systems of host countries mature. Remember, the Universities of the West Indies, Colombo and Zimbabwe all began life as remote branches of the University of London, teaching an academic syllabus devised and examined in Russell Square. They subsequently developed their own identities and academic cultures, cutting the ties with London as they grew up to become proud, autonomous institutions of higher learning.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46289/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nigel Healey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Both universities and their host countries have a stake in the success of overseas campuses.Nigel Healey, Pro-Vice-Chancellor (International) and Head of College of Business, Law and Social Sciences, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/469202015-10-16T09:57:57Z2015-10-16T09:57:57ZOn global campuses, academic freedom has its limits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96512/original/image-20150928-30970-bjue5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Can global campuses promise the same academic freedom?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/liz/6314937/in/photolist-8Suuxc-8WL1jK-8WL1BH-kADnA-pZo63R-9GUBLH-ynaZ-9DJQmz-ynde-8qdikG-yndY-ynem-yncm-yng2-yncJ-ynbZ-ynbm-yneT-8XCMJo-j4oL6y-pH3Nm3-pH24Rn-pZvZny-p3DubT-k6v7T3-dsYon6-9eXNo2-9f2hPy-9f2hPQ-9f2hPJ-dv2B6F-6TwPQJ-9eXNj4-9eXNak-9eXNcK-9eXNeB-9eXNgi-9f1W9S-9f1WeJ-7LmPMt-dv8btj-2dJPPy-cnNgms">Liz Lawley</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The Conversation’s international teams are collaborating on a series of articles about the Globalisation of Higher Education, examining how universities are changing in an increasingly globalised world. This is the second article in the series. Read more <a href="https://theconversation.com/search?q=globalisation+of+higher+education+series">here</a>.</em></p>
<p>Last spring, a New York University professor was <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/17/nyregion/nyu-professor-is-barred-from-the-united-arab-emirates.html">prevented</a> from traveling to the United Arab Emirates to conduct research. The UAE government did not like his criticisms of the use of migrant labor in the Emirates. </p>
<p>The fact that this academic scholarship was politically unacceptable to the Emirati leadership may not be surprising. But what is important here is that NYU has a branch campus in Abu Dhabi. The university <a href="http://nyuad.nyu.edu/en/about/faqs.html">promises</a> that academic freedom will be protected there in exactly the same way that it is in New York City. </p>
<p>It turns out, though, that protection has its limits. As an NYU spokesperson later <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/17/nyregion/nyu-professor-is-barred-from-the-united-arab-emirates.html">said</a>, “it is the government that controls visa and immigration policy, and not the university.”</p>
<p>As a faculty member in the United States, I am free to write and speak about any topic. But outside of the US, local laws and cultural prohibitions create a different situation. Plus, governments can use the visa process to keep out people with disruptive ideas. Under these circumstances, academic freedom simply cannot provide the same protections to faculty. </p>
<h2>History of academic freedom</h2>
<p>Academic freedom has its origins in the 19th-century German universities, where the freedom to teach <a href="http://www.ditext.com/searle/campus/6.html">(Lehrfreiheit) and study (Lernfreiheit)</a> were considered <a href="http://cup.columbia.edu/book/academic-freedom-in-the-age-of-the-university/9780231085120">fundamental</a> to the research ambitions of the faculty. </p>
<p>The concept was initially codified in the United States in the early 20th century as a formal rejection of wealthy industrialist control of university activities. In 1900, a faculty member at Stanford University was <a href="http://www.aaup.org/about/history/aaup-archives">fired</a> for criticizing railroad labor practices. Several faculty members resigned in protest and began organizing the American Association of University Professors to investigate similar firings of other faculty. </p>
<p>In 1940, the <a href="http://www.aaup.org/report/1940-statement-principles-academic-freedom-and-tenure">Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure</a> of the American Association of University Professors and the Association of American Colleges and Universities provided the modern framework for academic freedom that universities – including NYU – still use today. </p>
<p>By these standards academic freedom is considered “fundamental to the advancement of truth.” Therefore, faculty should not be constrained in their ability to examine and explain their subjects. </p>
<h2>Freedom within borders</h2>
<p>As universities become more and more engaged in international activities, the blanket protections of academic freedom are increasingly difficult for institutions to guarantee.</p>
<p>This is particularly the case for <a href="http://theconversation.com/is-todays-university-the-new-multinational-corporation-40681">institutions</a> that have opened branch campuses and other foreign higher education outposts. These locations are often established at the invitation and encouragement of local leaders, and many are financially supported with subsidies from the foreign government. </p>
<p>Sometimes this support comes with restrictions as to what subjects can be taught at the outpost or specifications on the students it can enroll. In essence, foreign higher education outposts have less autonomy compared to the home location as a consequence of these partnerships.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96515/original/image-20150928-30974-ccihzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96515/original/image-20150928-30974-ccihzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96515/original/image-20150928-30974-ccihzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96515/original/image-20150928-30974-ccihzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96515/original/image-20150928-30974-ccihzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96515/original/image-20150928-30974-ccihzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96515/original/image-20150928-30974-ccihzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Chinese government has banned discussions of some sensitive subjects.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/rlerdorf/508620686/in/photolist-LWPdb-gWAGRo-jb153-e6tUMK-h9fQmZ-h9evaX-6VUmd2-h9fREF-4QFt72-aPHBxe-h9eFuJ-h9eBAo-aENj3Q-pvak44-m47sn-m47u1-vvqQdz-jLBNbc-muo9o6-9TnBXc-iJGcM-MXVMP-67eFn-pNksTp-e3fwNw-e39QYR-h4soXS-e3fwEE-e39RsM-5uDM8Y-7k8a7r-rqPto-aFtpne-8KZ8J8-cuye1N-aFtpdT-9SEiHH-qW5FL-cuyfJ3-9FYAR2-MXJCQ-m47wW-78VhRk-6BWvz-MXJTC-78Fy9n-MXUgt-MXKQ5-MXJr7-MXUsi">Rasmus Lerdorf</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The potential threat to academic freedom for international higher education is clear in countries with authoritarian governments. According to data compiled by my research group at Albany, <a href="http://globalhighered.org/">the Cross Border Education Research Team</a>, the top countries to host foreign branch campus are United Arab Emirates (with 32 campuses), China (28), Singapore (13), Qatar (11) and Malaysia (9). All of these countries have governments that control dissent and have policies restricting freedom of speech and freedom of the press.</p>
<h2>Restrictions in many countries</h2>
<p>We’ve already seen what the UAE’s response has been to a critical academic voice. But what about the others?</p>
<p>Chinese-sponsored Confucian institutes, which are culture and language centers hosted by universities outside of China, have been <a href="http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-confucius-institute-hearing-met-20141204-story.html">criticized</a> for avoiding controversial subjects like the <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tankman/cron/">Tiananmen Square protests of 1989</a>. The government has also reportedly banned classroom discussion within China of sensitive <a href="http://chronicle.com/article/China-Bans-7-Topics-in/139407/">subjects</a> such as <a href="http://www.ibtimes.com/chinese-communist-party-magazine-blasts-university-professors-spreading-western-1794018">mistakes made by the Communist Party</a> and the <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/20/world/asia/chinas-new-leadership-takes-hard-line-in-secret-memo.html">wealth of its leadership</a>. </p>
<p>Most branch campuses in China have a senior administrator who represents the Communist Party, and <a href="http://www.nj.com/education/2015/07/kean-wenzhou-china_ad_says_communist_party_members.html">preferences</a> are given to party members in some hiring decisions.</p>
<p>Singapore has been <a href="http://chronicle.com/article/Yale-Faculty-Registers-Concern/131448/">criticized</a> by academics for its laws against homosexuality and restrictions on public demonstrations. Similar charges apply to Malaysia and Qatar. Malaysia sedition law has just been <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-13/opposition-says-authorities-using-sedition-act-to-stem-criticism/6693210">strengthened</a> to counter growing protests over government corruption. </p>
<p>Qatar’s strict censorship laws create circumstances where necessary teaching materials <a href="http://www.northwestern.edu/faculty-senate/from-the-president/commentary/Report%20on%20Northwestern%20University,%20Qatar.html">cannot be officially obtained</a>, and <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/21/us-qatar-poet-court-idUSBRE99K0LM20131021">criticism of the ruling family</a> carries a steep sentence.</p>
<h2>Freedom within campus gates</h2>
<p>Nevertheless, international campuses usually have broad assurances from the host governments that academic freedom will be respected.</p>
<p>The reality of academic freedom in international education is actually somewhere in between the extremes of government control and the full ability of universities to protect their institutional autonomy. </p>
<p>My research team has visited over 50 branch campuses in countries around the world, including UAE, China, Singapore, Malaysia and Qatar. We found little evidence for restrictions on academic freedom on the campuses themselves.</p>
<p>Rather, we typically find an academic community that is allowed to debate topics that might be off-limits elsewhere in the country.</p>
<p>This academic freedom, however, ends at the campus gate. A free-wheeling discussion in the classroom cannot continue in a coffee shop. A publication meant for students’ eyes is not meant to be seen by the broader public.</p>
<h2>Scholarship should not be controversial</h2>
<p>Additionally, certain subjects are not even part of the curriculum, which is problematic. </p>
<p>We know of no scholar of queer studies, for example, teaching in Malaysia or Singapore. The most common subject in international education is business, which doesn’t usually pose a challenge to the existing social and political order. </p>
<p>And faculty we interview usually say the subject of academic freedom simply never comes up – they never run up against a problem, because like most faculty, their scholarship and teaching is simply not that controversial.</p>
<p>Moreover, people working and studying overseas recognize that there are different cultural mores that should be respected. Most, like taking off your shoes before entering a home, are accommodated with little affront to deeply held academic values. </p>
<p>Even ones that would be considered out of place at home, like gender-segregated learning environments, can be addressed without needing to reject the tradition it comes from.</p>
<p>But others truly are a bridge too far. </p>
<p>As campuses expand and establish a global presence, I believe, explicit restrictions on academic freedom should be vociferously challenged. And home campus administrators should not get complacent in the assurances from their hosts about the academic freedom they will enjoy.</p>
<p>It is clear that there are limits to academic freedom in international higher education. But that doesn’t mean that all engagement has to stop.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46920/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin Kinser does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As universities set up campuses globally, the blanket protections of academic freedom are becoming increasingly difficult to guarantee.Kevin Kinser, Associate Professor of Education, University at Albany, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.