tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/bystander-effect-9410/articlesBystander effect – The Conversation2021-04-30T12:14:54Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1596742021-04-30T12:14:54Z2021-04-30T12:14:54ZThe ‘bystander effect’ is real – but research shows that when more people witness violence, it’s more likely someone will step up and intervene<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397952/original/file-20210429-23-yif9ux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C32%2C978%2C551&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An image from a police body camera shows bystanders including Darnella Frazier, third from right, filming a Minneapolis police officer pressing his knee on George Floyd's neck.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/GeorgeFloydOfficerTrialNelson/ca9d6a445a60478092510cd46683dc0f/photo?Query=Darnella%20AND%20Frazier&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:asc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=4&currentItemNo=1">Minneapolis Police Department via AP, File</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The most powerful evidence for the prosecution at the trial of Derek Chauvin was <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prZ-bYOUuZo">a video showing the then-Minneapolis police officer pinning a pleading George Floyd</a> to the ground by kneeling on his neck until he grew silent and then died. </p>
<p>On the witness stand, the teenager who captured the incident on her smartphone, 17-year-old Darnella Frazier, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/20/us/darnella-frazier-video.html">expressed regret</a> for not doing more on the day of the crime. </p>
<p>As a professor whose major field of research is <a href="https://www.business.rutgers.edu/faculty/wayne-eastman">the application of psychology and game theory to ethics</a>, I believe that Frazier’s regret about not physically intervening illuminates two major points: First, a witness to a troubling situation who is in a group may feel a lesser sense of personal responsibility than a single individual. Second, someone in a group of people who can see one another may nonetheless feel responsible to act.</p>
<h2>The bystander effect</h2>
<p>The sense of diminished personal responsibility for people in a group has become known as the “<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130507023426/http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/0155060678_rathus/ps/ps19.html">bystander effect</a>” – a phenomenon first described in the wake of a celebrated, infamous case.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1964/03/27/archives/37-who-saw-murder-didnt-call-the-police-apathy-at-stabbing-of.html">1964 front-page story headlined</a> “37 Who Saw Murder Didn’t Call the Police; Apathy at Stabbing of Queens Woman Shocks Inspector,” The New York Times related the gruesome story of the middle-of-the-night sexual assault and murder of Kitty Genovese, a 28-year-old bartender, near her apartment building. </p>
<p>In recent years, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.6.555">academics</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/06/insider/1964-how-many-witnessed-the-murder-of-kitty-genovese.html">The New York Times itself</a> have concluded that the report had significant errors – the number of witnesses was fewer than 37 and multiple people phoned the police.</p>
<p>Reflecting on the notorious case long before these errors were known, social psychologists <a href="https://latane.socialpsychology.org/">Bibb Latane</a> and <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/news/2018/09/13/social-psychologist-john-darley-early-researcher-bystander-intervention-dies-80">John Darley</a> wondered if it would be possible to study failure of bystanders to act in lab experiments.</p>
<p><a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Unresponsive_Bystander.html?id=wU1-f2RLVKgC">In a 1970 book</a>, Darley and Latane summarized that the chances of any one individual acting in a pro-social or helpful way is lower when responsibility is diffused among a number of people. Subsequent studies <a href="https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0023304">also confirmed</a> that individuals are more likely to act when they feel they have the sole responsibility to do so.</p>
<p>The bystander effect has been reformulated by game theorists as the “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002785029004003">volunteer’s dilemma</a>.” In the volunteer’s dilemma, a person, or a group of people, will avoid discomfort if any one of them takes a pro-social action with a small cost, such as <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/media-spotlight/201604/exploring-the-volunteers-dilemma">performing first aid or fixing a clogged drain</a>.</p>
<p>Any one individual acting alone has good reason to take action – but if there is a crowd of, say, 20 people, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002793037003008">the chance that they will do nothing and let someone else volunteer goes up</a>. </p>
<p>In the case of George Floyd, the bystander effect was complicated by the power dynamics at play. Chauvin was an armed white police officer, and Frazier and the other bystanders were unarmed civilians who were mostly Black, like George Floyd himself. Given that, it is reasonable to ask whether Frazier, if she had been the sole civilian witness, would have gone beyond recording a video to physically intervene – such as trying to pull Chauvin off Floyd. </p>
<p>And it is also reasonable to ask whether she or any bystander should physically intervene in a situation where doing so might be extremely risky. </p>
<h2>What makes people act</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397900/original/file-20210429-21-w2n2qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People gathered at the intersection of 38th Street and Chicago Avenue in Minneapolis after the guilty verdict in the Derek Chauvin trial on April 20, 2021." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397900/original/file-20210429-21-w2n2qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397900/original/file-20210429-21-w2n2qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397900/original/file-20210429-21-w2n2qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397900/original/file-20210429-21-w2n2qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397900/original/file-20210429-21-w2n2qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397900/original/file-20210429-21-w2n2qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397900/original/file-20210429-21-w2n2qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">After Derek Chauvin was found guilty of murder and manslaughter, people gathered on the street where he killed George Floyd.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-gather-at-the-intersection-of-38th-street-and-news-photo/1232426311?adppopup=true">Brandon Bell/Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>What needs to be explained in Frazier’s behavior – and that of a number of other witnesses who also recorded videos or called out to Chauvin to stop – is not why they didn’t take drastic, risky physical action, but why they did take the steps to record videos and yell for Chauvin to stop. </p>
<p>To explain their pro-social action, an advancing line of research on the behavior of witnesses to troubling scenes is helpful. That research suggests that having more witnesses <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510701766181">increases rather than decreases the chance of intervention</a> and that pro-social intervention by at least some in a group is the norm. </p>
<p>A 2008 analysis by social psychologist <a href="https://stalder.socialpsychology.org/">Daniel Stalder</a> of previous studies found that although the bystander effect is real, larger group size <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510701766181">increased the probability</a> that at least one person in the group would make a pro-social intervention. </p>
<p>More recently, a 2019 article by psychologist <a href="https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/psychology/about-us/people/richard-philpot">Richard Philpot</a> and four co-authors found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000469">there is a greater chance that someone will act</a> when there are larger numbers of witnesses to public conflicts. They also found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000469">that intervention is the norm</a>: 90.7% of public conflicts featured one or more witnesses making a pro-social intervention, with an average of 3.8 witnesses intervening in each conflict.</p>
<p>Compared with earlier research, their study is particularly persuasive, as it relied not on lab studies, but on examining surveillance camera footage of actual public conflicts between civilians (not between police and civilians) taking place in crowded urban street settings. The research was conducted in three countries – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000469">South Africa, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom</a>. </p>
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<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000469">As Philpot and his co-authors put it</a>, in a line that presages what Frazier and several others near her did: “We found that in nine-out-of-10 conflicts, at least one person – but typically several – did something to help.” </p>
<p>In trying to understand bystander ethics, the troubling phenomenon of diffusion of responsibility remains relevant. But it is also important to understand the more positive finding that pro-social intervention like Frazier’s by one or more people in groups who witness public conflicts is common.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/159674/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wayne Eastman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A game theory expert explains why a witness to a troubling situation who is in a group may feel a lesser sense of personal responsibility than a single individual.Wayne Eastman, Professor, Department of Supply Chain Management, Rutgers UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1404212021-02-01T13:09:37Z2021-02-01T13:09:37ZPeople may become less likely to contribute to a virtual public good like Waze if they know many others are already doing it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381435/original/file-20210129-18933-1mhrngr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=58%2C107%2C2937%2C1890&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Waze depends on users to voluntarily upload information about traffic accidents and road closures. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/screen-view-of-the-waze-traffic-gps-app-on-an-iphone-on-news-photo/462899188">Linda Davidson/The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>While people tend to contribute more to a virtual public good if they see others doing the same, this effect reverses if they become aware too many people are participating, according to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3065303">research that I conducted over the summer</a>. <a href="https://theconversation.com/public-goods-made-america-great-and-can-do-so-again-74421">Public goods</a> are things that many people share. They can be physical, such as highways, clean air and blood banks, or virtual, like a free online encyclopedia or mobile traffic app. </p>
<p>Combining methods from geography, urban planning and big-data analysis, my co-authors and I studied millions of postings by users of a mobile navigation app called Waze, in which users voluntarily post traffic-related updates and road conditions in real time. All users of the app benefit as more of them freely contribute information about traffic accidents and road closures. Economists <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/public-good.asp">describe this</a> as contributing to a public good. </p>
<p>We found that displaying the “density” of users’ activities on Waze – that is, real time information on how many people are on the app in one’s geographic location – can encourage participation from others in the area, just as it does in the real world. If you see a lot of people donating blood in your local neighborhood or many parents volunteering in your local school, it may motivate you to do the same. </p>
<p>But we also found evidence of a strong “bystander effect” that reverses this after a certain threshold is reached. The bystander effect refers to the phenomenon that an individual’s <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-18351-005">likelihood of engaging in a helpful act</a> decreases when bystanders are present in a critical situation. Paradoxically, our motivation to contribute to a public good could also decline when we see others doing something. For example, if you saw a lot of people donating blood, you may decide that they don’t need your blood too.</p>
<p>The idea is that <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1037/a0023304">people perceive less urgency</a> or motivation to help others when others are present, akin to a diffusion of responsibility. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>With more public goods moving online – for example, in-person pledge drives seeking charitable donations <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6722054">now happen through crowdfunding websites</a> such as Kiva or GoFundMe – it’s important to study how the motivations and behaviors of people change in a virtual setting.</p>
<p>Users’ motivation to contribute to public goods in the physical world depends on what is termed “impure altruism,” also known by economists as “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2234133?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">warm glow giving</a>.” That is, participation is heavily influenced by an individual’s motives for public recognition. </p>
<p>My research shows that the same effects that happen in real life also seem to occur virtually, suggesting these online spaces should be designed in ways to overcome the bystander effect to encourage more participation. This can be done, for example, by offering <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2020.1831776">nonmonetary rewards</a> for participation such as virtual badges or making it feel like a game.</p>
<p>[<em>Insight, in your inbox each day.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=insight">You can get it with The Conversation’s email newsletter</a>.]</p>
<h2>What other research is being done</h2>
<p>Other researchers are also looking into how to influence the behavior of people in virtual spaces. </p>
<p>Some scholars suggest, for example, that participants in primarily digital environments need <a href="https://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2018/7/229029-digital-nudging/fulltext">digital nudges</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1921417117">interventions</a> to enhance a sense of community and create a shared sense of social self on these digital spaces. Studies from social question-and-answer sites in China seem to suggest that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.10.036">commitment toward the site, a shared language and shared vision</a> seem to foster a sense of participation.</p>
<p>Other studies suggest that rather than viewing such online public good platforms in terms of the immediate needs of an information seeker, these platforms should be designed for their <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2339530.2339665">long-lasting value</a> to a community of users. </p>
<p><em>Editor’s Note: The headline of this article was changed on Feb. 15, 2021 to more narrowly describe the focus of the research.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/140421/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anjana Susarla does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research suggests apps could be designed in ways so that the ‘bystander effect’ doesn’t kick in and demotivate people from contributing to public goods.Anjana Susarla, Omura-Saxena Professor of Responsible AI, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/870482018-02-20T11:40:38Z2018-02-20T11:40:38ZAlcohol probably makes it harder to stop sexual violence – so why aren’t colleges talking about it?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206019/original/file-20180212-58335-7b3a9l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">At least half of campus sexual assaults involve alcohol use.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/ball-beer-beer-pong-close-up-544988/">Burst/pexels.com</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Several years ago, one of us (Dominic) was consulting with university administration on their sexual violence prevention program. </p>
<p>All colleges and universities that receive Title IX funding are federally mandated to offer <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jcop.20159/full">intervention programs</a>, <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1077801214545284">where bystanders are trained</a> to intervene in risky sexual situations. These programs aim to reduce campus sexual violence, as <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224499.2017.1295014">one in five</a> college women say they’ve been a victim of sexual assault. </p>
<p>The good news is that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359178914000536">studies</a> show that such programs can help bystanders prevent sexual violence. The bad news is that risky sexual situations <a href="http://www.jsad.com/doi/abs/10.15288/jsas.2002.s14.118">often involve alcohol</a>, and there’s no research on how alcohol intoxication might influence bystanders’ ability to intervene. These programs weren’t designed to help bystanders compensate for the effects of alcohol on their decisions in these situations.</p>
<p>When I mentioned this problem, one administrator was shocked. Essentially, the university would be paying thousands of dollars for mandated prevention programming – with no evidence to suggest that it would help when students were drinking.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, the field remains where it was several years ago. <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-47158-001">Our latest work</a> tries to finally understand how alcohol affects bystanders.</p>
<h2>A narrow spotlight</h2>
<p><a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2015-13579-001">One recent study</a> indicates that bystanders are present for nearly 20 percent of sexual assaults, yet actually intervened in just 27 percent of those cases. </p>
<p>To intervene successfully, bystanders must make a series of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-008-9581-5">decisions</a>. <a href="http://www.jsad.com/doi/abs/10.15288/jsas.2002.s14.118">Research suggests</a> that at least half of campus sexual assaults involve alcohol use, and bystanders are likely drinking in these situations as well. We believe that alcohol intoxication inhibits these decisions and prevents bystanders from acting. </p>
<p>This is based largely on the premise that alcohol intoxication affects what people pay attention to in a situation. Think of attention as a spotlight. Sober people have a very wide spotlight. They can perceive a lot of information in their environment – both information that is significant and noticeable and information that’s easily overlooked. But when people are drunk, <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1990-30873-001">their attention narrows</a>. They tend to consider only information that easily captures their attention. </p>
<p>Consider the decisions necessary for bystanders to effectively intervene.</p>
<p>First, a person must notice the risky situation. You cannot intervene to prevent sexual violence if you don’t see it. Signs of an unwanted sexual advance – like averted eye contact or polite resistance – are often subtle. Intoxicated individuals are more likely to <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02351.x">“zone out”</a> compared to their sober counterparts. </p>
<p>Second, bystanders must figure out if it’s appropriate to intervene in a given situation. It’s rare for bystanders to witness a rape in progress. They’re more likely to witness behavior that precedes the assault, such as inappropriate sexual conversations. Such signs can seem ambiguous, and it may be unclear to a bystander if someone’s sexual boundaries are being crossed. Alcohol can exacerbate that ambiguity, making it harder to pick up on the risk for sexual violence.</p>
<p>Even in ideal circumstances, it’s difficult for bystanders to accept the responsibility to act. When other people are around, an individual <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2011-08829-001">is less likely to intervene</a>. There isn’t any research to directly show this, but we believe alcohol likely strengthens this “bystander effect” – the person will look to someone else to intervene, instead of taking action themselves.</p>
<p>After all that, bystanders must decide how to help. Most bystander intervention programs teach students a range of strategies, such as how to use humor to safely and effectively intervene. </p>
<p>But acute alcohol intoxication <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-02949-013">impairs our ability</a> to solve problems, plan out our behavior and stick to it. Intoxicated bystanders who would otherwise have the skills and confidence to intervene are less able to effectively implement a plan of action.</p>
<p>What’s more, bystanders must overcome their fear of how others will perceive them. Men may feel that they <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-008-9581-5">shouldn’t intrude on another man’s “sexual conquest”</a> or <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3149/jms.1601.3">fear losing respect</a> from male peers if they intervene. Alcohol likely heightens men’s focus on these barriers and makes intervention less likely.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206021/original/file-20180212-58312-1kc215y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206021/original/file-20180212-58312-1kc215y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206021/original/file-20180212-58312-1kc215y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206021/original/file-20180212-58312-1kc215y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206021/original/file-20180212-58312-1kc215y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206021/original/file-20180212-58312-1kc215y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206021/original/file-20180212-58312-1kc215y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206021/original/file-20180212-58312-1kc215y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In this display, each flag represents one of a potential 3,000 women who will be assaulted on a campus the size of the University of Oregon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/wolframburner/8677522644/">wolframburner/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Better training for bystanders</h2>
<p>There is no research that addresses the role of alcohol on bystander intervention for sexual violence. However, we recommend that colleges and universities consider adapting their prevention strategies. </p>
<p>Even current bystander training programs that do include an alcohol component focus on how alcohol impacts victims and perpetrators of sexual violence, rather than bystanders. But we believe that these programs should also focus on how alcohol intoxication impacts bystanders themselves. Programs should discuss the potential impairing effects of alcohol and how to intervene effectively when drinking. (We are currently working on a pilot for such a program.)</p>
<p>Colleges should also examine their policies. <a href="http://www.jsad.com/doi/abs/10.15288/jsad.2007.68.208">Evidence shows</a> that there are ways colleges can successfully limit heavy alcohol use, such as college bans or limits on alcohol, as well as restrictions on the number and type of alcohol outlets. If we’re correct that sober individuals are more likely to intervene than intoxicated individuals, then these approaches may, in turn, increase bystander intervention.</p>
<p>In the same vein, colleges could implement initiatives that ensure the presence of sober bystanders. For example, at Cornell University, a student-led group called <a href="http://cayugaswatchers.org/blog.html">“Cayuga’s Watchers”</a> provides sober party monitors who serve as responsible – and sober – bystanders. Similarly, there are <a href="http://www.azrapeprevention.org/ASBA">programs</a> that train bar staff to be effective bystanders. Colleges could partner with local bars that are often frequented by students to train these staff, and thus make these venues safer for all patrons.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87048/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dominic Parrott receives funding from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ruschelle Leone receives funding from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. </span></em></p>At least half of campus sexual assaults involve alcohol. But prevention programs at US colleges and universities don’t address what that means for bystanders.Dominic Parrott, Professor of Psychology, Georgia State UniversityRuschelle Leone, Doctoral Candidate in Clinical Psychology, Georgia State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/858792017-10-27T10:21:44Z2017-10-27T10:21:44ZWant to prevent sexual harassment and assault? Start by teaching kids<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192164/original/file-20171027-13309-1ncpf9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sex education in some American high schools is evolving to include to curb sexual assaults.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Jeff Chiu</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the wake of sexual assault and harassment allegations involving Brett Kavanaugh, Harvey Weinstein, Bill O'Reilly and others, Americans may be learning just how prevalent sexual violence is in our society. </p>
<p>So, what can be done to prevent it?</p>
<p>We have studied how family, school and neighborhood environments influence violent youth behavior. Building from this knowledge, we are working with schools to develop <a href="https://wayne.edu/newsroom/news/wayne-state-school-of-social-work-receives-nearly-18-million-from-cdc-to-study-youth-empowerment-and-engagement-in-the-prevention-of-sexual-violence-20921">prevention programs</a>. </p>
<p>Here’s what we’ve learned.</p>
<h2>Reducing the risks</h2>
<p>Decreasing sexual violence means investing in prevention programs that address the causes of sexually abusive behavior. The majority of prevention programs aimed at teens and young adults often focus on teaching girls and women how to decrease their <a href="https://www.rainn.org/safety-students">risk of being assaulted</a>, with strategies such as watching out for each other at parties or being aware of their surroundings. Some include <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.497.2522&rep=rep1&type=pdf">self-defense strategies</a>. </p>
<p>Programs like these are <a href="http://www.cochrane.org/CD004534/BEHAV_interventions-to-prevent-relationship-and-dating-violence-in-adolescents-and-young-people">generally found</a> to be <a href="https://www.crimesolutions.gov/ProgramDetails.aspx?ID=405">ineffective</a> because they fail to address the realities that most assaults are committed by someone <a href="https://www.nij.gov/topics/crime/rape-sexual-violence/Pages/victims-perpetrators.aspx">known and trusted</a>. Harassment is commonly committed by someone in power, such as a teacher or supervisor. These types of programs may be able to reduce some risks, but real prevention needs to focus on the only person who can actually prevent harassment: the potential perpetrator.</p>
<h2>It’s everyone’s problem</h2>
<p>Increasingly, programs address this shortcoming by encouraging bystanders to challenge harassing behavior and jokes to help promote healthy, positive norms. For example, programs like <a href="http://wiki.preventconnect.org/file/view/Coker+2011+Evaluation+of+Green+Dot.pdf">Green Dot</a> and <a href="http://www.nsvrc.org/sites/default/files/publications_nsvrc_overview_engaging-bystanders-prevent-sexual-violence.pdf">Bringing in the Bystander</a> help teach high school and college students to step in to prevent violence or help someone who has been assaulted. In 2014, President Obama and Vice President Biden launched the <a href="http://www.itsonus.org/">It’s On Us</a> campaign to encourage bystanders to get involved. It provided real actions for college students to help protect their friends and neighbors, such as intervening when someone is harassing another person, providing support to someone who has been victimized or refusing to laugh at hurtful jokes or comments.</p>
<p>However, programs such as these face an uphill battle. Youth are exposed daily to the pervasive and nearly invisible ways that our society accepts and even condones sexually abusive behavior.</p>
<p>For example, as toddlers and preschoolers, young children are taught to ignore their personal boundaries of their bodies. Parents might pressure their children to hug a family member when they don’t want to. Instead, family members should teach children to talk honestly and assertively about how they do or do not want to be touched. </p>
<p>Fathers commonly joke about protecting our daughters from predatory boys who want to date them, because “we know how boys are.” This teaches both sons and daughters that boys are mindless aggressors and girls are helpless victims. </p>
<p>Parents are an important part of teaching positive attitudes and skills for healthy relationships, but few programs exist to teach them how to talk about these difficult subjects.</p>
<h2>What about men?</h2>
<p>Some programs, such as <a href="http://www.coachescorner.org/">Coaching Boys into Men</a>, seek to engage men to see sexual violence as more than a “women’s problem” and understand their role preventing violence. Programs for men build on bystander interventions and encourage youth to challenge traditional expectations of masculinity that accept, or even promote, violence. As men’s perception that they are not masculine enough has been associated with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26003576">increased rates of sexual violence</a>, it is essential to provide role models of nonviolent masculinity.</p>
<p>However, prevention programs cannot ignore that <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6308a1.htm">23 percent of boys and men</a> experience sexual violence or harassment over their lifetime. Although rates of being raped or sexually assaulted are lower for men, males report <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01639620802589798">experiencing sexual coercion</a>, in which they are pressured or manipulated into sexual activity they don’t want, at rates that are <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10911350903008098">nearly equal to women</a>.</p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>Prevention needs to begin in <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/spring-fever">early childhood</a> and continue <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/sv-prevention-technical-package.pdf">for life</a>. Teaching skills to prevent violence starts with learning empathy for others, communication skills and problem solving. It involves promoting healthy sexual behavior through sex education focused on respect for self and others, communication and consent. Programs that empower youth to make positive changes in their communities show promise for <a href="http://yes.sph.umich.edu/programs/yes-healthy-relationships/">preventing sexual violence</a>.</p>
<p>School boards, employers and politicians have the power to strengthen and consistently apply policies to keep schools, workplaces and communities safe by holding abusers accountable for their actions. Leaders, and all bystanders, can refuse to hide or tolerate abusive behavior. Lastly, we can support services for both male and female victims that reduce the harm of these traumatic experiences.</p>
<p>Sexual abuse is not just a “women’s issue.” Men and women play a significant role in prevention. Acknowledging sexual assault as a community-wide problem that impacts all persons regardless of gender is vital to preventing sexual assault.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85879/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Poco Kernsmith receives funding from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanne Smith-Darden receives funding from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Megan Hicks does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Incorporating lessons on healthy sexual behavior into sex ed classes and special prevention programs for youth could be key to reducing sexual violence, experts say.Poco Kernsmith, Professor of Social Work, Wayne State UniversityJoanne Smith-Darden, Associate Professor, Wayne State UniversityMegan Hicks, Post-Doctoral Fellow in School of Social Work, Wayne State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/857972017-10-20T01:15:50Z2017-10-20T01:15:50ZWhy bystanders rarely speak up when they witness sexual harassment<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191043/original/file-20171019-1066-16v7wn1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If you see something, say something.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/closeup-boss-mobbing-his-employee-work-233823685?src=SaH-h0DkdsjE2buZot8wiw-1-31">Photographee.eu</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The uproar over allegations that Hollywood producer Harvey Weinstein sexually abused and harassed dozens of the women he worked with is inspiring countless women (and some men) to share their own personal sexual harassment and assault stories.</p>
<p>With these issues trending on social media with the hashtag <a href="http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/alyssa-milano-metoo-campaign-vocal-stops/story?id=50582023">#MeToo</a>, it’s getting harder to ignore how common they are on the job and in other settings.</p>
<p>I have studied sexual harassment and ways to prevent it as a <a href="http://diversityinsport.squarespace.com/">diversity and inclusion</a> researcher. My research on how people often fail to speak out when they witness these incidents might help explain why Weinstein could reportedly keep his despicable behavior an <a href="http://www.wbur.org/artery/2017/10/13/weinstein-sexual-misdeeds-open-secret">open secret</a> for decades.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"920279605545709568"}"></div></p>
<h2>Witnessing sexual harassment</h2>
<p>Of course, <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-41626563">Weinstein’s alleged wrongdoings</a> went well beyond sexual harassment, which University of British Columbia gender scholar <a href="http://amr.aom.org/content/32/2/641">Jennifer Berdahl</a> defines as “behavior that derogates, demeans or humiliates an individual based on that indiviudual’s sex.”</p>
<p>Some of the women speaking out in the U.S. <a href="https://twitter.com/AsiaArgento/status/919565561725685760/photo/1">and abroad</a> are <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2017/10/15/europe/weinstein-lysette-anthony-rape-allegation/index.html">accusing him of rape</a> – a crime – during encounters he says were always consensual. </p>
<p>But sexual harassment is such a chronic workplace problem that it accounts for <a href="https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/task_force/harassment/upload/report.pdf">a third</a> of the 90,000 charges filed with the federal government’s Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) in 2015. Since only one in four victims report it, however, the EEOC and other experts say the actual number of incidents is far higher than the official number of complaints would suggest.</p>
<p>The usual silence leaves most perpetrators of this toxic behavior free to prey on their co-workers and subordinates. If sexual harassment is pervasive on the job, and most women don’t report it, what can be done? </p>
<p>Some business scholars suggest that the best way to prevent sexual harassment, bullying and other toxic workplace behavior is to <a href="http://amr.aom.org/content/30/2/288.short">train co-workers to stand up</a> for their abused colleagues when they witness incidents. One reason why encouraging intervention makes good sense is that some 70 percent of women have observed harassment in the workplace, according to research by psychologist <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9072-5">Robert Hitlan</a>.</p>
<p>The trouble is that most people who witness or become aware of sexual harassment don’t speak out. Screenwriter, producer and actor <a href="http://deadline.com/2017/10/scott-rosenberg-harvey-weinstein-miramax-beautiful-girls-guilt-over-sexual-assault-allegations-1202189525/">Scott Rosenberg</a> has both admitted to and denounced how this dynamic enabled Weinstein to become an alleged serial abuser. “Let’s be perfectly clear about one thing,” he wrote in a private Facebook post published in the media. “Everybody-f—ing-knew.” He also said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“in the end, I was complicit.<br>
I didn’t say s—.<br>
I didn’t do s—.<br>
Harvey was nothing but wonderful to me.<br>
So I reaped the rewards and I kept my mouth shut.<br>
And for that, once again, I am sorry.”</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191044/original/file-20171019-1048-eaxydt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191044/original/file-20171019-1048-eaxydt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191044/original/file-20171019-1048-eaxydt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191044/original/file-20171019-1048-eaxydt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191044/original/file-20171019-1048-eaxydt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191044/original/file-20171019-1048-eaxydt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191044/original/file-20171019-1048-eaxydt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191044/original/file-20171019-1048-eaxydt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Actor Matt Damon, right, has denied reports that he helped stifle reporting that would have exposed alleged sexual harassment and abuse by movie mogul Harvey Weinstein, left, years ago.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/15th-Annual-Critics-Choice-Movie-Awards-Insider/2e55329bd8264f9c8a8209fd15314640/14/0">AP Photo/Matt Sayles</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Researching how people respond</h2>
<p>To understand why witnesses often don’t speak up, a colleague and I <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11115-009-0109-4">did a study in 2010</a> that asked participants to review hypothetical sexual harassment scenarios and indicate if they would respond.</p>
<p>The results seemed promising: Participants generally said they would take steps to stop harassing behavior if they saw it happen. People indicated they’d be more likely to respond if two conditions were met: It was a <a href="https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/types/harassment.cfm">quid pro quo</a> – that is, if the harasser promised benefits in exchange for sexual favors – and the workplace valued diversity and inclusion. In such <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00336297.1999.10491688">cultures</a>, there are open lines of communication, and leaders embrace diversity and inclusion. </p>
<p>There’s a potential problem with experiments using the kind of hypothetical scenario <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-010-9781-7">that we</a> and <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/014920639902500601">others employed</a>. People don’t always do what they think they will in real-life situations. For example, psychologists find that <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022103107000698">people tend to believe they’ll feel more distraught</a> during an emotionally devastating event than they actually do when it occurs. </p>
<p>Other researchers find similar patterns with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19131633">reactions to racists</a>. People think they will recoil and experience distress when hearing racist comments. But when they actually hear those remarks, they don’t. </p>
<p>The same dynamics are at play when examining sexual harassment during job interviews, as illustrated in a study conducted by psychologists <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229630665_Real_Versus_Imagined_Gender_Harassment">Julie Woodzicka and Marianne LaFrance</a>.</p>
<p>Participants, all of whom were women, expected to feel angry, confront the harasser and refuse to answer the hypothetical interviewer’s inappropriate questions. Some of the questions, for example, included asking the job applicant if she had a boyfriend or if women should wear bras at work.</p>
<p>However, when they witnessed this simulated behavior during the experiment’s mock interviews, people responded differently. In fact, 68 percent of participants who only read about the incidents said they would refuse to answer questions. Yet all 50 of the participants who witnessed the staged hostile behavior answered them.</p>
<p>Drawing from these studies, my team conducted <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-012-0121-y">an experiment</a> in 2012 to determine how harassment bystanders would react to hearing inappropriate comments about women. </p>
<p>Some of the female participants read about a hypothetical scenario in which harassment took place, while another group observed harassment occurring in a staged setting. We determined that the participants, who were college students, overestimated how they would respond to seeing someone else get harassed.</p>
<p>The reason this matters is that people who don’t feel distress are unlikely to <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1996-98665-001">take action</a>.</p>
<p></p><hr><p></p>
<p><iframe id="HdxsU" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/HdxsU/6/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p></p><hr><p></p>
<h2>Intervention training</h2>
<p>What stops people from reacting the way they think they will?</p>
<p>Psychologists blame this disparity on “<a href="http://homepages.abdn.ac.uk/c.n.macrae/pages/dept/HomePage/Level_3_Social_Psych_files/Wilson%26Gilbert(2003).pdf">impact bias</a>.” People overestimate the impact that all future events – be they weddings, funerals or even the Super Bowl – will have on them emotionally. Real life is messier than our imagined futures, with social pressures and context making a difference. </p>
<p>This suggests a possible solution. Since context matters, organizations can take steps to <a href="https://hbr.org/2016/10/why-we-fail-to-report-sexual-harassment">encourage bystanders</a> to take action. </p>
<p>For example, they can train their staff to speak up with the <a href="http://greendot.tamu.edu/">Green Dot Violence Prevention Program</a> or other approaches. The Green Dot program was originally designed to reduce problems like sexual assault and stalking by encouraging bystanders to do something. <a href="https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/task_force/harassment/upload/report.pdf">The EEOC</a> says this “bystander intervention training might be effective in the workplace.”</p>
<p>Especially with workplace harassment, establishing direct and anonymous lines for reporting sexist incidents <a href="https://hbr.org/2016/10/why-we-fail-to-report-sexual-harassment">is essential</a>. They also say employees should not fear negative reprisal or gossip when they do report harassment. </p>
<p>Finally, bystanders are more likely to intervene in organizations that <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-2389.00203/full">make their refusal to tolerate harassment</a> clear. For that to happen, leaders must assert and demonstrate their commitment to harassment-free workplaces, enforce appropriate policies and train new employees accordingly. </p>
<p>Until more people take a stand when they witness sexual harassment, it will continue to haunt American workplaces.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85797/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>George B. Cunningham does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research shows that few people take a stand when they witness sexual harassment. Until that changes, this predatory behavior will haunt American workplaces.George B. Cunningham, Professor of Sport Management, Faculty Affiliate of the Women's and Gender Studies Program, and Director, Laboratory for Diversity in Sport, Texas A&M UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/826362017-09-04T23:02:02Z2017-09-04T23:02:02ZRape at universities: One program is proven to reduce it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184288/original/file-20170831-22427-m8qk2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act (EAAA) Sexual Assault Resistance program is the only campus education program proven to decrease sexual assault.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As students return to universities across Canada and the United States this month, the safety of female students is a <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/sudbury-colleges-sexual-assault-policies-1.4255460">major concern</a>. Sexual violence <a href="http://www.salon.com/2017/08/26/what-schools-do-not-tell-you-about-campus-sexual-assault_partner/">occurs on all campuses</a> and <a href="http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ccsvsftr.pdf">can no longer be ignored</a>. </p>
<p>It’s now widely recognized that universities and governments need to invest deeply in prevention. The province of Quebec, for example, recently announced a <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-provincial-sexual-assault-policy-campus-1.4255310">$23 million investment</a> into campus sexual assault policies and prevention. </p>
<p>Less widely recognized is the importance of empowering women to talk about desire. This is a vital part of any comprehensive solution to campus sexual assault.</p>
<p>As a psychology professor who studies male violence against women, I have spent the last 10 years developing the <a href="http://sarecentre.org">Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act (EAAA) Sexual Assault Resistance program</a>. The program is designed for women in the first year of university, because that’s when the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0886260514554425">risk of sexual assault</a> is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508314308">highest</a>. </p>
<p>The EAAA program is the only campus education program proven to decrease sexual violence. <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa1411131">Study results</a> show that attending women were 46 per cent less likely to experience rape and 63 per cent less likely to experience attempted rape or other forms of sexual assault in the next year. Women who took EAAA also benefited from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684317690119">lower rates of sexual assault two years later</a>. </p>
<p>Women also increased their ability to detect risk in men’s behaviour and their confidence in asserting their rights. They learned, and became more willing to use, the most effective verbal and physical strategies for defending themselves. Importantly, these changes were accomplished while substantially decreasing women’s (already relatively low) beliefs in rape myths and woman-blaming. </p>
<h2>Sexual desire at the centre</h2>
<p>So how does EAAA accomplish all this? In 2001, prominent sexual violence researchers <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.00030">Patricia Rozee and Mary Koss</a> synthesized a decade of rape research and suggested the Assess, Acknowledge, Act (AAA) components of an effective program for women. I brought the idea to life and added an “enhancement” — emancipatory sex education. This puts women’s own values and desires at the centre of the discussion. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184383/original/file-20170901-27315-5u4i82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184383/original/file-20170901-27315-5u4i82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184383/original/file-20170901-27315-5u4i82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184383/original/file-20170901-27315-5u4i82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184383/original/file-20170901-27315-5u4i82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184383/original/file-20170901-27315-5u4i82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184383/original/file-20170901-27315-5u4i82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Helping women to explore their sexual desires and communicate their needs is critical to reducing sexual assault.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The EAAA program focuses on sexual assault by acquaintances and adds to women’s existing strength, knowledge and skills. It provides space for them to explore their sexual and relationship goals and desires. It reinforces, with knowledge and skills, their rights to seek and engage in sex they do want, to resist sex they don’t want and to fight back against threats to their bodily integrity. </p>
<p>EAAA is never prescriptive. The goal is to increase women’s options so that they are able to participate in their lives fully and without fear. </p>
<h2>Asserting sexual needs</h2>
<p>Most of the media coverage about the EAAA has focused on the Act unit which includes two hours of self-defence originating in a long tradition of <a href="http://wendo.ca/">feminist self-defence in Canada</a> and the <a href="https://seejanefightback.com/about-2/">United States</a>. This is definitely a critical element of EAAA and the reduction in completed sexual assaults. But that doesn’t explain how EAAA reduces <em>attempted</em> sexual assaults even more dramatically.</p>
<p>The final Relationships & Sexuality unit is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684310384101">likely responsible</a>. This provides women with sexual knowledge. It offers time for exploring their sexual desires and practice in communicating their interests (in, for example, a specific sexual act) and asserting their needs (for safer sex, for example). It provides a positive sexuality frame within which resistance to sexual assault is contextualized. </p>
<p>Greater sexual knowledge and confidence around desires and values makes coercion visible earlier. If a woman sees coercion earlier, then her options for leaving or resisting in other ways are greater. </p>
<h2>Holding women responsible?</h2>
<p>Some feminists have expressed the view that all interventions for women are implicitly or explicitly holding women responsible for men’s behaviour. </p>
<p>I agree that many campaigns have done this. Women are still being told (by parents, media, posters and talks on campus) that they should restrict their behaviour in various ways. That they should limit where they go and when, how they dress and how they behave — to stay safe. This “advice” is based on myths, not evidence. These social precautions <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J012v04n01_06">interfere with a woman’s quality of life</a> without providing actual protection, especially since most danger comes <a href="http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/170711/dq170711a-eng.htm">from men whom women already know</a>. </p>
<p>The EAAA program for women undermines these messages. The program makes it clear that there is no risk in any situation unless there is a man present who is willing to engage in coercive behaviour. “Risk factors” (such as isolation or the presence of alcohol) are described as circumstances which provide perpetrators with certain advantages. Women brainstorm ways of undermining those advantages and come up with strategies that work for them personally. </p>
<p>Our research findings show that this message about perpetrator responsibility gets through; women decrease their belief in woman-blaming explanations for rape. And EAAA is beneficial for women even if they are sexually assaulted after they take it. Survivors who have taken EAAA blame themselves less than do survivors who did not receive the program. </p>
<h2>Beyond bystander education</h2>
<p>Universities need to invest deeply in effective prevention to reduce campus sexual assault. I, like many feminists on campus, would like universities to “tell men not to rape.” Unfortunately, the research evidence shows us that the available educational programs for men <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2014.05.004">do not work to accomplish their goals</a>. Only comprehensive strategies working on multiple levels will produce the individual and campus-wide changes we are striving for. Large and sustained changes cannot be accomplished with brief interventions or during one occasion during a university orientation. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184385/original/file-20170901-27276-1hkorrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184385/original/file-20170901-27276-1hkorrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184385/original/file-20170901-27276-1hkorrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184385/original/file-20170901-27276-1hkorrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184385/original/file-20170901-27276-1hkorrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184385/original/file-20170901-27276-1hkorrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184385/original/file-20170901-27276-1hkorrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A range of sexual education efforts are required on campus to shift ‘rape culture.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The relatively recent focus on bystander education is one prevention option endorsed <a href="https://dr6j45jk9xcmk.cloudfront.net/documents/4593/actionplan-itsneverokay.pdf">in Canada</a>, the <a href="https://www.justice.gov/ovw/page/file/905942/download">United States</a> and the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/sv-prevention-technical-package.pdf">CDC</a>. And it’s a good choice. Bystander programs have been shown to change students’ attitudes toward intervening when they see a problem. More importantly, they <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0039660">increase students’ actual intervention behaviour</a>. </p>
<p>But these bystander programs weren’t designed to, and do not, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2014.05.004">decrease sexual assault perpetration or victimization</a> in the short term. Additionally, most sexual assaults occur in circumstances where <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0039073">no one is present</a> who could intervene. So they’re primarily effective in increasing interventions in “precursor” settings where risk is elevated (for example, where a man overhears his friend say that he doesn’t care what it takes, he is going to “hit that” tonight) but a sexual assault has not begun. </p>
<h2>A comprehensive solution</h2>
<p>If a good bystander program is delivered broadly and in a sustained way on any campus, over time, we expect that a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcop.10078">culture shift will occur</a>. In this context, not only would social norms stop supporting a “rape culture,” but perpetrators would also find it extremely difficult to act unnoticed and uninterrupted. Unfortunately we aren’t there yet. </p>
<p>Empowering women is, therefore, another critical piece of a comprehensive solution to the problem of sexual violence. EAAA empowers women students with the resources they need to defend their own sexual rights. It does this within a positive sexuality frame that fits well with other sexual education efforts on campus, such as sexual consent education.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82636/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charlene Senn is a researcher at the University of Windsor. She is also the founder/CEO of the SARE Centre, a non-profit organization, created to disseminate the EAAA sexual assault resistance program. The research described was funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (FRN #110976).</span></em></p>A program developed by a University of Windsor professor significantly reduces a woman’s risk of rape on campus. It also focuses on communicating sexual desires.Charlene Senn, Professor of Psychology, University of WindsorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/727942017-02-20T19:22:39Z2017-02-20T19:22:39ZBystanders often don’t intervene in sexual harassment – but should they?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156892/original/image-20170215-19602-2slvyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Women are more likely to intervene than men.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the summer music festival season winds down, there has been much reflection on the spate of <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/hack/what-its-like-being-sexually-harassed-at-gigs/8166798">sexual harassment and assaults</a> at festivals this year. In one such piece, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/feb/06/if-festival-crowds-can-unite-to-help-a-crowd-surfer-they-can-unite-against-sexual-assault?CMP=share_btn_tw">published in The Guardian</a>, the author lamented the fact that no other punters stepped in when his female friend was harassed and assaulted in full view of others. </p>
<p>This lack of response is unsurprising. Bystanders are those who witness an event – sexual harassment and assault in this instance – and can choose to either ignore it or intervene in a way that aims to make a positive difference.</p>
<p>This unwillingness to intervene was reaffirmed in my own <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article/2698882/Justice-2-0-Street-harassment-victims-use-of">recent research</a> on street harassment in Melbourne, where only a minority of participants had ever had someone else step in, despite the highly public nature of this behaviour.</p>
<p>Why don’t people intervene when they witness sexual harassment and assault? And, more importantly, should they? </p>
<h2>Why don’t people intervene?</h2>
<p>Barriers to bystander intervention have been <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0886260513505210">well documented</a>. </p>
<p>In order to intervene, bystanders need to be able to recognise sexual harassment or assault when it is happening. A significant proportion of the population adheres to a range of <a href="https://www.vichealth.vic.gov.au/media-and-resources/publications/2013-national-community-attitudes-towards-violence-against-women-survey">problematic beliefs and stereotypes</a> about sexual violence and violence against women, so it is questionable whether many people recognise incidents of sexual harassment or assault when they occur.</p>
<p>Even if bystanders do recognise that sexual harassment is occurring, they may not know what to do, and lack confidence to intervene effectively. Bystanders can fear <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0886260513505210">social embarrassment and breaching social norms</a>. We know that the propensity to intervene is mediated by gender, with women generally <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1057567716639094">more likely</a> or <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24762431">more confident</a> to intervene than men. One reason for this is that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24762431">men are more likely</a> to adhere to the aforementioned myths and misconceptions about sexual violence. </p>
<p><a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&id=1968-08862-001">Diffusion of responsibility</a> is perhaps the most commonly documented barrier to acting as a bystander. It is the “can’t someone else do it?” of bystander intervention. If there are many witnesses to an act of harassment or assault, it can be unclear who should step in. Onlookers may simply assume that someone else will take action. </p>
<h2>Should bystanders intervene?</h2>
<p>We know that people often don’t intervene and some of the reasons why they don’t. But <em>should</em> bystanders intervene? </p>
<p>Bystander intervention is now a key component of many <a href="https://www.livethegreendot.com/">sexual violence prevention</a> and <a href="http://www.sexandethics.net/">sexual ethics</a> programs. There are sound reasons for this. Bystander intervention seeks to shift responsibility for preventing sexual violence from victim/survivors to the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232558261_Who_Will_Help_Prevent_Sexual_Violence_Creating_an_Ecological_Model_of_Bystander_Intervention">broader community</a>. Preventing sexual violence, and challenging the social and cultural attitudes that condone and facilitate it, is everybody’s responsibility. </p>
<p>There is certainly some evidence to suggest that bystander education programs help to change attitudes towards sexual violence, and increase the propensity for individuals to <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1077801211410264">act as bystanders</a>. Bystander education has also been associated with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26541099">decreased rates of sexual assault</a> on some US college campuses.</p>
<p>However, there are also a number of gaps in our knowledge that raise serious questions about whether, when, and how bystanders should intervene.</p>
<p>We know surprisingly little about bystander intervention “in action”. For example, the impacts and outcomes of different types of bystander intervention remain largely unexamined. What “types” of bystander intervention are effective, and in which contexts? Do all forms of intervention have a positive impact, or are there sometimes unexpected or negative consequences?</p>
<p>Emerging evidence from my own research on <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-want-men-to-stop-honking-their-horn-at-women-because-they-respect-them-not-for-fear-of-punishment-57337">street harassment</a> suggests that bystanders can be at risk of harm when they intervene. </p>
<p>Although bystander intervention could sometimes effectively defuse an incident of harassment, some participants reported that having a bystander intervene didn’t stop the harassment, could escalate the intensity of harassment, or simply displaced the harassment onto the bystander. </p>
<p>For example, when one participant’s friend intervened in an incident of harassment, the perpetrator punched her friend in the face. In another case, a perpetrator screamed at a participant’s partner and ‘threatened to kill him’ after he intervened in an assault.</p>
<p>Notably, this was often the case when the bystander directly confronted a perpetrator who was a stranger – it’s less clear that this is an issue when calling out your mates on their sexist or harassing behaviour. </p>
<p>The risk of escalation or displacement raises the question of whether encouraging bystander intervention is ethical, and in what circumstances? As <a href="http://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9781137429117">Moira Carmody</a> has argued, “ethical bystander intervention requires the bystander to be mindful of caring for themselves, as well as the impact on the other person”. If there is a perceived risk of escalation or physical violence, bystanders are well within their right not to intervene. </p>
<p>There is a clear need to establish further the circumstances in which bystander intervention is effective, and to identify risk factors for escalation.</p>
<h2>What can bystanders do?</h2>
<p>This is not intended to let bystanders off the hook when it comes to intervening in, or preventing, sexual violence. </p>
<p>Findings from my study suggest that it is not always appropriate to intervene by confronting the perpetrator of harassment. But there are other strategies they can use, including: </p>
<ul>
<li>Calling police or security, or alerting staff to an incident. </li>
<li>Asking the person being harassed if they’re OK. Is there anything you can do to help them? It is important to listen to victims and what they want.</li>
<li>Striking up a conversation with the person being harassed.</li>
<li>If you feel safe to do so, taking photos or video of the perpetrator. </li>
<li>Trying to create space to get the person being harassed away from the perpetrator. Can you help them move to a different seat on the train, for example?</li>
<li>Talking to your friends about harassment and assault, and calling them out if you see or hear them condoning or engaging in inappropriate behaviour. </li>
<li>Educating yourself on what harassment and assault are, and learning about different strategies for <a href="https://www.ihollaback.org/resources/bystander-resources/">being a bystander</a>.</li>
</ul>
<p>Preventing sexual violence is everybody’s responsibility, but we need to think carefully about how we do it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72794/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bianca Fileborn has previously received funding from La Trobe University to undertake research on street harassment. She is also a member of the Sexual Assault and Harassment in Live Music Venues Victorian Government taskforce.</span></em></p>Preventing sexual violence is everyone’s responsibility, but we need to be careful about how we do it.Bianca Fileborn, Lecturer in Criminology, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/274962014-06-05T05:03:40Z2014-06-05T05:03:40ZThe 21st century bystander effect happens every day online<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50025/original/g7wwshg3-1401732612.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Watch your step in Copenhagen -- no one else will.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jacobchristensen/8924750399/sizes/l">jacobchristensen</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’re going to fall, injure yourself and need help, where is a good place to do it? Should you choose a busy thoroughfare or a deserted backstreet?</p>
<p>Statistics and experiments in social psychology will tell you that if you need help, you should avoid dropping in a busy street, even if hundreds of people are passing through.</p>
<p>This is because of a phenomenon known as the <a href="http://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/bystander-effect">bystander effect</a>. The more individuals gathered in one place, the less chance there is of one of them coming to the aid of a person in need. When an emergency situation occurs, it’s more likely that someone will come to the rescue if there are fewer or almost no witnesses.</p>
<p>And in the 21st century, when our thoroughfares are online and on social networks, millions of people are effectively passing each other by every minute.</p>
<p>The presence of other people has long been shown to give rise to confusion about responsibility. Since there are other people around, each individual is less pressed to take action, given that the responsibility for taking action is assumed to be evenly distributed amongst those present.</p>
<p>One may be tempted to think that when a single person realises that the others aren’t acting on their responsibility, then the entire burden of responsibility falls to them. But if a situation is ambiguous and it’s not clear whether help is needed or not, observers may take the inaction of other people as a sign that there is no reason to intervene.</p>
<h2>Updating the research</h2>
<p>The bystander effect has been well researched over the past 50 years but most experiments have taken place in controlled situations and focused on small populations.</p>
<p>My group at the University of Copenhagen has run a number of experiments in the centre of the city to kick off a new approach to the problem. </p>
<p>The experiments involved getting three actors to take a tumble on one of the main thoroughfares in central Copenhagen – a young woman, a young man and an elderly man. Each actor had two different outfits – a business suit and a shabby-looking costume. It turns out that the costumes alone elicited strong public signals.</p>
<p>If the young woman or man or the elderly gentlemen were wearing business suits and fell, the time it took for someone to intervene could be as short as a few seconds. For the actors wearing shabby outfits, it could take up to around four minutes for anyone to intervene, even though plenty of people witnessed the accident.</p>
<p>More surprising is that the presence of certain people transmitted such a powerful public signal that entire groups would refrain from intervening even though they all witnessed the accident. When a tour guide passed by without acting, for example, none of his group did either. He sent a strong public signal that there was no need to intervene and his group followed like lemmings.</p>
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</figure>
<p>What’s more, objects can be used to transmit public signals that deter people from intervening. If a young man falls holding a can of beer, a clear public signal for others to walk on by might be sent because of the social stigma attached to humans with beer cans. If the beer can is removed, help is offered much more quickly.</p>
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<p>The information we gathered will now be fed into a computer simulation to test out whether the bystander phenomenon is robust over, say, thousands of runs. </p>
<p>We have isolated simple features like awareness vicinity, attention time, the passer-by’s line of vision and other characteristics enough to generate the bystander effect in virtual environments.</p>
<p>An accident appears in the virtual environment, the passers-by have a “radar” screen of awareness, an angle of vision and devote a certain amount of time to the incident. Whether they choose to observe, intervene or walk on turns out to be acutely sensitive not only to the way in which the parameters are set but also to whether or not others are in the immediate vicinity.</p>
<h2>The 21st century bystander</h2>
<p>The simulation is a work in progress but how the phenomenon plays out in this context could have interesting implications for how we look at our online behaviour. The bystander effect occurs because people observe each other before assisting. And the more people observing each other the stronger the signal that help is neither required nor appropriate. Once you take such public signals to social media in terms of, say, <a href="https://theconversation.com/all-those-likes-and-upvotes-are-bad-news-for-democracy-21547">aggregated likes</a>, you may just reinforce bystander behaviour even more.</p>
<p>In the case of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W0dpVrhchC8">cyberbullying</a>, by innocently “liking” you may be part of movement to establish a strong public signal about what the <a href="https://theconversation.com/if-you-really-want-to-help-a-troubled-teen-dont-like-their-youtube-video-23092">correct collective response is</a>. You register your “like” with no obligation to actually intervene and non-intervention may just become the norm. Thousands and even millions of people witness <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-twitter-storms-cause-financial-panic-22262">terrible human behaviour</a> online every day but how many of us actually do anything about it? </p>
<p>We may have a serious problem about the meaning and power of public signal. These could severely influence rational deliberation, decision and action, both online and offline.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/27496/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vincent F Hendricks does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If you’re going to fall, injure yourself and need help, where is a good place to do it? Should you choose a busy thoroughfare or a deserted backstreet? Statistics and experiments in social psychology will…Vincent F Hendricks, Professor of Formal Philosophy, University of CopenhagenLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/235132014-03-13T19:28:20Z2014-03-13T19:28:20ZBad Samaritans: why people don’t step in to stop violence<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/43785/original/7wznvhgm-1394677750.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In the face of pressures that turn us against each other, it pays to be aware of the potential costs of reducing sympathy.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/mrhayata/5399894311/sizes/l/">mrhayata/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every now and then, and rarely far apart in time, the media features a story about an assault in public where bystanders failed to come to the victim’s aid.</p>
<p>Of course, there are many possible reasons why someone may not intervene in the face of public violence, and different reasons are probably true for different people. The attack may have happened too fast for those who were too far away, and perhaps some of those who were closer were too frightened. </p>
<p>But psychological studies suggest that people are often reluctant to intervene even when they have time to do so, and there’s no risk to themselves.</p>
<h2>Kitty Genovese’s murder</h2>
<p>The psychological work I have in mind was spurred by a famous <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_of_Kitty_Genovese">case</a>. In 1964, New York woman Kitty Genovese was raped and murdered by a stranger in a residential neighbourhood. The attack lasted about half an hour. </p>
<p>At least some of her neighbours heard Genovese’s screams, yet (at least, <a href="http://nypost.com/2014/02/16/book-reveals-real-story-behind-the-kitty-genovese-murder/">if</a> the story as originally reported is true) no one intervened to help. Given the length of the attack, time pressures can’t explain lack of intervention. </p>
<p>Nor was personal safety a factor: at least, it wasn’t a factor that prevented bystanders from calling the police. So why didn’t they intervene?</p>
<p>Work inspired by the Genovese case discovered an interesting and surprising inhibitory effect of groups on helping – people in groups are less likely to help than individuals who are alone. </p>
<h2>Oblivious bystanders</h2>
<p>In one <a href="http://faculty.babson.edu/krollag/org_site/soc_psych/latane_bystand.html">famous experiment</a>, for instance, subjects were told they were participating in market research. The person conducing the research left them to fill out a questionnaire, while she went to another room. </p>
<p>She was heard to climb onto a chair to get something from a shelf. Immediately afterwards, the subjects heard a crash, and the woman screamed (“Oh my God, my foot…. I…can’t…can’t…get…this thing off…me”). She continued to cry out for about a minute. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/43784/original/x4zkndzz-1394677595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/43784/original/x4zkndzz-1394677595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43784/original/x4zkndzz-1394677595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43784/original/x4zkndzz-1394677595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43784/original/x4zkndzz-1394677595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43784/original/x4zkndzz-1394677595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43784/original/x4zkndzz-1394677595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One experiment sought to find out whether people who were alone were more like to help a stranger.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/pagedooley/2426526338/sizes/l/">Kevin Dooley/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The experimenters were interested in whether subjects would come to her aid. About 70% of subjects who were alone came to help, but only 40% of subjects in pairs, when the pairs were strangers to one another. </p>
<p>In a third condition, in which a subject was paired with a confederate who ignored the crash entirely, only 7% of subjects helped.</p>
<p>This is just one of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bystander_effect">many</a> experiments showing that individuals are more likely to help than people in groups. What then explains this inhibitory effect of the group on helping behaviour? </p>
<h2>Whose obligation?</h2>
<p>One factor seems to be diffusion of responsibility. No individual feels responsible for helping because no one is better placed than anyone else to help. And because no one feels especially responsible for helping, they don’t feel especially obligated. </p>
<p>Another factor, though, is that the responses of others may guide our interpretation of a situation. In the experiment mentioned above, having a confederate who failed to react had a very powerful inhibitory effect on helping behaviour. </p>
<p>Subjects may have taken the confederate’s impassivity as evidence that the situation didn’t really require help. We are subject to strong <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asch_conformity_experiments">conformity effects</a>, and it may often be rational to take other people’s assessments as evidence that ours are wrong. </p>
<p>A third factor, related to this last one, is anticipated embarrassment. What if I go to help another and the aid is neither wanted nor needed? The presence of an audience will heighten my embarrassment, so I am less likely to take what I see as a risk when I’m with others.</p>
<h2>Reason to be neighbourly</h2>
<p>Some of these factors may help to explain why bystanders don’t go to people’s aid. They may also explain why, in big cities, neighbours are less likely to help one another and we’re more likely to turn a blind eye to suffering. </p>
<p>It’s important to note that the inhibitory effect of groups is greatly reduced if the members of the group know each other well (two friends were just as likely to offer help as a lone subject in the experiment above). </p>
<p>Similarly, knowing the victim greatly increases helping behaviour, as does an expectation that the subject will have to interact with the other members of the group. It’s groups of strangers, which form by chance and then dissipate, that inhibit helping.</p>
<p>So the news from this kind of research is not all bad. It tells us that we’re less likely to help than we might have thought, but also about ways in which we can increase our propensity to offer aid. </p>
<p>Indeed, this kind of research may provide reasons for strengthening communal bonds. In a time when there seem to be many pressures that turn us against each other, it pays to be aware of the potential costs of reducing sympathy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/23513/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Levy receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He has previously received funding from the Templeton Foundation.</span></em></p>Every now and then, and rarely far apart in time, the media features a story about an assault in public where bystanders failed to come to the victim’s aid. Of course, there are many possible reasons why…Neil Levy, Head of Neuroethics, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental HealthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.