tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/carbon-storage-5144/articlesCarbon storage – The Conversation2024-03-13T06:19:20Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2254752024-03-13T06:19:20Z2024-03-13T06:19:20ZRedwood trees are growing almost as fast in the UK as their Californian cousins – new study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581046/original/file-20240311-22-169fj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C23%2C3870%2C2560&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sequoias-73346425">Galyna Andrushko/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What can <a href="https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/sequoiadendron-giganteum/">live for over 3,000 years</a>, weigh over 150 tonnes and could be sitting almost unnoticed in your <a href="https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/visiting-woods/woods/havering-county-park/">local park</a>? Giant sequoias (known as giant redwoods in the UK) are among the tallest and <a href="https://www.nps.gov/redw/planyourvisit/upload/ThreeTrees-2014-508.pdf">heaviest</a> organisms that have ever lived on Earth, not to mention they have the potential to <a href="https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/shirley/sec11.htm#:%7E:text=Sierra%20Redwood%E2%80%94the%20world's%20oldest,oldest%20living%20things%20in%20existence">live longer</a> than other species.</p>
<p>My team’s <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.230603">new study</a>
is the first to look at the growth of giant sequoias in the UK – and they seem to be doing remarkably well. Trees at two of the three sites we studied matched the <a href="https://arboretum.ucdavis.edu/sites/g/files/dgvnsk1546/files/inline-files/redwood_exhibits_0.pdf">average growth rates</a> of their counterparts in the US, where they come from. These remarkable trees are being planted in an effort to help absorb carbon, but perhaps more importantly they are becoming a striking and much-admired part of the UK landscape.</p>
<p>To live so long, giant sequoias have evolved to be extraordinarily resilient. In their <a href="https://www.visitsequoia.com/explore/spring-summer-fall-activities/redwoods-and-sequoias">native northern California</a>, they occupy an ecological niche in mountainous terrain 1400 – 2100 metres above sea level. </p>
<p>Their <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/x94-092">thick spongy bark</a> insulates against fire and disease and they can survive severe winters and arid summers. Despite these challenges these trees <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GB005546">absorb and store</a> CO₂ faster and in greater quantities than almost any other in the world, storing up to five times more carbon per hectare than even tropical rainforests. However, the changing climate means Californian giant sequoias <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/giant-sequoias-face-new-threats.htm">are under threat</a> from more frequent and extreme droughts and fires. More than 10% of the remaining population of around 80,000 wild trees were killed <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jun/02/sequoias-destroyed-california-castle-fire">in a single fire</a> in 2020 alone.</p>
<h2>Tree giants from the US</h2>
<p>What is much less well-known is that there are an estimated <a href="https://www.forestryengland.uk/news/over-half-million-natures-giants-the-nations-forests#:%7E:text=With%20now%20over%20half%20a,species'%20long%2Dterm%20survival.">half a million sequoias</a> (wild and planted) in England, dotted across the landscape. So how well are the UK giant sequoias doing? To try and answer this, my team used a technique called <a href="https://info.vercator.com/blog/3-types-of-terrestrial-laser-scanners">terrestrial laser scanning</a> to measure the size and volume of giant sequoias. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman carrying baby stands next to base of giant trees" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581048/original/file-20240311-26-c1fdtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sequoia national park in California, USA.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mother-infant-visit-sequoia-national-park-1175764084">My Good Images/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The laser sends out half a million pulses a second and if a pulse hits a tree, the 3D location of each “hit” is recorded precisely. This gives us a map of tree structure in unprecedented detail, which we can use to estimate volume and mass, effectively allowing us to estimate the tree’s weight. If we know how old the trees are, we can estimate how fast they are growing and accumulating carbon.</p>
<p>As part of a Master’s project with former student Ross Holland, and along with colleagues at Kew Royal Botanical Gardens, we measured giant sequoias across three sites - <a href="https://www.rbge.org.uk/visit/benmore-botanic-garden/">Benmore botanical gardens</a> in Scotland, <a href="https://www.kew.org/wakehurst">Kew Wakehurst</a> in Sussex and <a href="https://www.havering.gov.uk/info/20037/parks/723/havering_country_park">Havering Country Park</a> in Essex. These sites span the wettest (Benmore) and driest (Havering) climates in the UK, enabling us to assess how rainfall affects growth. </p>
<p>The fastest-growing trees we measured are growing almost as fast as they do in California, adding 70cm of height and storing 160kg of carbon per year, about twice that of a <a href="https://onetreeplanted.org/blogs/stories/how-much-co2-does-tree-absorb">native UK oak</a>. The trees at Benmore are already among the tallest trees in the UK at 55 metres, the current record-holder being a <a href="https://www.outdoorlook.co.uk/blog/post/record-breaking-tall-trees-in-the-uk">66 metre Douglas Fir</a> in Scotland. The redwoods, being faster growing, are likely to take that title in the next decade or two. And these trees are “only” around 170 years old. No native tree in the UK is taller than about 47 metres. We also found significant differences in growth rates across the UK. They grow fastest in the north where the climate is wetter.</p>
<p>So how did these trees get here? <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jhc/article/35/2/347/6651665">Exotic plant collecting</a> was big business in the 18th and 19th centuries, in large part as a display of wealth and taste. Giant sequoias were first introduced in 1853 by Scottish grain merchant and keen amateur collector <a href="https://www.giant-sequoia.com/gallery/scotland/">Patrick Matthew</a>, who gave them to friends. Later that same year commercial nurseryman <a href="https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/discover/nature/trees-plants/how-the-giant-sequoia-came-to-england">William Lobb</a> brought many more from California, along with accounts of the giant trees from which they came. </p>
<p>Giant sequoias quickly became a sensation and were planted to create imposing avenues, at the entrances of grand houses and estates, in churchyards, parks and botanic gardens. The letters about these trees helps us to accurately age planted trees, enabling us to calculate their growth rates. </p>
<p>Normally, you need to take samples <a href="https://www.nature.scot/sites/default/files/2018-09/Publication%202018%20-%20SNH%20Research%20Report%20789%20-%20A%20review%20of%20the%20theory%20and%20practice%20of%20tree%20coring%20on%20live%20ancient%20and%20veteran%20trees.pdf">from a tree’s core</a> to get an accurate age estimate but that can damage the tree. </p>
<h2>Imagine their potential</h2>
<p>UK sequoias are unlikely to grow as tall as their Californian counterparts, which tend to grow in forests, due to lightning strikes and high winds – always a risk when you’re the tallest thing in the landscape rather than one among many. More recently, there has been a <a href="https://press.royalsociety.org/Uploads/RSOS230603_Proof.pdf">resurgence in planting</a> giant sequoias in the UK, particularly <a href="https://news.hackney.gov.uk/hackney-plants-70-trees-to-commemorate-70th-day-of-the-70th-year-of-the-queens-reign/#:%7E:text=Hackney%20has%20planted%2070%20sequoia,the%20borough's%20Platinum%20Jubilee%20celebrations.">in urban settings</a>. This is because of their carbon storage potential and perhaps because people seem to <a href="https://press.royalsociety.org/Uploads/RSOS230603_Proof.pdf">really like them</a>. </p>
<p>We urgently need to understand how UK trees will fare in the face of <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-67845671">much hotter, drier summers</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/storm-ciaran-is-breaking-records-and-research-suggests-more-severe-weather-in-future-216842">stormier winters</a> and with <a href="https://nationalemergenciestrust.org.uk/wildfires-growing-risk/">increased risks of fire</a>. Global trade is also increasing <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-021-00639-z#:%7E:text=The%20economic%20and%20environmental%20threats,in%20recent%20years96%2C97.">the spread of disease</a> among plantlife. More work is needed to consider the impact of planting non-native species like giant sequoias on native habitats and biodiversity but our work has shown that they are apparently very happy with our climate, so far. </p>
<p>More importantly, we have to remember that trees are more than just stores of carbon. If we value trees only as carbon sticks we will end up with thousands of hectares of monoculture, which isn’t good for nature. </p>
<p>But these giant sequoias are here to stay and are becoming a beautiful and resilient part of our landscape. </p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mathias Disney receives funding from UKRI via NERC, the National Centre for Earth Observation (NCEO), European Space Agency, NASA and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute.</span></em></p>Their incredible resilience means they are becoming part of the UK landscape.Mathias Disney, Reader in Remote Sensing, Department of Geography, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2198992024-01-16T00:47:49Z2024-01-16T00:47:49ZClimate change and nature loss are our biggest environmental problems - so why isn’t the market tackling them together?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569215/original/file-20240115-15-758bfo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C14%2C9475%2C6302&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Climate change and biodiversity loss are arguably the greatest environmental challenges the world faces. The way we use land is crucial in finding solutions to these problems. In theory, actions such as revegetation and avoiding land clearing can tackle both problems at once – for example, by simultaneously storing carbon in plants and providing habitat for animals.</p>
<p>Sometimes when taking these actions, however, carbon storage is prioritised at the expense of biodiversity. But that need not be the case. Our <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-023-01928-4">new research</a> suggests we can act to boost the climate and nature at the same time. </p>
<p>We examined a financial incentive scheme in South Australia’s Mount Lofty Ranges. We found action by farmers to restore native woodlands on their properties also stored carbon in the vegetation. This carbon abatement, if converted into carbon credits, could have paid the farmers for their restoration activities. It suggests existing carbon markets can pay for biodiversity conservation.</p>
<p>To date, few market-based biodiversity schemes in Australia have been designed to reward farmers for delivering these twin benefits – and the same is true for carbon markets. This is a huge missed opportunity for both the climate and nature. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="view of vegetation and pastoral land" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569222/original/file-20240115-21-9uf1m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569222/original/file-20240115-21-9uf1m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569222/original/file-20240115-21-9uf1m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569222/original/file-20240115-21-9uf1m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569222/original/file-20240115-21-9uf1m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569222/original/file-20240115-21-9uf1m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569222/original/file-20240115-21-9uf1m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The research examined woodland restoration by farmers in the Mount Lofty Ranges, pictured.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>Carbon markets don’t always help nature</h2>
<p>Carbon markets encourage farmers and other land managers to help mitigate climate change, through activities such as planting trees or avoiding land clearing. These activities are rewarded with “credits” which can then be sold to buyers wanting to reduce their carbon footprint, such as a polluting company. Similar schemes are emerging for biodiversity conservation.</p>
<p>Efforts to tackle climate change through land-based activities are welcome. But these interventions do not always lead to good biodiversity outcomes. For example, a particular tree species planted to store carbon may not be useful to animals in the area. It may even cause problems such as <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2011.00213.x">spreading weeds</a>, which can add to biodiversity decline.</p>
<p>In Australia, the decline of native species and ecosystems is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/nov/30/australian-populations-of-threatened-bird-species-fall-60-in-past-40-years-study-says#:%7E:text=They%20include%20the%20curlew%20sandpiper,decline%20since%202000%20was%202.2%25">well-documented</a>. The decline is marked in the eastern Mount Lofty Ranges where native vegetation – mostly eucalypt forests and woodlands – has been reduced to <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0144779#pone-0144779-g001">about 10% of its former extent</a>.</p>
<p>It means many animal species in the Mount Lofty Ranges are <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.13860">falling in numbers</a>. They include birds such as the diamond firetail, superb fairy-wren and purple-crowned lorikeet.</p>
<p>Reversing this decline requires restoring and protecting the native vegetation that feeds and homes these animals. We wanted to know if carbon markets could pay for such work. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="grey and red bird perches on branch" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569220/original/file-20240115-74302-84mc3c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569220/original/file-20240115-74302-84mc3c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569220/original/file-20240115-74302-84mc3c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569220/original/file-20240115-74302-84mc3c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569220/original/file-20240115-74302-84mc3c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569220/original/file-20240115-74302-84mc3c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569220/original/file-20240115-74302-84mc3c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Bird species such as the diamond firetail, pictured, are declining in the Mount Lofty Ranges.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>We examined a payment <a href="https://data.environment.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/bushbids_emlr_2008.pdf">scheme</a>, known as BushBids, for farmers who manage the region’s degraded woodlands. It was funded by the federal government and administered by the state government.</p>
<p>The scheme, which began in 2006, invited private landholders to tender for ten-year contracts to undertake certain restoration activities. These included retaining fallen logs (instead of collecting them for firewood), limiting stock grazing, controlling weeds, and reducing grazing by both feral animals and overabundant native animals such as kangaroos. Such activities can lead to more carbon being stored in vegetation, debris and soils.</p>
<p>Monitoring showed the activities restored some components of the woodland systems – most notably the diversity of native plant species.</p>
<p>The activities also led to additional carbon being stored in the woodlands. Australia’s <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/Pages/Method-development.aspx">carbon market</a> does not currently recognise this type of carbon gain. </p>
<p>But what if it did? We calculated how much carbon was stored by the restoration of degraded native vegetation across 12 sites. We then calculated how much of the cost of this work would have been covered by payments for that carbon storage. </p>
<p>We found the additional carbon stored in the woodlands could pay all, or a substantial proportion, of the price of restoring degraded native vegetation. The exact proportion covered depends on factors such as the carbon price, rainfall and rate of vegetation recovery.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/carbon-markets-could-protect-nature-and-the-planet-but-only-if-the-rights-of-those-who-live-there-are-recognized-too-176638">Carbon markets could protect nature and the planet, but only if the rights of those who live there are recognized too</a>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/dgqlI430p6U?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A video explaining the authors’ findings.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Implications for Australia</h2>
<p>Our study shows how the price of restoring native vegetation for biodiversity conservation could be covered by trading carbon credits created at the same time. This could be achieved either with separate markets, or markets that include both biodiversity and carbon.</p>
<p>But using markets for both nature repair and carbon storage will only work if the markets are designed well. </p>
<p>That means changes to Australia’s existing carbon market may be required. Research has cast doubt over the integrity of <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/project-and-contracts-registers/carbon-abatement-contract-register">more than half</a> the credits generated in that market. It found under one particular method – regrowing native forests to store carbon from the atmosphere – most carbon storage for which credits were issued either had not occurred, or would have occurred anyway.</p>
<p>Separately, the federal government has recently passed legislation to establish a <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-the-governments-new-market-mechanism-help-save-nature-yes-if-we-get-the-devil-out-of-the-detail-218713">biodiversity scheme</a> known as the Nature Repair Market. For this scheme to avoid making the same mistakes as the carbon scheme, it should involve methods and standards that lead to the right kinds of biodiversity restoration in the right places. </p>
<p>This means focusing on which species and ecosystems need protection. For example, it should include not just those species listed as threatened with extinction, but species declining in their strongholds, and where the decline of a species would have broader impacts such as damage to agriculture.</p>
<p>Australian farmers have demonstrated that they can restore degraded ecosystems in a cost-effective way – and they should have better access to carbon funding to do it. Done right, this can be a huge win-win for both nature and the climate.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/untenable-even-companies-profiting-from-australias-carbon-market-say-the-system-must-change-190232">'Untenable': even companies profiting from Australia's carbon market say the system must change</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219899/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick O'Connor has received funding from the Australian Research Council, the South Australian, Victorian, New South Wales and Australian governments including the NSW Biodiversity Conservation Trust. He is a board director of the Nature Conservation Society of SA, a committee member of the Restoration Decade Alliance and a councillor of the Biodiversity Council..</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthelia Bond received a postgraduate research scholarship from the School of Agriculture Food and Wine at The University of Adelaide, a supplementary scholarship from the South Australian Department for Environment and Water, and an Australia Awards Endeavour Research Fellowship. She is a board director of the Nature Conservation Society of SA, and a member of the Ecological Society of Australia, Modern Money Lab and Scientist Rebellion. </span></em></p>Sometimes when taking these actions, however, carbon storage is prioritised at the expense of biodiversity. But that need not be the case.Patrick O'Connor, Associate Professor, University of AdelaideAnthelia Bond, Research Fellow, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2190822023-12-05T13:19:35Z2023-12-05T13:19:35ZReal or artificial? A forestry scientist explains how to choose the most sustainable Christmas tree, no matter what it’s made of<p>Every year, Americans buy somewhere between <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/209249/purchase-figures-for-real-and-fake-christmas-trees-in-the-us/">35 million and 50 million Christmas trees</a>, and many more pull an artificial tree out of storage for the season. In all, about three-quarters of U.S. households typically have some kind of Christmas tree, <a href="https://today.yougov.com/society/articles/26802-christmas-tree-poll-survey-artificial-real-survey">surveys show</a>.</p>
<p>People often ask which is more sustainable – a real tree or an artificial one? It’s a big debate, and the answer depends on who you ask and which factors you consider.</p>
<p>A more useful question is: How do I find the most sustainable tree of the kind I want to get?</p>
<p>I’m a <a href="https://extension.msstate.edu/central-ms-research-ext-center/dr-curtis-l-vanderschaaf">forestry professor</a> who works on issues of sustainability. There are advantages and disadvantages to both cut trees and artificial trees. Here are some tips to consider for each.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man carries a live Christmas tree on his shoulder through a doorway. A little girl runs ahead of him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563376/original/file-20231204-18-eepsj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cut Christmas trees require water and maintenance – and careful thought about disposal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mid-adult-man-in-santa-hat-carefully-carrying-royalty-free-image/1390111010">10'000 Hours/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>If you’re buying a live Christmas tree</h2>
<p>When Christmas trees are alive and growing, they pull carbon dioxide from the air and use it as the building blocks of their wood. That keeps the greenhouse gas out of the atmosphere, where too much carbon dioxide contributes to global warming.</p>
<p>This process stops once the tree is harvested. And at some point, the cut tree begins to decompose and releases that carbon again.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563020/original/file-20231201-27-mx55zk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Christmas tree farms like this one in Greencastle, Ind., can be found in almost every state.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/conservation-basics/conservation-by-state/indiana/news/retirees-pursue-passion-on-christmas-tree">USDA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On the positive side, the tree’s root systems will continue to store carbon for some time, and <a href="https://realchristmastrees.org/education/quick-tree-facts/">new trees are typically planted to continue the cycle</a>.</p>
<p>So, how do you find the most sustainable live tree?</p>
<h2>Think about the tree’s origin</h2>
<p>If you live in Mississippi, like I do, buying a noble fir (<em>Abies procera</em>) means your tree probably came from the Pacific Northwest. That’s a long drive, and transportation is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. However, in a truck with several hundred trees, each individual tree’s transportation emissions are pretty minor.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of Douglas-fir locations, primarily in the Pacific Northwest and intermountain West" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563062/original/file-20231202-27-g50g0b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Douglas-firs grow primarily in the Western U.S.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/fs_media/fs_document/Forest-Atlas-of-the-United-States.pdf">USDA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The most common Christmas tree varies by region: Douglas-fir is also common throughout the Mountain West. Scotch pine and balsam fir are regularly grown in the Great Lakes states. Fraser fir is also popular there but dominant in North Carolina. Leyland cypress and Virginia pine are common in the Southeast.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Maps showing balsam fir growing areas." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563065/original/file-20231202-17-9o886x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Balsam firs, also popular for Christmas trees, grow in the Great Lakes region, New England and Canada.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/fs_media/fs_document/Forest-Atlas-of-the-United-States.pdf">USDA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are many other wonderful species grown locally. Of course, the lowest-impact cut tree is the one you cut from your own yard.</p>
<p>Also, look for local nurseries that <a href="https://christmastrees.ces.ncsu.edu/christmastrees-christmas-tree-fertility/">protect their soils from erosion</a> and minimize harm to surface and groundwater from runoff that can include fertilizers or pesticides.</p>
<h2>Disposing of your live tree</h2>
<p>What you do with your tree <a href="https://www.angi.com/articles/how-dispose-christmas-tree.htm">after the holidays</a> also <a href="https://www.texasdisposal.com/blog/real-vs-fake-christmas-trees/">matters</a>.</p>
<p>Recycling is far better than leaving the wood to decompose in a landfill. Because of the nature of most landfills, anaerobic conditions will ultimately exist, and decomposition will result in the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/lmop/basic-information-about-landfill-gas">release of methane gas</a>, which is many times more potent than carbon dioxide at warming the atmosphere.</p>
<p>Look for a <a href="https://pickyourownchristmastree.org/MississippiTreeRecyclingDisposal.php">community</a> or <a href="https://www.homedepot.com/c/ai/christmas-tree-recycling/9ba683603be9fa5395fab90c0b422bc">retailer</a> that offers to chip the tree or shred it to create mulch or for use in animal stalls. This keeps it out of landfills and serves a purpose.</p>
<p><a href="https://blog.davey.com/is-a-christmas-tree-good-for-mulch-or-the-compost-pile/">Composting is another option</a>. Trees can be used as an <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/articles/2020-01-09/states-recycle-christmas-trees-for-fish-habitats">erosion barrier for sand or soil</a> or as <a href="https://www.trackerboats.com/learning-center/christmas-tree-recycling.html">fish habitat in lakes</a>. They can even be donated whole <a href="https://tigerworld.us/recycle-your-christmas-tree/">to zoos</a>, where the trees provide entertainment for animals while eventually <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dJvWWOutseI">decaying outside of a landfill</a>, or they can be tossed into a bio-burner to <a href="https://www.vox.com/2015/1/14/7547015/old-christmas-trees-zoo">provide heating for buildings</a>. Some people even <a href="https://www.timbercreekfarmer.com/can-goats-eat-christmas-trees">feed trees to goats</a>.</p>
<p>Alternatively, consider cutting the tree into smaller pieces and letting it rot in the open, placing it in an out-of-the-way place in your yard. It will provide a <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-help-insects-make-them-welcome-in-your-garden-heres-how-153609">temporary home for many insects, birds and wildlife</a>.</p>
<h2>Artificial trees have different pros and cons</h2>
<p>Artificial trees also have advantages – they can last for years and require almost no maintenance. However, they are mostly a petroleum-based product, and when you throw one out, it can take hundreds of years to decompose.</p>
<p>If you plan to buy an artificial Christmas tree – maybe you have allergies like I do, or you’re concerned about cost – here are some suggestions to reduce your carbon footprint.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A girl puts together an artificial tree that's missing its top." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563377/original/file-20231204-21-va6vl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Artificial trees can last decades.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/little-girl-makes-an-artificial-christmas-tree-royalty-free-image/1427522691">Sinenkiy/iStock/Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reuse, reuse, reuse</h2>
<p>The No. 1 way to reduce emissions with an artificial tree is to reuse it for years. Reuse <a href="https://treescapes.com/real-vs-artificial-christmas-trees/">avoids the carbon impact</a> of producing, packaging and shipping a new one. The break-even point – when your artificial tree’s emissions match the emissions of buying a live tree each year – varies from <a href="https://www.christmastreeassociation.org/2018-acta-life-cycle-assessment">as little as four years</a> to <a href="https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/21221949">as many as 20 years</a>, depending on the factors considered.</p>
<p>Many artificial trees are <a href="https://oncortrees.com/?fbclid=IwAR3mY_fdBpUSDxfQi2piZru2QlzJgI-i6KiUYUQQU9V3t7vvZXnQX4VWbXA">built to last 30 years or more</a>. My family has had one for 25 years. To lengthen its life span, take care when putting it up and storing it. If the tree gets damaged, see if you can find replacement parts rather than replacing the entire tree.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563056/original/file-20231202-30-58e77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Old artificial trees can be repurposed into garlands and other holiday crafts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Curtis VanderSchaaf</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Pay attention to the source</h2>
<p><a href="https://news.vt.edu/articles/2022/12/Christmas_tree.html">About 80%</a> of artificial Christmas trees are manufactured in China. <a href="https://www.cbo.gov/publication/58861">Shipping is pretty efficient</a>, but the tree still needs to get to and from the ports. You can also look for one manufactured nearby instead.</p>
<p>Some manufacturers are making trees out of recycled materials, <a href="https://www.ikea.com/us/en/p/vinterfint-artificial-christmas-tree-indoor-outdoor-green-30556093/">at least in part</a>, which helps reduce the tree’s carbon footprint. Shorter artificial trees, or designs with less foliage, also use less plastic.</p>
<p>The type of plastic used also affects the amount of petroleum used. Some <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2020.11.173">research has suggested</a> that plastic foliage made from polyethylene plastic molds may have a lower impact than traditional <a href="https://premiumpatio.com/needles-and-realism-artificial-christmas-trees/">foliage made out of polyvinyl chloride, or PVC</a>.</p>
<h2>Give the fake tree a second life</h2>
<p>If you no longer like your artificial tree – maybe it’s too big for a new home – try reselling the tree or donating it to a <a href="https://www.dumpsters.com/blog/christmas-tree-disposal">charity, thrift store or nursing home</a> so that others can continue to use it.</p>
<p>You can also get creative and repurpose the old tree limbs into decorative wreaths, garlands or toy trees for a hobby train set.</p>
<h2>Lighting also matters</h2>
<p>With any holiday tree, be judicious <a href="https://christmastrees.ces.ncsu.edu/2016/11/care-for-your-north-carolina-fraser-fir/">about turning off lights</a> when no one is around and at night. Consider using fewer lights. LED lights are <a href="https://www.chesterenergyandpolicy.com/blog/powering-holiday-symbols-emissions">more energy efficient</a> than incandescent lights.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An elf ornament and Christmas light." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563021/original/file-20231201-15-sq3tm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">LED lights reduce energy demand.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/98640399@N08/9375455047">Barta IV via Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the grand scheme of the holidays, with people traveling and buying and returning gifts through the mail, the carbon footprint of your Christmas tree is a lesser concern. A <a href="https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Carbonoffset/Pages/default.aspx">round-trip flight</a> from Los Angeles to Boston can produce more than 30 times the lifetime emissions of a typical artificial Christmas tree. Still, it’s fairly easy to make more sustainable choices and reduce your carbon footprint when you can.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219082/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Curtis VanderSchaaf is a forestry extension specialist at Mississippi State University..
</span></em></p>How many years you reuse a fake holiday tree matters. So does what happens to a live tree when you’ve packed up the ornaments.Curtis VanderSchaaf, Assistant Professor of Forestry, Mississippi State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2108802023-09-29T01:25:27Z2023-09-29T01:25:27ZHere’s how to fix Australia’s approach to soil carbon credits so they really count towards our climate goals<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550802/original/file-20230928-21-n9ydfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=199%2C0%2C9290%2C6331&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/female-farmer-hold-soil-hands-monitoring-2346686237">William Edge, Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s plan to achieve <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/climate-change/emissions-reduction/net-zero">net zero</a> greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 relies heavily on carbon credits. </p>
<p>These <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/About-the-Emissions-Reduction-Fund">credits are awarded to projects</a> that avoid the release of greenhouse gases or remove and “sequester” (store) carbon so it’s no longer warming the atmosphere. </p>
<p>Farmers can be awarded credits for <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/Choosing-a-project-type/Opportunities-for-the-land-sector/Agricultural-methods/estimating-soil-organic-carbon-sequestration-using-measurement-and-models-method">increasing soil carbon content</a>. The federal government or companies can then purchase these credits to offset their carbon emissions. </p>
<p>These credits must represent genuine carbon sequestration if they are to mitigate climate change. </p>
<p>As Australian agricultural and soil scientists, we have serious concerns about the way credits are awarded for soil carbon sequestration under the <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/OSR/ANREU/types-of-emissions-units/australian-carbon-credit-units">Australian carbon credit unit scheme</a>. There are four main issues with the method that must be addressed as a matter of urgency.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Soil organic carbon is the treasure beneath our feet (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)</span></figcaption>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/us-scheme-used-by-australian-farmers-reveals-the-dangers-of-trading-soil-carbon-to-tackle-climate-change-161358">US scheme used by Australian farmers reveals the dangers of trading soil carbon to tackle climate change</a>
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<h2>Understanding the carbon cycle</h2>
<p>Much like water, carbon cycles through the environment, moving between plants, the earth and the atmosphere. </p>
<p>Plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as they grow. The carbon is stored in the plant tissue. When plants die, or drop leaves, this carbon-rich organic matter enters the soil. Then it decomposes, releasing carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. </p>
<p>When carbon inputs from plants exceed losses from the decomposition of organic matter, the amount of soil carbon increases. That means soil organic carbon is more likely to increase during good seasons when there’s plenty of rainfall available to support plant growth – such as during the recent three-year period of consecutive La Niña events.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic illustrating how carbon cycles through agricultural systems" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The carbon cycle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Richard Eckard, University of Melbourne</span></span>
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<h2>Increases need to be due to management</h2>
<p>The recent <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2023-06-24/aus-farmers-to-earn-money-from-soil-carbon-under-new-methods/102213244">tranche</a> of credits awarded to soil carbon projects raises similar concerns to those that have been raised by experts about <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-central-climate-policy-pays-people-to-grow-trees-that-already-existed-taxpayers-and-the-environment-deserve-better-186900">credits awarded to trees</a>. Namely, carbon credits are being awarded for changes associated with seasonal conditions (changes that would have happened anyway) rather than human actions.</p>
<p>The current soil carbon method awards credits when an increase in soil organic carbon is detected between two points in time. This is problematic because it can award credits to projects that report increases during relatively wet periods. </p>
<p>This is the case for <a href="https://carbonlink.com.au/wp-content/uploads/CarbonLink-ACCUs-Flow-Media-Release-June-2023-1.pdf">projects sampled in 2021</a>, directly after a period where conditions were unusually favourable for plant growth. That means credits were awarded for sequestration that had more to do with the weather than good management. </p>
<p>Where crediting occurs due to seasonal conditions, the scheme is not providing any true (<a href="https://law.anu.edu.au/sites/all/files/what_the_beare_and_chambers_report_really_found_and_a_critique_of_its_method_16_march_2022.pdf">additional</a>) climate change mitigation. </p>
<h2>Soil carbon can be lost</h2>
<p>Where soil carbon losses are greater than inputs, soil carbon stocks decline and sequestered carbon is released back to the atmosphere. The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479720301286">emissions can be rapid</a> and considerable. </p>
<p>Furthermore, modelling indicates it’s likely <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.09.041">soil carbon could be lost</a> under the warmer and drier conditions of future climates. </p>
<p>Where a project loses soil carbon, the legislation does not require excess credits to be returned. Rather, a scheme-wide <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/Choosing-a-project-type/Opportunities-for-the-land-sector/Risk-of-reversal-buffer">buffer</a> generated from all sequestration projects covers such losses. </p>
<p>This approach is inequitable because all projects share the same burden of maintaining the buffer, irrespective of the risk of reversal of individual projects. </p>
<h2>Overinflated sequestration rates</h2>
<p>Based on a <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/eap.1473?__cf_chl_tk=1zpwtYjrpjjoZAaRpgcOb5o7R5c_fLaqDx0tadA0kWA-1693540306-0-gaNycGzND1A">comprehensive global analysis</a>, the <a href="https://carbonlink.com.au/wp-content/uploads/CarbonLink-ACCUs-Flow-Media-Release-June-2023-1.pdf">number of carbon credits generated</a> by some Australian projects appears unrealistically high. The most likely reason for these large values is high rainfall, but the way the method works makes it impossible to know for sure because the impacts of management are not identified.</p>
<p>This is not the first time a soil carbon project has made <a href="https://theconversation.com/us-scheme-used-by-australian-farmers-reveals-the-dangers-of-trading-soil-carbon-to-tackle-climate-change-161358">unrealistic claims</a>. </p>
<p>In addition, <a href="https://carbonlink.com.au/wp-content/uploads/CarbonLink-ACCUs-Flow-Media-Release-June-2023-1.pdf">one project saw 44%</a> of the increase in soil carbon at depths below 30cm. This is an issue because published studies show soil carbon changes in deeper soil are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880923002785">relatively small</a> and happen slowly. We are concerned the reported changes may have more to do with the way they were calculated. </p>
<p>Currently, data used to calculate credits are not released by the scheme regulator so cannot be scientifically verified. The release of data under strict non-disclosure arrangements would allow scientists to assess the implementation of the method. This would provide confidence credits generated represent real climate change mitigation. </p>
<p>Increased transparency was a <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/independent-review-accu-exec-summary.pdf">key recommendation</a> of the <a href="https://oia.pmc.gov.au/published-impact-analyses-and-reports/chubb-review-australian-carbon-credit-units">Chubb Review</a> of Australian Carbon Credit Units in 2022. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chubb-review-of-australias-carbon-credit-scheme-falls-short-and-problems-will-continue-to-fester-197401">Chubb review of Australia's carbon credit scheme falls short – and problems will continue to fester</a>
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<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1707172133288149265"}"></div></p>
<h2>Contributing to our emissions targets?</h2>
<p>Australia’s emissions are reported annually to the United Nations in the national <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/climate-change/publications/national-inventory-reports">greenhouse gas inventory</a>. These annual inventories show progress towards our declared emissions reduction targets. </p>
<p>The current inventory method used to account for changes in soil carbon uses coarse regional-level statistics. Changes to practices at farm level, such as grazing management, are not detected and will not be reflected in our national greenhouse gas accounts. Further, Australia reports changes in soil carbon for the top 30cm of the soil only whereas carbon credits are also awarded for changes that occur deeper in the soil. </p>
<p>This means some soil carbon credits the Australian government purchases do not count toward our emissions targets. It calls into question the effectiveness of using taxpayer funds to purchase soil carbon credits as a policy tool.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-relies-on-controversial-offsets-to-meet-climate-change-targets-we-might-not-get-away-with-it-in-egypt-193460">Australia relies on controversial offsets to meet climate change targets. We might not get away with it in Egypt</a>
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<h2>Getting it right</h2>
<p>To address the issues we have identified, the measurement-based soil carbon <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/Choosing-a-project-type/Opportunities-for-the-land-sector/Agricultural-methods/estimating-soil-organic-carbon-sequestration-using-measurement-and-models-method">method</a> needs to be revised to only credit increases due to management. For instance, <a href="https://verra.org/methodologies/vm0042-methodology-for-improved-agricultural-land-management-v2-0/">the Verra scheme</a> in the international voluntary carbon market uses a method that minimises crediting for increases associated with rainfall. </p>
<p>To support revision of Australia’s scheme, scientists should be granted access to project data. Data could to be used to improve models in order to distinguish between climate and management effects. This would ensure the method is fit for purpose. </p>
<p>There also needs to be greater focus on monitoring changes in soil carbon. For a start, Australia’s <a href="https://www.tern.org.au/">Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network</a> should be extended to include agricultural land. This would provide data to increase transparency, independence and rigour of soil carbon estimates. </p>
<p>The revisions we propose would help ensure investment in carbon credits contributes to our national emissions reduction targets and addresses the urgent challenge of climate change.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-tonne-of-fossil-carbon-isnt-the-same-as-a-tonne-of-new-trees-why-offsets-cant-save-us-200901">A tonne of fossil carbon isn't the same as a tonne of new trees: why offsets can't save us</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210880/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aaron Simmons is a Senior Research Scientist with the NSW Department of Primary Industries. Aaron has received funding from the Commonwealth and NSW governments for soil carbon research and policy development. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Annette Cowie is a Senior Principal Research Scientist in the Climate Branch at the NSW Department of Primary Industries, and Adjunct Professor in the School of Environmental and Rural Science at the University of New England. She has received funding for soil carbon research from NSW and Commonwealth government programs. Annette is a member of Soil Science Australia, a not-for-profit, professional association for soil scientists, and on the Advisory Board of Australia New Zealand Biochar Industry Group. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Beverley Henry is an Adjunct Associate Professor at Queensland University of Technology. She has previously worked for, and received funding from, the Commonwealth and Queensland Governments, and has, or has previously held, science consulting and advisory roles with Australian and international government and agricultural organisations. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian Wilson is a Professor in Terrestrial Carbon Management at the University of New England. He has received funding from the Commonwealth and State Government and from the Cotton Research and Development Corporation for research relevant to soil carbon.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Pannell is a professor in environmental economics and agricultural economics at the University of Western Australia. He has received funding from the Commonwealth Government and from Grains Research and Development Corporation for research relevant to soil carbon. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Rowlings is a Professor in Sustainable Agriculture at Queensland University of Technology. He receives funding from Meat and Livestock Australia and Department Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries for soil carbon research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elaine Mitchell is a Research Fellow at the Queensland University of Technology. She has received funding from the Commonwealth Government for soil carbon research. She is also the founder of Ecometric, which provides advisory services in the natural capital space, including advice to carbon project developers on approaches to stratification, soil sampling and soil carbon modelling.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Tom Harrison is an Associate Professor at the University of Tasmania. He has been awarded funding from State and Commonwealth Governments, as well as Research Development Corporations to research practices, skills and technologies for improving soil organic carbon sequestration.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Grace is Professor Global Change at Queensland University of Technology. He currently receives funding from the Grains Research and Development Corporation, Meat and Livestock Australia, the Dept of Climate Change Energy Environment and Water, National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Scheme - Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network, AgriFutures, and AgriMix. He has previously received funding from the Clean Energy Regulator, the Dept of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry, and Cotton Research and Development Corporation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Raphael Viscarra Rossel is a Professor of Soil and Landscape Science at Curtin University. Previously, he was a Senior Principal Research Scientist at CSIRO, where he received funding from the Commonwealth Government for developing innovative soil carbon measurement methods that aided the formulation of the soil carbon methodology.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Eckard receives funding from Meat and Livestock Australia and the Commonwealth of Australia on greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and carbon farming. His science contributed to six Australian carbon credit methods. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Warwick Badgery is a Research Leader with the NSW Department of Primary Industries and is an Honorary Senior Fellow at Melbourne University. He receives funding from Meat and Livestock Australia, the NSW and Federal Governments for research on climate mitigation and soil carbon. </span></em></p>A group of agricultural and soil scientists has serious concerns about the way credits are awarded for soil carbon sequestration in Australia.Aaron Simmons, Adjunct Senior Research Fellow, University of New EnglandAnnette Cowie, Adjunct Professor, University of New EnglandBeverley Henry, Adjunct Associate Professor, Queensland University of TechnologyBrian Wilson, Professor, University of New EnglandDavid Pannell, Director, Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy, The University of Western AustraliaDavid Rowlings, Professor, Queensland University of TechnologyElaine Mitchell, Research Fellow, Queensland University of TechnologyMatthew Tom Harrison, Associate Professor of Sustainable Agriculture, University of TasmaniaPeter Grace, Professor of Global Change, Queensland University of TechnologyRaphael Viscarra Rossel, Professor of Soil & Landscape Science, Curtin UniversityRichard Eckard, Professor & Director, Primary Industries Climate Challenges Centre, The University of MelbourneWarwick Badgery, Research Leader Pastures an Rangelands, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2137082023-09-28T19:45:32Z2023-09-28T19:45:32ZTemporary carbon storage in forests has climate value — but we need to get the accounting right<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/temporary-carbon-storage-in-forests-has-climate-value-but-we-need-to-get-the-accounting-right" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Forests and other natural carbon reservoirs play an important role in slowing and potentially reversing the effects of climate change. </p>
<p>But any carbon stored in nature is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz7005">vulnerable to either natural or human-caused disturbances</a>. This is one reason why offsetting fossil fuel emissions with natural carbon storage is problematic. If the carbon is lost to the atmosphere, then the offset potential is also negated after it has already been claimed and accounted for. </p>
<p>Current accounting mechanisms for natural carbon storage do not adequately deal with the risk of loss due to disturbances. Typically, carbon offsets and removal credits focus only on the amount of carbon stored, and assume that this carbon will remain in storage indefinitely. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-carbon-offsetting-isnt-working-heres-how-to-fix-it-192131">Climate change: carbon offsetting isn't working – here's how to fix it</a>
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<p>But what if we measured and tracked both the amount and time of carbon storage? As we show in our new research published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-41242-5"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>, this can be done using the tonne-year metric — defined as the amount of carbon storage multiplied by the number of years that it remains stored.</p>
<h2>Temporary is not permanent</h2>
<p><a href="https://carbonplan.org/research/ton-year-explainer">Tonne-years have so far been used</a> to measure the equivalency of temporary to permanent carbon storage. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2022.102840">Previous researchers have argued that</a> as few as 30 tonne-years of temporary storage could be seen as equivalent to one tonne of permanent storage. But from a climate perspective, temporary and permanent storage are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00391-z">very different things</a> and are not interchangeable. </p>
<p>Moreover, offsetting a permanent emission from fossil fuels with tonne-years of temporary storage is not climate neutral. Offsetting with temporary storage will in fact result in more long-term warming when the stored carbon is lost back to the atmosphere. </p>
<p>The same is true of carbon-removal credits that are included in many <a href="https://sciencebasedtargets.org/net-zero">corporate net zero strategies</a>. Carbon removal that leads to temporary storage will not achieve net-zero emissions if that act is credited as equivalent to an emission that has a permanent climate impact.</p>
<p>But any carbon storage in nature does have climate value, even if it ends up being temporary. Whether preserved in existing reservoirs (for example, via avoided deforestation) or restored in new reservoirs (for example, via reforestation), more carbon stored in land ecosystems means less carbon in the atmosphere and consequently less climate warming. Furthermore, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00391-z">temporary storage has the potential to decrease peak warming</a>, if combined with aggressive fossil fuel emissions abatement. </p>
<p>We need a new way to account for temporary carbon storage in a way that reflects its actual climate value.</p>
<h2>Measuring carbon storage time</h2>
<p>What if temporary carbon storage was measured and tracked as an independent contribution to climate mitigation, rather than as a fossil fuel emissions offset or removal credit? In this scenario, the tonne-year metric could be used to correctly measure the climate benefit of temporary storage.</p>
<p>Immediate loss of the stored carbon due to wildfire or deforestation would of course negate its value, resulting in no climate benefit.</p>
<p>If the carbon is retained in storage for some period of time (by preventing deforestation at that location, for example), the climate benefit of that forest would be retained during the period of storage. This benefit would then be reversed when the carbon is lost to disturbance. If no further action is taken in this case, the climate effect of the temporary storage would again be negated. </p>
<p>However, this loss of carbon could be mitigated by the preservation of an equivalent amount of carbon at a different location, which would then maintain a constant level of climate benefit. Carbon at the disturbed location could also be restored via reforestation, but this would not attain the same climate case, representing sustained climate benefit). </p>
<p>If the amount of carbon storage decreases, this will cause tonne-years to increase by a smaller amount each year (slower rate case, representing decreasing climate benefit). If carbon storage increases, either via forest growth of via expansion of protected forest area, this will generate a larger annual increase in tonne-years (faster rate case, representing increasing climate benefit).</p>
<h2>Tracking the benefits</h2>
<p>All of these cases can be described by a single quantity: the rate of change of total tonne-years in the system. </p>
<p>If the number of tonne-years does not increase with time, this means there is no carbon storage, and therefore no climate benefit. </p>
<p>If tonne-years increase at a constant rate, this represents a sustained amount of carbon storage and sustained climate benefit. If this rate of increase of tonne-years slows, it indicates that previous climate benefits are being lost or eroded. But if tonne-years increase at an faster rate, this means that total carbon storage and consequent climate benefit is also increasing with time.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/worthless-forest-carbon-offsets-risk-exacerbating-climate-change-211862">'Worthless' forest carbon offsets risk exacerbating climate change</a>
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<p>In our research paper, we quantify this climate benefit as an amount of avoided temperature change that can either be sustained, increased or eroded over time. We show further that tonne-years of carbon storage are proportional to degree-years of avoided warming, which represent a running total of the avoided warming caused by temporary carbon storage. </p>
<p>Consequently, tonne-years of carbon storage can be equated to a meaningful physical climate quantity that can be monitored based on the rate of change of tonne-years over time.</p>
<p>If reimagined in this way, tonne-year accounting could be used to measure and track the actual climate benefit of natural carbon storage, without requiring a guarantee of permanence. This could help to unlock the potential of nature-based carbon storage as a climate mitigation strategy and not just as an alternative to fossil fuel emissions reductions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213708/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>H. Damon Matthews receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Environment and Climate Change Canada, and Microsoft Corporation</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexander Koch works for Trove Research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Luers has received funding from Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada. She holds a position at Microsoft as the global lead for sustainability science.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kirsten Zickfeld receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Environment and Climate Change Canada, and Microsoft Corporation</span></em></p>Tracking both the amount of carbon and the time that it remains stored is key to unlocking the potential of nature-based carbon storage as a climate mitigation strategy.H. Damon Matthews, Professor and Concordia University Research Chair in Climate Science and Sustainability, Concordia UniversityAlexander Koch, Head of Geospatial at Trove Research, University of Hong KongAmy Luers, Affiliate Professor, Geography, Planning and Environment, Concordia UniversityKirsten Zickfeld, Distinguished Professor of Climate Science, Simon Fraser UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2054892023-06-05T00:35:57Z2023-06-05T00:35:57ZWhale of a tale? The stories about whales helping tackle climate change are overblown<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528764/original/file-20230529-27-ljklvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C6%2C4576%2C3037&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Whales have long fascinated us with their size and beauty. Once we stopped whaling, their populations have begun to recover, in a major win for conservation. </p>
<p><a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/130220">Research</a> has suggested healthy whale populations could help us in unexpected ways – by storing carbon for the long term. </p>
<p>How? Whales are usually huge. Among their number is the blue whale, the largest animal ever to have lived. At up to 30 metres long and 190 tonnes, they’re bigger than any dinosaur. This gives these mega-mammals an oversized role in the oceans. Their plumes of poo contains so many nutrients that phytoplankton blooms can form in its wake. These tiny photosynthesising creatures soak up carbon dioxide in their bodies. When they die, they can sink to the bottom and be covered in sediment, storing the carbon. </p>
<p>As we look desperately for good news on climate amid the accelerating crisis, whales seemed to offer one. Bring back the whales, store more carbon naturally. </p>
<p>But this is premature, as our <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2023.1117409/abstract">new research</a> points out. This area is riddled with uncertainties and a lack of data. While the story sounds good, we simply cannot say more whales means more carbon storage at this point. If we focus on unproven measures like encouraging whale populations, we risk taking attention away from proven climate measures such as steadily reducing emissions from fossil fuel burning or protecting our stores of blue carbon in mangroves and seagrass meadows. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527709/original/file-20230523-17-xg693v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527709/original/file-20230523-17-xg693v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527709/original/file-20230523-17-xg693v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527709/original/file-20230523-17-xg693v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527709/original/file-20230523-17-xg693v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527709/original/file-20230523-17-xg693v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527709/original/file-20230523-17-xg693v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527709/original/file-20230523-17-xg693v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Whale poo floating on the surface in Antarctica.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why has there been so much focus on whales?</h2>
<p>The climate crisis is intensifying. Our first year with over 1.5°C of heating could come <a href="https://theconversation.com/global-warming-to-bring-record-hot-year-by-2028-probably-our-first-above-1-5-c-limit-205758">within five years</a>. Given this, governments and researchers are looking for ways to tackle this global crisis by using nature to draw CO₂ back out of the air. </p>
<p>Trees and peatlands are natural carbon sinks. So is the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01089-4">‘blue carbon’</a> stored in mangroves and seagrass meadows for thousands of years.</p>
<p>So why not whales? In recent years, there’s been <a href="https://theconversation.com/oceans-and-their-largest-inhabitants-could-be-the-key-to-storing-our-carbon-emissions-180901">mounting enthusiasm</a> about whales – any marine animal able to boost phytoplankton growth is arguably adding to natural ways to store carbon. </p>
<p>Here’s how the chain of events would work. As whales feed and migrate, they pump large amounts of nutrients between different parts of the oceans and different depths – mainly through their poo. They also act as a conveyor belt, taking nutrients between different oceans. One species, the gray whale, is the <a href="https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/632373-largest-animal-bioturbator#:%7E:text=Bioturbators%20are%20considered%20%22eco%20engineers,native%20to%20the%20Pacific%20Ocean.">largest animal</a> involved in bioturbation, meaning they churn up sediment as they gouge the seafloor hunting shrimp. </p>
<p>These roles make whales ecosystem engineers. Their activities are significant enough to shape local ecosystems where they feed and fertilise the surface of the ocean through defecation. Whale poo, in particular, looks to have a significant effect on phytoplankton growth, especially in the Southern Ocean. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528763/original/file-20230529-19-x9rrqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="sperm whale pooing" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528763/original/file-20230529-19-x9rrqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528763/original/file-20230529-19-x9rrqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528763/original/file-20230529-19-x9rrqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528763/original/file-20230529-19-x9rrqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528763/original/file-20230529-19-x9rrqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528763/original/file-20230529-19-x9rrqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528763/original/file-20230529-19-x9rrqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A whale pooing is quite an event, as this sperm whale shows. But is it enough to make a difference on an ecosystem scale?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Fish and other marine species <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abb4848">also contribute</a> to the biological carbon pump. In this process, CO₂ is stored in organic matter through photosynthesis and washed into the deeper ocean where some is stored for long periods of time. </p>
<p>Whales could also potentially capture carbon in other ways: in their flesh, where they keep it for their long lifespans, and when a whale falls and sinks to the bottom, where it might be covered in sediment. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528843/original/file-20230529-29-n3ci3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528843/original/file-20230529-29-n3ci3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528843/original/file-20230529-29-n3ci3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528843/original/file-20230529-29-n3ci3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528843/original/file-20230529-29-n3ci3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528843/original/file-20230529-29-n3ci3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528843/original/file-20230529-29-n3ci3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528843/original/file-20230529-29-n3ci3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">These are the five main pathways through which whales might contribute to carbon sequestration.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So why should we be sceptical?</h2>
<p>While it’s entirely possible whales can help sequester carbon, they are likely to make only a limited contribution. </p>
<p>Research in this area is challenging, with many complexities and uncertainties. How do you measure a whale’s lifetime contribution? We’ll need more research to find out either way. </p>
<p>For now, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2022.781876/full">what we do know</a> suggests blue carbon in mangroves, salt marshes and seagrasses is well beyond what large whales contribute to carbon storage. </p>
<p>For us to conclusively say whales can play a role in reducing CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere, we’d need to be able to trace a clear link between how they influence the biological carbon pump, with more whales leading to more organic carbon heading from the surface into the deep ocean, and how much of this then enters longer-term storage in sediments. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527724/original/file-20230523-19-jbrgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527724/original/file-20230523-19-jbrgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527724/original/file-20230523-19-jbrgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527724/original/file-20230523-19-jbrgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527724/original/file-20230523-19-jbrgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527724/original/file-20230523-19-jbrgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527724/original/file-20230523-19-jbrgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Whales are big. But we don’t know enough to say they’re good at storing carbon. This image shows a humpback whale feeding in Antarctic waters.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lauren Harrell</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What we know about the way the oceans respond to carbon dioxide add further weight to whale scepticism. Of the carbon dioxide we emitted between 2009 and 2018, about 40% stayed in the atmosphere, 29% was soaked up by land ecosystems and 23% was absorbed by the oceans, largely due to the tireless photosynthesising of phytoplankton. The cold Southern Ocean is the major contributor among the oceans, accounting for 40% of all ocean absorption. </p>
<p>Zoomed out, all the world’s oceans <a href="https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/14/4811/2022/">take up</a> an estimated 53 billion tonnes of carbon annually. Of this, 4 billion tonnes of organic matter sinks below the surface. But only 1% of this actually gets stored in sea floor sediment for the long term. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bottoms-up-how-whale-poop-helps-feed-the-ocean-27913">Bottoms up: how whale poop helps feed the ocean</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>So when we look at the five ways whales could boost carbon removal, the most important one is through their huge poos, which can trigger plankton growth. The “whale pump” is also driven by their poo, and when gray whales or other species turn over sediment, it only has a local effect. When a dead whale falls to the seafloor and is eaten, some carbon may be stored long term if its bones are buried. But it’s unlikely to be a significant amount. </p>
<p>In short, we don’t know enough to say whales help carbon storage – and what we do know suggests the opposite. </p>
<h2>Whales are more than their carbon</h2>
<p>Whales are valuable for much more than their role in carbon cycles. They’re celebrated in cultures around the world. They support local economies through industries like whale-watching. Whales host many other species on them, provide a vital food source for deep-sea life when they die, and act as <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-whales-and-dolphins-can-tell-us-about-the-health-of-our-oceans-84169">an indicator</a> of ocean health. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527719/original/file-20230523-17-upa5ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527719/original/file-20230523-17-upa5ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527719/original/file-20230523-17-upa5ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527719/original/file-20230523-17-upa5ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527719/original/file-20230523-17-upa5ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527719/original/file-20230523-17-upa5ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527719/original/file-20230523-17-upa5ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Whale watching in Australia.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And while some species hard-hit by whaling are now recovering, many whales face a very uncertain future in a quickly heating ocean. </p>
<p>Whales are unlikely to protect us from climate change. It’s more likely we’ll have to save them. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sea-creatures-store-carbon-in-the-ocean-could-protecting-them-help-slow-climate-change-108872">Sea creatures store carbon in the ocean – could protecting them help slow climate change?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205489/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Olaf Meynecke receives funding from a private charitable fund as part of the Whales and Climate Program. </span></em></p>We want good news on climate change. But whales storing enough carbon needs more evidence.Olaf Meynecke, Research Fellow in Marine Science, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1981502023-02-21T13:24:30Z2023-02-21T13:24:30ZRussia’s aggression threatens efforts to protect nature beyond Ukraine<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510704/original/file-20230216-14-5z1vg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=79%2C6%2C4362%2C2391&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Red-breasted geese breed mainly on Russia’s Taymyr Peninsula and migrate to areas adjacent to the Black Sea in Ukraine, Romania and Bulgaria. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daniel Mitev</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Russian invasion of Ukraine launched in February 2022 has sent economic, social and political shock waves around the world. In a newly published <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcosc.2023.989019">policy brief</a>, we and other researchers and conservation scientists describe how these effects extend to biodiversity conservation efforts far beyond Ukraine. </p>
<p>Animals, plants and ecosystems don’t recognize political boundaries, so protecting them often requires international cooperation. Over many decades, countries have developed a network of international agreements and arrangements for protecting biodiversity. Now, however, the war at Russia’s hands is delaying a number of those efforts, stopping others, and even sending some into reverse. </p>
<h2>War and the spoon-billed sandpiper</h2>
<p>As one example, <a href="https://www.eaaflyway.net/spoon-billed-sandpiper-task-force/">efforts to save</a> the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/spoon-billed-sandpiper-facts/">critically endangered spoon-billed sandpiper (<em>Calidris pygmaea</em>)</a> from extinction are now at risk as a result of the war in Ukraine.</p>
<p>Russia’s treeless tundra, in the high Arctic, is the summer home of countless birds that arrive from as far as Africa, southern Asia, Australasia and even South America. Among them is the tiny spoon-billed sandpiper, which weighs in at about 1 ounce (28 grams). </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510713/original/file-20230216-20-pd3uou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A small brown and white bird stands in dry tundra grasses." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510713/original/file-20230216-20-pd3uou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510713/original/file-20230216-20-pd3uou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=882&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510713/original/file-20230216-20-pd3uou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=882&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510713/original/file-20230216-20-pd3uou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=882&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510713/original/file-20230216-20-pd3uou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1108&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510713/original/file-20230216-20-pd3uou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1108&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510713/original/file-20230216-20-pd3uou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1108&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The spoon-billed sandpiper is a wetland-dependent species that breeds in the treeless tundra of the Russian Far East. Their total population is estimated at about 600.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sayam Chowdhury</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These petite birds nest in the Russian Far East and migrate during the Northern Hemisphere winter to Southeast Asia. <a href="https://theconversation.com/be-still-my-beating-wings-hunters-kill-migrating-birds-on-their-10-000km-journey-to-australia-138382">Owing to hunting</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1890/130260">habitat loss</a>, fewer than 600 of the birds remain. </p>
<p>Since 2012, a multinational team of researchers and conservationists has been conducting a “<a href="https://www.saving-spoon-billed-sandpiper.com/the-project/">headstart” breeding program</a> that collects spoon-billed sandpiper eggs from the wild, incubates them and raises chicks in a custom-built aviary on the Russian tundra. This strategy protects chicks from predators, giving them a better chance to reach maturity and reproduce.</p>
<p>Restrictions on international travel to and from Russia have halted this program, which is vital to the sandpiper’s survival, by preventing collaborators from traveling to the site from abroad. Russia has also been <a href="https://www.swift.com/news-events/news/message-swift-community">suspended from the SWIFT interbank system</a> – the main system that powers secure international fund transfers between financial institutions around the world. This has blocked transfers of much-needed international funds for on-the-ground conservation work.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510715/original/file-20230216-22-kot31v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Scientists near and inside a long hoop house on the Russian tundra." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510715/original/file-20230216-22-kot31v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510715/original/file-20230216-22-kot31v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510715/original/file-20230216-22-kot31v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510715/original/file-20230216-22-kot31v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510715/original/file-20230216-22-kot31v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510715/original/file-20230216-22-kot31v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510715/original/file-20230216-22-kot31v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A key strategy for the conservation of the spoon-billed sandpiper is a headstart breeding program, which includes raising chicks in a purpose-built aviary on the Russian tundra until they are old enough to survive in the wild.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sayam Chowdhury</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Russian invasion is also delaying the potential for conserving critical habitats. For example, important wetlands along China’s coastline that are part of the spoon-billed sandpiper’s migration route have been <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1606">designated as World Heritage Sites</a>. There is a proposal to expand habitat protection under the World Heritage Convention to other areas along the migratory route, which is also vital for other bird species.</p>
<p>At the time of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, <a href="https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2022/04/22/unesco-postpones-world-heritage-meeting-russia">Russia chaired the United Nations committee</a> that oversees the designation of new sites. Other countries that are signatories to the World Heritage Convention <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/open-letter-to-the-unesco-world-heritage-committee-7-april-2022/open-letter-to-the-unesco-world-heritage-committee">boycotted the process</a>, refusing to operate either in Russia or under Russia’s leadership. Russia has since resigned as the committee chair, but the site designation process has been delayed for over a year. </p>
<h2>Russia’s vast lands and waters</h2>
<p>Russia has the largest surface area of any country in the world, covering more than 6.6 million square miles (17 million square kilometers). This sheer expanse makes Russia a vital place for biodiversity.</p>
<p>Beyond the spoon-billed sandpiper, birds that visit Russia from other countries include the <a href="https://ebird.org/species/rebgoo1">red-breasted goose (<em>Branta ruficollis</em>)</a>, which migrates to areas near the Black Sea, and the <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Gray-cheeked_Thrush/id#">gray-cheeked thrush (<em>Catharus minimus</em>)</a>, which migrates to South America. In total, Russia is the breeding stronghold for over 500 migratory bird species, of which <a href="http://datazone.birdlife.org/country/russia">52 are threatened with extinction</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510716/original/file-20230216-26-efqmkl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing migratory bird routes that stretch from Russia south to Africa, Asia and Australia." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510716/original/file-20230216-26-efqmkl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510716/original/file-20230216-26-efqmkl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510716/original/file-20230216-26-efqmkl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510716/original/file-20230216-26-efqmkl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510716/original/file-20230216-26-efqmkl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510716/original/file-20230216-26-efqmkl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510716/original/file-20230216-26-efqmkl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Multiple global migratory waterbird flyways intersect Russia (shaded in dark gray). Conserving areas that migratory birds use while they are in Russia is a critical strategy for protecting the species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://wpp.wetlands.org/downloads/downloads">Brad K. Woodworth, adapted from Wetlands International</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other species also move through Russian territory as they migrate. They include hoofed mammals, such as the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.24189/ncr.2021.026">wild forest caribou (<em>Rangifer tarandus fennicus</em>)</a>, and the critically endangered <a href="https://www.rgo.ru/en/article/rgs-expedition-records-mass-migration-saigas-russia-kazakhstan">saiga antelope (<em>Saiga tatarica</em>)</a>. Russia’s waters are home to numerous fish species, including commercially valuable ones like salmon and sturgeon.</p>
<p>In terms of ecosystems, Russia has the world’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3">largest and most well-preserved forests</a>. They provide vital habitats for many species and contain enormous stores of carbon, so protecting them has global implications for addressing climate change. Farther north, about half of the Arctic Ocean’s coastline, including locations that have experienced relatively little human impact, lies within Russia. </p>
<h2>A link in global conservation networks</h2>
<p>Russia has been involved in international efforts to manage and conserve species for over a century, starting in 1911 when it signed the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pKfQrvlABNE">North Pacific Fur Seal Convention</a>. Since then, Russia has joined more than 50 international agreements for biodiversity conservation, including the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">Convention on Biological Diversity</a>, the <a href="https://www.eaaflyway.net/">East Asian-Australasian Flyway Partnership</a> and the China-Russia Bilateral Migratory Bird Agreement.</p>
<p>Now Russia’s diplomatic isolation is hampering work under multilateral arrangements like the <a href="https://www.arctic-council.org/">Arctic Council</a>, which includes the eight countries with Arctic territory and a half-dozen regional Indigenous organizations. Since Russia invaded Ukraine, the council has halted its operations, although it aims to resume some on a limited scale <a href="https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-limited-resumption-of-arctic-council-cooperation/">that excludes Russia</a>. The Arctic Council has a working group on biodiversity conservation, including specific <a href="https://www.caff.is/arctic-migratory-birds-initiative-ambi">initiatives to conserve migratory birds</a>. </p>
<p>Russia also has been an important participant in transnational collaborative research on wildlife and biodiversity issues. For example, to conserve migratory animals, researchers need to understand their movements. This makes it possible to identify and protect the animals’ key habitats.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YIZD_gDoMPw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Russia has more than one-fifth of the world’s forests, but badly managed logging and illegal timber harvesting threaten their health and ability to store carbon.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.icarus.mpg.de/en">Icarus</a>, a collaborative research initiative for understanding animal migration, has relied on data sharing by <a href="https://www.space.com/22724-roscosmos.html">Roscosmos</a>, the Russian space agency. This partnership has now been suspended, leaving Icarus in search of an alternative solution.</p>
<p>The war in Ukraine has also created an imperative for countries to prioritize some issues over biodiversity conservation. For example, Russian attacks on Ukrainian farms and related infrastructure, and Russian naval blockades of grain exports, have <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2022/november/global-food-insecurity-grows-in-2022-amid-backdrop-of-higher-prices-black-sea-conflict/">contributed to global food shortages</a>. In response, the European Union has sought to increase agricultural output by rolling back some of its <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00550-2">biodiversity-friendly farming policies</a>. </p>
<p>For as long as the war in Ukraine lasts, we believe it is imperative for other countries to increase their efforts to strengthen and expand the international system for biodiversity conservation in the rest of the world. In our view, this should happen even as governments rightly assist Ukraine’s valiant efforts to regain full control over all of its territory, including its wetlands, forests and other important habitats currently occupied by Russian forces.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198150/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eduardo Gallo-Cajiao receives funding from the David H. Smith Conservation Research Fellowship Program. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Duan Biggs is the Olajos Goslow Chair at Northern Arizona University and receives funding from the United Nations, and the IUCN, and previously WWF the Luc Hoffmann Insitute, and the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nives Dolsak and Paul G. Harris do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Russia has vast natural resources and is involved in many conservation efforts. Its diplomatic isolation as a result of the war in Ukraine is making it harder to protect many wild species and places.Eduardo Gallo-Cajiao, David H. Smith Conservation Research Postdoctoral Fellow, University of WashingtonDuan Biggs, Professor and Chair, Southwestern Environmental Science and Policy, Northern Arizona UniversityNives Dolsak, Professor of Sustainability Sciences and Director, School of Marine and Environmental Affairs, University of WashingtonPaul G. Harris, Chair Professor of Global and Environmental Studies, The Education University of Hong KongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1948002022-11-18T13:31:25Z2022-11-18T13:31:25ZEnding Amazon deforestation: 4 essential reads about the future of the world’s largest rainforest<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495894/original/file-20221117-26-53xlp9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C5%2C3781%2C2519&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A burnt area in Amazonas state, Brazil, Sept. 21, 2022. Fires in the Amazon are often set to clear land.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/view-of-a-burnt-are-of-the-amazonia-rainforest-in-apui-news-photo/1243414040">Michael Dantas/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Brazil’s president-elect, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, was greeted with applause and cheers when he addressed the U.N. climate conference in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, on Nov. 16, 2022. As he had in his campaign, Lula pledged to <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/cop/brazils-lula-put-climate-center-first-post-election-speech-abroad-2022-11-16/">stop rampant deforestation in the Amazon</a>, which his predecessor, Jair Bolsanaro, had encouraged. </p>
<p>Forests play a critical role in slowing climate change by taking up carbon dioxide, and the Amazon rainforest absorbs <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/amazon-deforestation-and-climate-change">one-fourth of the CO2 absorbed by all the land on Earth</a>. These articles from The Conversation’s archive examine stresses on the Amazon and the Indigenous groups who live there.</p>
<h2>1. Massive losses</h2>
<p>The Amazon rainforest is vast, covering some 2.3 million square miles (6 million square kilometers). It extends over eight countries, with about 60% of it in Brazil. And the destruction occurring there is also enormous. </p>
<p>From 2010 to 2019, the Amazon lost <a href="https://theconversation.com/statistic-of-the-decade-the-massive-deforestation-of-the-amazon-128307">24,000 square miles</a> (62,000 square kilometers) of forest – the equivalent of about 10.3 million U.S. football fields. Much of this land was turned into cattle ranches, farms and palm oil plantations.</p>
<p>“There are a number of reasons why this deforestation matters – financial, environmental and social,” wrote Washington University in St. Louis data scientist <a href="https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=UtiewDkAAAAJ&hl=en">Liberty Vittert</a>, explaining why she and other judges chose Amazon deforestation as the Royal Statistical Society’s International Statistic of the Decade. </p>
<p>Forest clearance in the region threatens people, wild species and freshwater supplies along with the climate. “The farmers, commercial interest groups and others looking for cheap land all have a clear vested interest in deforestation going ahead, but any possible short-term gain is clearly outweighed by long-term loss,” Vittert concluded.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495887/original/file-20221117-16-nvekis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map of the Amazon region showing forest loss from 2001 to 2020, much of it in Brazil." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495887/original/file-20221117-16-nvekis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495887/original/file-20221117-16-nvekis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495887/original/file-20221117-16-nvekis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495887/original/file-20221117-16-nvekis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495887/original/file-20221117-16-nvekis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495887/original/file-20221117-16-nvekis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495887/original/file-20221117-16-nvekis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Scientists estimate that 17%-20% of the Amazon has been destroyed over the past 50 years. Some researchers believe that at 20%-25% deforestation, the forest’s wet, tropical climate could begin to dry out in a phenomenon known as ‘dieback.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/deforestation-brazils-amazon-has-reached-record-high-whats-being-done">Council on Foreign Relations</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/statistic-of-the-decade-the-massive-deforestation-of-the-amazon-128307">Statistic of the decade: The massive deforestation of the Amazon</a>
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<h2>2. Legalizing land grabs</h2>
<p>Much of the Amazon has been under state control for decades. In the 1970s, Brazil’s military government started encouraging farmers and miners to move into the region to spur economic development, while also setting some zones aside for conservation. More recently, however, Brazil’s government has <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-great-amazon-land-grab-how-brazils-government-is-clearing-the-way-for-deforestation-173416">made it easier for wealthy interests</a> to seize large swaths of land – including in conservation areas and Indigenous territories.</p>
<p>Reviewing national laws and land holdings, University of Florida geographers <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gabriel-Cardoso-Carrero">Gabriel Cardoso Carrero</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=qcS5yogAAAAJ&hl=en">Cynthia S. Simmons</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=PTEKYYoAAAAJ&hl=en">Robert T. Walker</a> found that Brazil’s National Congress was expanding the legal size of private holdings in the Amazon even before Bolsonaro was elected in 2019. </p>
<p>In southern Amazonas state, Amazonia’s most active deforestation frontier, rates of deforestation started to rise in 2012 because of loosened regulatory oversight. The number and size of clearings that the researchers identified using satellite data increased after Bolsonaro took office.</p>
<p>“Because of policy interventions and the greening of agricultural supply chains, deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon fell after 2005, reaching a low point in 2012, when it began trending up again because of weakening environmental governance and reduced surveillance,” they observed. “In our view, the global community can help by insisting that supply chains for Amazonian beef and soybean products originate on lands deforested long ago and whose legality is long-standing.”</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The Amazon overall is still a net absorber of carbon dioxide, but a recent study found that deforestation was turning parts of the Brazilian Amazon into net carbon sources.</span></figcaption>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-great-amazon-land-grab-how-brazils-government-is-clearing-the-way-for-deforestation-173416">The great Amazon land grab – how Brazil's government is clearing the way for deforestation</a>
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<h2>3. Indigenous resistance</h2>
<p>Road building in the Amazon, which increased dramatically during Bolsonaro’s tenure, brings development and related threats like wildfires into wild areas. University of Richmond geographer <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David-Salisbury">David Salisbury</a> also saw it as an <a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-defenders-stand-between-illegal-roads-and-survival-of-the-amazon-rainforest-brazils-election-could-be-a-turning-point-190550">existential threat to Indigenous communities</a>. </p>
<p>Indigenous residents of the Brazilian-Peruvian borderlands where Salisbury worked “understand that the loggers and their tractors and chainsaws are the sharp point of a road allowing coca growers, land traffickers and others access to traditional Indigenous territories and resources,” Salisbury reported. “They also realize that their Indigenous communities may be all that stands in defense of the forest and stops invaders and road builders.”</p>
<p>Several Indigenous women won office as federal deputies in Brazil’s recent elections, and Lula has pledged to <a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-defenders-stand-between-illegal-roads-and-survival-of-the-amazon-rainforest-brazils-election-could-be-a-turning-point-190550">protect Indigenous people’s rights</a>. Salisbury saw it as crucial to ensure that Indigenous defenders of the Amazon receive “the support and educational opportunities needed to be safe, prosperous and empowered to protect their rainforest home.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Animation of map changes and close up of one area year to year" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487180/original/file-20220928-20-lc39rq.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487180/original/file-20220928-20-lc39rq.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487180/original/file-20220928-20-lc39rq.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487180/original/file-20220928-20-lc39rq.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487180/original/file-20220928-20-lc39rq.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=985&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487180/original/file-20220928-20-lc39rq.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=985&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487180/original/file-20220928-20-lc39rq.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=985&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">How road building leads to the rapid deforestation of surrounding lands. The satellite maps show road expansion from 2003 to 2021 into the Serra do Divisor National Park and its buffer zone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Yunuen Reygadas/ABSAT/University of Richmond</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-defenders-stand-between-illegal-roads-and-survival-of-the-amazon-rainforest-brazils-election-could-be-a-turning-point-190550">Indigenous defenders stand between illegal roads and survival of the Amazon rainforest – Brazil's election could be a turning point</a>
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<h2>4. Five global deforestation drivers: Beef, soy, palm oil, wood – and crime</h2>
<p>A small handful of highly lucrative commodities are the main causes of deforestation in the Amazon and other tropical regions around the world. In Brazil, much of the land is cleared for raising beef cattle or cultivating soy. In Indonesia and Malaysia, palm oil production is spurring large-scale rainforest destruction. Wood production, for pulp and paper products as well as fuel, is also a major driver in Asia and Africa.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495750/original/file-20221116-12-yeiuzy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A bearded man at a lectern in front of a sign reading 'Global Climate Action.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495750/original/file-20221116-12-yeiuzy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495750/original/file-20221116-12-yeiuzy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495750/original/file-20221116-12-yeiuzy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495750/original/file-20221116-12-yeiuzy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495750/original/file-20221116-12-yeiuzy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495750/original/file-20221116-12-yeiuzy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495750/original/file-20221116-12-yeiuzy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, president-elect of Brazil, speaks at the U.N. Climate Summit, COP27, in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, Nov. 16, 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/dpatop-16-november-2022-egypt-scharm-el-scheich-luiz-inacio-news-photo/1244827637">Christophe Gateau/picture alliance via Getty Images.</a></span>
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<p>“Making the supply chains for these four commodities more sustainable is an important strategy for reducing deforestation,” wrote Texas State University geographer <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=BA2cjRgAAAAJ&hl=en">Jennifer Devine</a>. But Devine also found a fifth factor interwoven with these four industries: organized crime.</p>
<p>“Large, lucrative industries offer opportunities to move and launder money; as a result, in many parts of the world, deforestation is driven by the drug trade,” she reported. In the Amazon, for example, drug traffickers are illegally logging forests and <a href="https://theconversation.com/organized-crime-is-a-top-driver-of-global-deforestation-along-with-beef-soy-palm-oil-and-wood-products-170906">hiding cocaine in timber shipments to Europe</a>. </p>
<p>“Promoting sustainable production and consumption are critical to halting deforestation worldwide. But in my view, national and industry leaders also have to root organized crime and illicit markets out of these commodity chains,” Devine concluded.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/organized-crime-is-a-top-driver-of-global-deforestation-along-with-beef-soy-palm-oil-and-wood-products-170906">Organized crime is a top driver of global deforestation – along with beef, soy, palm oil and wood products</a>
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<p><em>Editor’s note: This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archive.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194800/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Brazilian President-elect Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva says he will end land clearance in Brazil’s Amazon region. But powerful forces profit from rainforest destruction.Jennifer Weeks, Senior Environment + Cities Editor, The ConversationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1856862022-07-27T11:59:43Z2022-07-27T11:59:43ZHow forests lost 8,000 years of stored carbon in a few generations – animated maps reveal climate lessons for tree-planting projects today<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474359/original/file-20220715-26-f2znn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=46%2C23%2C3837%2C2529&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Trees like these near Traverse City, Michigan, remove carbon dioxide from the air and lock it away.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/walking-into-an-autumn-rainbow-royalty-free-image/1125531574">Owen Weber/www.owenweberlive.com via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“Plant a tree” seems to be the go-to answer to climate change concerns these days. Booking a rental car online recently, I was asked to check a box to plant a tree to offset my car’s anticipated carbon dioxide emissions. In 2020, the governor of my state, Indiana, launched an initiative to <a href="https://www.in.gov/dnr/forestry/programs/forestin/">plant a million</a> of them within five years, and the state is a quarter of the way there.</p>
<p>The primary reason for this arboreal zeal is to capitalize on <a href="https://clear.ucdavis.edu/explainers/what-carbon-sequestration">the power of trees to remove excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere</a> and turn it into wood, safely locking carbon away for decades to centuries.</p>
<p>That’s the theory, anyway.</p>
<p>The problem is that the fate of carbon stored in trees <a href="https://theconversation.com/trees-arent-a-climate-change-cure-all-2-new-studies-on-the-life-and-death-of-trees-in-a-warming-world-show-why-182944">faces many challenges</a>. Heat waves, logging, pests and wildfires can all destroy trees and release that carbon again. And most <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102017-030204">measurements of the carbon</a> stored in forests’ woody biomass only extend back a few decades.</p>
<p>I lead the <a href="http://paleonproject.org/">PalEON project</a>, an initiative funded by the National Science Foundation that is working to reconstruct how the amount of carbon stored in U.S. trees ebbed and flowed over the past 10,000 years.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472185/original/file-20220703-23-1an7a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472185/original/file-20220703-23-1an7a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472185/original/file-20220703-23-1an7a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472185/original/file-20220703-23-1an7a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472185/original/file-20220703-23-1an7a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472185/original/file-20220703-23-1an7a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472185/original/file-20220703-23-1an7a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Loggers in 1900 cut down trees in what is now Michigan’s Huron-Manistee National Forests.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/2129322">Forest Service</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/science.abk3126">new reconstruction</a> reveals in detail how forests in the upper Midwest gained almost a billion tons of carbon over the last 8,000 years, doubling their carbon storage. And then, in the span of just 150 years, almost all of that gain disappeared into the atmosphere. </p>
<p>The results offer lessons for today, particularly about the outsized role that a few tree species, human behavior and a changing climate can play.</p>
<h2>How forests gained, then lost, a billion tons of carbon</h2>
<p>Our forest story starts 10,000 years ago, after the massive <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-21469-w">Laurentide ice sheet</a> that once covered a large portion of North America retreated from the upper Midwest – what is now Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the northern edges of Illinois and Indiana. In this early period of natural warming, ice-age forests of needle-leaved trees shrank and were replaced by new tree species slowly spreading northward from southern refuges.</p>
<p>Forest growth <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology/article/abs/responses-of-plant-populations-and-communities-to-environmental-changes-of-the-late-quaternary/A9092DD059CCEB530D52A862B5FF9B9B">rose and fell</a> over the thousands of years that followed as the climate went through warm and cool periods, the frequency and intensity of wildfires changed, and Native American land management strategies shifted.</p>
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472180/original/file-20220703-36074-hc91lj.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1004&fit=crop&dpr=1"><figcaption>Carbon storage changes over time: through 1850, in megagrams, or metric tons, per hectare. PalEON Project</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/27849531.pdf">Previous</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1890/120111">studies</a> assumed that the amount of woody biomass – the carbon stored in trees – had been relatively stable over millennia before the industrial era. Instead, we were surprised to find that the Upper Midwest forests had steadily gained carbon for 8,000 years before Euro-American settlers began clearing large swaths of forest.</p>
<p>In much of the region, forests had become dominated by long-lived species that could store a lot of carbon as biomass. Two of those species stand out: American beech and eastern hemlock.</p>
<h2>History in a grain of pollen</h2>
<p>We know a lot of this thanks to tiny grains of ancient pollen and the Public Land Survey, a collection of <a href="https://bcpl.wisconsin.gov/Shared%20Documents/Land/DNR-OriginalLandSurveyArticle.pdf">highly detailed forest surveys</a> conducted by government contractors in the mid-1800s, shortly before forest clearing took off.</p>
<p>Each year, trees release pollen, and some of that pollen falls into lakes, where it sinks into the mud and fossilizes. Scientists can study fossilized pollen in cross sections of lake bottom sediment to determine how old it is and the types of trees that were growing at the time. If a major fire came through, abrupt changes in the types of pollen in the sediment would give it away.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Maps show hemlock and beech spreading northward and the western transition zone between forest and grasslands shifting over time." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472181/original/file-20220703-13-is9rnm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472181/original/file-20220703-13-is9rnm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=224&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472181/original/file-20220703-13-is9rnm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=224&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472181/original/file-20220703-13-is9rnm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=224&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472181/original/file-20220703-13-is9rnm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=282&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472181/original/file-20220703-13-is9rnm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=282&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472181/original/file-20220703-13-is9rnm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=282&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How two tree species that sequester a lot of carbon migrated in the Upper Midwest, and the changing line between forests and grasslands in the western part of the region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://doi.org/10.1126/science.abk3126">PalEON Project</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abk3126">a study</a> recently published in the journal Science, Ann Raiho and other PalEON members mapped biomass changes in the Upper Midwest using a sophisticated statistical model based on the fossil pollen found in the sediment from <a href="https://www.neotomadb.org/">a network of lakes</a>. The <a href="https://bcpl.wisconsin.gov/Shared%20Documents/Land/DNR-OriginalLandSurveyArticle.pdf">Public Land Survey</a> served as a sort of Rosetta Stone. The survey linked vegetation in the 1800s to the fossil pollen samples, allowing us to calibrate pollen levels with the amount of wood biomass.</p>
<h2>Lessons from 10,000 years of forest growth and decline</h2>
<p>Our maps of past biomass accumulation provide reason for optimism about the capacity of forests to sustainably store carbon for long periods, but also two warnings.</p>
<p>The optimistic take is that when forests dominated by old-growth species like American beech and eastern hemlock expanded, the forests stored large amounts of carbon in woody biomass for millennia. These two species contributed substantial carbon storage, particularly in the moister central and eastern parts of the region.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472182/original/file-20220703-22-vbkora.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472182/original/file-20220703-22-vbkora.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472182/original/file-20220703-22-vbkora.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472182/original/file-20220703-22-vbkora.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472182/original/file-20220703-22-vbkora.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472182/original/file-20220703-22-vbkora.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472182/original/file-20220703-22-vbkora.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">American beech trees in a forest.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nicholas_t/24346708748">Nicholas T/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The first warning is that forests in the drier western part of our study area shrank when the climate became warmer and drier.</p>
<p>The second warning is that progress can quickly slip away. Although the Upper Midwest forests stored almost a billion tons more carbon than they lost over the last 8,000 years, that accumulation went back into the atmosphere over a short period of time as a result of logging and farming. We found the rate of woody biomass decline over the last 150 years was 10 times greater than in any other century in 10,000 years.</p>
<h2>Looking ahead</h2>
<p>So, what does this mean for tree planting efforts today?</p>
<p>If my rental car tree happened to be an American beech, and if it were allowed to mature and propagate an old-growth forest in the Upper Midwest, then future forests could replicate the processes that stored carbon for thousands of years.</p>
<p>But that future presumes that drought, pests and wildfires associated with a <a href="https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/2/">rapidly warming climate</a> don’t undo those efforts. A recent study suggested that forests around the world may be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abl6529">losing resilience</a> to climate warming.</p>
<p>The capacity of old-growth trees to store carbon can also be undone by other threats that can be exacerbated by the changing climate. For example, <a href="https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/plpath-tree-09">beech bark disease</a> weakens trees, allowing fungus to kill them – and it’s now threatening the Upper Midwest’s beech populations.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Map shows where the US has tree cover today, largely in the East and mountains." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472188/original/file-20220703-16-7f08li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472188/original/file-20220703-16-7f08li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472188/original/file-20220703-16-7f08li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472188/original/file-20220703-16-7f08li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472188/original/file-20220703-16-7f08li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472188/original/file-20220703-16-7f08li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472188/original/file-20220703-16-7f08li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">U.S. forest cover today. Trees were larger and forests more extensive thousands of years ago.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/76697/where-the-trees-are">Robert Simmon/NASA Earth Observatory</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Finally, communities will have to balance the value of carbon sequestered in old forests with other priorities.</p>
<p>From a conservation perspective, both the high-biomass, old-growth beech and hemlock forests and the lower-biomass oak savannas were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246473.g003">important components</a> of Midwestern vegetation over the last 10,000 years. However, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118256">open oak forests are now endangered</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118383">the practices needed for their recovery</a>, like controlled burns, are designed to keep competing species at bay – including American beech. </p>
<p>The past offers guidance for managing forest change in the future, but not easy answers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185686/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason McLachlan receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>The Midwest had a lot of trees, but just a few species were responsible for the bulk of the carbon storage.Jason McLachlan, Associate Professor of Paleoecology, University of Notre DameLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1869002022-07-14T20:03:25Z2022-07-14T20:03:25ZAustralia’s central climate policy pays people to grow trees that already existed. Taxpayers – and the environment – deserve better<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474020/original/file-20220714-9155-8zz34h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=39%2C0%2C5179%2C2933&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The federal government has launched an <a href="https://minister.dcceew.gov.au/bowen/media-releases/independent-review-accus">independent review</a> of Australia’s central climate policy, the Emissions Reduction Fund, <a href="https://law.anu.edu.au/news-and-events/news/australia%E2%80%99s-carbon-market-fraud-environment">after we</a> and others raised serious concerns about its integrity.</p>
<p>The review will examine, among other issues, whether several ways of earning credits under the scheme lead to genuine emissions reductions.</p>
<p>One method singled out for scrutiny involves regrowing native forests to store carbon from the atmosphere. </p>
<p><a href="https://law.anu.edu.au/research/publications">Our new analysis</a> suggests the vast majority of carbon storage credited under this method either has not occurred, or would have occurred anyway. Here we explain why.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="man in suit speaks in front of flags" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474022/original/file-20220714-8948-wv4538.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474022/original/file-20220714-8948-wv4538.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474022/original/file-20220714-8948-wv4538.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474022/original/file-20220714-8948-wv4538.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474022/original/file-20220714-8948-wv4538.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474022/original/file-20220714-8948-wv4538.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474022/original/file-20220714-8948-wv4538.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Climate Change Minister Chris Bowen has announced a review of the Emissions Reduction Fund.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Steven Saphore/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The background</h2>
<p>The Emissions Reduction Fund provides carbon credits to projects that reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For the past decade, it has been the centrepiece of Australia’s climate policy.</p>
<p>Under the fund, projects that reduce emissions receive carbon credits that can be sold to the federal government and private entities that are required, or choose to, offset their emissions.</p>
<p>We are experts in environmental law, markets and policy. The lead author of this article, Andrew Macintosh, is the former chair of the Emissions Reduction Assurance Committee, the government-appointed watchdog that oversees the Emissions Reduction Fund’s methods.</p>
<p>Earlier this year, we went public with details of serious integrity issues in the scheme. One main concern involves <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/Choosing-a-project-type/Opportunities-for-the-land-sector/Vegetation-methods/Human-Induced%20regeneration%20of%20a%20permanent%20even-aged%20native%20forest">a method</a> known as “human-induced regeneration of a permanent even-aged native forest”. </p>
<p>This method <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/project-and-contracts-registers/project-register">accounts for</a> almost 30% of the carbon credits that have been issued, roughly 30% of registered projects, and <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/project-and-contracts-registers/carbon-abatement-contract-register">more than 50%</a> of carbon credits contracted for sale to the federal government.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-blew-the-whistle-on-australias-central-climate-policy-heres-what-a-new-federal-government-probe-must-fix-185894">We blew the whistle on Australia's central climate policy. Here's what a new federal government probe must fix</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="steam flows from chimney" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474023/original/file-20220714-17585-ron91w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474023/original/file-20220714-17585-ron91w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474023/original/file-20220714-17585-ron91w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474023/original/file-20220714-17585-ron91w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474023/original/file-20220714-17585-ron91w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474023/original/file-20220714-17585-ron91w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474023/original/file-20220714-17585-ron91w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Companies can offset emissions by buying carbon credits under the scheme.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Problems with the method</h2>
<p>Under the method, landholders get credits for regenerating native forests by changing the way they manage their properties.</p>
<p>When the method was created, it was assumed projects would be located in areas where vegetation had previously been cleared, and where grazing and repeated clearing were suppressing regrowth. </p>
<p>But most projects have been located in parts of Australia’s arid and semi-arid <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/agriculture-land/farm-food-drought/natural-resources/vegetation/rangelands">rangelands</a> where native vegetation has never been cleared (because it is not economic to do so). </p>
<p>There are two main problems with the method and how it’s been applied. We outline these below.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-white-colonisation-of-the-atmosphere-its-time-to-tackle-this-entrenched-racism-185579">Climate change is white colonisation of the atmosphere. It's time to tackle this entrenched racism</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Map of Australia showing locations of human-induced regeneration projects." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474054/original/file-20220714-20-6llaip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474054/original/file-20220714-20-6llaip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474054/original/file-20220714-20-6llaip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474054/original/file-20220714-20-6llaip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474054/original/file-20220714-20-6llaip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474054/original/file-20220714-20-6llaip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474054/original/file-20220714-20-6llaip.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Clean Energy Regulator map showing locations of human-induced regeneration projects. Google satellite image, accessed 20th May 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://data.gov.au/data/dataset/erf_project_mapping">https://data.gov.au/data/dataset/erf_project_mapping</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Problem 1: trees existed before projects began</h2>
<p>First, <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/DocumentAssets/Documents/Human%20induced%20regeneration%20-%20A%20spatiotemporal%20study%20Peer%20Reviewed.pdf">data published by the regulator</a> shows proponents have been allowed to include a substantial number of mature trees in the areas for which they receive carbon credits. This has led to substantial over-crediting – in simple terms, the carbon abatement is not real.</p>
<p>So how has this occurred?</p>
<p>Under the method, proponents do not have to measure tree growth - they estimate it using a model. </p>
<p>The model assumes all trees in the forest begin regenerating at the same time when the project activities start. The modelled tree growth starts slowly, then accelerates to peak when the forest is young and vigorous. It then slows as the expanding trees compete with each other. </p>
<p>The model cannot be validly applied to estimate tree growth in areas where substantial numbers of pre-existing mature trees exist. But this is what’s <a href="https://law.anu.edu.au/sites/all/files/short_-_hir_measurement_july_2022_final.pdf">happening</a>. </p>
<p>As a consequence, proponents are being issued credits for growing trees that were already there when the projects started. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="fence and field with trees in background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474024/original/file-20220714-9184-84qrxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474024/original/file-20220714-9184-84qrxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474024/original/file-20220714-9184-84qrxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474024/original/file-20220714-9184-84qrxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474024/original/file-20220714-9184-84qrxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474024/original/file-20220714-9184-84qrxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474024/original/file-20220714-9184-84qrxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Proponents measure tree growth using a model.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Problem 2: rain, not the project activities, is making trees grow</h2>
<p>The method is based on the premise that changes in land management are necessary to regenerate the forests. But our <a href="https://law.anu.edu.au/sites/all/files/short_-_hir_additionality_july_2022_final.pdf">analysis</a> shows that, where trees are regenerating, it is due mainly to rainfall.</p>
<p>Almost all current projects seek to regenerate forests by reducing grazing pressure. For this to make sense, grazing would need to be responsible for dramatically reducing the prevalence of trees in the rangelands. It would also have to be possible to regenerate these “lost” forests by reducing grazing pressure. Neither of these are true. </p>
<p>For more than 30 years, there has been a heated debate in ecological and natural resource management circles about the causes of “woody thickening” (or increasing density of native trees and shrubs) in grazing areas. The two dominant, competing hypothesis are that woody thickening is:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>caused by grazing and an accompanying reduction in vegetation burning </p></li>
<li><p>a cyclical phenomena in which vegetation slowly accumulates over time, especially following runs of <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/11-1123.1">wet years</a>, until a drought causes woody plant cover to stabilise or decline. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>There’s no material evidence or support for the notion that grazing alone (in the absence of clearing) has significantly reduced tree cover over vast areas of the rangelands. </p>
<p>In fact, every year, between <a href="https://ageis.climatechange.gov.au/QueryAppendixTable.aspx">200,000 and 400,000 hectares</a> of land cleared for grazing is re-cleared. This demonstrates that grazing is rarely sufficient on its own to stop regrowth without mechanical or chemical interventions to kill trees. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-more-excuses-restoring-nature-is-not-a-silver-bullet-for-global-warming-we-must-cut-emissions-outright-186048">No more excuses: restoring nature is not a silver bullet for global warming, we must cut emissions outright</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="rain in puddle with trees in background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474027/original/file-20220714-24-ab6s6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474027/original/file-20220714-24-ab6s6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474027/original/file-20220714-24-ab6s6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474027/original/file-20220714-24-ab6s6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474027/original/file-20220714-24-ab6s6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474027/original/file-20220714-24-ab6s6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474027/original/file-20220714-24-ab6s6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Evidence strongly suggests woody vegetation in the rangelands fluctuates according to rain cycles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alan Porritt/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Restoring integrity</h2>
<p>Regeneration of native forests in cleared areas is a valid and desirable way to reduce emissions and generate carbon credits. </p>
<p>But the human-induced regeneration method is deeply flawed. It has led to credits being issued for tree growth that is not real, or would have occurred anyway.</p>
<p>The review, to be led by former chief scientist Ian Chubb, is a chance to restore integrity to this method and ensure that credits are only issued for legitimate regeneration projects. </p>
<p>Because as climate change worsens, Australians need to know our most important climate policy is both value for money, and delivering real environmental gains. </p>
<p><strong>The Clean Energy Regulator, which operates the Emissions Reduction Fund, did not respond to The Conversation’s request for comment on the authors’ claims. However in a previous statement it said:</strong></p>
<blockquote>
<p>Prof Macintosh and his colleagues have not engaged with the substance of the ERAC’s comprehensive response papers on human induced regeneration … The government has said it will undertake a review of the ERF and details will be announced shortly. We do not wish to pre-empt the scope of the review or its findings. We welcome the review and look forward to engaging substantively with the review process once it commences.</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186900/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Macintosh is a Director of Paraway Pastoral Co. Ltd, a pastoral company that undertakes projects under the Emissions Reduction Fund. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Don Butler receives funding from the federal Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. He also works with the Queensland Department of Environment and Science as a science advisor for natural capital programs.. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Megan C Evans receives funding from the Australian Research Council through a Discovery Early Career Research Award and has previously been funded by the Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, WWF Australia, and the National Environmental Science Program's Threatened Species Recovery Hub.</span></em></p>Our new analysis suggests the vast majority of carbon credits granted for regrowing native forests either has not occurred, or would have occurred anyway.Andrew Macintosh, Professor and Director of Research, ANU Law School, Australian National UniversityDon Butler, Professor, Australian National UniversityMegan C Evans, Senior Lecturer and ARC DECRA Fellow, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1858942022-06-30T19:49:27Z2022-06-30T19:49:27ZWe blew the whistle on Australia’s central climate policy. Here’s what a new federal government probe must fix<p>Climate Change Minister Chris Bowen is today <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jun/29/chris-bowen-to-announce-review-of-carbon-credits-system-after-expert-labelled-it-a">expected</a> to announce a much anticipated review of Australia’s carbon credit scheme, known as the Emissions Reduction Fund.</p>
<p>In March, we <a href="https://law.anu.edu.au/research/publications">exposed</a> serious integrity issues with the scheme, labelling it a fraud on taxpayers and the environment. We welcome the federal government’s review. Labor has promised a 43% cut in Australia’s emissions by 2030, and a high-integrity carbon credit market is vital to reaching this goal.</p>
<p>The fund was established by the Abbott government in 2014 and is now worth A$4.5 billion. It provides carbon credits to projects that reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For the past decade, it has been the centrepiece of Australia’s climate policy. </p>
<p>In this and subsequent articles, we seek to simplify the issues for the Australian public, the new parliament and whoever is appointed to review the Emissions Reduction Fund.</p>
<h2>The background</h2>
<p>We are experts in environmental law, markets and policy. The lead author of this article, Andrew Macintosh, is the former chair of the Emissions Reduction Assurance Committee (ERAC), the government-appointed watchdog that oversees the Emissions Reduction Fund’s methods. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://law.anu.edu.au/research/publications">analysis</a> suggests up to 80% of credits issued under three of the fund’s most popular emissions reduction methods do not represent genuine emissions cuts that wouldn’t have happened otherwise.</p>
<p>Our decision to call the scheme a “fraud” was deliberate and considered. In our view, a process that systematically pays for a service that’s not actually provided is fraudulent. </p>
<p>The Clean Energy Regulator (which administers the fund) and the current ERAC reviewed our claims and, earlier this month, <a href="http://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/About/Pages/News%20and%20updates/NewsItem.aspx?ListId=19b4efbb-6f5d-4637-94c4-121c1f96fcfe&ItemId=1114">dismissed</a> them. We have <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/news/all-news/response-to-emissions-reduction-assurance-committee">expressed</a> serious concerns with that review process, which we believe was not transparent and showed a fundamental lack of understanding of the issues. </p>
<p>This week, Bowen <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jun/29/chris-bowen-to-announce-review-of-carbon-credits-system-after-expert-labelled-it-a">said</a> our concerns were “substantial and real” and he took them “very seriously”.</p>
<p>The Conversation contacted the Clean Energy Regulator regarding the authors’ claims. The regulator pointed to its “comprehensive response” to the issues raised and also rejected allegations of fraud. The full statement is included at the end of this article.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="man in suit talking at lectern" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471785/original/file-20220630-11-dvkid7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471785/original/file-20220630-11-dvkid7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471785/original/file-20220630-11-dvkid7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471785/original/file-20220630-11-dvkid7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471785/original/file-20220630-11-dvkid7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471785/original/file-20220630-11-dvkid7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471785/original/file-20220630-11-dvkid7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Climate Change Minister Chris Bowen said the authors’ concerns were ‘substantial and real’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bianca Di Marchi/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The 3 biggest problems</h2>
<p>Under the fund, projects that reduce emissions are rewarded with carbon credits. These credits can be sold on the carbon market to entities that want to offset their emissions. Each credit is supposed to represent one tonne of carbon abatement.</p>
<p>Buyers include the federal government (using taxpayer funds) and private entities that are required to, or voluntarily choose to, offset their emissions.</p>
<p>Under the scheme, a range of methods lay out the rules for emissions abatement activities. <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/serious-questions-over-whether-australia-s-emissions-cuts-are-real-20180710-p4zqln.html">Concerns</a> have been <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/22/one-in-five-carbon-credits-under-australias-main-climate-policy-are-junk-cuts-research-finds">raised</a> about these methods for years. </p>
<p>Our initial criticism focuses on the scheme’s most popular methods, which account for about 75% of carbon credits issued:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong><a href="http://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/csf/how-it-works/explore-project-types/Pages/human-induced-regeneration-projects.aspx">human-induced regeneration</a>:</strong> projects supposed to regenerate native forests through changes in land management practices, particularly reduced grazing by livestock and feral animals</p></li>
<li><p><strong><a href="http://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/Choosing-a-project-type/Opportunities-for-the-land-sector/Vegetation-methods/Native-forest-protection-(avoided-deforestation)">avoided deforestation</a>:</strong> projects supposed to protect native forests in western New South Wales that would otherwise be cleared</p></li>
<li><p><strong><a href="http://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/Choosing-a-project-type/Opportunities-for-industry/landfill-and-alternative-waste-treatment-methods/Capture-and-combustion-of-landfill-gas">landfill gas</a>:</strong> projects supposed to capture and destroy methane emitted from solid waste landfills using a flare or electricity generator.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Our <a href="https://law.anu.edu.au/research/publications">analysis</a> found credits have been issued for emissions reductions that were not real or additional, such as:</p>
<ul>
<li>protecting forests that were never going to be cleared</li>
<li>growing trees that were already there</li>
<li>growing forests in places that will never sustain them permanently</li>
<li>large landfills operating electricity generators that would have operated anyway.</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-emissions-reduction-fund-is-almost-empty-it-shouldnt-be-refilled-92283">Australia's Emissions Reduction Fund is almost empty. It shouldn't be refilled</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="farm scene with trees and crops" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471787/original/file-20220630-11-d3b9m7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471787/original/file-20220630-11-d3b9m7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471787/original/file-20220630-11-d3b9m7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471787/original/file-20220630-11-d3b9m7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471787/original/file-20220630-11-d3b9m7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471787/original/file-20220630-11-d3b9m7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471787/original/file-20220630-11-d3b9m7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some credits were issued for growing trees that already existed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In forthcoming articles, we will detail the problems with these methods.</p>
<p>However, at a high level, the issues have arisen because the scheme has focused on maximising the number of carbon credits issued, to put downward pressure on carbon credit prices. This has resulted in attempts to use carbon offsets in inappropriate situations. </p>
<h2>A tricky policy lever</h2>
<p>Designing high integrity methods for calculating carbon credits is hard because it involves:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>trying to determine what would happen in the absence of the incentive provided by the carbon credit. For example, would a farmer have cleared a paddock of trees if they weren’t given carbon credits to retain it?</p></li>
<li><p>activities where it’s not always clear if carbon abatement was the result of human activity or natural variability. For instance, soil carbon levels can be increased by changing land management practices, but can also happen naturally due to rainfall</p></li>
<li><p>activities where it can be hard to measure the emissions outcome. For example, carbon sequestration in vegetation is often measured using models that can be inaccurate when applied at the project scale</p></li>
<li><p>dynamic carbon markets with fast-evolving technologies.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>These complexities mean mistakes are inevitable; no functional carbon offset scheme can ever get it 100% right. A degree of error must be accepted.</p>
<p>But decisions regarding risk tolerance must consider the consequences of issuing low-integrity credits, including contributing to worsening climate change. </p>
<h2>The dangers of sham credits</h2>
<p>The safeguard mechanism places caps on the emissions of major polluters and was <a href="https://theconversation.com/no-mr-morrison-the-safeguard-mechanism-is-not-a-sneaky-carbon-tax-182054">originally intended</a> to protect gains achieved through the Emissions Reduction Fund. It applies to about 200 large industrial polluters and requires them to buy carbon credits if their emissions exceed these caps. </p>
<p>When carbon credits used by polluters do not represent real and additional abatement, Australia’s emissions will be higher than they otherwise would be.</p>
<p>To avoid such risks, the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2020C00281">legislation</a> governing the Emissions Reduction Fund requires the methods to be “conservative” and supported by “clear and convincing evidence”. </p>
<p>The fund’s main methods do not meet these standards.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-mr-morrison-the-safeguard-mechanism-is-not-a-sneaky-carbon-tax-182054">No, Mr Morrison – the safeguard mechanism is not a 'sneaky carbon tax'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Graphic showing one tonne of CO2 = 1 carbon credit" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471789/original/file-20220630-22-yytsyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471789/original/file-20220630-22-yytsyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=254&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471789/original/file-20220630-22-yytsyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=254&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471789/original/file-20220630-22-yytsyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=254&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471789/original/file-20220630-22-yytsyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471789/original/file-20220630-22-yytsyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471789/original/file-20220630-22-yytsyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Accurately calculating carbon credits is not as simple as it may appear.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An open and transparent process</h2>
<p>Carbon credit schemes are, by nature, complex and involve a high risk of error. To maintain integrity, systems to promote transparency are needed. </p>
<p>This includes requiring administrators to not just expect, but actively seek out errors and move quickly to correct them. </p>
<p>To this end, rules are needed to:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>force the disclosure of information by the Clean Energy Regulator and ERAC</p></li>
<li><p>guarantee disinterested third parties the right to be involved in rule-making</p></li>
<li><p>give anybody the right to seek judicial review of decisions made by the Clean Energy Regulator and ERAC</p></li>
<li><p>require proponents to move off methods found to contain material errors.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The Emissions Reduction Fund has none of these features and needs urgent reform.</p>
<p>We hope the federal government review will be comprehensive and independent, with the power to compel people to give evidence. Because Australians deserve assurance that our national climate policy operates with the utmost integrity.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/us-scheme-used-by-australian-farmers-reveals-the-dangers-of-trading-soil-carbon-to-tackle-climate-change-161358">US scheme used by Australian farmers reveals the dangers of trading soil carbon to tackle climate change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>The Clean Energy Regulator provided the following statement in response to this article.</em></strong></p>
<p><em>The comments made regarding the Emissions Reduction Fund (ERF) repeat generalised claims that ‘fraud’ is occurring and are rejected. No substantial evidence for claims of fraud has ever been provided. These are serious allegations and the CER is dismayed at the statement that attributes these alleged outcomes to the work done by the CER. We understand that ERAC has the same view.</em></p>
<p><em>The claims about lack of additionality and over-crediting are also not new. Prof Macintosh and his colleagues have not engaged with the substance of the ERAC’s comprehensive response papers on human induced regeneration and landfill gas and the CER’s response to the claims on avoided deforestation.</em></p>
<p><em>The government has said it will undertake a review of the ERF and details will be announced shortly. We do not wish to pre-empt the scope of the review or its findings. We welcome the review and look forward to engaging substantively with the review process once it commences.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185894/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Macintosh receives funding from the federal Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. He is also a Director of Paraway Pastoral Company Ltd, which has projects registered under the Emissions Reduction Fund.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Don Butler receives funding from the federal Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. He also works with the Queensland Department of Environment and Science as a science advisor for natural capital programs. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Megan C Evans receives funding from the Australian Research Council through a Discovery Early Career Research Award and has previously been funded by the Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, WWF Australia, and the National Environmental Science Program's Threatened Species Recovery Hub. </span></em></p>Labor has promised a 43% cut in Australia’s emissions by 2030 and a high-integrity carbon credit market is vital to reaching this goal.Andrew Macintosh, Professor and Director of Research, ANU Law School, Australian National UniversityDon Butler, Professor, Australian National UniversityMegan C Evans, Senior Lecturer and ARC DECRA Fellow, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1829442022-05-12T18:00:17Z2022-05-12T18:00:17ZTrees aren’t a climate change cure-all – 2 new studies on the life and death of trees in a warming world show why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462847/original/file-20220512-23-ic1vbg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C175%2C5568%2C3525&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When trees burn, all the carbon they have stored goes back into the atmosphere.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Patrick T. Fallon/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>When people talk about ways to slow climate change, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1710465114">they often mention trees</a>, and for good reason. Forests take up a <a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-3269-2020">large amount</a> of the planet-warming carbon dioxide that people put into the atmosphere when they burn fossil fuels. But will trees keep up that pace as global temperatures rise? With companies <a href="https://www.forest-trends.org/publications/state-of-the-voluntary-carbon-markets-2021/">increasingly investing in forests as offsets</a>, saying it cancels out their continuing greenhouse gas emissions, that’s a multibillion-dollar question.</em></p>
<p><em>The results of two studies published in the journals Science and Ecology Letters on May 12, 2022 – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abm4875">one focused on growth</a>, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.14018">other on death</a> – raise new questions about how much the world can rely on forests to store increasing amounts of carbon in a warming future. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Yq_Ql6gAAAAJ&hl=en">Ecologist William Anderegg</a>, who was involved in both studies, explains why.</em></p>
<h2>What does the new research tell us about trees and their ability to store carbon?</h2>
<p>The future of forests is on a knife’s edge, with a tug of war between two very important forces: the benefits trees get from increasing levels of carbon dioxide and the stresses they face from the climate, such as heat, drought, fires, pests and pathogens.</p>
<p>Those climate stresses are increasing a lot faster as the planet warms than scientists had expected. We’re seeing <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/the-age-of-megafires-the-world-hits-a-climate-tipping-point">immense wildfires</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-29289-2">drought-driven forest die-offs</a> much sooner than anyone had anticipated. When those trees die, that carbon goes back into the atmosphere. We’re also seeing evidence that the benefits trees get from higher levels of carbon dioxide in a warming world <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abm4875">may be more limited</a> than people realize.</p>
<p>This tells us it’s probably not a great idea to count on forests for a widespread carbon sink through the 21st century, particularly if societies don’t <a href="https://theconversation.com/transformational-change-is-coming-to-how-people-live-on-earth-un-climate-adaptation-report-warns-which-path-will-humanity-choose-177604">reduce their emissions</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A female forestry technician cuts a fallen tree with a chainsaw in a forest with dead and dying pine trees whose needles have turned brown." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462821/original/file-20220512-18-4ruzsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462821/original/file-20220512-18-4ruzsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462821/original/file-20220512-18-4ruzsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462821/original/file-20220512-18-4ruzsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462821/original/file-20220512-18-4ruzsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462821/original/file-20220512-18-4ruzsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462821/original/file-20220512-18-4ruzsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Droughts have made trees more vulnerable to fires and beetle attacks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/barbara-culp-a-lead-forestry-technician-with-the-santa-fe-news-photo/1442099?adppopup=true">Phillippe Diederich/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Trees and forests do all sorts of other amazing things – they clean the air and water, and they provide economic value in terms of timber and tourism and pollination. So, understanding how they will grow matters for many reasons.</p>
<h2>There’s an argument that, with more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, trees will simply grow more and lock that carbon away. What did your study find?</h2>
<p>Two key things affect tree growth: <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, which is how trees turn sunlight and carbon dioxide into food, and the <a href="https://agrilife.org/treecarekit/introduction-to-tree-care/how-trees-grow/">process of cell division</a> and expansion.</p>
<p>There’s been a long-standing debate about which is the biggest driver of tree growth.</p>
<p>A good metaphor here is a cart with two horses. The cart moving down the road is the tree growing, and there are two horses attached, but we don’t know which is actually doing the work of pulling the cart. One horse is photosynthesis. That makes a lot of intuitive sense – it’s where all the carbon comes from for building cells. But we know there’s another horse – in order to grow more wood, trees have to grow layers of cells, and the cells have to expand and divide. That cell growth process is very sensitive to climate changes and tends to shut down when conditions are dry.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Map of drought in the U.S. showing the western half of the country under drought conditions" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462817/original/file-20220512-22-sz5tic.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462817/original/file-20220512-22-sz5tic.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462817/original/file-20220512-22-sz5tic.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462817/original/file-20220512-22-sz5tic.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462817/original/file-20220512-22-sz5tic.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462817/original/file-20220512-22-sz5tic.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462817/original/file-20220512-22-sz5tic.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Large parts of the Western U.S. have faced severe drought conditions for years. About half the contiguous U.S. was in drought in May 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/data/png/20220510/20220510_usdm.png">Drought Monitor/UNL/NOAA/USDA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>People assume that photosynthesis is the dominant process almost everywhere. But we found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abm4875">stronger evidence</a> that these cellular processes that are sensitive to drought actually do more to drive or limit growth.</p>
<p>We used tree ring data from thousands of trees across the U.S. and Europe and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abm4875">measurements of photosynthesis from towers in nearby forests</a> to check whether tree growth and photosynthesis were correlated over time. If they followed the same pattern, increasing or decreasing in the same years, that would have suggested photosynthesis was the horse pulling the cart. Instead, we found no correlation.</p>
<p>That suggests that droughts, rather than the amount of carbon dioxide in the air, may have the biggest impact on how quickly trees grow in the future. We’re already <a href="https://www.drought.gov/research-spotlight-climate-driven-megadrought">seeing more frequent and severe droughts</a> in many regions.</p>
<h2>What did you learn about the risk of tree death in the future?</h2>
<p>In the other study, we found that lowering global greenhouse gas emissions could have a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.14018">huge impact for avoiding damage</a> to forests from wildfires, drought and insects.</p>
<p>We used years of satellite observations, climate data and <a href="https://www.fia.fs.fed.us/">a network</a> of about 450,000 tree plots across the U.S. where each tree is monitored for climate stress and survival. With that historical data, we built statistical models of the risk U.S. trees face from wildfires, insects and climate stress, primarily related to drought. Then we looked at what might happen under future climate scenarios, with high carbon emissions, medium emissions and low emissions. You can explore the results on an <a href="https://carbonplan.org/research/forest-risks">interactive map</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe frameborder="0" class="juxtapose" width="100%" height="370" src="https://cdn.knightlab.com/libs/juxtapose/latest/embed/index.html?uid=9092e91c-d1ad-11ec-b5bb-6595d9b17862"></iframe>
</figure><figure><figcaption>The images above, from CarbonPlan.org’s interactive maps, show how risks to forests from wildfire (orange), drought (pink) and insects (blue) increase over time in a medium-emissions scenario of the future. Move the slider to see the comparison of 2020 and 2090.</figcaption></figure>
<p>The big picture: As the planet warms, wildfire <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.14018">risk increases</a> substantially over the current century, especially in the Western U.S. In a scenario with medium emissions, wildfire risk is projected to increase by a factor of four. Drought and insect risks increase by about 50% to 80%. </p>
<h2>What does this mean for the use of carbon offsets?</h2>
<p>Together these studies suggest that the benefits carbon dioxide has for growth won’t be nearly as large as people thought, and the risk of climate stress, particularly wildfire, drought and insects, will be much larger than people anticipate.</p>
<p>That has huge implications for using forests as <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-corporate-climate-pledges-of-net-zero-emissions-should-trigger-a-healthy-dose-of-skepticism-156386">carbon offsets</a>.</p>
<p>So far, carbon offset protocols and markets have not really grappled with this updated scientific understanding of the <a href="https://carbonplan.org/research/forest-offsets">risks that forests face</a> from climate change. This tells us that climate policymakers and offset developers need to be very careful about how they count on forest offsets to deliver benefits.</p>
<p>The more hopeful message is that our actions in the next decade matter enormously. If we can rein in the speed of climate change and take a lower-emissions path, that does a huge amount to lower risk and increase the benefits. This isn’t a “throw up our hands and panic” situation – it is our chance to take steps that make sure resilient and sustainable forests last for the future.</p>
<p>What we do with our own emissions and efforts to slow climate change matters immensely for the future of forests.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182944/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William R L Anderegg receives funding from the David & Lucille Packard Foundation, the National Science Foundation, and the USDA NIFA program. </span></em></p>More carbon dioxide in the air doesn’t necessarily mean more growth for trees, and the increasing risk of wildfires and drought has major consequences, as an interactive map shows.William R.L. Anderegg, Associate Professor of Ecology, School Of Biological Sciences, University of UtahLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1821452022-05-12T04:05:15Z2022-05-12T04:05:15Z4 reasons why the Morrison government’s forestry cash splash is bad policy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462384/original/file-20220511-22-m7tp0n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C0%2C2261%2C1704&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>This federal election campaign has involved very little discussion of environmental or natural resource policies, other than mining. An exception is a A$220 million Morrison government pledge for the forestry industry.</p>
<p>The money will <a href="https://www.afr.com/politics/federal/morrison-makes-219m-pitch-to-woo-tasmanian-forestry-workers-20220413-p5ada5">be invested</a> in new wood-processing technology and forest product research, and used to extend 11 so-called “regional forestry hubs”. Some $86 million will aid the establishment of new plantations. </p>
<p>Prime Minister Scott Morrison said he would not support “any shutdown of native forestry” and claimed the funding would secure 73,000 existing forestry jobs. The spending on native forests, however, is problematic. In 2019-20, <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/research-topics/forests/forest-economics/forest-wood-products-statistics">87% of logs harvested</a> in Australia came from plantations, and more investment is needed to bring this to 100%. </p>
<p>Here, we show how directing public funds to native forest logging is bad for the economy, the climate and biodiversity, and will increase bushfire risk.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="logging truck in plantation timber forest" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462385/original/file-20220511-16-y0hnv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462385/original/file-20220511-16-y0hnv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462385/original/file-20220511-16-y0hnv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462385/original/file-20220511-16-y0hnv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462385/original/file-20220511-16-y0hnv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462385/original/file-20220511-16-y0hnv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462385/original/file-20220511-16-y0hnv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Money for plantation timber operations is welcome.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>1. Economics</h2>
<p>Native forest logging has long been a marginal economic prospect. The Western Australian government has recognised this, electing to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/sep/08/western-australia-to-ban-native-forest-logging-from-2024-in-move-that-blindsides-industry">halt</a> the practice by the end of 2023. It will instead create sustainable forestry jobs by spending $350 million expanding softwood timber plantations.</p>
<p>The move followed Victoria’s promised end to native forest logging in 2030.</p>
<p>In Victoria, native forest logging has repeatedly incurred <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/logging-agency-blames-lawsuits-after-losing-4m-despite-state-grants-20211122-p59b7e.html">substantial losses</a> across large parts of the state. Data from the state’s Parliamentary Budget Office in 2020 show Victoria would be more than $190 million better off without its native forest logging sector.</p>
<p>Native forest logging sustains <a href="https://www.fwpa.com.au/images/OtherReports/Vic_Report_FINAL.pdf">far fewer</a> jobs than the plantation sector, and does not produce substantial employment opportunities in any mainland Australian state.</p>
<p>For example, only <a href="https://www.frontier-economics.com.au/comparing-the-value-of-alternative-uses-of-native-forests-in-southern-nsw/">about 300</a> direct and indirect jobs are sustained by native forest logging in southern NSW. </p>
<p>A recent <a href="https://www.frontier-economics.com.au/comparing-the-value-of-alternative-uses-of-native-forests-in-southern-nsw/">economic analysis</a> showed ceasing native forest harvesting in that region would bring $62 million in economic benefits – a result likely to be repeated in native forestry areas across Australia.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiRu4e0s9b3AhUjR2wGHcBqCs0QFnoECAcQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aph.gov.au%2F-%2Fmedia%2FEstimates%2Frrat%2Fbud1819%2FTabled_Documents%2FAgriculture_and_Water_Resources%2FAg_Tabled_5.pdf%3Fla%3Den%26hash%3D8467BE6D9B8DB76782D1E147025A94C571C9D62C&usg=AOvVaw3jENvR6xz8OhTk4V9lxB58">About 87%</a> of sawn timber used in home construction is derived from plantations. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/logged-native-forests-mostly-end-up-in-landfill-not-in-buildings-and-furniture-115054">vast majority</a> of native forest logged in Victoria and southern NSW goes into woodchips and paper pulp. </p>
<p>Victoria exports 75% of plantation-derived eucalypt pulp logs. A small percentage of this diverted for domestic use would readily <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/11/3/407">replace</a> native forest wood at Victoria’s biggest paper mill at Maryvale. The feasibility of this has been known for years.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/logged-native-forests-mostly-end-up-in-landfill-not-in-buildings-and-furniture-115054">Logged native forests mostly end up in landfill, not in buildings and furniture</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="stacks of milled timber" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462391/original/file-20220511-20-3sn5jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462391/original/file-20220511-20-3sn5jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462391/original/file-20220511-20-3sn5jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462391/original/file-20220511-20-3sn5jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462391/original/file-20220511-20-3sn5jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462391/original/file-20220511-20-3sn5jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462391/original/file-20220511-20-3sn5jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jobs in plantation timber far outweigh those in native logging.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. Climate change</h2>
<p>Native forest logging in Australia generates <a href="https://law.anu.edu.au/sites/all/files/allfiles/wp2011_1_credits_from_reduced_native_forest_harvesting.pdf">around 38 million tonnes</a> of carbon dioxide (CO₂) a year. </p>
<p>Victoria’s phase-out of native forest logging by 2030 will <a href="https://www.premier.vic.gov.au/protecting-victorias-forests-and-threatened-species-0">reduce emissions</a> by 1.7 million tonnes of CO₂-equivalent gases each year for 25 years, equivalent to taking 730,000 motor vehicles off the road annually. </p>
<p>Ending native forest logging in southern NSW would likely be the <a href="https://www.frontier-economics.com.au/documents/2021/11/comparing-the-value-of-alternative-uses-of-native-forest-in-southern-nsw.pdf/">biggest</a> carbon abatement project in that state.</p>
<p>These benefits also bring economic value. Even under relatively low market prices for carbon, the value of <em>not</em> logging, in terms of reducing greenhouse gases, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-017-0309-1">far exceeds</a> the economic benefits of native forest logging.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/decaying-forest-wood-releases-a-whopping-10-9-billion-tonnes-of-carbon-each-year-this-will-increase-under-climate-change-164406">Decaying forest wood releases a whopping 10.9 billion tonnes of carbon each year. This will increase under climate change</a>
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</p>
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<h2>3. Bushfire risk</h2>
<p>There’s now unequivocal evidence that logging native trees makes forests prone to more severe bushfires. <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/news/all-news/logging-amplified-severity-of-black-summer-bushfires">Analysis</a> of the 2019-20 Black Summer fires showed logged forests always burn more severely than intact ones. </p>
<p>Under moderate fire weather conditions during Black Summer, logged forests burned at higher severity than intact forests burning under extreme fire weather.</p>
<p>These logging-generated risks were particularly pronounced in southern and northern NSW. Importantly, they were also <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/conl.12122">evident</a> in Victoria’s 2009 Black Saturday fires in Victoria.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coming-of-age-research-shows-old-forests-are-3-times-less-flammable-than-those-just-burned-179571">Coming of age: research shows old forests are 3 times less flammable than those just burned</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="smoke and fire in native forest" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462389/original/file-20220511-18-dcgp6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462389/original/file-20220511-18-dcgp6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462389/original/file-20220511-18-dcgp6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462389/original/file-20220511-18-dcgp6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462389/original/file-20220511-18-dcgp6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462389/original/file-20220511-18-dcgp6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462389/original/file-20220511-18-dcgp6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Logging makes forests more prone to severe fires.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Darren Jennings/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Biodiversity conservation</h2>
<p>Numerous studies have demonstrated the damage native forest logging causes to biodiversity. In Victoria, for example, a 2019 analysis of areas proposed for logging <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/aec.12805">showed</a> it would negatively affect 70 threatened forest-dependent species, such as the Leadbeater’s possum.</p>
<p>The bottom line is that ongoing logging will drive yet further declines of Australia’s threatened species and add to the nation’s sad record on biodiversity loss. </p>
<h2>The upshot</h2>
<p>The empirical evidence points in one direction: ending native forest logging in Australia would bring substantial and multiple benefits to society and nature.</p>
<p>We welcome the Morrison government’s spending on supporting new plantations. To create the most positive return on taxpayer investment, however, the bulk of other industry funding should be directed to enhancing manufacturing and markets for high-value wood products from plantation timber.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182145/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Lindenmayer receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Australian Government, and the Victorian Government. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brendan Mackey receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the federal government. He is on the board on the not-for-profit organisation Great Eastern Ranges and is a member of the Queensland government's Native Timber Advisory Panel.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heather Keith does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Directing public funds to native forest logging is bad for the economy, the climate and biodiversity, and will increase bushfire risk.David Lindenmayer, Professor, The Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National UniversityBrendan Mackey, Director, Griffith Climate Action Beacon, Griffith UniversityHeather Keith, Senior Research Fellow in Ecology, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1798122022-04-13T12:13:16Z2022-04-13T12:13:16ZRedwood trees have two types of leaves, scientists find – a trait that could help them survive in a changing climate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457498/original/file-20220411-11-h2ic9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C5542%2C3709&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Coastal redwoods in Felton, California.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/coastal-redwoods-stand-in-the-henry-cowell-redwoods-state-news-photo/915647562">Carolyn Van Houten/The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Coast redwoods are amazing trees that scientists have studied for generations. We know they are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02417">the tallest living trees</a> and have survived for millennia, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jof/article-abstract/29/6/939/4719848">resisting fire</a> and <a href="https://nzjforestryscience.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40490-014-0017-4">pests</a>. Because redwoods are long-lived, large and decay-resistant, the forests they dominate store <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.018">more above-ground mass, and thus presumably more carbon</a>, than any other ecosystem on Earth. </p>
<p>Nonetheless, while working on a recently published study, colleagues at the <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=qeqqJqwAAAAJ">University of California</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=S3LivCgAAAAJ&hl=es">Davis</a>, and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=5dqacuQAAAAJ&hl=en">Cal Poly</a> <a href="https://kerhoulasforestlab.weebly.com/">Humboldt</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=Qv4DpXAAAAAJ">I</a> learned a secret that had been sitting right under our noses. </p>
<p>Redwoods, it turns out, have two types of leaves that look different and perform very different tasks. This previously unknown feature helps the trees adapt to both wet and dry conditions – an ability that could be key to their survival in a changing climate.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-swLTsWXPII?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Redwoods can live for more than 2,000 years and grow to more than 350 feet tall.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Just enough water</h2>
<p>Wherever trees grow, sooner or later their leaves get wet. For trees in wet environments, this can be a problem if films of water <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.1995.tb00377.x">cover their stomata</a>. These tiny pores allow carbon dioxide to enter leaves so the tree can combine it with water to make plant tissue through <a href="https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2015/03/17/power-one-tree-very-air-we-breathe">photosynthesis</a>. Many trees that are common to wet forests have leaves with adaptations that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.24.14256">prevent these water films from forming</a>. </p>
<p>In contrast, trees growing in dry environments take advantage of brief bouts of leaf wetness to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15307">take up valuable water</a> directly across the surfaces of their leaves, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pce.13439">through special leaf structures</a>, and even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.14041">through their stomata</a>. But some trees, including coast redwoods, live in both wet and dry environments with intense seasonal variation. </p>
<p>For broad-leaved trees like the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.114.242040">holm oak</a>, which grows in Mediterranean climates with dry summers and rainy winters, this seasonal wetness challenge is relatively easy to overcome. Their stomata are on the sheltered undersides of their leaves, which keeps them clear of water, while the leaves’ top surfaces absorb water. But redwoods are conifers, or cone-bearing trees, with <a href="https://ucanr.edu/sites/forestry/California_forests/http___ucanrorg_sites_forestry_California_forests_Tree_Identification_/Coast_Redwood_Sequoia_sempervirens_198/">thin, flat needlelike</a> leaves, and they need a different way to balance the competing goals of repelling and absorbing water. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457504/original/file-20220411-11-gw6ixl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Oval-shaped opening on a wavy green surface." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457504/original/file-20220411-11-gw6ixl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457504/original/file-20220411-11-gw6ixl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457504/original/file-20220411-11-gw6ixl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457504/original/file-20220411-11-gw6ixl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457504/original/file-20220411-11-gw6ixl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=772&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457504/original/file-20220411-11-gw6ixl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=772&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457504/original/file-20220411-11-gw6ixl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=772&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A single stoma on a tomato leaf, shown via electron microscope.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoma#/media/File:Tomato_leaf_stomate_1-color.jpg">Photohound/Wikipedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We knew we wanted to explore how redwoods met the paradoxical challenge of leaf wetness, how much water redwoods could absorb and which leaf features caused differences in water uptake capacity. What we learned came as a total surprise.</p>
<h2>Big trees with big secrets</h2>
<p>Scientists have long known about redwoods’ <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.2004.01207.x">ability to absorb water through their leaves</a>. But figuring out how much water redwoods can absorb this way, and how the capacity to do so might vary from one type of climate to another, is a real challenge in this species. </p>
<p>First, a big redwood has over 100 million leaves with a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.018">massive amount of surface area</a> for water absorption. And these leaves <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.018">drastically change structure with height</a>, going from long and flat to short and awllike. So we couldn’t get this right by simply picking leaves at ground level.</p>
<p>To complicate matters further, gravity is always pushing down on the giant column of water rising upward through a redwood’s trunk. As a result, leaves at the top of the tree <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02417">always have less available water</a> than those lower down. The treetop’s inherent dryness should pull water into the leaf more quickly than into water-rich leaves at the bottom, just as a dry sponge picks up water faster than a damp one. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457508/original/file-20220411-26-5iu2ea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing historic and current distribution of coast redwoods." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457508/original/file-20220411-26-5iu2ea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457508/original/file-20220411-26-5iu2ea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457508/original/file-20220411-26-5iu2ea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457508/original/file-20220411-26-5iu2ea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457508/original/file-20220411-26-5iu2ea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457508/original/file-20220411-26-5iu2ea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457508/original/file-20220411-26-5iu2ea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coast redwoods’ range extends from southern Oregon to California’s Big Sur coast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=24723">California Department of Parks and Recreation</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For an accurate picture of how redwoods absorbed water, we needed leaves from trees in wet and dry environments, and from multiple heights on those trees. To get them to their natural gravity-based water levels for analysis, we put our leaf samples in a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.13327">fog chamber</a> – in this case, an ice chest hooked up to a room humidifier – and measured weight gain over time to see how much water they could absorb.</p>
<h2>A trail of clues</h2>
<p>As we took apart clusters of redwood shoots to immerse them in fog, we divided each cluster into pieces. Redwood shoot clusters fan out from a woody core and are segmented into individual shoots of multiple ages, each with its own set of leaves. We separated shoots along <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpu011">the woody central axis</a> from the much more common pliable shoots on the outer edges of each cluster. </p>
<p>It quickly became obvious that shoots from the center axis had leaves that could absorb water three times faster than peripheral leaves. When we looked inside the leaves with a microscope, we understood that they were two completely different types. They don’t look the same on the outside either, but this was so unexpected that we needed to see their internal structure to really convince ourselves. </p>
<p>The axial leaves were packed with water storage cells, but their phloem – tubes in the leaves that export photosynthetic sugars to the tree – appeared to be blocked and useless. If a tree has leaves, the conventional wisdom is that they are there for photosynthesis, but we wondered whether the axial leaves had a different purpose.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457500/original/file-20220411-13-ve7ex9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two types of redwood shoots" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457500/original/file-20220411-13-ve7ex9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457500/original/file-20220411-13-ve7ex9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457500/original/file-20220411-13-ve7ex9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457500/original/file-20220411-13-ve7ex9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457500/original/file-20220411-13-ve7ex9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457500/original/file-20220411-13-ve7ex9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457500/original/file-20220411-13-ve7ex9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Redwoods’ broad peripheral leaves, shown at left, make up about 95% of the trees’ leaf area and do all the photosynthesis. Their axial leaves, at right, are adept at absorbing water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alana Chin</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With some additional measurements, we found that redwoods’ axial leaves are specialized for absorbing water. Differences between the surfaces of axial and peripheral leaves, especially their wax coverage, cause the differences in their water absorption rates.</p>
<p>Unlike the axial leaves, redwoods’ peripheral leaves have waxy surfaces with lots of stomata. This helped to explain how they <a href="https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/30/10/1260/1658568">photosynthesize year-round</a> regardless of the long wet season in much of their current habitat.</p>
<p>Further analysis showed that the redwoods’ axial leaves account for only about 5% of the trees’ total leaf area, and barely produce enough energy through photosynthesis to maintain themselves. But they contribute up to 30% of the trees’ total water absorption capacity. Together these two types of leaves balance the dueling requirements of photosynthesis and water absorption, allowing redwoods to thrive in both wet and dry habitats. </p>
<p>[<em>More than 150,000 readers get one of The Conversation’s informative newsletters.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-150K">Join the list today</a>.]</p>
<p>Using large-scale <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4JAyIAhgIU&t=89s">tree measurements</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1890/14-1016.1">equations for estimating redwood leaf area</a>, we estimated that these thirsty giants can absorb as much as 105 pounds (48 kilograms) of water in the first hour of a rainfall wetting their leaves. That’s equivalent to 101 pints of beer.</p>
<h2>The significance to redwoods</h2>
<p>Understanding what causes the variation in redwood leaves’ uptake capacity can help us gauge differences in water uptake capabilities among trees and environments, now and in the future. In my opinion, this is the most potentially useful part of our study.</p>
<p>Redwoods vary their two leaf types to suit their local climates. In wet rainforests in the northern part of their range, above Mendocino County, the trees invest in fewer of the axial leaves that are specialized for absorbing water. These leaves are concentrated in the trees’ lower crowns, leaving the photosynthetically <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpp037">high-performing treetops</a> free to maximize sugar production in the bright sun. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457510/original/file-20220411-6515-ece0z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Leaf under a microscope, covered with white dots." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457510/original/file-20220411-6515-ece0z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457510/original/file-20220411-6515-ece0z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457510/original/file-20220411-6515-ece0z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457510/original/file-20220411-6515-ece0z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457510/original/file-20220411-6515-ece0z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=641&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457510/original/file-20220411-6515-ece0z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=641&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457510/original/file-20220411-6515-ece0z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=641&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wax on the surface of a redwood leaf. The white dots are water-resistant plugs in the stomata.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marty Reed</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In dry forests on the southern margins of redwoods’ range, trees have more axial leaves in their water-stressed tops. This allows them to take better advantage of briefer leaf-wetting events, but it means they photosynthesize less per leaf area than redwoods in wetter areas. </p>
<p>Redwoods’ ability to shift leaf types to match regional climatic differences may help them adjust to climate change in an <a href="https://theconversation.com/californias-water-supplies-are-in-trouble-as-climate-change-worsens-natural-dry-spells-especially-in-the-sierra-nevada-173142">ever-drier California</a>. That would be good news for conserving these epic trees, and it may be a promising feature to investigate as scientists try to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/tpj.15592">link drought tolerance traits</a> to regional differences among redwood populations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179812/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alana Chin received funding from the NSF GRFP</span></em></p>New research shows that coast redwood trees have a surprising adaptation that helps them thrive in both wet and dry environments.Alana Chin, Postdoctoral Fellow in Plant Ecology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology ZurichLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1795642022-03-31T20:42:08Z2022-03-31T20:42:08ZThe political opportunities and challenges of Canada’s new $9.1B climate plan<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455594/original/file-20220331-15-s9h2ky.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C31%2C2968%2C1962&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Minister of Natural Resources Jonathan Wilkinson, left, and Minister of the Environment Steven Guilbeault announce Canada's new climate plan at a press conference on March 29, 2022.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Chad Hipolito</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With the release of Ottawa’s new “<a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/services/environment/weather/climatechange/climate-plan/climate-plan-overview/emissions-reduction-2030.html">2030 Emissions Reduction Plan</a>” this week, Canada has entered a new phase of climate policy. The 270-page document lays out the path the federal government will take to meet <a href="https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Canada%20First/Canada%27s%20Enhanced%20NDC%20Submission1_FINAL%20EN.pdf">Canada’s Paris Agreement target</a> to cut emissions by 40 per cent to 45 per cent below 2005 levels by 2030. </p>
<p>The new climate plan is the first to be produced under the new Canadian Net-Zero Emissions Accountability Act, which mandates that governments show how they will meet emissions targets and regularly report on their progress. The plan seeks to launch Canada’s economic transformation en route to net zero in 2050 through a combination of $9.1 billion in public spending and regulatory measures. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/planting-trees-can-help-the-climate-but-only-if-we-also-stop-burning-fossil-fuels-179549">Planting trees can help the climate, but only if we also stop burning fossil fuels</a>
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<p>For three decades, Canada has failed to meet any of its emissions targets. So, it’s high time the country started doing what it takes to meet our target. But there will be both political upsides and downsides in this new era of climate policy.</p>
<h2>What’s different this time?</h2>
<p>This is Canada’s 10th climate plan since 1990, and only the second to offer a plausible strategy to meet a national target. The first eight plans varied greatly in detail — it’s hard to say whether some even qualify as plans — but all either exaggerated <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/citizens-guide-to-climate-success/49D99FBCBD6FCACD5F3D58A7ED80882D">how effective popular policies like subsidies would be</a>, fudged expected <a href="https://direct.mit.edu/glep/article-abstract/7/4/92/14430/The-Road-not-Taken-Climate-Change-Policy-in-Canada?redirectedFrom=fulltext">reliance on international credits</a> or <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/services/environment/weather/climatechange/pan-canadian-framework/climate-change-plan.html">left a gap for future plans</a> and didn’t even pretend the target would be met.</p>
<p>In December 2020, the federal government released a <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/services/environment/weather/climatechange/climate-plan/climate-plan-overview/healthy-environment-healthy-economy.html">strengthened climate plan</a>. It offered a credible package of policies, centred around a steadily increasing carbon price, to meet a 30 per cent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, Canada’s initial Paris Agreement target. </p>
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<img alt="Burnt trees and ash litter the ground under an orange smoke-filled sky." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455596/original/file-20220331-21-qsti8y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455596/original/file-20220331-21-qsti8y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455596/original/file-20220331-21-qsti8y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455596/original/file-20220331-21-qsti8y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455596/original/file-20220331-21-qsti8y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455596/original/file-20220331-21-qsti8y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455596/original/file-20220331-21-qsti8y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Thick smoke fills the air at a property destroyed by wildfire near Kamloops, B.C. in August 2021. Climate change increases the risk of hot, dry weather that can fuel wildfires. Extreme fire weather has become more common with climate change.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span>
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<p>That precedent was locked in by the 2021 <a href="https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-19.3/FullText.html">Canadian Net-Zero Emissions Accountability Act</a>, which requires the government to provide regular updates on how it will meet a series of targets, spaced out every five years, as well as on implementation and progress toward those targets. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bill-c-12-canada-must-embrace-best-practices-if-it-want-to-reach-its-greenhouse-gas-targets-158863">Bill C-12: Canada must embrace best practices if it want to reach its greenhouse gas targets</a>
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<p>The new plan focuses on Canada’s updated 2030 target, setting out specific measures, backed by an implementation schedule and a summary of economic modelling underpinning emissions projections. Headlines have highlighted the additional $9.1 billion Ottawa will spend to cut greenhouse gas emissions, including support for consumer purchases of electric vehicles, homeowner investments in energy-efficient upgrades, like heat pumps, and expanding the network of vehicle charging stations. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-climate-emergency-warrants-a-strong-mandate-on-zero-emission-vehicles-from-the-federal-government-168922">The climate emergency warrants a strong mandate on zero-emission vehicles from the federal government</a>
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<p>These expenditures are helpful and undoubtedly popular, but the heavy lifting in reducing Canada’s emissions will be done by the legally binding measures in the Emissions Reduction Plan: an increasing carbon price, mandates for sale of zero-emission vehicles, a clean electricity standard, methane regulations and a politically contentious cap on emissions from the oil and gas sector. </p>
<p>Critically, the plan is only the first step. All these promises remain to be implemented. Spending commitments must be delivered in future budgets, and regulatory measures must be developed and passed into law. </p>
<h2>A new baseline for partisan debate</h2>
<p>The good news is that the mandate to produce a credible plan to meet Canada’s target has the potential to set a new baseline for partisan debate. Opposition parties can and must hold government to account by asking tough questions about policies and emissions projections. </p>
<p>They might start by inquiring about the apparent gap between the modelling of a 36 per cent reduction and the claim of hitting the 40 per cent target, and how the particular cap on oil and gas emissions was chosen. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-canada-can-leave-83-per-cent-of-its-oil-in-the-ground-and-build-strong-new-economies-169217">How Canada can leave 83 per cent of its oil in the ground and build strong new economies</a>
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<p>But they, in turn, should expect to be held to the same standard in future elections and government. It’s no longer enough to pretend that some vague alternative approach can magically meet the same target without costs. Show us your numbers, too!</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Close up of curved pipes with one labelled Bitumen Blend." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455597/original/file-20220331-13-1784w3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455597/original/file-20220331-13-1784w3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455597/original/file-20220331-13-1784w3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455597/original/file-20220331-13-1784w3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455597/original/file-20220331-13-1784w3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455597/original/file-20220331-13-1784w3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455597/original/file-20220331-13-1784w3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Between 1990 and 2019, Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions increased by 24.1 per cent, mainly due to increased emissions from oil and gas extraction.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<h2>Industry lobbying looms</h2>
<p>The bad news is that regulatory development proceeds beyond the limelight of national elections. All those regulatory measures — from an electric vehicle sales mandate to a clean electricity standard — that form the backbone of the new plan still need to be developed and finalized. That’s typically a multi-step process, starting with a discussion paper, followed by opportunity for public comments, release of a draft regulation, another opportunity for comments and finally adoption of a legally binding standard by cabinet. </p>
<p>Many of the relevant documents are highly technical. They’re not announced by the prime minister on TV, or covered by broadcast or print media — except the business pages. But there is a lot at stake and a legion of devils in all those technical details. Even as public attention wanes, the industries facing regulatory compliance costs remain highly engaged, at every opportunity making their case for concessions, delays and subsidies. </p>
<p>We’ll get a first signal on subsidies in the <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/department-finance/news/2022/03/government-of-canada-announces-date-of-budget-2022.html">forthcoming federal budget</a>. Although Canada has committed to phasing out fossil fuel subsidies by 2023, the new climate plan previews delivery of tax credits for carbon capture and sequestration that the oil and gas industry has been pushing for.</p>
<p>The risk of delay is also clear. For some measures, including the emissions cap on the oil and gas sector and new methane regulations, the new climate plan offers a schedule only for the next step — a discussion paper — but no indication when the regulation will be finalized. That’s a big worry: the discussion paper for the <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/managing-pollution/energy-production/fuel-regulations/clean-fuel-standard/about.html">clean fuel standard</a>, scheduled to be finalized this spring, was published six years ago.</p>
<p>It’s hard to fathom Canada reducing its emissions by 40 per cent to 45 per cent in just eight years unless the necessary regulations are finalized in the next one to three years without being watered down.</p>
<h2>Domestic and international offsets</h2>
<p>Discussion of the proposed emissions cap on the oil and gas sector is especially hazy. Although the new plan proposes a 31 per cent cut below 2005 levels, it flags the possibility of “time-limited” reliance on domestic and international carbon offsets. Regulated industries welcome offsets as an opportunity to reduce their compliance costs by paying for reductions in other, unregulated sectors or other countries.</p>
<p>However, the track record of domestic offsets is far from reassuring, as Nic Rivers, Mark Jaccard and I have <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/opinion/opinion-carbon-offsets-1.5951395">previously warned</a>. The reference to international offsets suggests a back-door departure from federal ministers’ insistence since 2015 that Canada will meet its Paris Agreement target by domestic measures alone. </p>
<p>The good news is that there’s plenty of detail here and an opportunity for vigorous questions in Parliament. The worry is that it can all still go off the rails as we move from releasing a plan with great fanfare to less visible and more technical policy development. </p>
<p>A lot is resting on the required 2023 and 2025 updates, third-party evaluations by the Net-Zero Advisory Body and the Canadian Climate Institute, and members of Parliament’s willingness to dig into the details.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179564/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kathryn Harrison receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. She is a member of the expert advisory panel on mitigation of the Canadian Climate Institute.</span></em></p>Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions decreased by only one per cent between 2005 and 2019. A new climate plan charts the path to deep cuts in carbon emissions in only eight years.Kathryn Harrison, Professor of Political Science, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1795492022-03-30T16:32:50Z2022-03-30T16:32:50ZPlanting trees can help the climate, but only if we also stop burning fossil fuels<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455046/original/file-20220329-27-5z11r1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=92%2C84%2C5006%2C3299&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Trees scorched by the Caldor Fire smoulder in the Eldorado National Forest, Calif., Sept. 3, 2021.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Jae C. Hong)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A growing number of governments and companies are adopting <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-021-01245-w">net-zero greenhouse gas emissions targets</a>. These targets often evoke nature as a way to store or remove carbon from the atmosphere to counter the climate effect of other emissions. </p>
<p>For example, in 2019, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau promised Greta Thunberg that Canada would <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/campaign/2-billion-trees.html">plant two billion trees by 2030</a>, and investing in nature is now a <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/news/2022/03/2030-emissions-reduction-plan--canadas-next-steps-for-clean-air-and-a-strong-economy.html">key part of Canada’s climate strategy</a>. </p>
<p>Forests, peat bogs, wetlands and other ecosystems remove carbon from the atmosphere via photosynthesis and store it in leaves, trunks and roots, and in the soil. But carbon storage in nature is likely temporary because it can be lost again due to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz7005">either human activities or natural disturbances</a>. </p>
<p>In contrast, the climate effect of carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1236372">effectively permanent</a>. If these efforts to increase natural carbon stocks are short-lived, is there any climate benefit? </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00391-z">Our new research</a> suggests that temporary nature-based carbon storage can help achieve our climate goals. However, the most tangible effect — a decrease in peak warming — would only occur if we also eliminate fossil fuel emissions.</p>
<h2>Nature-based climate solutions</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1710465114">Nature-based climate solutions</a> are actions that seek to reduce the amount of carbon in the atmosphere by increasing carbon storage in natural systems. Examples include reforestation, nature conservation and improved agricultural practices. They can contribute to climate mitigation by preventing emissions from human land-use activities, or by maintaining and enhancing natural processes that remove carbon from the atmosphere. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-investing-in-green-infrastructure-can-jump-start-the-post-coronavirus-economy-139376">How investing in green infrastructure can jump-start the post-coronavirus economy</a>
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<p>But the carbon stored in nature is <a href="https://eos.org/editor-highlights/permanence-of-nature-based-climate-solutions-at-risk">unlikely to be permanently removed from the atmosphere</a>. Disturbances like wildfire would cause carbon to be lost back to the atmosphere. Conflicting human land-use priorities can also cause previously protected natural areas to be <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/duffins-creek-pickering-wetland-save-triple-group-amazon-1.5950062">threatened by industrial activities</a>. </p>
<p>If nature-based carbon storage is temporary, then its climate benefit would also be short-lived. We need to think about nature-based climate solutions in relation to other climate mitigation efforts to understand their true benefits.</p>
<h2>What if nature-based carbon storage is temporary?</h2>
<p>Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels have climate effects that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2554.1">persist for centuries</a>. In contrast, nature-based carbon removal will only have a climate effect for as long as the carbon remains stored. </p>
<p>In our study, we set out to explore what temporary removal would mean for future climate. We used a climate model to simulate the climate response to temporary removal alongside two different future emissions scenarios.</p>
<p>If emissions continue to increase until 2040, followed by gradual decline, global temperatures would rise throughout the century. In this scenario, nature-based carbon removal would only delay the occurrence of a particular warming level. In our highest removal scenario, sequestering a quarter of current annual emissions every year until 2050 only delays the time we reach 1.5 C by a year, and 2 C by eight years. </p>
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<img alt="A graphic showing the impact of nature-based carbon removal on temperature with and without a decline in emissions." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453125/original/file-20220318-23-13zu0r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453125/original/file-20220318-23-13zu0r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453125/original/file-20220318-23-13zu0r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453125/original/file-20220318-23-13zu0r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453125/original/file-20220318-23-13zu0r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453125/original/file-20220318-23-13zu0r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453125/original/file-20220318-23-13zu0r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Climate effect of temporary nature-based carbon removal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Authors)</span></span>
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<p>However, if future emissions are decreased rapidly to net-zero by mid-century and then remain net-negative, global temperatures would peak around 1.6 C and then decline during the second half of the century. Here, temporary nature-based carbon removal would decrease the temperature peak by as much as a tenth of a degree. </p>
<p>This might seem small, but it is an important and tangible climate benefit that will only occur if the world also succeeds in eliminating fossil fuel carbon dioxide emissions over the coming decades.</p>
<h2>How should we think about nature-based climate solutions?</h2>
<p>Our results challenge the way nature-based climate solutions are discussed as a climate policy option. Nature-based solutions are often presented as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abec06">one of many different ways that we could mitigate our impact on climate</a>, and are seen as interchangeable with other climate actions. Alternately, nature-based solutions <a href="https://www.naturebasedsolutionsinitiative.org/news/on-the-misuse-of-nature-based-carbon-offsets/">are used as offsets</a>, explicitly held up as a substitute for other emissions reductions.</p>
<p>Both of these framings are problematic. If nature-based carbon storage is temporary, then its climate effect is not equivalent to avoiding fossil fuel carbon dioxide emission. This means that treating nature-based carbon storage as an alternative to other emissions reductions will, at best, delay crossing temperature thresholds. At worst, this could lead to more emissions and long-term warming.</p>
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<img alt="A row of cars parked along a street, with several plugged into small charging towers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455273/original/file-20220330-5881-19ke1xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455273/original/file-20220330-5881-19ke1xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455273/original/file-20220330-5881-19ke1xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455273/original/file-20220330-5881-19ke1xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455273/original/file-20220330-5881-19ke1xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455273/original/file-20220330-5881-19ke1xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455273/original/file-20220330-5881-19ke1xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Electric vehicles charge at street stations in Norway.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>On the other hand, if we take action to increase natural carbon storage in addition to ambitious emissions reductions, it could contribute to limiting peak warming. Even temporary nature-based carbon storage could have an important climate benefit. </p>
<h2>The case for better nature conservation and stewardship</h2>
<p>Our results reveal some of the risks of relying on nature-based climate solutions at the expense of other climate mitigation efforts. However, nature conservation and better stewardship of natural areas can also lead to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0120">other positive environmental outcomes</a>. These environmental co-benefits, such as increased biodiversity and improved water and air quality, are also vital to climate resilience. </p>
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<img alt="An aerial view of a wetland with an area destroyed by peat extraction in the foreground." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455274/original/file-20220330-5685-19gg6b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455274/original/file-20220330-5685-19gg6b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455274/original/file-20220330-5685-19gg6b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455274/original/file-20220330-5685-19gg6b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455274/original/file-20220330-5685-19gg6b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455274/original/file-20220330-5685-19gg6b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455274/original/file-20220330-5685-19gg6b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Wetlands, including those that have been damaged and destroyed by peat mining, can be restored to improve carbon storage if managed properly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>If done in partnership with Indigenous and other local communities, nature-based solutions could also have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15513">positive social co-benefits</a> such as supporting livelihoods and cultural values. Taking a holistic view of nature-based climate solutions would help to realize these multiple benefits. </p>
<p>It is critical that nature-based climate solutions are not presented as an alternative to other climate mitigation options. As a complementary action however, they could play an important role in meeting both climate and other sustainability goals.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179549/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>H. Damon Matthews receives funding from the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada. The research described in this article was made possibly by funding from Microsoft. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Luers has received funding from Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada. She holds a position at Microsoft as the global lead for sustainability science.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kirsten Zickfeld receives funding from the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p>Planting trees and preventing deforestation can store carbon in nature, but the effect may only be temporary. If we also eliminate emissions from fossil fuels, even this temporary effect is important.H. Damon Matthews, Professor and Concordia University Research Chair in Climate Science and Sustainability, Concordia UniversityAmy Luers, Affiliate Professor, Geography, Planning and Environment, Concordia UniversityKirsten Zickfeld, Distinguished Professor of Climate Science, Simon Fraser UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1802052022-03-29T12:36:16Z2022-03-29T12:36:16ZArctic greening won’t save the climate – here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454793/original/file-20220328-19-rmoej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C22%2C3072%2C2023&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Changes in vegetation and temperature affect wildlife and humans, as well as the climate.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usfws_alaska/51357490933/">Lisa Hupp/USFWS</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Satellite images show the Arctic has been getting greener as temperatures in the far northern region rise <a href="https://www.amap.no/documents/doc/arctic-climate-change-update-2021-key-trends-and-impacts.-summary-for-policy-makers/3508">three times faster</a> than the global average.</p>
<p>Some theories suggest that this “Arctic greening” will help counteract climate change. The idea is that since plants take up carbon dioxide as they grow, rising temperatures will mean Arctic vegetation will absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, ultimately reducing the greenhouse gases that are warming the planet.</p>
<p>But is that really happening?</p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Qw1L18EAAAAJ&hl=en">biologist who focuses on the response of ecosystems to climate change including tundra ecosystems</a>. For the past five years, my colleagues, students and I have tracked vegetation changes at remote locations across the Arctic to find out.</p>
<h2>Braving bears to collect evidence on the tundra</h2>
<p>The Arctic tundra is a vast, mostly treeless region stretching across the far northern areas of North America and Eurasia. A few feet below its surface, much of the soil is frozen permafrost, but the top layer blooms with grasses and low shrubs during the short summer months.</p>
<p>Satellite studies over the past decade have tracked changes in the greening of the Arctic by measuring the visible and near-infrared light reflected by vegetation. Healthy green vegetation absorbs visible light but reflects the near-infrared light. Scientists can use that data to estimate plant growth across wide areas. </p>
<p>But satellites don’t measure the plants’ carbon dioxide uptake. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Yi8SFOJffFA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Satellite images of the greening Arctic. NASA Goddard Space Institute.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Until recently, field studies that might verify how much carbon dioxide Arctic plants were taking up were sparse, preventing scientists from testing the hypothesis that earlier snow melt and its impact on plants helped control carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.</p>
<p>For <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-07561-1">our study</a>, scientists <a href="https://newscenter.sdsu.edu/sdsu_newscenter/news_story.aspx?sid=78713">braved bear territory</a> and cold summer nights to collect extensive carbon dioxide measurements near plants and soil in 11 Arctic tundra ecosystems, including in Alaska, Canada, Siberia and Greenland. We focused on the most understudied Arctic areas, located over continuous permafrost. </p>
<h2>Earlier growth, but a late-season slowdown</h2>
<p>Arctic plants currently have only about three months in which they can grow and reproduce before the temperatures gets too cold.</p>
<p>When we started this study, we wanted to find out what effect the earlier start to the growing season was having on the overall amount of carbon dioxide taken up by vegetation each summer. The results surprised us: Even though the greening was evident, the overall carbon dioxide uptake either did not significantly increase or had only minor increases. </p>
<p>When we looked closer and compared the changes from week to week, we discovered why. While the earlier snowmelt was stimulating plants’ productivity in June, that productivity began to taper off in July – normally their peak season for photosynthesis. By August, productivity was well below normal.</p>
<p>The Arctic’s dominant shrubs, <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/sedges-and-grasses-of-the-cook-inlet-coast.htm">sedges</a> and other wetland plants were no longer sequestering more carbon late in the season. It was like waking up earlier in the morning and being ready to go to sleep earlier in the evening.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map of North America showing green areas in the far north." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454794/original/file-20220328-21-1tkvokt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454794/original/file-20220328-21-1tkvokt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454794/original/file-20220328-21-1tkvokt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454794/original/file-20220328-21-1tkvokt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454794/original/file-20220328-21-1tkvokt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454794/original/file-20220328-21-1tkvokt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454794/original/file-20220328-21-1tkvokt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Satellite data captured at the summer growth peak from 1984-2012 showed extensive greening in the tundra of western Alaska, northern Canada, Quebec and Labrador. It captures evidence of plants, but not carbon dioxide changes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/article/nasa-studies-details-of-a-greening-arctic/">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center/Cindy Starr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We still have many questions, including why plants are responding this way and whether the widely used index for plant growth based on changes in visible and infrared light, <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/landsat-missions/landsat-normalized-difference-vegetation-index">called NDVI</a>, is definitively associated with a higher uptake of carbon dioxide. Some Arctic ecosystems have shown <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/Report-Card/Report-Card2019/ArtMID/7916/ArticleID/835/Surface-Air-Temperature">strong correlations</a> between NDVI and carbon dioxide uptake, while <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02107.x">others have not</a>. We didn’t find evidence that plants were affected by water limitations in the late season.</p>
<p>If tundra ecosystems are not able to continue taking up carbon dioxide later in the season, the expected increase in plants sequestering carbon may not materialize. </p>
<p>And there’s another problem. Normally, plants on the tundra store more carbon through photosynthesis than the tundra releases, making it a vast <a href="https://edu-arctic.eu/news/57-what-is-arctic-tundra-doing-with-carbon-dioxide">carbon sink</a>. The long, cold winters slow plants’ decomposition and lock them in the frozen ground. However, when permafrost holding this and other organic matter thaws, it releases more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Illustration of plant growth by month for early and later snowmelt shows the growing period shift from July-August to June-July." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454811/original/file-20220328-13-tpii5c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454811/original/file-20220328-13-tpii5c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454811/original/file-20220328-13-tpii5c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454811/original/file-20220328-13-tpii5c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454811/original/file-20220328-13-tpii5c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454811/original/file-20220328-13-tpii5c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454811/original/file-20220328-13-tpii5c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This infographic illustrates the differences in plant growth each month. When snow melts earlier in the season, plants begin decomposing earlier.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Donatella Zona</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The local impact goes beyond carbon</h2>
<p>This isn’t just a story about plants and the climate. Vegetation changes can have wide-ranging effects on other components of ecosystems, including animals and people.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 150,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-150ksignup">Sign up</a>.]</p>
<p>The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the United Nations body for assessing the science related to climate change, has estimated that changes in snow cover have already <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/">affected food and water security</a>. Many local native communities depend on hunting, trapping and fishing, and earlier vegetation development can affect the delicate balance of complex Arctic systems.</p>
<p>If Arctic greening is only shifting seasons and isn’t increasing the overall carbon dioxide level as previously believed, that could also mean the models currently used to evaluate and predict the overall impact of climate change are missing an important piece of information. The result could be that a process we assumed would slow or mitigate climate change isn’t actually working as expected.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180205/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Donatella Zona receives funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF) Office of Polar Programs, from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program, from the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), and from the NOAA Cooperative Science Center for Earth System Sciences and Remote Sensing Technologies (NOAA-CESSRST) </span></em></p>The growing season on the tundra is starting earlier as the planet warms, but the plants aren’t sequestering more carbon, a new study finds.Donatella Zona, Associate Professor of Biology, San Diego State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1780182022-03-11T03:08:07Z2022-03-11T03:08:07ZKelp won’t help: why seaweed may not be a silver bullet for carbon storage after all<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450844/original/file-20220309-19-1hyvtfn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C22%2C7360%2C4869&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the last few years, there’s been a lot of hope placed in seaweed as a way to tackle climate change. </p>
<p>The excitement stemmed from <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(19)30886-3?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982219308863%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">studies</a> suggesting seaweed could be scaled up to capture and store huge quantities of carbon dioxide, taking advantage of rapid growth rates, large areas, and long-term storage in the deep ocean.</p>
<p>At present it’s thought seaweed stores around <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2790">175 million tonnes</a> annually of carbon, or 10% of the emissions from all the cars in the world. To many scientists, this suggested the possibility seaweed could join other blue carbon storage in mangroves and wetlands as a vital tool in the fight to stop climate change.</p>
<p>While we’re all ready for some good news on climate, there is nearly always a “but” in science. Our <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsac011">new research</a> has identified a major overlooked issue. Is it significant? Unfortunately, yes. When we accounted for this, our calculations suggest on average seaweed ecosystems may not be a carbon sink after all, but a natural source of carbon. </p>
<h2>How can this be?</h2>
<p>There were good reasons to look to coastal seaweed as an important global carbon sink. Some species can grow as much as 60 centimetres per day. Seaweed covers around 3.4 million square kilometres of our oceans. And when wind and waves break off fronds and pieces of seaweed, some will escape being eaten and instead be whisked out to the deep ocean and deposited. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-farming-giant-seaweed-can-feed-fish-and-fix-the-climate-81761">How farming giant seaweed can feed fish and fix the climate</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>Once the seaweed is in deep waters or buried in sediments, the carbon it contains is safely locked away for several hundred years. That is to say, the time it takes ocean circulation to drive bottom waters towards the surface. </p>
<p>So what’s the issue? </p>
<p>As the surrounding coastal waters wash through the seaweed canopy, they bring in vast quantities of plankton and other organic material from further out at sea. This provides extra food for filter feeders like sea squirts, shellfish living amongst seaweed, and the bryozoan animals which end up coating many seaweed fronds. </p>
<p>As these creatures consume this extra food supply, they breathe out carbon dioxide additional to that produced by eating seaweed. Individually, the amount is tiny. But on an ecosystem scale, their numbers and ability to filter large amounts of water are enough to skew what researchers call the net ecosystem production – the balance between carbon dioxide inflows and outflows. And not just by a little, but potentially by a lot. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448779/original/file-20220228-20-17c618z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448779/original/file-20220228-20-17c618z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=212&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448779/original/file-20220228-20-17c618z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=212&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448779/original/file-20220228-20-17c618z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=212&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448779/original/file-20220228-20-17c618z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448779/original/file-20220228-20-17c618z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448779/original/file-20220228-20-17c618z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A: The previous seaweed carbon sequestration model, which did not include invertebrate consumption of organic carbon. B: Our model, which includes the additional carbon inputs washing in (S¹ and S₂). Note: Es represents the carbon locked away in long term storage in the deep sea. Diagram modified from our research article.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>How did we figure this out? We collated global studies which directly measured or reported the key parts of net ecosystem production, ranging from polar regions to tropical. </p>
<p>Seaweed ecosystems, we found, were natural carbon sources, releasing on average around 20 tonnes per square kilometre every year. </p>
<p>But it could be much higher still. When we included estimates of how much carbon returned to the atmosphere from seaweed washed out towards the deep sea only to decompose or be eaten first, we found seaweed could be a much larger natural source. </p>
<p>We estimate it could be potentially as high as 150 tonnes emitted to the atmosphere per km² every year, in contrast to <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2790">previous estimates</a> that seaweed absorbs 50 tonnes per km². We must stress this figure has some uncertainty around it, given the difficulty of estimating the quantities involved. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450848/original/file-20220309-17-14uf7ju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="sea squirts on seaweed on a New South Wales beach." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450848/original/file-20220309-17-14uf7ju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450848/original/file-20220309-17-14uf7ju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450848/original/file-20220309-17-14uf7ju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450848/original/file-20220309-17-14uf7ju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450848/original/file-20220309-17-14uf7ju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450848/original/file-20220309-17-14uf7ju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450848/original/file-20220309-17-14uf7ju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sea squirts and other filter feeders may change the balance of carbon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Do we give up on seaweed carbon storage?</h2>
<p>In short, no. If we lose seaweed, what would replace it? It could be urchin barrens – large rocky outcrops dominated by sea urchins – or smaller seaweed species, or mussel beds. Climate change is already showing us in some places, with giant kelp dying en masse due to marine heatwaves and background warming in Tasmania and being replaced by urchin barrens. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/move-over-corn-and-soybeans-the-next-biofuel-source-could-be-giant-sea-kelp-156728">Move over, corn and soybeans: The next biofuel source could be giant sea kelp</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>To make a true accounting of what seaweed offers in carbon storage, we need to factor in what any replacement ecosystem would offer. </p>
<p>If a replacement ecosystem is an even greater carbon source or smaller carbon sink than the original seaweed ecosystem, it follows we should maintain or restore existing seaweed ecosystems to reduce further greenhouse gas emissions. However, to date, we have not found sufficient data to test whether all replacement ecosystems are in fact greater or lesser carbon sources.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1495788710276829193"}"></div></p>
<p>What does this mean for efforts to tackle climate change? It means we should not look to seaweed as a silver bullet. </p>
<p>Any efforts to quantify seaweed carbon storage and mitigation for the protection, restoration or farming of seaweed must make a full accounting of carbon inputs and output to ensure we are not unwittingly making the problem worse rather than better. </p>
<p>As some carbon trading schemes <a href="https://hakaimagazine.com/features/kelp-gets-on-the-carbon-credit-bandwagon/">look to include seaweed</a>, we must not overestimate how good seaweed is at storing carbon. </p>
<p>If we get this wrong, we could see perverse outcomes where industries offset their emissions by funding the preservation or restoration of seaweeds – but in doing so, actually increase their emissions rather than zero them out.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178018/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Barry Gallagher does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Seaweed was thought to be a vital tool in the fight to slow climate change. But it turns out seaweed ecosystems may be a natural source of carbon dioxide – and not a sink.John Barry Gallagher, Associate Researcher, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1761542022-02-13T18:48:09Z2022-02-13T18:48:09ZOceans are better at storing carbon than trees. In a warmer future, ocean carbon sinks could help stabilise our planet<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443911/original/file-20220201-23-hnijos.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">forams</span> </figcaption></figure><p>We think of trees and soil as carbon sinks, but the world’s oceans hold far larger carbon stocks and are more effective at storing carbon permanently.</p>
<p>In new <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2021PA004294">research</a> published today, we investigate the long-term rate of permanent carbon removal by seashells of plankton in the ocean near New Zealand. </p>
<p>We show that seashells have drawn down about the same amount of carbon as regional emissions of carbon dioxide, and this process was even higher during ancient periods of climate warming. </p>
<p>Humans are taking carbon out of the ground by burning fossil fuels deposited millions of years ago and putting it into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
The current rate of new fossil fuel formation is very low. Instead, the main geological (long-term) mechanism of carbon storage today is the formation of seashells that become preserved as sediment on the ocean floor. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/expedition-reveals-the-violent-birth-of-earths-hidden-continent-zealandia-forged-in-a-ring-of-fire-130860">continent of Zealandia</a> is mostly submerged beneath the southwest Pacific Ocean but includes the islands of New Zealand and New Caledonia. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map of the Zealandia continent, southwest Pacific" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443914/original/file-20220201-13-q2tvkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443914/original/file-20220201-13-q2tvkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443914/original/file-20220201-13-q2tvkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443914/original/file-20220201-13-q2tvkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443914/original/file-20220201-13-q2tvkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443914/original/file-20220201-13-q2tvkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443914/original/file-20220201-13-q2tvkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The continent of Zealandia is about twice the size of India, but most of it lies more than 1000m deep in the southwest Pacific Ocean.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.globalcarbonproject.org/index.htm">Carbon dioxide emissions</a> from burning fossil fuels on the continent add up to about 45 million tonnes per year, which is 0.12% of the global total. </p>
<p>Our work documents a project that was part of the International Ocean Discovery Program (<a href="https://www.iodp.org/">IODP</a>). <a href="http://publications.iodp.org/proceedings/371/371title.html">Expedition 371</a> drilled into the seabed of Zealandia to investigate how the continent formed and to analyse ancient environmental changes recorded in its sediments. </p>
<h2>Drawing carbon to the ocean floor</h2>
<p>Organic carbon in the form of dead plants, algae and animals is mostly eaten by other creatures, mainly bacteria, in both the ocean and in forest soils. Most organisms in the ocean are so small (less than 1mm in size) they remain invisible, but as they die and sink, they transport carbon to the deep ocean. Their shells can accumulate on the seabed to make vast deposits of chalk and limestone. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tiny-plankton-drive-processes-in-the-ocean-that-capture-twice-as-much-carbon-as-scientists-thought-136599">Tiny plankton drive processes in the ocean that capture twice as much carbon as scientists thought</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The sediments we cored were many hundreds of metres thick and formed during warmer climates that might resemble the decades and centuries to come. We know the past environments from analysis of fossils. </p>
<p>Seashells, which are made of calcium carbonate, sequester significant amounts of carbon. The accumulation rate of shells averaged over the last million years was about 20 tonnes per square kilometre per year. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two researchers working on sediment cores." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443926/original/file-20220202-15-1dq0jmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443926/original/file-20220202-15-1dq0jmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443926/original/file-20220202-15-1dq0jmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443926/original/file-20220202-15-1dq0jmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443926/original/file-20220202-15-1dq0jmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443926/original/file-20220202-15-1dq0jmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443926/original/file-20220202-15-1dq0jmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Researchers Xiaoli Zhou (US) and Yu-Hyeon Park (Republic of Korea) take samples of water from sediment cores during IODP Expedition 371.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Laia Alegret, IODP</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The total area of the Zealandia continent is about 6 million square kilometres, so the average rate of calcium carbonate storage was about 120 million tonnes per year, which is equivalent to 53 million tonnes of carbon dioxide per year. </p>
<p>This is about the same as emissions from burning fossil fuels on the continent today, within errors of calculation. However, a much larger area than just Zealandia is accumulating microscopic seashells. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map of ocean currents and regions of shell accumulation." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443924/original/file-20220202-19-5p69xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443924/original/file-20220202-19-5p69xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443924/original/file-20220202-19-5p69xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443924/original/file-20220202-19-5p69xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443924/original/file-20220202-19-5p69xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443924/original/file-20220202-19-5p69xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443924/original/file-20220202-19-5p69xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This map shows global ocean surface currents and regions of seabed (shaded) where calcium carbonate shells are accumulating.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.1130/G36883.1">Rupert Sutherland</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The planetary carbon cycle</h2>
<p>Earth naturally expels carbon dioxide from mineral springs and volcanoes, as rocks are cooked at depth. This is unlikely to be affected by climate change. The Earth stores carbon dioxide when rocks are altered at the surface and as seashells accumulate on the seabed. Both these mechanisms might be affected by climate change. </p>
<p>The biosphere and oceans also hold significant carbon stocks that are sure to change. It is a complex system and many scientists are trying to understand how it will respond to human activities. </p>
<p>Different parts of the carbon system will respond in different ways and at different rates. Our work provides clues as to what might happen in the ocean. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="This cartoon illustrates how carbon moves through the Earth system." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443925/original/file-20220202-13-vfw6pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443925/original/file-20220202-13-vfw6pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443925/original/file-20220202-13-vfw6pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443925/original/file-20220202-13-vfw6pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443925/original/file-20220202-13-vfw6pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443925/original/file-20220202-13-vfw6pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443925/original/file-20220202-13-vfw6pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This cartoon illustrates how carbon moves through the Earth system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rupert Sutherland</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>About 4-8 million years ago, the climate was warmer, carbon dioxide levels were similar or even higher than today, and the ocean was more acidic. However, we found the average accumulation rate of seashells on Zealandia was more than double that of the most recent million years. </p>
<p>This is a pattern seen elsewhere around the world. Warmer climates during this period had oceans that produced more seashells, but these data are average accumulation rates over million-year time scales. </p>
<p>The mechanism by which these ancient warmer oceans produced more seashells remains a subject of ongoing research (including ours). </p>
<p>Rivers and the wind deliver nutrients to the ocean, especially during extreme weather events, and changes can occur over short time scales. At the other extreme, fully integrated <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03884-7">climate models</a> show that large-scale reorganisation of ocean currents to enhance the supply of nutrients from deep waters could take centuries or even millennia. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ocean-is-essential-to-tackling-climate-change-so-why-has-it-been-neglected-in-global-climate-talks-171309">The ocean is essential to tackling climate change. So why has it been neglected in global climate talks?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our work highlights and quantifies the important role the ocean, and particularly the microscopic life within it, will eventually play in restoring balance to our planet. The rate at which dead plankton draw carbon to the deep ocean and small seashells permanently store it on the seabed is a significant proportion of human carbon dioxide emissions and it is likely to increase in the future. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Palaeontologist Laia Alegret (Spain) and co-chief scientist Gerald Dickens (US) discuss a sediment core at the sampling table during IODP Expedition 371." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443927/original/file-20220202-27-jh7y3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443927/original/file-20220202-27-jh7y3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443927/original/file-20220202-27-jh7y3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443927/original/file-20220202-27-jh7y3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443927/original/file-20220202-27-jh7y3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443927/original/file-20220202-27-jh7y3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443927/original/file-20220202-27-jh7y3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Palaeontologist Laia Alegret (Spain) and co-chief scientist Gerald Dickens (US) discuss a sediment core at the sampling table during IODP Expedition 371.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tim Fulton, IODP/JRSO</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our work reveals that a warmer ocean may eventually produce more calcium carbonate shells than today’s ocean does, even though ocean acidification will almost certainly occur. </p>
<p>How quickly natural carbon sequestration in the ocean might change remains highly uncertain. It will take many centuries before we reach an ocean state similar to that found 4-8 million years ago. </p>
<p>More work is needed to understand how this transition might occur and whether it is possible and sensible to enhance biological productivity in our oceans to mitigate climate change and maintain or increase biodiversity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176154/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rupert Sutherland has received research funding from the New Zealand Government and IODP Expedition 371 was funded by a collaboration of international governments.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laia Alegret received funding from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation and FEDER funds, project PID2019-105537RB-I00. </span></em></p>Tiny seashells draw carbon to the ocean floor when they die. This is the most significant geological process of carbon storage today, and it might increase in a warmer world, as it did in the past.Rupert Sutherland, Professor of tectonics and geophysics, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonLaia Alegret, Professor in Paleontology, Universidad de ZaragozaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1732082022-01-25T13:26:44Z2022-01-25T13:26:44ZOffshore wind farms could help capture carbon from air and store it long-term – using energy that would otherwise go to waste<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440938/original/file-20220114-21-1wvrxt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C16%2C5480%2C3697&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The U.S. had seven operating offshore wind turbines with 42 megawatts of capacity in 2021. The Biden administration's goal is 30,000 megawatts by 2030.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/OffshoreWind/933c4adb5d06417c8d42f69986bae5d6/photo">AP Photo/Michael Dwyer</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Off the Massachusetts and New York coasts, developers are preparing to build the United States’ <a href="https://www.boem.gov/renewable-energy/state-activities/south-fork">first federally approved</a> <a href="https://www.boem.gov/vineyard-wind">utility-scale offshore wind farms</a> – 74 turbines in all that could power 470,000 homes. More than a dozen other offshore wind projects are <a href="https://www.boem.gov/renewable-energy/mapping-and-data/renewable-energy-gis-data">awaiting approval</a> along the Eastern Seaboard.</p>
<p>By 2030, the Biden administration’s goal is to have <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/03/29/fact-sheet-biden-administration-jumpstarts-offshore-wind-energy-projects-to-create-jobs/">30 gigawatts of offshore wind energy</a> flowing, enough to power more than 10 million homes. </p>
<p>Replacing fossil fuel-based energy with clean energy like wind power <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/">is essential to holding off the worsening effects of climate change</a>. But that transition <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/faq/faq-chapter-4/">isn’t happening fast enough</a> to stop global warming. Human activities have pumped so much carbon dioxide into the atmosphere that we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-10842-5">will also have to remove carbon dioxide from the air</a> and lock it away permanently.</p>
<p>Offshore wind farms are uniquely positioned to do both – and save money.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440937/original/file-20220114-16-u7vu61.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map of coasts showing lease areas offshore" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440937/original/file-20220114-16-u7vu61.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440937/original/file-20220114-16-u7vu61.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440937/original/file-20220114-16-u7vu61.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440937/original/file-20220114-16-u7vu61.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440937/original/file-20220114-16-u7vu61.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=819&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440937/original/file-20220114-16-u7vu61.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=819&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440937/original/file-20220114-16-u7vu61.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=819&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Most renewable energy lease areas off the Atlantic Coast are near the Mid-Atlantic states and Massachusetts. About 480,000 acres of the New York Bight is scheduled to be auctioned for wind farms in February 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.boem.gov/renewable-energy/mapping-and-data/renewable-energy-gis-data">BOEM</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.earth.columbia.edu/users/profile/david-s-goldberg">marine geophysicist</a>, I have been exploring the potential for <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEIyAulMtxc">pairing wind turbines with technology that captures carbon dioxide</a> directly from the air and stores it in natural reservoirs under the ocean. Built together, these technologies could <a href="https://youtu.be/qqpYVXfqr9Q">reduce the energy costs</a> of carbon capture and minimize the need for onshore pipelines, reducing impacts on the environment.</p>
<h2>Capturing CO2 from the air</h2>
<p>Several research groups and tech startups are <a href="https://theconversation.com/these-machines-scrub-greenhouse-gases-from-the-air-an-inventor-of-direct-air-capture-technology-shows-how-it-works-172306">testing direct air capture devices</a> that can pull carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-20437-0">The technology works</a>, but the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2516-1083/abf1ce">early projects</a> so far are expensive and energy intensive.</p>
<p>The systems use <a href="https://cdrprimer.org/read/chapter-2#sec-2-8">filters or liquid solutions that capture CO2</a> from air blown across them. Once the filters are full, electricity and heat are needed to release the carbon dioxide and restart the capture cycle. </p>
<p>For the process to achieve net negative emissions, the energy source must be carbon-free.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://climeworks.com/news/recent-investment-in-climeworks-has-been-boosted-from">world’s largest active direct air capture plant</a> operating today does this by using waste heat and renewable energy. The plant, in Iceland, then pumps its captured carbon dioxide into the underlying basalt rock, where the CO2 reacts with the basalt and calcifies, <a href="https://www.carbfix.com/scientific-papers">turning to solid mineral</a>.</p>
<p>A similar process could be created with offshore wind turbines.</p>
<p>If direct air capture systems were built alongside offshore wind turbines, they would have an immediate source of clean energy from excess wind power and could pipe captured carbon dioxide directly to storage beneath the sea floor below, reducing the need for extensive pipeline systems. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two men stand beneath a large structure with fans" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433064/original/file-20211122-19-10oi9zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433064/original/file-20211122-19-10oi9zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433064/original/file-20211122-19-10oi9zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433064/original/file-20211122-19-10oi9zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433064/original/file-20211122-19-10oi9zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433064/original/file-20211122-19-10oi9zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433064/original/file-20211122-19-10oi9zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Climeworks, a Swiss company, has 15 direct air capture plants removing carbon dioxide from the air.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://climeworks.com/purpose">Climeworks</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Researchers are currently studying how these systems function <a href="https://pics.uvic.ca/projects/solid-carbon-negative-emissions-technology-feasibility-study?page=1">under marine conditions</a>. Direct air capture is only beginning to be deployed on land, and the technology likely would have to be modified for the harsh ocean environment. But planning should start now so wind power projects are positioned to take advantage of carbon storage sites and designed so the platforms, sub-sea infrastructure and cabled networks can be shared. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/these-machines-scrub-greenhouse-gases-from-the-air-an-inventor-of-direct-air-capture-technology-shows-how-it-works-172306">These machines scrub greenhouse gases from the air – an inventor of direct air capture technology shows how it works</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Using excess wind power when it isn’t needed</h2>
<p>By nature, wind energy is intermittent. Demand for energy also varies. When the wind can produce more power than is needed, production is <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.06.082">curtailed</a> and electricity that could be used is lost.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/research/commentary/electricity-oversupply-maximizing-zero-carbon-power-accelerate-transition-fossil-fuels">That unused power</a> could instead be used to <a href="https://worldprojects.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/2021-05/Accelerating%20Offshore%20Carbon%20Capture%20and%20Storage%20Report.pdf">remove carbon from the air and lock it away</a>. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/All-Programs/Offshore-Wind/Focus-Areas/NY-Offshore-Wind-Projects">New York State’s goal</a> is to have 9 gigawatts of offshore wind power by 2035. Those 9 gigawatts would be expected to deliver 27.5 terawatt-hours of electricity per year. </p>
<p>Based on historical wind curtailment rates in the U.S., a surplus of 825 gigawatt-hours of electrical energy per year may be expected as offshore wind farms expand to meet this goal. Assuming direct air capture’s efficiency continues to improve and reaches commercial targets, this surplus energy could be used to capture and store upwards of 0.5 million tons of CO2 per year. </p>
<p>That’s if the system only used surplus energy that would have gone to waste. If it used more wind power, its carbon capture and storage potential would increase. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440912/original/file-20220114-13-1vblb7d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map showing undersea storage options in the vicinity of offshore wind farm lease areas." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440912/original/file-20220114-13-1vblb7d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440912/original/file-20220114-13-1vblb7d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440912/original/file-20220114-13-1vblb7d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440912/original/file-20220114-13-1vblb7d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440912/original/file-20220114-13-1vblb7d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440912/original/file-20220114-13-1vblb7d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440912/original/file-20220114-13-1vblb7d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Several Mid-Atlantic areas being leased for offshore wind farms also have potential for carbon storage beneath the seafloor. The capacity is measured in millions of metric tons of CO2 per square kilometer. The U.S. produces about 4.5 billion metric tons of CO2 from energy per year.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">U.S. Department of Energy and Battelle</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has projected that <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/">100 to 1,000 gigatons</a> of carbon dioxide will have to be removed from the atmosphere over the century to keep global warming under 1.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 Fahrenheit) compared to pre-industrial levels.</p>
<p>Researchers have estimated that <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsfs.2019.0065">sub-seafloor geological formations</a> adjacent to the offshore wind developments planned on the U.S. East Coast have the capacity to store more than <a href="https://www.netl.doe.gov/sites/default/files/2017-12/Gupta-P2-FY17_MidAtlanticProjectTeam_DOE_FINAL.pdf">500 gigatons of CO2</a>. Basalt rocks are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0913721107">likely to exist</a> in a string of buried basins across this area too, adding even more storage capacity and enabling CO2 to react with the basalt and solidify over time, though geotechnical surveys have not yet tested these deposits.</p>
<h2>Planning both at once saves time and cost</h2>
<p>New wind farms built with direct air capture could deliver renewable power to the grid and provide surplus power for carbon capture and storage, optimizing this massive investment for a direct climate benefit. </p>
<p>But it will require planning that starts well in advance of construction. Launching the marine geophysical surveys, environmental monitoring requirements and approval processes for both wind power and storage together can <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/oct/23/crown-gives-go-ahead-to-rival-net-zero-carbon-north-sea-schemes">save time, avoid conflicts</a> and improve environmental stewardship.</p>
<p><em>This article has been updated to correct a typo. The potential surplus wind energy calculation listed is in gigawatt-hours.</em></p>
<p>[<em>Get fascinating science, health and technology news.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?nl=science&source=inline-science-fascinating">Sign up for The Conversation’s weekly science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173208/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Goldberg receives funding from the US National Science Foundation; Climateworks Foundation, US Dept of Energy, and the Pacific Institute for Climate Solutions</span></em></p>Wind turbines often can produce more power than is needed for electricity onshore. That extra energy could be put to work capturing and storing carbon.David Goldberg, Lamont Research Professor, Columbia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1685452022-01-20T13:44:50Z2022-01-20T13:44:50ZBeavers offer lessons about managing water in a changing climate, whether the challenge is drought or floods<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440331/original/file-20220111-21389-ltiaq3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=18%2C18%2C4007%2C2999&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wetlands created by beavers, like this one in Amherst, Massachusetts, store floodwaters and provide habitat for animals and birds.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christine Hatch</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s no accident that both the <a href="https://web.mit.edu/graphicidentity/tim-the-beaver.html">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> and the <a href="https://identity.caltech.edu/logoseal/athletics">California Institute of Technology</a> claim the beaver (<em>Castor canadensis</em>) as their mascots. Renowned engineers, beavers seem able to dam any stream, building structures with logs and mud that can flood large areas. </p>
<p>As climate change causes extreme storms in some areas and intense drought in others, scientists are finding that beavers’ small-scale natural interventions <a href="https://www.chelseagreen.com/product/eager-paperback/">are valuable</a>. In dry areas, beaver ponds restore moisture to the soil; in wet zones, their dams and ponds can help to slow floodwaters. These ecological services are so useful that land managers are translocating beavers <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/23/beavers-native-american-tribes-washington-california">in the U.S.</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210713-the-beavers-returning-to-the-desert">the United Kingdom</a> to help restore ecosystems and make them more resilient to climate change. </p>
<p>Scientists estimate that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abd34e">hundreds of millions of beavers</a> once dammed waterways across the Northern Hemisphere. They were <a href="https://ecwpress.com/products/once-they-were-hats">hunted nearly to extinction for their fur</a> in the 18th and 19th centuries in Europe and North America but are <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/beavers-climate-change-conservation-news">making comebacks today</a> in many areas. As a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/C-Hatch">geoscientist specializing in water resources</a>, I think it’s important to understand how helpful beavers can be in the <a href="https://methowbeaverproject.org">right places</a> and to find ways for humans to coexist with them in developed areas.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6lT5W32xRN4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Scientists are studying ways to use beavers to mitigate wildfire and drought risks in the western U.S.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How beavers alter landscapes</h2>
<p>Beavers <a href="https://www.sciencefocus.com/nature/why-do-beavers-build-dams/">dam streams to create ponds</a>, where they can construct their dome-shaped lodges in the water, keeping predators at a distance. When they create a pond, many other effects follow. </p>
<p>Newly flooded trees die but remain standing as bare “snags” where birds nest. The diverted streams create complicated interwoven channels of slow-moving water, tangled with logs and plants that provide hiding places for fish. The messy complexity behind a beaver dam creates many different kinds of habitats for creatures such as fish, birds, frogs and insects. </p>
<p>Human dams often <a href="https://www.nwcouncil.org/reports/columbia-river-history/fishpassage">block fish passage</a> upstream and downstream, even when the dams <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/upstream-battle-fishes-shun-modern-dam-passages-population-declines/">include fish ladders</a>. But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2011.00421.x">studies have shown</a> that fish have no trouble migrating upstream past beaver dams. One reason may be that the fish can rest in slow pools and cool pond complexes after navigating the tallest parts of the dams. </p>
<p>The slow-moving water behind beaver dams is very effective at trapping sediment, which drops to the bottom of the pond. Studies measuring total organic carbon in active and abandoned beaver meadows suggest that before the 1800s, active and abandoned beaver ponds across North America <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50710">stored large amounts of carbon</a> in sediment trapped behind them. This finding is relevant today as scientists look for ways to <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-world-needs-now-to-fight-climate-change-more-swamps-99198">increase carbon storage in forests and other natural ecosystems</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441410/original/file-20220118-15-d1qkya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Curved dam in a marsh, made of wood, grass and mud." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441410/original/file-20220118-15-d1qkya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441410/original/file-20220118-15-d1qkya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441410/original/file-20220118-15-d1qkya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441410/original/file-20220118-15-d1qkya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441410/original/file-20220118-15-d1qkya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441410/original/file-20220118-15-d1qkya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441410/original/file-20220118-15-d1qkya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A beaver dam in Mason Neck State Park in Lorton, Virginia, creates a pond behind it that can spread out and slow down floodwaters during a storm.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/BDNqd1">Virginia State Parks</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Beavers may persist in one location for decades if they aren’t threatened by bears, cougars or humans, but they will move on if food runs out near their pond. When abandoned beaver dams fail, the ponds drain and gradually become grassy meadows as plants from the surrounding land seed them. </p>
<p>Dried meadows can serve as floodplains for nearby rivers, allowing waters to spill out and provide forage and spawning areas for fish during high flows. Floodplain meadows are <a href="https://www.fws.gov/oregonfwo/toolsforlandowners/riverscience/documents/brg%20v.1.0%20final%20reduced.pdf">valuable habitat</a> for ground-nesting birds and other species that depend on the river. </p>
<h2>The value of slowing the flow</h2>
<p>As human settlements expand, people often wish to make use of every acre. That typically means that they want either land that is solid and dry enough to farm or waterways they can navigate by boat. To create those conditions, humans remove floating logs from streams and install drains to draw water off of fields and roads as quickly and efficiently as possible. </p>
<p>But covering more and more land surface with barriers that don’t absorb water, such as pavement and rooftops, means that water flows into rivers and streams more quickly. Rainfall from an average storm can produce an intense river flow that <a href="https://extension.umass.edu/riversmart/">erodes the banks and beds of waterways</a>. And as climate change <a href="https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/climate-change-evidence-causes/question-13/">fuels more intense storms in many places</a>, it will amplify this destructive impact.</p>
<p>Some developers limit this kind of damaging flow by using <a href="https://basc.pnnl.gov/resource-guides/swales-drains-and-site-grading-stormwater-control">nature-based engineering principles</a>, such as “ponding” water to intercept it and slow it down; spreading flows out more widely to reduce the water’s speed; and designing swales, or sunken spots, that allow water to sink into the ground. Beaver wetlands do all of these things, only better. Research in the United Kingdom has documented that beaver activity can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.122">reduce the flow of floodwaters from farmlands by up to 30%</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1443636906487697416"}"></div></p>
<p>Beaver meadows and wetlands also <a href="https://kingcounty.gov/services/environment/animals-and-plants/beavers/Benefits.aspx">help cool the ground around and beneath them</a>. Wet soil in these zones contains a lot of organic matter from buried and decayed plants, which holds onto moisture longer than soil formed only from rocks and minerals. In my <a href="https://www.livingobservatory.org/learning-report">wetland research</a>, I have found that after a storm, water entering the ground passes through pure mineral sand in hours to days but can remain in soils that are 80%-90% organic matter for as long as a month. </p>
<p>Cool, wet soil also serves as a buffer against wildfires. Recent studies in the western U.S. have found that vegetation in beaver-dammed river corridors is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2225">more fire-resistant</a> than in areas without beavers because it is well watered and lush, so it doesn’t burn as easily. As a result, areas near beaver dams provide <a href="https://www.sagegrouseinitiative.com/beaver-breaks-how-beavers-and-low-tech-riparian-restoration-help-reduce-impacts-from-fire/">temporary refuge for wildlife</a> when <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/bes2.1795">surrounding areas burn</a>.</p>
<h2>Making room for beavers</h2>
<p>The ecological services that beavers provide are most valuable in zones where nobody minds if the landscape changes. But in the densely developed eastern U.S., where I work, it’s hard to find open areas where beaver ponds can spread out without flooding ditches or roads. Beavers also topple expensive landscaped trees and will feed on some cultivated crops, such as <a href="https://agrilife.org/txwildlifeservices/files/2016/07/fs_beaver.pdf">corn and soybeans</a>.</p>
<p>Beavers are frequently blamed for flooding in developed areas, even though <a href="https://www.gazettenet.com/earth-matters-are-beavers-to-blame-for-flooding-damage-41825413">the real problem often is road design, not beaver dams</a>. In such cases, removing the beavers doesn’t solve the problem. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440340/original/file-20220111-19-svgy1g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Pipe in the middle of a flooded rural road" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440340/original/file-20220111-19-svgy1g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440340/original/file-20220111-19-svgy1g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440340/original/file-20220111-19-svgy1g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440340/original/file-20220111-19-svgy1g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440340/original/file-20220111-19-svgy1g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440340/original/file-20220111-19-svgy1g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440340/original/file-20220111-19-svgy1g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Debris carried by intense rains in July 2021 overtopped a beaver dam (still standing in the background) and washed out this undersized 3-foot culvert in western Massachusetts. It has since been replaced by a more resilient 9-foot structure.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christine Hatch</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/pubs/pdfpubs/pdf05772830/pdf05772830dpi300.pdf">Culvert guards</a>, fences and other exclusion devices can keep beavers a safe distance from infrastructure and maintain pond heights at a level that won’t flood adjoining areas. Road crossings over streams that are designed to <a href="https://streamcontinuity.org">let fish and other aquatic animals through instead of blocking them</a> are beaver-friendly and will be resilient to climate change and extreme precipitation events. If these structures are large enough to let debris pass through, then beavers will build dams upstream instead, which can help catch floodwaters.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 140,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-140ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>A growing body of research shows that setting aside pockets of land for beavers is good for wetland ecosystems, biodiversity and rivers. I believe we can learn from beavers’ water management skills, coexist with them in our landscapes and incorporate their natural engineering in response to weather and precipitation patterns disrupted by climate change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168545/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christine Hatch has trained workers at the Massachusetts Department of Transportation on Rivers and Roads, mainly free of charge as public outreach work.
</span></em></p>Beavers in our landscapes have great potential to provide small-scale adaptations to climate change – if humans can figure out how to live with them.Christine E. Hatch, Professor of Geosciences, UMass AmherstLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1715092021-11-09T14:56:30Z2021-11-09T14:56:30ZAfrica’s forests have value for the whole world. All must pay for them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430996/original/file-20211109-19-y7jnt2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>African forests are rich in biodiversity and provide a livelihood for more than 1 billion people. They store massive amounts of carbon and play a part in regulating climate. Forests are a global public good; they have value for the whole world. Yet they remain underfunded. </p>
<p>Funding forests means funding people to manage them sustainably. And this does not come cheap. For many developing nations, the money is needed for other important things like education and health, too. </p>
<p>In today’s episode of Pasha, Robert Nasi, director general of the Centre for International Forestry Research, discusses the importance of funding for African forests. He says countries that benefit from them are obliged to help pay for their management. Huge amounts of money are spent on things like weapons and on fossil fuel subsidies. So the money is there, he says; it needs political will to redirect it to protecting and restoring African forests. </p>
<hr>
<p><strong>Photo:</strong><br>
Hidden Ekom Waterfall deep in the tropical rain forest of Cameroon, Africa by Fabian Plock found on <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-hidden-ekom-waterfall-deep-tropical-549293719">Shutterstock</a></p>
<p><strong>Music:</strong>
“Happy African Village” by John Bartmann, found on <a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/John_Bartmann/Public_Domain_Soundtrack_Music_Album_One/happy-african-village">FreeMusicArchive.org</a> licensed under <a href="https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/">CC0 1</a>.</p>
<p>“Elementary Wave 11” by Erokia, found on <a href="https://freesound.org/people/Erokia/sounds/183881/">Freesound</a> licensed under <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/">Attribution License.</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171509/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Saving African forests is a global concern and needs prioritisation.Ozayr Patel, Digital EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1712692021-11-09T13:32:01Z2021-11-09T13:32:01ZCOP26: how unlocking nature’s power can help the UK step up its fight against climate change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431051/original/file-20211109-23-eft3r9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C0%2C1020%2C764&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Reintroducing the natural world into populated spaces could help the UK stave off the worst climate change effects.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alison Smith</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>World leaders have been gathering at <a href="https://ukcop26.org/">COP26</a>, the UN climate summit in Glasgow, against a backdrop of flooded homes, closed roads and cancelled trains across the UK caused by <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/uk-weather-news-flood-warnings-cumbria-b1947630.html">extreme weather</a>. These conditions are a stark reminder that as well as dramatically reducing our <a href="https://theconversation.com/net-zero-despite-the-greenwash-its-vital-for-tackling-climate-change-160329">carbon emissions</a>, we must also begin adapting to a climate that is already irreversibly changing.</p>
<p>Yet the UK’s third climate change <a href="https://www.ukclimaterisk.org/'">risk assessment</a> report warns of a growing “adaptation gap” between the risks the country faces and the action it’s taking, while the Environment Agency states bluntly that the UK must “<a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/adapt-or-die-says-environment-agency">adapt or die</a>”. </p>
<p>A problem with climate adaptation is that conventional engineering solutions are rapidly becoming unaffordable and unsustainable. We can’t keep on building higher sea walls, extracting more groundwater from our land’s depleted resources to irrigate crops, or installing energy-guzzling air conditioning to fight heat.</p>
<p>Instead, <a href="https://www.iucn.org/commissions/commission-ecosystem-management/our-work/nature-based-solutions#:%7E:text=Nature%2Dbased%20Solutions%20(NbS),%2Dbeing%20and%20biodiversity%20benefits%E2%80%9D.">nature-based solutions</a> that reintegrate aspects of the natural world into our environment can help sustainably, affordably tackle the climate and biodiversity crises, while supporting local economies and improving people’s wellbeing. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/news-and-media/news/unlocking-billion-pound-investment-restoration-saltmarshes">restoring saltmarshes</a> can help protect communities at risk from coastal flooding and erosion, while providing vital habitats for <a href="https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/habitats/coastal/saltmarsh-and-mudflats">wading birds</a>. </p>
<p>Further inland, <a href="https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-and-wildlife/british-trees/flooding/">planting woodlands</a> can help manage floods by intercepting rainfall, while restoring natural curves in artificially straightened rivers and recreating floodplain wetlands can slow floods. At <a href="https://tweedforum.org/our-work/projects/the-eddleston-water-project/">Eddleston Water</a>, a river valley in Scotland, these initiatives reduced flood peaks by 30%, protecting 500 properties downstream from damage. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A river flanked by green banks" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431030/original/file-20211109-25-1a7wcji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431030/original/file-20211109-25-1a7wcji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431030/original/file-20211109-25-1a7wcji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431030/original/file-20211109-25-1a7wcji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431030/original/file-20211109-25-1a7wcji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431030/original/file-20211109-25-1a7wcji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431030/original/file-20211109-25-1a7wcji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Eddleston Water, where restoring floodplains helped protect houses downstream.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.geograph.org.uk/more.php?id=2739198">Jim Barton</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/02/peatlands-are-under-threat-heres-why-we-must-act-now-to-save-them/">Peatland degradation</a> is another threat to landscapes. Healthy peatlands not only store vast amounts of carbon but also supply good-quality drinking water that requires little treatment. But when the peat dries out, it erodes into streams, turning the water brown. </p>
<p>On the <a href="https://www.niwater.com/garron-plateau-bog-restoration-project/">Garron Plateau</a> in Northern Ireland, peat degradation contaminated water supplies for 12,000 people. But reducing the number of grazing sheep on peatland and blocking drainage channels to keep peat wet allowed peatland mosses to regrow, cutting water treatment costs and lowering carbon emissions. </p>
<p>On farmland, techniques like adding more organic matter to soil can improve soil health and build resilience to pests, heatwaves, droughts and floods. And in urban areas, adding “<a href="https://theconversation.com/circular-cities-of-the-world-what-can-green-infrastructure-do-119273">green infrastructure</a>” like parks and green roofs (roofs covered in vegetation) can help to cool cities and absorb water, preventing flooding in heavy rain. </p>
<h2>Problems</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/globalassets/downloads/nature-based-solutions-in-uk-policy_dec2020.pdf">Our research</a> showed how governments could be missing opportunities to develop nature-based solutions. So in <a href="https://www.naturebasedsolutionsinitiative.org/news/wwf-rspb-report-nature-based-solutions-uk-climate-adaptation-policy/">a recent review</a>, commissioned by <a href="https://www.wwf.org.uk/">WWF</a> and <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/">RSPB</a>, we asked people working with nature-based solutions about the challenges they faced – to understand how we might better build these solutions into landscapes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A person in peatland" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431028/original/file-20211109-13-8ku476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431028/original/file-20211109-13-8ku476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431028/original/file-20211109-13-8ku476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431028/original/file-20211109-13-8ku476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431028/original/file-20211109-13-8ku476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431028/original/file-20211109-13-8ku476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431028/original/file-20211109-13-8ku476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Restoring peatland can protect water supplies and help store huge amounts of carbon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ben Hall</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found that, despite growing recognition of the role nature-based solutions can play in climate adaptation, policy support is lacking. For example, <a href="https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/plant-trees/agroforestry-benefits/">agroforestry</a> (growing trees among crops or on grazing land) can protect livestock and crops in extreme weather. Yet it’s not covered by woodland planting grants and farmers aren’t trained in it, meaning that it’s rarely practised in the UK. And adding green walls and roofs to buildings, especially outside of <a href="https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/2019_london_living_roofs_walls_report.pdf">London</a>, also lacks widespread policy support – so these are rarely installed by developers.</p>
<p>We were surprised to find that some projects were struggling with regulations designed to control damaging activities, such as mineral extraction. Small <a href="https://www.projectseagrass.org/">charity-led projects</a> trying to restore seagrass beds in coastal waters – to protect against floods and support fish – can face licensing fees of thousands of pounds from the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/marine-management-organisation">Marine Management Organisation</a>, even though they are only supporting the local ecosystem. </p>
<p>We also found that better standards are needed to make sure nature-based solutions provide their full benefits. <a href="https://www.local.gov.uk/topics/severe-weather/flooding/sustainable-drainage-systems">Sustainable drainage systems</a> are a key example. Good drainage systems consist of a connected network of ponds and wetlands, which capture and clean rainwater from urban areas before releasing it into the environment to avoid <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/13/government-failing-to-stop-sewage-discharge-into-english-rivers-says-charity">overloading sewers</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A grassy space with a path through it" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431021/original/file-20211109-27-1x2bb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431021/original/file-20211109-27-1x2bb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431021/original/file-20211109-27-1x2bb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431021/original/file-20211109-27-1x2bb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431021/original/file-20211109-27-1x2bb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431021/original/file-20211109-27-1x2bb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431021/original/file-20211109-27-1x2bb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sustainable drainage systems, like in Woodberry Down, collect and treat stormwater while providing beautiful spaces.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.susdrain.org/">Susdrain</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, standards for sustainable drainage systems in England focus on the amount of rainwater collected, so many new drainage systems simply use underground tanks and pipes rather than creating pleasant outdoor spaces that help wildlife to thrive. <a href="https://www.suds-authority.org.uk/2021/06/recommendations-to-update-non-statutory-technical-standards-for-sustainable-drainage-systems-suds/">New standards</a> drafted by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs would bring England up to the high standards in place in Wales.</p>
<p>Similarly, when building developers are asked to boost sustainability by adding green roofs, the default option is often to unroll a cheap, thin, pre-grown vegetation mat that doesn’t offer much insulation and may not survive a dry summer. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Biodiverse green roof at the David Attenborough building in Cambridge" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431024/original/file-20211109-15-btwvg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431024/original/file-20211109-15-btwvg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431024/original/file-20211109-15-btwvg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431024/original/file-20211109-15-btwvg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431024/original/file-20211109-15-btwvg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431024/original/file-20211109-15-btwvg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431024/original/file-20211109-15-btwvg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cultivating roof habitats can encourage wildlife to populate urban spaces.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://greeninfrastructureconsultancy.com/">Dusty Gedge, Green Infrastructure Consultancy</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In contrast, the <a href="https://www.greenrooforganisation.org/2021/03/05/the-gro-code-of-best-practice-2021/">Green Roof Organisation</a>, a not-for-profit trade association, encourages planting a mix of wildflowers and including wildlife-friendly features such as logs or piles of stones. These thick, high-quality green roofs can cool buildings by as much as 20°C and absorb up to half of the annual rainfall, while providing habitat for insects and birds.</p>
<h2>Balancing act</h2>
<p>It’s important to be careful when using techniques that could alter the balance of local ecosystems. For example, planting certain tree species in the “wrong place” can do more harm than good. Non-native tree species usually don’t help wildlife flourish. And trees can dry out carbon-rich soils, deplete local water supplies, or crowd out native grasslands and the species that depend on them.</p>
<p>Also, converting cropland to woodland in the UK will displace food production elsewhere, and could drive overseas deforestation to make space for new farmland: unless we <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/dec/31/convert-farmland-to-nature-climate-crisis">free up space</a> by eating less meat and cutting food waste. </p>
<p>To unlock the self-regulating power of our planet’s environment, nature-based solutions need to go mainstream. For that to happen, governments need to provide more funding and design more supportive policies along the lines we suggest in <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/globalassets/downloads/policy-briefings/nature-based-solutions-adaption-report.pdf">our review</a>: helping people create resilient, healthy landscapes that dampen the effects of climate change.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="COP26: the world's biggest climate talks" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>This story is part of The Conversation’s coverage on COP26, the Glasgow climate conference, by experts from around the world.</strong>
<br><em>Amid a rising tide of climate news and stories, The Conversation is here to clear the air and make sure you get information you can trust. <a href="https://page.theconversation.com/cop26-glasgow-2021-climate-change-summit/"><strong>More.</strong></a></em> </p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171269/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alison Smith receives or has received funding from WWF-UK, RSPB, UKRI and the Oxford Martin School.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexandre Chausson receives funding from UKRI.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nathalie Seddon receives funding from Natural Environment Research Council.</span></em></p>Nature-based solutions can help us sustainably tackle climate disasters - but to do that, they urgently need policy support.Alison Smith, Researcher in Nature-based Solutions, University of OxfordAlexandre Chausson, Researcher in Nature-based Solutions, University of OxfordNathalie Seddon, Professor of Biodiversity, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1688072021-10-08T01:46:08Z2021-10-08T01:46:08ZAustralia could ‘green’ its degraded landscapes for just 6% of what we spend on defence<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425199/original/file-20211007-27-cj85xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=591%2C0%2C4164%2C2330&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The health of many Australian ecosystems is in steep decline. Replanting vast tracts of land with native vegetation will prevent species extinctions and help abate climate change – but which landscapes should be restored, and how much would it cost?</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14008">latest research</a> sought answers to these questions. We devised a feasible plan to restore 30% of native vegetation cover across almost all degraded ecosystems on Australia’s marginal farming land.</p>
<p>By spending A$2 billion – about 0.1% of Australia’s gross domestic product – each year for about 30 years, we could restore 13 million hectares of degraded land without affecting food production or urban areas.</p>
<p>Such cost-effective solutions must be implemented now if we’re to pull our landscapes back from the brink. This bold vision would transform the way we manage our landscapes, help Australia become a net-zero nation and create jobs in regional communities.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Lone tree in field" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Native vegetation cover must be restored across vast tracts of Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An ambitious agenda</h2>
<p>Since European settlement, large areas of Australia’s native vegetation have been progressively cleared for agriculture and urban settlements. Australia’s environment remains under <a href="https://soe.environment.gov.au/theme/land/framework/pressures">mounting pressure</a> from land clearing, altered fire regimes and invasive species. </p>
<p>Our research shows that about one-fifth of Australia’s ecosystems have less than 30% coverage of healthy native vegetation. Below 30%, ecosystem services and biodiversity <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3545823?casa_token=_DAlDSXg2wgAAAAA:W4EPdBNA4ucCMRHl6FxZZ8sHJl2aBM2ESs-FFOoNROLmv1gEzb_k8VAjUprIrFyiZbGrqDY6O5NuE1Bnxv7mJgAHYpUGvSZtjlQWQnqpR4KFpwzQMf7v">sharply declines</a>. We calculate that 13 million hectares of land must be restored to reach the 30% threshold. </p>
<p>Targeted restoration of degraded ecosystems on less profitable agricultural land has enormous potential to alleviate these problems. Farmers can continue to produce valuable crops on their prime land, while rebuilding habitat and sequestering carbon on more marginal land. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-clock-is-ticking-on-net-zero-farmers-must-not-get-a-free-pass-168474">The clock is ticking on net-zero, farmers must not get a free pass</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Almost half of the land requiring restoration is Eucalypt woodlands and almost a fifth is Acacia forests and woodlands. Areas in most need are:</p>
<ul>
<li>the Wheatbelt region of Western Australia</li>
<li>Central Queensland</li>
<li>Central West, Tablelands and Riverina areas of New South Wales</li>
<li>Western Victoria</li>
<li>the Eyre Peninsula and southeast South Australia. </li>
</ul>
<p>Restoring native vegetation at selected sites would involve actions such as fencing to keep livestock away, pest removal, soil preparation and planting. </p>
<p>As well as direct restoration costs, our costings also included compensation payments to farmers and other landholders, for the cost of retiring the land from farming.</p>
<p>We identified the sites across Australia where revegetation would be most cost-effective. These are the places where land requires the least revegetation work and returns the lowest profit to farmers, thus minimising stewardship payments. </p>
<p>In practice, we recommend restoration sites be secured through voluntary arrangements with land holders. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="map with circle pullout photos" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425359/original/file-20211007-15-spmlrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425359/original/file-20211007-15-spmlrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425359/original/file-20211007-15-spmlrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425359/original/file-20211007-15-spmlrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425359/original/file-20211007-15-spmlrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425359/original/file-20211007-15-spmlrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425359/original/file-20211007-15-spmlrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Map showing cost-effective restoration sites in heavily degraded ecosystems across Australia, with examples of possible restoration sites or landscapes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Cost-effective conservation solutions</h2>
<p>We estimate the required restoration would cost approximately A$2 billion annually for 30 years. To put this in perspective, it’s about 0.3% of the federal government’s <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/BudgetReview202021/AustralianGovernmentExpenditure">annual spending</a> last financial year and about 6% of what Australia spends annually on defence.</p>
<p>The restoration project would restore habitat and ecosystem services in our most degraded landscapes. It would expand threatened species’ habitat and re-establish ecosystem functions such as pollination and erosion control.</p>
<p>The revegetation would also help tackle climate change by drawing down carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it. We estimate 913 million tonnes of greenhouse gases would be stored over 55 years. </p>
<p>After a decade of vegetation growth, 13 million tonnes would be stored annually – equal to 16% of the emissions reduction required under Australia’s Paris Agreement obligations.</p>
<p>We applied those figures to plausible <a href="https://www.afr.com/companies/energy/carbon-offset-prices-reach-record-as-buyers-grow-20210707-p587js">carbon price scenarios</a> where prices rise 5-10% per year from $15 per tonne, reaching $24-39 per tonne by 2030. If the carbon stored by the project was translated into carbon credits, the potential revenue could be between $12 billion and $46 billion. </p>
<p>The upper end of that estimate would more than cover the costs required to implement the plan. An intensive revegetation effort would also create jobs, mostly in rural areas.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/loved-to-death-australian-sandalwood-is-facing-extinction-in-the-wild-167281">Loved to death: Australian sandalwood is facing extinction in the wild</a>
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<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two naval ships" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425204/original/file-20211007-21-1ay7ljf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425204/original/file-20211007-21-1ay7ljf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425204/original/file-20211007-21-1ay7ljf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425204/original/file-20211007-21-1ay7ljf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425204/original/file-20211007-21-1ay7ljf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425204/original/file-20211007-21-1ay7ljf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425204/original/file-20211007-21-1ay7ljf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The restoration plan would cost a fraction of Australia’s defence spending.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Australian Defence Force</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Success is possible</h2>
<p>Australia’s environment laws <a href="https://www.edo.org.au/2021/02/04/trajectory-unsustainable-10-key-findings-of-the-epbc-act-review-final-report/">have comprehensively failed</a> to protect nature. This has been compounded by a lack of adequate <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/may/14/environment-department-tried-to-bury-research-that-found-huge-underspend-on-australian-threatened-species">funding</a> for environmental management, threatened species protection and ecological restoration.</p>
<p>Without doubt, the national project we describe is ambitious. But existing projects are showing the way. In southwest Western Australia, for example, the <a href="https://gondwanalink.org/">Gondwana Link</a> program has so far restored 13,500 hectares of marginal farmland, and also aims to connect 100,000 hectares of existing bushland. </p>
<p>Turning around the state of Australia’s environment requires big thinking and an even bigger government and public commitment. But as our research shows, restoring our degraded landscapes is both attainable and affordable.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-testing-the-resilience-of-native-plants-to-fire-from-ash-forests-to-gymea-lilies-167367">Climate change is testing the resilience of native plants to fire, from ash forests to gymea lilies</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168807/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bonnie Mappin has received funding from the University of Queensland Research Scholarship and the Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Watson has received funding from Australian Research Council and the National Environmental Science Program. He sits on the science committees of BirdLife Australia and Bush Heritage Australia and a long-term science partnership with Wildlife Conservation Society.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lesley Hughes has received funding from the Australian Research Council. She is a Councillor with the Climate Council of Australia, a Director of WWF-Australia, and a member of the Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists. </span></em></p>By spending $2 billion each year for about 30 years, we could restore much of Australia’s severely denuded landscapes.Bonnie Mappin, PhD Candidate, Conservation Science, The University of QueenslandJames Watson, Professor, The University of QueenslandLesley Hughes, Professor, Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1656472021-09-27T12:54:47Z2021-09-27T12:54:47ZMexican communities manage their local forests, generating benefits for humans, trees and wildlife<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423040/original/file-20210923-13-f923j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C3%2C2592%2C1718&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Jungle near the Palenque ruins, Chiapas, Mexico.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/BxuihE">Lawrence Murray/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The United Nations is preparing to host pivotal conferences in the coming months on two global crises: <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/conferences/glasgow-climate-change-conference">climate change</a> and <a href="https://www.unep.org/events/conference/un-biodiversity-conference-cop-15">biodiversity loss</a>. As experts have pointed out, these issues are fundamentally, inescapably intertwined. In both cases, human activities are <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2021/06/tackling-biodiversity-climate-crises-together-and-their-combined-social-impacts/">harming nature and the support it provides to people</a>.</p>
<p>But that connection also is an opportunity. Protecting places that are both carbon- and species-rich can help slow climate change and biodiversity loss at the same time. For example, in a June 2021 report, U.N. biodiversity experts urged nations to establish strict protected areas and <a href="https://ipbes.net/sites/default/files/2021-09/ipbes_8_11_report_of_the_plenary_en.pdf">govern forests through “locally adjusted sustainable management practices</a>.” </p>
<p>I <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David-Bray-2">study Mexican community forests</a>, and believe they are the world’s best model of local sustainable management. My research over 30 years has shown that when Indigenous and local communities control their forests for commercial timber production, both humans and the land benefit.</p>
<p>As I write in my book, “<a href="https://uapress.arizona.edu/book/mexicos-community-forest-enterprises">Mexico’s Community Forest Enterprises: Success on the Commons and the Seeds of a Good Anthropocene</a>,” these forests provide hope for a better future than the one now bearing down on us. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423041/original/file-20210923-17-4e9o4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing Mexico's forested areas in shades of green" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423041/original/file-20210923-17-4e9o4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423041/original/file-20210923-17-4e9o4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423041/original/file-20210923-17-4e9o4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423041/original/file-20210923-17-4e9o4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423041/original/file-20210923-17-4e9o4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423041/original/file-20210923-17-4e9o4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423041/original/file-20210923-17-4e9o4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This 2014 image, derived from ground-based and satellite images, shows the amount of organic carbon stored in the trunks, limbs and leaves of trees in Mexico. The darkest greens reveal the areas with the densest, tallest and most robust forest growth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/86000/86695/mexicoCarbon_gis_2014_lrg.png">NASA Earth Observatory</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Mexico’s sustainability model</h2>
<p>Mexico is <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/mexico-forests-adapts-to-a-coronavirus-year-without-tourists">one of the most biodiverse countries in the world</a>. Much of that life depends on its <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/86695/counting-the-carbon-in-mexicos-forests">165 million acres (65 million hectares) of forests</a>, which cover about one-third of the nation’s land area. </p>
<p>Millions of monarch butterflies migrate from North America to forested hillsides in Mexico’s Sierra Madre mountains every winter. Tropical forests in southern Mexico harbor <a href="https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/time-running-out-mexicos-last-tropical-forest">jaguars, spider monkeys, crocodiles, anteaters</a> and <a href="https://www.stateofthebirds.org/2016/habitats/tropical-forests/">nearly 500 species of birds</a>.</p>
<p>As a result of the 1911-1917 Mexican Revolution, ownership of around 60% of the nation’s forests, totaling some 104 million acres (42 million hectares), was <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/The-Mexican-Revolution-and-its-aftermath-1910-40">transferred to local communities</a>. Over the following decades, reformers subsidized equipment and provided training in logging and business for the people who took over these important resources. Community members seized the opportunity. </p>
<p>This decades-long experiment, with government support and market incentives, has produced surprising results. Today Mexican community forest enterprises administer their common property woodlands at a scale and current maturity unparalleled anywhere else in the world. </p>
<p>Cutting down trees may seem like a counterintuitive way to slow climate change and species loss, but in Mexico it works. Community forest businesses sell profitable products like timber and bottled spring water. Some 1,600 communities sustainably log over 17 million acres of forest. They carefully select only certain trees for harvesting so that forests will vigorously regrow.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418293/original/file-20210827-23066-anp65g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418293/original/file-20210827-23066-anp65g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418293/original/file-20210827-23066-anp65g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418293/original/file-20210827-23066-anp65g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418293/original/file-20210827-23066-anp65g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418293/original/file-20210827-23066-anp65g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418293/original/file-20210827-23066-anp65g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418293/original/file-20210827-23066-anp65g.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A worker measures logs harvested from community forests in Durango.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">David Bray, CC-BY-ND</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Measuring results</h2>
<p>Research shows that Mexico’s model supports conservation. One study of 733 municipalities in eight states found that deforestation rates were lower in managed forests with <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1070496512447249">high percentages of commonly owned land</a>. Community forests in the tropical state of Quintana Roo have lower deforestation rates than public protected areas in southern Mexico, using logging practices that <a href="https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/19403/serc_Lynch_and_Whigham_1995.pdf">preserve habitat for wintering migratory birds</a>. </p>
<p>In the Sierra Norte of Oaxaca, 23 communities with a total area of over 500,000 acres have zoned their territory so that 78% of it is forested for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.06.056">sustainable production and conservation</a>, leaving the remainder for agriculture and other uses.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423043/original/file-20210923-23-1b81bsa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Orange and black bird on a branch." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423043/original/file-20210923-23-1b81bsa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423043/original/file-20210923-23-1b81bsa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423043/original/file-20210923-23-1b81bsa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423043/original/file-20210923-23-1b81bsa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423043/original/file-20210923-23-1b81bsa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423043/original/file-20210923-23-1b81bsa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423043/original/file-20210923-23-1b81bsa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Altamira oriole (<em>Icterus gularis</em>), Tinum, Yucatan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/21eiY7h">Becky Matsubara/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Sierra Norte community of Pueblos Mancomunados manages its 78,000 acres mostly as a community park focused on ecotourism. Foresters cut trees only to control bark beetle outbreaks. Zapotec Indigenous people have lived here for over 1,000 years, and residents have practiced sustainable logging for decades. </p>
<p>This region has some of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.10.005">highest biodiversity in Mexico</a>. New species are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4329.1.2">commonly discovered here</a>, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4329.1.2"><em>Charadrahyla esperancensis</em></a>, a tree frog with a protruding snout.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423160/original/file-20210924-46667-nckkw7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Brown frog on mossy rock." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423160/original/file-20210924-46667-nckkw7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423160/original/file-20210924-46667-nckkw7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423160/original/file-20210924-46667-nckkw7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423160/original/file-20210924-46667-nckkw7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423160/original/file-20210924-46667-nckkw7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423160/original/file-20210924-46667-nckkw7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423160/original/file-20210924-46667-nckkw7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"><em>Charadrahyla esperancensis</em>, a tree frog discovered in a cloud forest in Oaxaca in 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4329.1.2">Canseco-Márquez, et al., 2017</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Community forests reduce poverty</h2>
<p>Over a 20-year period, from 1993 to 2013, the thickly forested landscape of Sierra Norte has also produced 3 million metric tons of timber and carbon, mostly stored in furniture and construction materials. By storing carbon in long-lasting products, sustainably managed forests actually <a href="https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9789400722316">capture more carbon than strictly conserved forests</a> </p>
<p>These operations also benefit local economies. In a 2019 study, Mexican researcher <a href="https://ceiba.org.mx/quienes-somos/miembros/name/juan-manuel-torres-rojo/">Juan Manuel Torres-Rojo</a> and colleagues found that in a sample of over 5,000 Mexican forest communities, government support for forestry, particularly for investments in social and human capital, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.04.016">significantly reduced poverty</a>. </p>
<p>The most serious challenges confronting community forests are the impacts of organized crime. Gangs charge communities in several states protection money and reportedly have physically <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-trafficking-lumber-trfn/mexican-crime-gangs-branching-into-illegal-logging-researchers-warn-idUSKCN2242LB">taken over community forest businesses</a> in some northern states. </p>
<p>Illegal logging is also a serious problem, but it is concentrated in communities that <a href="https://uapress.arizona.edu/book/mexicos-community-forest-enterprises">are not managing their forests</a>. Mexican community forests are less vulnerable to stresses like the deforestation, fire and drought that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.0036">threaten large swaths of the Amazon basin</a> because neighboring communities depend on their forests for their livelihoods and constantly monitor them. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419181/original/file-20210902-13-1d1fqhy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=111%2C79%2C4723%2C2624&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Foresters outdoors in hard hats and safety vests." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419181/original/file-20210902-13-1d1fqhy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=111%2C79%2C4723%2C2624&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419181/original/file-20210902-13-1d1fqhy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419181/original/file-20210902-13-1d1fqhy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419181/original/file-20210902-13-1d1fqhy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419181/original/file-20210902-13-1d1fqhy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419181/original/file-20210902-13-1d1fqhy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419181/original/file-20210902-13-1d1fqhy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Community forest workers in Vencedores, Durango, Mexico with author David Bray (third from right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">David Bray</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Giving communities control helps land</h2>
<p>Governments of developing countries often have little money to manage protected land. Giving communities control over valuable forests and the resources to manage them is an affordable alternative.</p>
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<p>Mexico’s community forests sustain themselves and generate profits. They do not depend on government subsidies, although they have received them over the years, as a pro-community forest public policy initiative. In my view, mobilizing community collective action around timber – a product that, unlike most small farmer crops, virtually always has a good price – is a market-oriented way to stop deforestation and conserve biodiversity.</p>
<p>However, many governments don’t have the political will to give this kind of ownership, management authority, training and equipment to local communities. I believe that if the results achieved in Mexico were more widely known, they could help convince other governments that promoting community forestry can deliver political stability, poverty reduction and a more livable climate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165647/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Bray has received funding from the former North-South Center of the University of Miami, the Fulbright-Hays Program for Mexico, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, the Ford Foundation, the Tinker Foundation, and the US Agency for International Development. </span></em></p>About 60% of Mexico’s forests are managed by local communities. A scholar who has studied the forests for 30 years explains how this system protects the forests and the people who oversee them.David Bray, Professor of Earth and Environment, Florida International UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.