tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/child-behaviour-9924/articlesChild behaviour – The Conversation2024-01-11T19:10:53Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2173812024-01-11T19:10:53Z2024-01-11T19:10:53ZWhat is ‘parent training’ for families of children with ADHD?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566509/original/file-20231219-21-5nuf85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C9%2C6125%2C3439&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-man-telling-his-wife-front-1677115807">DC Studio/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Problems with focus and impulse control can be common developmental stages through which children and adolescents naturally progress. But they can also be symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/facts.html">(ADHD)</a>, a chronic condition. </p>
<p>ADHD is a pattern of inattention or hyperactivity and impulsivity (or both) that interferes with functioning or development, and persists <a href="https://theconversation.com/do-kids-grow-out-of-adhd-as-they-get-older-218692">into adulthood</a>. ADHD affects around <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13052-023-01456-1">7.6% of children</a> aged three to 12 years and 5.6% of teens.</p>
<p>ADHD can significantly influence family dynamics and can affect a child’s ability to learn and interact socially. Raising children with behavioural, developmental or learning difficulties can also make parenting more challenging, with parents navigating feelings of frustration, grief and guilt.</p>
<p>While medication is <a href="https://adhdguideline.aadpa.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/ADHD-Clinical-Practice-Guide-041022.pdf">most effective</a> at minimising core ADHD symptoms, non-drug interventions can also <a href="https://adhdguideline.aadpa.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/ADHD-Clinical-Practice-Guide-041022.pdf">reduce</a> the daily impacts of ADHD symptoms. Parenting/family training is one such <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15374416.2017.1390757?needAccess=true">intervention</a>. So what does it involve and is it effective?</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/adhd-medications-have-doubled-in-the-last-decade-but-other-treatments-can-help-too-191574">ADHD medications have doubled in the last decade – but other treatments can help too</a>
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<h2>Positive praise and natural consequences</h2>
<p>Parenting training is widely used and can take different forms. Sometimes a psychologist works with one or both parents to give them skills specific to their family and situation. It’s sometimes a structured in-person program for groups of parents. It can also be delivered online, at parents’ own pace or in virtual classrooms.</p>
<p>Most parent/family training will teach parents forms of:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>positive praise</strong>. Notice when your child is behaving in a desirable way and give them positive feedback. For example,“Wow, you’re playing so nicely. I really like the way you’re keeping all the blocks on the table.” Praise nurtures self esteem and their sense of self. Praise teens for starting homework without being reminded or coming home at the agreed time </p></li>
<li><p><strong>effective limit-setting</strong>. Establish ground rules in a quiet moment of family time, where everyone has a say and understands the boundaries, consequences, and expectations </p></li>
<li><p><strong><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30738545/">natural consequences</a></strong>, such as missing out on watching a TV show because packing up took too long. This allows the child to experience failure or loss, but empowers them with what they can focus on or improve the next time round</p></li>
<li><p><strong>planned ignoring of annoying but not serious behaviours</strong> such as making faces or messy rooms. Make a decision to ignore it and breathe. Model desirable behaviours, such as looking after your possessions and fitting in with family life </p></li>
<li><p><strong>positive parent-child interactions</strong>. “Connection before correction” helps a parent shape their child’s behaviour and can <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0890-8567(18)31980-4">reduce disruptions</a>.
Emotionally connect by, for example, establishing eye contact, using a gentle tone and getting down on their level. This attunement allows the child to be able to regulate their behaviour and better manage their emotions. </p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Dad talks to child in garden" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Your responses can reduce their disruptive behaviour.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/man-in-blue-crew-neck-t-shirt-beside-woman-in-blue-crew-neck-t-shirt-eyfaunEy9dM">Max Harlynking/Unsplash</a></span>
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<p>Parents aren’t to blame for their child’s symptoms; the aim of training is to teach parents skills to meet the above-average parenting needs of children with ADHD. </p>
<p>Take inattention, for example. If a task is boring to a child with ADHD, their brain will struggle to pay attention – even if they want to. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_tpB-B8BXk0">ADHD</a> clinical neuropsychologist Russell Barkley explains ADHD like this: the back part of the brain is where you learn, the front part is what you do, and ADHD splits them apart. You can know things but you won’t do them – it’s a performance disorder.</p>
<p>Having a few household rules, schedules, opportunities to problem-solve, effectively using instructions and, most importantly, expressions of <a href="https://5lovelanguages.com/">love</a> can give children positive environments that will help their mental health over time. </p>
<h2>How effective is parent training?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://adhdguideline.aadpa.com.au/">Australian evidence-based ADHD treatment guidelines</a> reviewed the evidence and found medication treatment was more effective than non-pharmacological treatment in reducing core ADHD symptoms. But combined therapies were better than either treatment alone. </p>
<p>The United Kingdom’s National Institute of Clinical Excellence <a href="https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng87/chapter/Recommendations#managing-adhd">recommends</a> ADHD management plans include treatments to address the child’s psychological, behavioural and educational or occupational needs.</p>
<p>There is <a href="https://adhdguideline.aadpa.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/ADHD-Clinical-Practice-Guide-041022.pdf">evidence to support</a> parenting training for children aged five to 17, and greater evidence for its use in children under five and families of children who also have <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/oppositional-defiant-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20375831">oppositional defiant disorder</a> or <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/conduct-disorder">conduct disorder</a>, who require more intensive support. </p>
<p>But more research is needed about the duration and form of the parent training. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240065505">World Health Organization</a> also recommends parenting interventions because they strengthen the parent-child relationship, assist with alternatives to <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/harsh-discipline-increases-risk-of-children-developing-lasting-mental-health-problems">violent discipline</a> and reduce emotional problem behaviours in children. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/1-in-4-adults-think-smacking-is-necessary-to-properly-raise-kids-but-attitudes-are-changing-218837">1 in 4 adults think smacking is necessary to 'properly raise' kids. But attitudes are changing</a>
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<h2>How do you access parent training?</h2>
<p>Most psychologists offer family training and will charge you the same fee as a normal session. </p>
<p>You can also upskill with the free <a href="https://www.triplep-parenting.net.au/qld-en/free-parenting-courses/triple-p-online-under-12/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAiAvdCrBhBREiwAX6-6UlIdcIunlsTq4iB0-J6xZN1Bl3wA1Dj9bmN6GuXUG_InDq5HeYHPSxoCjuIQAvD_BwE#au-parents-register-now">Triple P Parenting Program</a> online. </p>
<p>Happy Families also has an online <a href="https://www.happyfamilies.com.au/shop/product/pin-parenting-adhd-the-course">parenting ADHD course</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Mother sits on laptop in doorway" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">You can do parent training online.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/a-woman-sitting-on-the-floor-using-a-laptop-ddcLX7Iis44">Surface/Unsplash</a></span>
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<p>Bond University researchers are also conducting a free, <a href="https://research.bond.edu.au/en/persons/cher-mcgillivray/?_ga=2.48431014.1617715341.1703022536-540923691.1665619219">online group parenting program</a>, which includes positive parenting skills. This will be part of a randomised control trial to develop an evidenced-based parenting intervention.</p>
<p>The aim with all of these programs is to better understand the child’s life and have <a href="https://self-compassion.org/wp-content/uploads/publications/GilbertCFT.pdf">compassionate</a> responses to their ADHD and behavioural symptoms. So rather than just focusing on their behaviour – which is an outward expression of an inward emotion – it encourages parents to embrace their uniqueness and help them in their struggles. </p>
<h2>How else can you support your child with ADHD?</h2>
<p>Set <a href="https://drsharonsaline.com/2021/05/18/parenting-older-teens-with-adhd-land-the-helicopter-and-focus-on-scaffolding/">boundaries</a> and be clear about your expectations, but also be compassionate to your child and pick your battles.</p>
<p>Break instructions into simple tasks and allow them to choose and focus on one thing they’re struggling with at a time. Brainstorm what they need to improve, or an area that frustrates them. This will often be organisation, time management and planning. Ask how you can help and stay calm. Celebrate the small wins along the way. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/my-kid-is-biting-hitting-and-kicking-im-at-my-wits-end-what-can-i-do-194639">My kid is biting, hitting and kicking. I’m at my wit’s end, what can I do?</a>
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<p>Be curious and seek to understand and connect with your child. Even though your relationship may feel strained or disconnected at times, remember disagreement need not destabilise the relationship. Children express their full emotions, without restraint, among people they feel most safe with. </p>
<p>Finally, ensure you look after yourself, connect with other parents who can support you. Try not to place your anxiety, stress and fears onto your child. Talk to a friend or psychologist so your child feels safe and able to share anything with you and knows you will cope.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217381/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cher McGillivray does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Raising children with behavioural, developmental or learning difficulties can also make parenting more challenging. So how can parent training help?Cher McGillivray, Assistant Professor Psychology Department, Bond UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1943362023-02-14T19:10:55Z2023-02-14T19:10:55ZHow to get your kids to talk about their feelings<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508535/original/file-20230207-15-wxxd4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=190%2C595%2C7285%2C4702&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/1wAGVmYBxwQ">Annie Spratt/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.paulekman.com/universal-emotions/">Emotions</a> are core to our human experience, but seeing “negative” emotions in our children – anger, fear, jealousy, envy, sadness, resentment – can make us uncomfortable. </p>
<p>Strong emotions in our kids may trigger our own emotional reactions, and we may feel lost about the best way to respond. </p>
<p>Many of today’s adults grew up not talking about emotions. But as modern parents, we’re told we need to teach our children about their feelings to build their resilience. So how can you encourage your children to talk about their feelings?</p>
<p>Research shows kids learn about emotions in four key ways: our parenting, how we explicitly teach them, our behaviour and the family environment. </p>
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<p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/my-kid-is-biting-hitting-and-kicking-im-at-my-wits-end-what-can-i-do-194639">My kid is biting, hitting and kicking. I’m at my wit’s end, what can I do?</a>
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<h2>1) Our parenting helps kids name, express and manage emotions</h2>
<p>As parents, we play an important role in helping children name, express and manage their emotions. </p>
<p>But this is often not easy. We might be comfortable teaching our children to recognise when they are hungry, tired and thirsty, but be focused on stopping children’s sadness, fears or anger, rather than on teaching about these emotions. </p>
<p>Everyone feels a range of emotions, and the “negative” emotions are not inherently bad. Emotions are signals that are important for our survival and help us to understand ourselves and our world. Children often “act out” their emotions, rather than talking about how they feel. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Dad talks to his son about emotions" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508538/original/file-20230207-17-2ev0fv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508538/original/file-20230207-17-2ev0fv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508538/original/file-20230207-17-2ev0fv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508538/original/file-20230207-17-2ev0fv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508538/original/file-20230207-17-2ev0fv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508538/original/file-20230207-17-2ev0fv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508538/original/file-20230207-17-2ev0fv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Everyone feels a range of emotions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/eyfaunEy9dM">Max Harlynking/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When we teach kids that all emotions are healthy, they learn to trust themselves, feel more comfortable sharing their feelings, and view emotions as brief experiences that pass. </p>
<p>So, what should we say in the moment?</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Start by describing what you see or observe. “You sound sad/angry?” or “You are looking a little quiet.” </p></li>
<li><p>We often don’t know exactly what our child is feeling. Be tentative and check: “You look frustrated, is that right?”</p></li>
<li><p>Validate: “That situation was really hard, no wonder you’re frustrated.”</p></li>
<li><p>When our child is upset, we don’t need to say much. Try to listen and connect through eye contact and gentle touch. As University of Houston professor of social work and author <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KZBTYViDPlQ&ab_channel=DianaSimonPsihoterapeut">Brené Brown</a> reminds us, it is not about having the right words, but instead about offering support and connection.</p></li>
<li><p>Avoid trying to fix (problem-solve) or distract your child when they are emotional. Support kids to acknowledge and “sit with” their feelings.</p></li>
<li><p>Older children and teens may learn how to start masking their emotions, so we might only see their challenging behaviours. Imagine their behaviour is the tip of an iceberg, caused by emotions under the surface. Try connecting with their emotion rather than focusing only on the behaviour, “You slammed your door, are you feeling upset?” </p></li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508512/original/file-20230206-17-pymzdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Picture of an iceberg submerged in water, with the word " src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508512/original/file-20230206-17-pymzdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508512/original/file-20230206-17-pymzdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=731&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508512/original/file-20230206-17-pymzdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=731&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508512/original/file-20230206-17-pymzdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=731&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508512/original/file-20230206-17-pymzdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=919&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508512/original/file-20230206-17-pymzdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=919&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508512/original/file-20230206-17-pymzdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=919&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Challenging behaviours are often just the tip of the iceberg. Recognising what lies beneath the surface can help children learn about emotions and identify important needs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Teachers Tuning in to Kids/Tuning in to Teens Whole
School Approach</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2) Parents can explicitly teach kids about emotions</h2>
<p>When everyone’s calm (<em>not</em> when you or your child are upset), we can teach kids about emotions. </p>
<p>We can start conversations about emotions based on almost anything your child is interested in, a TV show, video game, movie, or book they’re reading. A great movie for starting the conversation is <a href="https://www.pixar.com/feature-films/inside-out">Inside Out</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/inside-out-shows-well-being-isnt-just-about-chasing-happiness-43629">Inside Out shows well-being isn't just about chasing happiness</a>
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<p>Watching emotions in fictional characters normalises emotions as a universal experience and helps kids to recognise more subtle types of emotions and different ways to express and manage emotions.</p>
<p>For older kids who’ve become more self-conscious, try having these discussions when not directly looking at them, in the car, or during an activity (walking, kicking a ball, watching a movie together). Some kids open up more at bedtime. Try to listen more and talk less.</p>
<h2>3) Children watch and learn from us</h2>
<p>Many of us grew up in families where parents did not teach us about emotions, or they were poor role models for expressing emotions in healthy ways. </p>
<p>If this is the case, it’s common to view emotions as bad and unhelpful, and believe it’s not good to dwell on feelings.</p>
<p>As a result, it can be hard to watch our children experiencing strong negative emotions. If you’re feeling triggered by your child’s emotion, it will help to pause. You can leave the room if necessary. It’s healthy to role-model to kids taking a break when we feel overwhelmed. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Mother and child walk" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508533/original/file-20230207-25-n2ozy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1388%2C2000%2C1607&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508533/original/file-20230207-25-n2ozy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508533/original/file-20230207-25-n2ozy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508533/original/file-20230207-25-n2ozy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508533/original/file-20230207-25-n2ozy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1129&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508533/original/file-20230207-25-n2ozy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1129&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508533/original/file-20230207-25-n2ozy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1129&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Parents can explain how they were feeling in certain situations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/RRZM3cwS1DU">James Wheeler/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If we make a mistake as parents and act in ways we’re not proud of, this is a great opportunity to model to our kids how to make amends. </p>
<p>Explain what you were feeling, that your actions were not okay, and apologise. This gives kids a template for making amends themselves, which is a critical relationship skill. </p>
<p>If you often struggle managing your own emotions, learning about emotions is a good start. Two great books are: </p>
<ol>
<li><a href="https://www.marcbrackett.com/">Permission to Feel</a> (Marc Brackett)</li>
<li><a href="https://www.booktopia.com.au/the-a-to-z-of-feelings-andrew-fuller/book/9780645069013.html">The A to Z of Feelings</a> (Andrew Fuller and Sam Fuller). </li>
</ol>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/anxiety-can-look-different-in-children-heres-what-to-look-for-and-some-treatments-to-consider-189685">Anxiety can look different in children. Here's what to look for and some treatments to consider</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4) Kids are affected by relationships in the family</h2>
<p>Emotions are contagious. Kids are affected by other relationships in the family, including conflict between parents. </p>
<p>Remember, conflict is a healthy human experience and cannot be eliminated.
Instead, it’s important to show kids healthy conflict, where we all express emotions in a respectful way. </p>
<p>It’s also important that kids see healthy conflict resolution. </p>
<h2>Where can you get help?</h2>
<p>Here are three evidence-based parenting programs focused on helping parents teach children about emotions:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://tuningintokids.org.au/parents/">Tuning in to Kids/Teens</a> focuses on the emotional connection between parents/carers and their children, from toddlers to teens</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://partnersinparenting.com.au/">Partners in Parenting</a> is designed to help you raise your teenager 12-17 years to prevent depression and anxiety</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://thisparentinglife.com.au/circle-of-security-parenting-online/">Circle Of Security Parenting</a> improves child development by strengthening the parent-child attachment when children are aged 0-12 years.</p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194336/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Associate Professor Elizabeth Westrupp receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC, GNT2019442)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Christiane Kehoe is co-author on the Tuning in to Kids suite of programs and receives royalties from the sale of the facilitator manuals used by clinicians who deliver the parenting groups. </span></em></p>Many of us grew up not talking about emotions. But as modern parents, we’re told we need to teach our children about their feelings to build their resilience. So how do we do it?Elizabeth Westrupp, Associate Professor in Psychology, Deakin UniversityChristiane Kehoe, Research manager and program specialist Tuning in to Kids, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1946392023-01-30T05:11:15Z2023-01-30T05:11:15ZMy kid is biting, hitting and kicking. I’m at my wit’s end, what can I do?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501758/original/file-20221219-19457-9b00op.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=166%2C1107%2C7773%2C4190&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/angry-little-kid-screaming-throwing-tantrum-1988939702">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Everyone with young children experiences parenting challenges. And these are often exacerbated by parental exhaustion, financial or relationship difficulties, and work stress. </p>
<p>I’m a clinical child psychologist who runs a clinic for parents experiencing difficulty parenting young children. One of the first questions parents ask us is “do I need help?” </p>
<p>If there is more stress than enjoyment for you in being a parent, or you are becoming increasingly reactive or angry, or struggling to find things that work in your situation, the answer may be “yes”.</p>
<p>When parents come and see us, they might tell us their child is kicking or biting or screaming. Or they might say their child is anxious, worried or reticent. They might also say they’re getting angry and yelling at their child. </p>
<p>From <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/353308">decades</a> of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202855">research</a>, we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2018.07.900">know</a> there is every chance we can improve these things. And the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003602">earlier</a> we start, the better the outcomes.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-nurse-home-visits-stop-a-few-weeks-after-giving-birth-extending-them-to-2-years-benefits-the-whole-family-194643">Why do nurse home visits stop a few weeks after giving birth? Extending them to 2 years benefits the whole family</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What is the science behind parenting?</h2>
<p>Parents who seek help are often referred into evidence-based parenting programs. </p>
<p>The scientific evidence shows babies are born with a genetic blueprint that determines who they will become. But even identical twins arrive with unique <a href="https://youtu.be/EmctxRcmloc">temperaments</a> – the outward expression of who they are.</p>
<p>A child’s genetics and temperament are also influenced by their developmental environment. From a child’s earliest days, the experiences they have with their parents and carers <a href="https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/5-steps-for-brain-building-serve-and-return/">influence</a> much of their social, emotional, behavioural and cognitive development.</p>
<p>Parents and carers are the most important people in their child’s life, and their attention is hugely <a href="https://ruthfeldmanlab.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/biobehavioral-synchrony.SRCD-Monograph-2012.pdf">reinforcing</a> for the child – they are built to receive it, and develop as a result.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man holds child" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501820/original/file-20221219-26-3x959m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501820/original/file-20221219-26-3x959m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501820/original/file-20221219-26-3x959m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501820/original/file-20221219-26-3x959m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501820/original/file-20221219-26-3x959m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501820/original/file-20221219-26-3x959m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501820/original/file-20221219-26-3x959m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Parents and caregivers are the most important people in their child’s life.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/Hl0LUewiBoo">Zach Callahan/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>I do need help!</h2>
<p>It’s important families get assistance from someone who is experienced and qualified to treat parenting difficulties. </p>
<p>But here’s how we work with families who are experiencing difficulties. </p>
<p><strong>1) How were you parented?</strong></p>
<p>We first ask parents who come to see us what their <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4668327/">experience of being parented</a> was like. </p>
<p>Sometimes they tell us it wasn’t good and now they are getting angry just like their parents did. </p>
<p>Other times, we hear parents are so determined not to be like their parents that they have made no rules or routine. </p>
<p>Sometimes we see kids who worry, who are anxious or clingy – and we see their parents working hard to protect them from the things they worry about. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/having-problems-with-your-kids-tantrums-bed-wetting-or-withdrawal-heres-when-to-get-help-125299">Having problems with your kid's tantrums, bed-wetting or withdrawal? Here's when to get help</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>When parents come to us wanting to change their child’s behaviour, change generally has to start with them – and their relationship with their child. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Mum helps child cook a pasta sauce" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502014/original/file-20221219-22-vvvucz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502014/original/file-20221219-22-vvvucz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502014/original/file-20221219-22-vvvucz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502014/original/file-20221219-22-vvvucz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502014/original/file-20221219-22-vvvucz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502014/original/file-20221219-22-vvvucz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502014/original/file-20221219-22-vvvucz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The change starts with the parent’s relationship with their child.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/UX87Pz74ukY">Unsplash/Brooke Lark</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>2) How reactive has the family become?</strong></p>
<p>We work to calm parents who are yelling or getting angry by teaching them ways to calm and allocate their attention away from things that cause them anger. </p>
<p>Children who see parents regulate their emotions <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/01650254211051086">learn to regulate their own emotions</a> and are better able to control their own behaviour. </p>
<p>Unregulated emotions, on the other hand, might result in the child hitting, biting and kicking because they’re unable to calm themselves down, or because hitting, biting and kicking ensure their parents will interact with them. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-i-dont-wanna-wahhhh-a-parents-guide-to-managing-tantrums-87175">'No, I don't wanna... wahhhh!' A parent's guide to managing tantrums</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>3) What are the desirable behaviours you’d like to see?</strong></p>
<p>We want to know about everything the child does that their parents regard as desirable. </p>
<p>Parents can usually identify things they like – but sometimes they say there is no desirable behaviour. I don’t think I’ve ever seen a child who only behaves badly.</p>
<p>Desirable might mean an anxious child behaving without worry. For a child who runs around causing mayhem, desirable might be seeing them sitting down, concentrating on colouring in. For a child who has meltdowns, desirable might be whenever parents realise the meltdown is starting to calm.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Child helps sibling up" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501821/original/file-20221219-12-43jxc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501821/original/file-20221219-12-43jxc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501821/original/file-20221219-12-43jxc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501821/original/file-20221219-12-43jxc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501821/original/file-20221219-12-43jxc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501821/original/file-20221219-12-43jxc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501821/original/file-20221219-12-43jxc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Think about what behaviours you’d like to see.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/9VpI3gQ1iUo">Annie Spratt/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>4) How can you reward desirable behaviour?</strong></p>
<p>We ask parents to develop new habits: we ask them to start commenting on and responding in “relationally rich” ways to all the desirable things their child does. Relationally rich means parents use verbal, physical and facial responses to the child’s desirable behaviour, so it increases.</p>
<p>Think about a see-saw. At one end of the see-saw is desirable behaviour and we want to see that go up. At the other end is undesirable behaviour and we want to see that go down. We know, for most families, if parents increase their engagement of the child’s desirable behaviour, it will increase.</p>
<p>If you’re concerned about a child in your family, start by discussing getting assistance. This might be from a family GP or from a clinical psychology practice that specialises in parenting. Remember, if you need assistance, consult someone who is experienced and qualified to provide it. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/evidence-based-parenting-how-to-deal-with-aggression-tantrums-and-defiance-95439">Evidence-based parenting: how to deal with aggression, tantrums and defiance</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194639/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John McAloon is a clinical child psychologist who runs a clinic for parents who are experiencing difficulty parenting young children at a University in Sydney.</span></em></p>There is every chance your situation can improve. And the earlier you start, the better the outcomes.John McAloon, Senior Lecturer, Graduate School of Health, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1871752022-07-21T03:16:38Z2022-07-21T03:16:38ZHow to deal with hangry kids and reduce the chances of it happening again – 3 tips from nutrition experts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474751/original/file-20220719-92275-hvzp5p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C83%2C7916%2C5214&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Like adults, children can get “<a href="https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/hangry">hangry</a>” – a combination of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/jul/06/being-hangry-is-a-real-thing-psychologists-find-link-between-hunger-and-emotions">angry and hungry</a>. <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0269629">Hangriness</a> may be caused by blood glucose levels dropping, leading to irritability, bad mood, anger or tantrums.</p>
<p>Children have smaller stomachs than adults so may become hungry again sooner. Some may not notice they’ve become very hungry until the moment of crisis.</p>
<p>So, what can parents do when hangriness strikes – and reduce the risk of it happening again?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-the-science-of-hangry-or-why-some-people-get-grumpy-when-theyre-hungry-37229">Health Check: the science of 'hangry', or why some people get grumpy when they're hungry</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474753/original/file-20220719-92480-zmx8jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474753/original/file-20220719-92480-zmx8jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474753/original/file-20220719-92480-zmx8jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474753/original/file-20220719-92480-zmx8jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474753/original/file-20220719-92480-zmx8jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474753/original/file-20220719-92480-zmx8jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474753/original/file-20220719-92480-zmx8jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474753/original/file-20220719-92480-zmx8jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Children may become hungry again sooner than their parents.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s really going on?</h2>
<p>First: is your child really hangry, or just angry? Feeding straight away isn’t always the answer. Ask yourself:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>how long has it been since they last slept, and how was last night’s sleep? If they’re actually tired, a storybook, toy or cuddle might do. Consider whether their next meal can be earlier today – before they’re too tired to eat.</p></li>
<li><p>has anything else upset them? If so, act on this, rather than using food to distract or soothe.</p></li>
<li><p>how long has it been since they last ate? Did you miss a meal in the parenting rush? It happens! Maybe it’s time to pause for a <a href="https://raisingchildren.net.au/school-age/nutrition-fitness/daily-food-guides/school-age-food-groups">healthy snack</a>.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>If it’s not long until lunch or dinner, you could:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>just wait</p></li>
<li><p>let them start on the vegetable component of the meal, or</p></li>
<li><p>snack on some easy veggies (of age-appropriate texture) like a carrot, capsicum or cucumber.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Dinner could be trickier if they’ve filled up on yoghurt or biscuits, so try not to serve things they love (other than veggies) at this time.</p>
<p>If your child complains of hunger but only wants a particular food or refuses veggies, consider whether they really are hungry.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474755/original/file-20220719-72671-r7okyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474755/original/file-20220719-72671-r7okyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474755/original/file-20220719-72671-r7okyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474755/original/file-20220719-72671-r7okyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474755/original/file-20220719-72671-r7okyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474755/original/file-20220719-72671-r7okyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474755/original/file-20220719-72671-r7okyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474755/original/file-20220719-72671-r7okyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Has anything else upset your child? If so, act on that.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Try not to get foods and emotions too entwined</h2>
<p>Many adults struggle with overeating to manage their emotions, a behaviour often <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28831105">learned in childhood</a>.</p>
<p>It’s important to find other ways of improving moods so children don’t learn to rely on foods to manage emotions. Explore other activities like listening to music, playing, or having a cuddle. We can also teach children other non food-based ways to manage their emotions, such as <a href="https://growingearlyminds.org.au/tips/mindfulness-for-kids-four-easy-mindfulness-exercises-for-children/">mindfulness</a> and deep breathing. </p>
<p>Using food as a reward or to calm can also lead to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.13341">emotional eating</a>. This may increase children consuming foods irrespective of hunger. </p>
<p>On the other hand, overly restricting food can have unintended effects and lead to emotional eating.</p>
<h2>3 ways to reduce hangriness risk</h2>
<p><strong>1. Maintain a regular eating routine</strong></p>
<p>For most young children, <a href="https://doh.health.tas.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/81769/Web_lady_gowrie_booklet.pdf">three meals and two snacks a day</a> works well. Having these at predictable times helps children learn to eat at meal times and be able to wait until the next meal.</p>
<p>Try to limit grazing. Grazing can set up a cycle where children aren’t hungry at meal times, so eat little, but then become hungry (or hangry) again soon after.</p>
<p>This can frustrate parents who’ve prepared a meal that isn’t eaten, and then feel pressured to prepare extra foods between meals. Grazing, even on nutritious foods, can also contribute to <a href="https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/health-daily-care/dental-care/tooth-decay">tooth decay</a>.</p>
<p><strong>2. Include foods that help children feel fuller for longer</strong></p>
<p>Try to serve nutritious, substantial snacks. Including some protein and carbohydrates can help maintain their energy levels from one meal to the next.</p>
<p>Try natural yoghurt, milk, hummus, nuts/nut butter (of age-appropriate texture), eggs, oat muesli or wholegrain bread, to go with fruit or veggie snacks.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474756/original/file-20220719-91744-ae4j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474756/original/file-20220719-91744-ae4j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474756/original/file-20220719-91744-ae4j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474756/original/file-20220719-91744-ae4j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474756/original/file-20220719-91744-ae4j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474756/original/file-20220719-91744-ae4j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474756/original/file-20220719-91744-ae4j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474756/original/file-20220719-91744-ae4j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hummus can be paired with veggie snacks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>3. Encourage children to pay attention to their hunger and fullness cues</strong></p>
<p>It can be tempting to pressure kids to eat more at mealtimes, or offer different foods if they reject what’s served.</p>
<p>But this is unlikely to help in the long run and can create a rod for your own back. It can turn mealtimes into a battle and parents into short-order chefs.</p>
<p>Pressuring children to eat can override their ability to self-regulate; they can get into a habit of overeating instead of listening to their hunger and fullness cues.</p>
<p>“<a href="https://raisingchildren.net.au/preschoolers/nutrition-fitness/healthy-eating-habits/healthy-eating-habits">Parents provide, kids decide</a>” reminds us a parent’s role is to provide nutritious foods at regular intervals; it’s the child’s role to decide <em>how much</em> to eat.</p>
<p>If you include something at each mealtime you know your child will eat, such as a favourite vegetable, then they’ll likely eat something if they are hungry.</p>
<p>If they really don’t want to eat then maybe they aren’t hungry, and that’s OK.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474760/original/file-20220719-26-ug93mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474760/original/file-20220719-26-ug93mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474760/original/file-20220719-26-ug93mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474760/original/file-20220719-26-ug93mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474760/original/file-20220719-26-ug93mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474760/original/file-20220719-26-ug93mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474760/original/file-20220719-26-ug93mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474760/original/file-20220719-26-ug93mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Parents provide, kids decide.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other <a href="https://www.cookwelleatwell.org.au/products/feeding-kids-tips-1">tips</a> include eating together, eating the same foods, modelling enjoyment of those foods, and turning screens off while eating.</p>
<p>This is general advice for healthy children, but some may have more interest or enjoyment in food, or be more fussy, and may be particularly prone to difficult behaviour when hungry. If your child experiences severe fussiness, restricted eating, or you have concerns about their nutrition or health, speak with your child health nurse, doctor, or accredited practising dietitian.</p>
<p>If you are finding it financially difficult to get enough nutritious food for your family, support is available to <a href="https://askizzy.org.au/">access food</a> and <a href="https://www.cookwelleatwell.org.au/collections/consumer-recipes">low cost recipes</a>.</p>
<p>A well child’s health and nutrition is unlikely to suffer with occasional short bouts of hunger. </p>
<p>Yes, hangriness happens occasionally (it’s normal for children to test the boundaries!). But it’s OK to stay firm and ride it out. With an eating routine there’s another meal not too far away.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/kids-diets-and-screen-time-to-set-up-good-habits-make-healthy-choices-the-default-at-home-114827">Kids' diets and screen time: to set up good habits, make healthy choices the default at home</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187175/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alison Spence is a member of Dietitians Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alissa Burnett is a member of the Nutrition Society of Australia</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Georgie Russell is a member of the Nutrition Society of Australia and the Australian and New Zealand Obesity Society. </span></em></p>First, check if your child is really hangry, or just angry. Feeding straight away isn’t always the answer.Alison Spence, Senior Lecturer in Nutrition and Population Health, Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), Deakin UniversityAlissa Burnett, Lecturer in Nutrition Sciences, Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin UniversityGeorgie Russell, Senior Lecturer, Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1481572020-10-21T14:55:45Z2020-10-21T14:55:45ZHow your behaviour in childhood predicts whether you’ll be in a relationship as an adult<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363788/original/file-20201015-15-2b4eys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C104%2C1967%2C1368&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children perceived as kind and considerate were more likely to form sustained partnerships. Anxious children were more likely to be unpartnered in early adulthood.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The question of how to find a steady romantic partnership is among the oldest human predicaments. There is consequently considerable interest in what factors might <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/communication-success/201302/7-predictors-long-term-relationship-success">predict partnership success</a>. Traits like warmth, conscientiousness, agreeableness and trust <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-science-love/201903/the-3-things-people-look-in-ideal-partner">all seem to matter</a>. But can behaviour in childhood predict your future partnering prospects?</p>
<p>In a new study <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13329">published with my colleagues in <em>Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry</em></a> we show that children rated by their elementary schoolteachers as being anxious or inattentive were more likely to remain unpartnered from age 18 to 35 years. Children rated as aggressive-oppositional — those who fight, bully and disobey — were more likely to separate and return to unpartnered status. Conversely, prosocial children, who were rated as being kind, helpful and considerate, showed earlier and more sustained partnerships across early adulthood.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Image of a woman and a man holding hands, cropped to focus on their linked hands." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363809/original/file-20201015-15-dzbvim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363809/original/file-20201015-15-dzbvim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363809/original/file-20201015-15-dzbvim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363809/original/file-20201015-15-dzbvim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363809/original/file-20201015-15-dzbvim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363809/original/file-20201015-15-dzbvim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363809/original/file-20201015-15-dzbvim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Romantic partnership is associated with a happier, longer life.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/Nappy)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The study suggests that the seeds of future partnering patterns are planted early and are visible even before adolescence. This has important implications for children with behavioural difficulties, who already <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12850">face many life challenges</a> from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.1326">unemployment to lower earnings</a>. If they can be identified by teachers, then it may be possible to flag them for assessment and support and improve their life chances.</p>
<p>Good partnerships offer many advantages. They provide emotional support, co-parenting opportunities and socioeconomic security, and can lead to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20433633/">developmental</a> <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1948550614566092">maturation</a> including reduced neuroticism and increased extraversion and self-esteem.</p>
<p>Partnership buffers against the harmful <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-66">effects of stress</a>, protects against mid-life <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2015-207051">alcohol and tobacco use</a>, enhances mental health and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1633144100">well-being</a> and is associated with a healthier, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316">longer life</a>. Although the health benefits may not be entirely causal, since happier, healthier individuals might be “selected” into partnership, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.001">they appear to be</a> at least <a href="https://aspe.hhs.gov/report/effects-marriage-health-synthesis-recent-research-evidence-research-brief">partially</a> <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=735205">causal</a>.</p>
<h2>Why we conducted the study</h2>
<p>Previous research has shown that childhood psychiatric disorders like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1087054715587099">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9565-8">conduct disorder</a> are associated with future partnership difficulties, including intimate partner violence and lower relationship satisfaction. We were interested in whether common childhood behaviours — including prosocial traits — would predict future partnership stability for children without clinical diagnoses.</p>
<p>Our study was based on analysis of nearly 3,000 Canadian children who were rated by teachers for behaviours like inattention, hyperactivity, aggression, opposition, anxiety and prosociality at age 10, 11 and 12 years and then followed up into adulthood so we could examine their anonymized tax return records.</p>
<p>Since Canadian tax regulations require people who are married or cohabiting to report this status in their tax returns, we were able to statistically identify groups of participants who followed common patterns of partnering. We then linked them with their earlier behavioural ratings. We controlled for participants’ socioeconomic status because some studies show <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/pmc/pmc4907882">this can influence</a> partnering patterns. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363801/original/file-20201015-21-145ex2a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graph with multiple lines showing different partnership trajectories." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363801/original/file-20201015-21-145ex2a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363801/original/file-20201015-21-145ex2a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363801/original/file-20201015-21-145ex2a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363801/original/file-20201015-21-145ex2a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363801/original/file-20201015-21-145ex2a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363801/original/file-20201015-21-145ex2a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363801/original/file-20201015-21-145ex2a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Trajectories of partnership from age 18 to 35 years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Francis Vergunst)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found that participants who were predominantly unpartnered from age 18 to 35 years were significantly more likely to have been anxious children, while those who separated early (around age 28 years) and returned to unpartnered status were more likely to have been aggressive-oppositional children. Interestingly, children who were inattentive were more likely to have been in either the unpartnered group or the early separated group.</p>
<p>Participants in the unpartnered and separated groups fared poorly in other ways too: they were more likely to have left high school without a diploma, to have lower earnings and to be in receipt of welfare support. This raises important questions about what underlying factors might explain the link between childhood behaviour and future partnering patterns.</p>
<h2>Why behaviour matters for partnership</h2>
<p>Childhood behaviour could influence future partnering directly and indirectly. Behaviour is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-018-1258-1">relatively stable</a> <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-09436-001?doi=1">across development</a> so a direct influence might be the persistence of childhood behaviours — such as aggression or anxiety — into adulthood, which then influence the capacity to form and sustain stable partnerships.</p>
<p>Studies show that adults who are low in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190127">agreeableness</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-020-0383-z">conscientiousness and emotional stability</a>, as measured by the <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/amp0000503">big five personality structures</a>, have less satisfying and more tumultuous relationships, and this could undermine relationship stability.</p>
<p>Indirect influences on partnership involve intermediate events, such as employment status or earnings, which have a knock-on effect on accumulation of <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2657557?seq=1">human capital</a> that contributes to the perceived <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0956797620904154">attractiveness of a partner</a>. For instance, children with disruptive and inattentive behavioural problems typically have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00013">fewer friends</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-016-0843-4">under-perform</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10121732">at school</a>, are more likely to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2012.87">abuse substances</a> and to have lower earnings and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719002058">higher welfare receipt</a> as adults — all of which could undermine their capacity to attract and retain romantic partners as adults.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A Black boy wearing glasses in a green T-shirt laughing and holding a green and while soccer ball." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363811/original/file-20201015-17-s16kgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363811/original/file-20201015-17-s16kgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363811/original/file-20201015-17-s16kgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363811/original/file-20201015-17-s16kgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363811/original/file-20201015-17-s16kgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1133&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363811/original/file-20201015-17-s16kgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1133&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363811/original/file-20201015-17-s16kgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1133&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Children perceived to be kind, helpful and considerate had earlier and more sustained partnerships in early adulthood.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/CDC)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The finding that prosocial children have more stable and sustained partnerships is perhaps unsurprising. They typically have better peer <a href="https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00308.x">relations</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00260">academic attainment</a> in childhood and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.1326">higher earnings</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F147470490700500205">perceived attractiveness</a> in adulthood, which should enhance their appeal to prospective partners.</p>
<h2>Mind the hitch</h2>
<p>This study should not be understood as a normative argument for partnership, implying that people <em>should</em> be partnered or that “longer is better.” Such decisions are highly personal and depend on individual preferences, life goals, financial circumstances, professional ambitions and so on.</p>
<p>Rather, we note that <a href="https://www.childtrends.org/publications/young-adult-attitudes-about-relationships-and-marriage-times-may-have-changed-but-expectations-remain-high">most people</a> do wish to partner, and that partnership may confer important health and well-being benefits, so the persistence of early untreated behavioural difficulties should not become an obstacle to establishing stable partnerships in adulthood.</p>
<p>One limitation of this study is that we examined only whether participants were partnered, not the quality of those partnerships. This should be explored in future studies, since children with behavioural problems are likely to have both less stable and less satisfying partnerships.</p>
<h2>Supporting children</h2>
<p>Successful partnerships are determined by a multitude of <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/insight-therapy/201412/laws-attraction-how-do-we-select-life-partner">individual and contextual factors</a>, and early behaviours are just one piece of the puzzle. Our study shows, once again, that children with behavioural difficulties face many challenges that cascade across their lives, and this includes marginalization from partnership.</p>
<p>Early monitoring and support are crucial and prevention programs that target children’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2017-102862">disruptive</a>, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2019-300096">anxious</a> and <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/333/6045/959.long">inattentive behaviours</a> — and promote <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x">social-emotional skills</a> — <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9300-6">can produce lasting effects</a> with benefits for individuals, families and society. After all, there are many reasons to encourage good behaviour.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148157/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Francis Vergunst receives funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) and Fonds de Recherche du Québec Santé (FRQS).</span></em></p>New research suggests that the seeds of future romantic partnering patterns are planted in childhood and are visible even before adolescence.Francis Vergunst, Postdoctoral Fellow in Developmental Public Health, Université de MontréalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1295102020-02-11T11:56:04Z2020-02-11T11:56:04ZVictorian attitudes can still be found in child protection services today<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313310/original/file-20200203-41476-wkkbf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C326%2C2000%2C1985&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lonely-boy-park-black-white-photo-46626301">Shutterstock/vladm</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The second half of the 19th century saw the rise of the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/chso.12237">child rescue movement</a> and philanthropic voluntary agencies which provided institutional care and support for the poor, destitute and orphaned young. It was influenced by <a href="https://leicester.figshare.com/articles/Punishing_paupers_Control_discipline_and_mental_health_in_the_Southwell_workhouse_1836_71_/11335634">government welfare policy</a>, which focused on separating the “deserving” of help from the “undeserving”, as set out in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bjsw/article/46/1/1/2495107">1834 Poor Law</a>.</p>
<p>There is no doubt that measures to promote child welfare have developed and evolved over the past 100 years. However, there are practices and perceptions in the way child protection and safeguarding is carried out today <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/3/4/854/htm">which have roots in the 19th-century</a> child rescue movement. </p>
<h2>‘Problematic’ children</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0145213419301875?via%3Dihub">My research</a> looks at how the idea of who does and doesn’t deserve help from the state persists in the modern era. It shows that both in the late Victorian and Edwardian era and in current times, mental health issues and bad behaviour in children can lead to stigmas around “problematic children” who are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0145213419301875?via%3Dihub">beyond help</a>.</p>
<p>I compared information from two sources. The first was 46 interviews with young care leavers and adults involved in safeguarding them conducted between 2015 and 2018. The second was 108 case files of children taken into care by the Children’s Society (formerly known as the Waifs and Strays Society) between 1881 and 1918. In both data sets, children with behavioural and mental health issues were considered “problematic”. They and their families were viewed as responsible and undeserving of help.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313507/original/file-20200204-41476-1wv7dyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313507/original/file-20200204-41476-1wv7dyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313507/original/file-20200204-41476-1wv7dyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313507/original/file-20200204-41476-1wv7dyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313507/original/file-20200204-41476-1wv7dyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313507/original/file-20200204-41476-1wv7dyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313507/original/file-20200204-41476-1wv7dyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stigma remains around bad behaviour.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lonely-man-leaning-against-urban-wall-488547841">Shutterstock/tommaso79</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Take for example the case of a six-year-old girl taken into care in 1892 and sent to a children’s home. In 1898 (when she was 12) she is described as “having no control over herself and at times very violent” and that she is “silly and childish in behaviour and very idle”. There is reference to her being insane and that “this case will inevitably have to be dealt with by the Poor Law authorities”. </p>
<p>Fast forward 123 years. A young care leaver aged 21, who had spent time in children’s homes and foster care, is described as “extremely complicated” and “difficult” with mental health issues that have “gone on for an extremely long time”. Interviews with safeguarding practitioners flag up something else, namely that this young person “had a rough time in care and just needs someone to support him”, but also that staff are unable or even unwilling to provide support: “We can’t support young people like him”. </p>
<p>In both cases, the way in which children act out their trauma and their associated behaviour has become the problem, rather than the trauma itself and its causes. </p>
<h2>Beyond help?</h2>
<p>Another case is that of a girl taken into care in 1904, when she was four years old. In 1917, when she was 17, there is reference to her being “mentally deficient” and a report that she will be “handed over to the local infirmary so that she may be under observation”. The correspondence also includes reference to her behaviour. She showed “a furious outbreak of temper” and is “inclined to be sulky and morose, which somewhat handicaps her and makes her erratic and difficult”. </p>
<p>In 1918, the following was written in a letter from the Waifs and Strays Society: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>How exceedingly I regret that the girl should have proved more or less such a failure, after all the care that she has received during the many years she has been in the Society’s care. I can assure you that everything possible has been done for the girl and neither time, trouble or expense has been spared on her behalf, but it is very evident that she has strong hereditary tendencies of an unsatisfactory type.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>A similar trend can be seen in contemporary discussions around child behaviour. The conduct of a teenage boy had left staff at his school struggling to cope. In an interview, a member of staff at the school pointed out the number of his criminal offences, saying that it went beyond “a good kid doing one thing bad”, and instead characterising the boy as “criminal”. They further stated that “at some point, restorative [practice] is not good enough, it’s not working”.</p>
<p>As with the girl in the historic case, the child is held accountable and presented as beyond the help the school can offer: “Undeserving.” </p>
<p>The idea of a child being “beyond help” appeared in 46% of the 1881-1918 records which discussed children, and in 50% of the 2015-18 interviews with adult carers. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.childrenssociety.org.uk/sites/default/files/childrens-services-funding-csfa-briefing_final.pdf">Budget cuts and caps on resources</a> today, as well as stigma, mean that decisions tend to be made about who can or can’t be helped. </p>
<p>It is not only vulnerable children and families who suffer here. Despite <a href="http://orca.cf.ac.uk/17734/">examples of failure in practice</a>, most staff involved in the protection of children are committed to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0145213419301048">helping and supporting</a> those in their care. This is negatively affected by ongoing cuts to services, staff shortages and a lack of time to spend with families.</p>
<p>My research found that the “beyond help” narrative seems to be reserved for the children and young people with the most complex needs, and related behavioural and mental health issues. It is these particularly vulnerable children who end up being judged and held accountable for their behaviour.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/129510/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wendy Sims-Schouten receives funding from The Wellcome Trust </span></em></p>Considerations of whether children and young people are deserving of help are reminiscent of 19th-century approaches to child services.Wendy Sims-Schouten, Senior Lecturer Childhood Studies, University of PortsmouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1186062019-06-25T03:30:18Z2019-06-25T03:30:18ZCurious Kids: why can’t we do whatever we want?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279705/original/file-20190617-158931-edgghq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C5%2C1192%2C792&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Without rules, you would have a LOT of decisions to make every day. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/niklashellerstedt/2414448568/">Flickr/Niklas Hellerstedt</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to curiouskids@theconversation.edu.au You might also like the podcast <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/kidslisten/imagine-this/">Imagine This</a>, a co-production between ABC KIDS listen and The Conversation, based on Curious Kids.</em> </p>
<hr>
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<p><strong>Why can’t we do whatever we want? – Flynn, aged 6.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>Thanks, Flynn. That’s a really good question. When you are younger you can feel like all the rules around you are unfair. You may also feel like you don’t get much say in things. Doing whatever you want seems like a great idea! </p>
<p>You might wonder, what is the point of all these boring rules? Usually, Flynn, rules help us with two things: learning and staying safe.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-adults-think-video-games-are-bad-76699">Curious Kids: Why do adults think video games are bad?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Kids should make some decisions – but not all</h2>
<p>Let’s think about learning. When you are six, you are learning new things every day. I’m sure that if you think back to only a year ago you will realise how much you have changed! Many of those annoying rules that you worry about are there to help you to focus on learning and playing and having fun. </p>
<p>Without rules, you would have a lot of decisions to make every day. Too many decisions would get in the way of your learning and make you feel overloaded. Being in charge of a lot of decisions can sometimes be quite stressful and can sometimes make people feel worried and anxious. This is why it’s important to allow kids to make <em>some</em> decisions – but not all of them. </p>
<p>I also mentioned safety. While I am sure that you are very smart, there are a lot of things you don’t know about the world yet. These are the things that you will learn from now until you are a grown up, like how to drive a car, who to trust and how to spend your money wisely. </p>
<p>Until you know all these things, the rules are there to keep you safe. The rules make sure people always know where you are, that you won’t get hurt and that you get what you need to be happy and healthy in life.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280873/original/file-20190624-61756-10rf94d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280873/original/file-20190624-61756-10rf94d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280873/original/file-20190624-61756-10rf94d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280873/original/file-20190624-61756-10rf94d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280873/original/file-20190624-61756-10rf94d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280873/original/file-20190624-61756-10rf94d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280873/original/file-20190624-61756-10rf94d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280873/original/file-20190624-61756-10rf94d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We’ve all been there.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/chirag/2504941256/in/photolist-4PmtLm-a1suf2-bcc1wr-6EfAMk-X8f8PZ-acLcEu-acLctG-7Js8oS-7hy34m-tsQ4c-fCz5wF-6k8avj-da3ieo-cMQ66j-CW2SZ-9wRYn-bmdAE8-ezztgh-ofd8Nu-Hddbp-Hddik-4qsPju-cpmxFA-6hAXtz-6ck1Xm-7E1fKt-8Xx5uQ-38F1Tt-67Woo7-5Fou31-dz6nzX-Hddfn-6WSjCD-HjyLBP-5tbemb-fF1tEz-aqMZDn-e4CZUL-9pAxLL-aqMZDc-aqMZDa-66gaou-4S1s69-55Bvx8-8tX2KG-4GErVZ-6syeRH-66bVrD-2MgVu2-oardEo">Flickr/Chirag Rathod</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Your parents can relax the rules a little as you grow</h2>
<p>You may not know this yet, but the rules will also change as you get older. Think about the differences between now and when you were a toddler. </p>
<p>At six, you probably have a later bedtime, are allowed to watch more TV and do different things and have a lot more of your own friends. </p>
<p>This is because it is important to encourage children to take on more decisions as they get older. </p>
<p>Think of it like a ladder. You might not be at the top right now, but each new thing you learn takes you a step closer and means your parents can relax the rules a little. </p>
<p>Finally, I should say that the rules don’t go away completely even when you are a grown up. Grown ups still have to work and pay bills and follow the rules. Even we can’t do whatever we want!</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-are-robots-smarter-than-humans-110787">Curious Kids: are robots smarter than humans?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Have you got a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to curiouskids@theconversation.edu.au</em></p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p><em>Please tell us your name, age and which city you live in. We won’t be able to answer every question but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118606/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Associate Professor Jade Sheen has received several research grants from government bodies including the Office of Learning and Teaching and the Department of Health.
</span></em></p>Think of it like a ladder. You might not be at the top right now, but each new thing you learn takes you a step closer and means that your parents can relax the rules a little.Jade Sheen, Associate Professor, School of Psychology, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/944012018-06-26T04:51:06Z2018-06-26T04:51:06ZWhy do some people with autism have restricted interests and repetitive movements?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224825/original/file-20180626-19382-ka082i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Anxiety can drive obsessions and resistance to change.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/boy-counts-sticks-374827933?src=yv9Uc0Pd-gUl0g8pgwmO9w-1-95">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As a society, we’ve come a long way in our understanding of the challenges people with autism face with social communication. But there is a large gap in our understanding of another cluster of behaviours that form part of an autism diagnosis: restrictive and repetitive behaviours and interests (RRBs). </p>
<p>These behaviours and interests appear to be made up of two dimensions. The first is a pattern of overly regulated thinking: obsessions and intense interests; a strong preference for maintaining sameness; and ritualistic or habitual patterns of behaviour, such as fiddling, or motor tics like blinking or throat clearing. </p>
<p>The second dimension is the rocking, twisting, flapping behaviour often associated with early depictions of severe autism in the media. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-causes-autism-what-we-know-dont-know-and-suspect-53977">What causes autism? What we know, don’t know and suspect</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The origin, or function, of the behaviour in each dimension appear to be different. </p>
<p>And while behaviours in the first dimension are particular to autism, behaviours in the second are related to cognitive development and sensory stimulation. They are common in typically developing pre-school-age children but, when sustained past school age, <a href="https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/conceptualization-of-a-heuristic-to-predict-increase-in-restricted-and-repetitivebehaviour-in-asd-across-the-short-to-medium-term-2165-7890-1000200.php?aid=86558">may indicate</a> an intellectual disability.</p>
<h2>First dimension: thinking style</h2>
<p>Autism is a behavioural diagnosis. This means it is diagnosed by recognising the cluster of behaviours and the intensity and frequency of them. However, to understand how restrictive and repetitive behaviours and interests work, it’s important to understand the different thinking style associated with autism. </p>
<p>Contrasted with neurotypical thinkers (those without autism), people with autism have less abstract thought. They tend to be visual processors of information, with less strength in linguistic coding, or using language to explain their thoughts. </p>
<p>They are also less able to put themselves figuratively in other people’s shoes and guess what they’re thinking and feeling. </p>
<p>In effect, people with autism think of concrete stuff rather than the abstract self-talk related to feelings. Without a conscious effort, they’re less likely to generalise and have more difficulty recognising like or similar situations. The impact is a thinking style that is not concept-based but, rather, compartmentalised.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224831/original/file-20180626-19399-1199jip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224831/original/file-20180626-19399-1199jip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224831/original/file-20180626-19399-1199jip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224831/original/file-20180626-19399-1199jip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224831/original/file-20180626-19399-1199jip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224831/original/file-20180626-19399-1199jip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224831/original/file-20180626-19399-1199jip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People with autism generally have more structured thoughts than their neurotypical peers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/girl-doing-homework-520404748">Jacek Chabraszewski/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>When faced with change, the difficulty people with autism have in recognising like or similar experiences – out of their familiar thought compartment – results in anxiety. This anxiety is not labelled and, as an abstract concept, is not recognised. </p>
<p>The information that people with neurotypical patterns of thought take for granted, such as how people around them may be feeling and the link to expectations, is missing or dampened in people with autism.</p>
<h2>Second dimension: pushy anxiety and getting locked in</h2>
<p>Even though people with autism are more likely to think about concrete stuff rather than abstract feelings, anxiety still exists and, if not recognised, continues unmediated in the background. </p>
<p>Anxiety is a very pushy feeling. Think of the cave people and the flight or fight response. In more recent times, think of the thing that is created by deadlines and pushes you into activity when your threshold level has been reached. </p>
<p>When we recognise anxiety, we can get action-oriented, or we can choose to soothe the anxiety. If anxiety is operating in the background unrecognised, it continues to push and gain momentum. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-moving-autism-on-tv-beyond-the-genius-stereotype-76146">Friday essay: moving autism on TV beyond the genius stereotype</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For people with autism, this can push to obsessions and intense interests or provide the fuel for extraordinary efforts to resist change. </p>
<p>Excess anxiety fuel may also leak into habitual motor activity, such as fiddling or motor tics, and ritualistic behaviours. Or it can push the person into behaviours and thinking that operates to filter out the noisy demands of the world, like obsessive behaviour and rituals. </p>
<p>This can turn into a cycle of increasing anxiety. Picture this scenario: a new after-school routine triggers anxiety in a young person with autism. They filter this out by becoming increasingly obsessed with gaming. It’s clear they’re not responding to the demands of the new after-school routine, so the pressure – and therefore, the anxiety – increases. So too does the filtering (gaming). As this continues, the young person is drifting further from the behaviour needed, while getting locked in to the obsession. </p>
<p>This can be compounded by not recognising the feelings and expectations of those around, prompting intense conversations and yet more anxiety. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224832/original/file-20180626-19404-17n5mn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224832/original/file-20180626-19404-17n5mn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224832/original/file-20180626-19404-17n5mn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224832/original/file-20180626-19404-17n5mn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224832/original/file-20180626-19404-17n5mn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224832/original/file-20180626-19404-17n5mn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224832/original/file-20180626-19404-17n5mn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Excess anxiety can cause restrictive and repetitive behaviours, which can cause social tension and more anxiety.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-adult-male-autism-hands-on-695047009?src=yv9Uc0Pd-gUl0g8pgwmO9w-1-83">Steven Wright/Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Supportive structures</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/conceptualization-of-a-heuristic-to-predict-increase-in-restricted-and-repetitivebehaviour-in-asd-across-the-short-to-medium-term-2165-7890-1000200.php?aid=86558">Emerging research shows</a> the chance of getting locked into these behaviours increases when routine structures of work, school and family decline. </p>
<p>As the person’s world shrinks, the space left from these externally imposed structures can be taken up with restrictive and repetitive behaviours and interests. This is when the risk of getting “locked in” to these filtering behaviours increases.</p>
<p>If anxiety levels are elevated, the externally imposed structures are down, and the person has a history of getting locked in, it’s <a href="https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/conceptualization-of-a-heuristic-to-predict-increase-in-restricted-and-repetitivebehaviour-in-asd-across-the-short-to-medium-term-2165-7890-1000200.php?aid=86558">time to get expert intervention</a>. Specialist intervention can effectively reduce the person’s anxiety and provide a scaffold of support by increasing their structured routine.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/autism-advocacy-and-research-misses-the-mark-if-autistic-people-are-left-out-94404">Autism advocacy and research misses the mark if autistic people are left out</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94401/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Cashin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Even though people with autism are more likely to think about concrete stuff rather than abstract feelings, anxiety still exists and, if not recognised, can cause significant problems.Andrew Cashin, Professor of Nursing, School of Health and Human Sciences, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/960142018-06-19T20:19:59Z2018-06-19T20:19:59ZMore than just a tantrum: here’s what to do if your child has oppositional defiant disorder<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223716/original/file-20180619-38870-1qfe5li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Oppositional defiant disorder is a pattern of disobedient, hostile, and defiant behaviour directed towards authority figures.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/summer-nights-pajamas-sprinklers-477003259?src=HY19Hr_lk5-EQ1fPfAWvqw-6-85">Sara Baker/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Defiance and tantrums are common in childhood. Parents will often tell us about the 30-minute tirade they faced because their child wanted a blue bowl, not a yellow one. Or the screaming and crying that ensued when the parent was brave enough to suggest that drawing should be reserved for paper, not walls. </p>
<p>How, then, do we know when these behaviours represent a more serious problem? </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-i-dont-wanna-wahhhh-a-parents-guide-to-managing-tantrums-87175">'No, I don't wanna... wahhhh!' A parent's guide to managing tantrums</a>
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<p>When considering a young person’s behaviour, psychologists will typically consider what is happening, how long the problem has existed, and the impact. When rebellion or anger becomes frequent enough to impact on the young person’s schooling and relationships with friends and family, a diagnosis of <a href="http://raisingchildren.net.au/articles/oppositional_defiant_disorder.html">oppositional defiant disorder</a> or ODD may be considered.</p>
<p>ODD is a pattern of disobedient, hostile, and defiant behaviour directed towards authority figures. Children with ODD rebel, are stubborn, argue with adults, and refuse to obey. They have anger outbursts and a hard time controlling their temper. </p>
<p>ODD can negatively impact a young person’s educational options as they struggle to adapt and conform to rule-based school structures. It can affect their home lives, as anger and defiance cause tension in their relationships. And, if unaddressed, it can damage their future employment prospects.</p>
<p>ODD is one of the most commonly encountered disorders in children and adolescents, seen in <a href="https://www.jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(09)61969-9/fulltext">1-16% of the population</a>, depending on the criteria and assessment methods used. </p>
<p>Rates of ODD appear to be higher in boys than girls. But <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303891896_Sex_Differences_in_the_Prevalence_of_Oppositional_Defiant_Disorder_During_Middle_Childhood_a_Meta-Analysis">some researchers argue</a> that the criteria used to diagnose ODD unfairly favour boys.</p>
<p>ODD <a href="https://www.jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(09)61969-9/fulltext">affects families from all backgrounds</a> and can be difficult to predict, as there is no single cause. However, some factors <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12410070">make a person more vulnerable</a> to developing ODD: a family history of behavioural difficulties or substance use, poverty, lack of structure, community violence, and inconsistent parenting.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223719/original/file-20180619-38811-j9hirb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223719/original/file-20180619-38811-j9hirb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223719/original/file-20180619-38811-j9hirb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223719/original/file-20180619-38811-j9hirb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223719/original/file-20180619-38811-j9hirb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223719/original/file-20180619-38811-j9hirb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223719/original/file-20180619-38811-j9hirb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Anger and defiance can strain relationships.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/270635180?src=HY19Hr_lk5-EQ1fPfAWvqw-1-15&size=huge_jpg">Oleg Golovnev/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Young people who seek treatment from an accredited professional who uses evidence-based treatments <a href="https://www.jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(09)61969-9/fulltext">can have good outcomes</a>. Treatments typically include support for parents and the school, combined with individual therapy, most often using cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) to improve anger management skills and encourage alternative methods of communication. </p>
<p>These treatments should help you talk to your child with fewer escalating arguments. They should help your child manage their anger more effectively, and ensure that all parties are working together. While arguments and defiance may linger, there should be a notable reduction during and after treatment.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/evidence-based-parenting-how-to-deal-with-aggression-tantrums-and-defiance-95439">Evidence-based parenting: how to deal with aggression, tantrums and defiance</a>
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<p>If defiance is a behaviour you struggle with at home, or your child has been diagnosed with ODD, there are several things that you can do as a parent. </p>
<p><strong>1. Avoid standoffs</strong></p>
<p>Young people will often maintain their position if they have an audience, even if they know it’s unhelpful. This can be managed by minimising the number of people present and giving the young person a chance to back down without losing face. </p>
<p>If you have a defiant child in your classroom who is refusing to sit with their peers, for instance, you might say “I am very disappointed that you do not want to join us. We will need to talk about this together after the bell goes”. </p>
<p>Moving on to the activity and not focusing on the behaviour will then give the child a chance to make a different decision. </p>
<p>This same approach can be used by parents when siblings are present. </p>
<p><strong>2. Offer limited choices</strong></p>
<p>Offering limited choices can help you avoid the defiance that may accompany a parental request. </p>
<p>Consider the following scenario: your child is having fun in the pool and, despite being called for dinner, doesn’t want to get out. You feel that your authority as a parent has been directly challenged. You demand that they get out – NOW! </p>
<p>They refuse. What do you do? </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223718/original/file-20180619-38829-spjfl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223718/original/file-20180619-38829-spjfl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223718/original/file-20180619-38829-spjfl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223718/original/file-20180619-38829-spjfl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223718/original/file-20180619-38829-spjfl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223718/original/file-20180619-38829-spjfl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223718/original/file-20180619-38829-spjfl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Plan B?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/child-having-fun-rubber-swimming-pool-695376400?src=WwZ_EqsHzOAV-munNyfGFw-1-45">Schab/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>You can get in the pool and chase after them (but it could be dangerous for one or both of you). You could ignore the defiance (but then the child learns that defiance works). </p>
<p>Or you can offer limited choices. In this example you might say something like:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I can see you’re having a good time. I imagine you don’t want it to end but dinner is on the table. It seems to me you have two choices. You can get out of the pool, have some dinner, and we will make it in time for netball tonight. Or you can stay in the pool and miss out. It’s up to you.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Option two (our consequence) is something that you can directly manage (whether or not you take them to netball). </p>
<p><strong>3. Consider their point of view</strong></p>
<p>Oppositional children sometimes refuse to comply in an attempt to express their frustration or anger, or to try and regain control of their world. While you may not agree with their point of view, hearing them out lets them know you are genuinely interested in their ideas and that, where possible, you will work together towards a resolution.</p>
<p>Consider a teenager who refuses to come home when a clear curfew has been set. You can punish them and get into an escalating power battle. Or you can ask them why they want a later curfew, how it will work with school and their other responsibilities, how you will know that they are safe, and so on. </p>
<p>Reflect their arguments back to make sure you have understood their perspective <em>before</em> you rush to respond.</p>
<p><strong>4. Look for triggers</strong></p>
<p>All behaviour is a communication. Sometimes we get so lost in trying to respond to defiant behaviour that we forget to look for triggers. </p>
<p>Some triggers are directly related to the incident of concern. Others, such as fatigue or problems with friends, occur in the background but challenge the child’s coping resources and lead to a later escalation. </p>
<p>Once you have identified triggers you can make a plan to address them together. </p>
<p>Let’s say your four year old comes home from kindergarten and throws their bag down, stomping angrily across the room. You ask them to take out their lunchbox so that you can clean it. Screaming ensues. </p>
<p>In this instance you can:</p>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Observe</strong>: I noticed that you threw your bag down and that you are stomping very loudly. It makes me think you are angry.</p>
<p><strong>Validate</strong>: It’s OK to feel angry, we all do sometimes.</p>
<p><strong>Redirect</strong>: Next time you are angry, do you think you can tell me so we can stomp our feet together? That seems a little safer than throwing your things. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Most importantly parents, extended family and school staff need to work collaboratively. This means talking regularly, being clear on the best approaches for supporting your child, and communicating the plan back to your child as openly as possible.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/looking-online-for-info-on-your-childs-health-here-are-some-tips-97701">Looking online for info on your child's health? Here are some tips</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/96014/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane McGillivray has received a range of research funding from Commonwealth granting bodies (NHMRC, ARC, Office of Teaching and Learning), State Government (DHHS, Department of Justice), philanthropic (Ferrero and Moose Foundation) and not for profit organisations (beyondblue).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jade Sheen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If your child has a problem with defiant behaviours, there are a number of things you can do to avoid standoffs and reduce the chance of meltdowns. Here’s how.Jade Sheen, Senior Lecturer, School of Psychology, Deakin UniversityJane McGillivray, Professor of Psychology, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/954392018-04-29T20:11:24Z2018-04-29T20:11:24ZEvidence-based parenting: how to deal with aggression, tantrums and defiance<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/216602/original/file-20180427-175077-2g4j8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children can become more and more skilled in the art of oppositional behaviour, and increasingly harder to discipline.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-angry-boy-yelling-255610930?src=QSojzdJIBZlLCVGr2en8YQ-1-93">Suzanne Tucker/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Anyone who has raised children or grown up with siblings knows there are some bumpy times in a child’s life. When the smallest upset causes a major tantrum. Or when it’s close to impossible to get them out the door on time for school. Or when your adorable angel acts like a wild animal.</p>
<p>But some children’s tantrums, irritability and defiance well exceed that typically found among healthy children of the same age. This can be overwhelming for the best of parents, especially as children advance in age. </p>
<p>And it doesn’t help that reactions from loved ones and strangers often leave parents feeling judged for their defeats in the disciplinary arena.</p>
<p>Over the past decade, our research team at the The University of Sydney’s <a href="http://sydney.edu.au/science/psychology/child_behaviour_research_clinic/">Child Behaviour Research Clinic</a> (CBRC) has treated aggression, non-compliance, rule-breaking and excessive tantrums in children aged two to 16. We’ve used these insights to develop a free online program of evidence-based strategies for parents, called <a href="http://www.parentworks.org.au">ParentWorks</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-i-dont-wanna-wahhhh-a-parents-guide-to-managing-tantrums-87175">'No, I don't wanna... wahhhh!' A parent's guide to managing tantrums</a>
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<p>The good news is, programs such as ours <a href="https://www.australianacademicpress.com.au/books/details/54/Integrated_Family_Intervention_for_Child_Conduct_Problems_A_behaviour-attachment-systems_intervention_for_parents">can help most children with problem behaviours</a> to better control their emotions and, therefore, their behaviour. </p>
<p>Such treatment has the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299424394_Evidence-Based_Parenting_Interventions_Current_Perspectives_and_Clinical_Strategies">strongest effects</a> in the preschool to early primary school years. Relatively brief interventions of around eight weeks at this age often produce greater gains than those achieved with more complex interventions delivered later in adolescence. </p>
<h2>What types of behaviour are we talking about?</h2>
<p>Common warning signs that you child’s behaviour may be getting out of control include: </p>
<p>1) When oppositional behaviour not only occurs regularly, but also interferes with family life. This might cause the family to constantly be late because of delays leaving the house, or to avoid social events where tantrums might occur.</p>
<p>2) When stress arising from child issues spills over into the rest of the family, such as the parents’ own relationship.</p>
<p>3) When the child’s behaviour leaves parents feeling flooded by emotions that overwhelm their usual coping skills.</p>
<p>4) When children seem driven to elicit escalating and emotionally charged parental reactions, even when punitive or distressing to all. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/216629/original/file-20180427-175054-n5kyqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/216629/original/file-20180427-175054-n5kyqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/216629/original/file-20180427-175054-n5kyqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/216629/original/file-20180427-175054-n5kyqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/216629/original/file-20180427-175054-n5kyqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/216629/original/file-20180427-175054-n5kyqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/216629/original/file-20180427-175054-n5kyqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A child’s oppositional behaviour is a problem when it affects the whole family.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cute-kid-body-language-sulking-expressing-730826638?src=tuF8ZuaUX9KNBaccRG_mdQ-1-81">Mrfiza/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>We now understand these “behavioural” problems are often just as equally “emotional” problems. </p>
<p>This means that the best interventions not only reduce problem behaviours, but also help children build solid skills in self-regulation. Such foundations form the base of their mental health in childhood, adolescence and adulthood. </p>
<h2>Overcoming persistent problems</h2>
<p>Ironically, the more stress the child’s behaviour places on parents, <a href="https://www.australianacademicpress.com.au/books/details/54/Integrated_Family_Intervention_for_Child_Conduct_Problems_A_behaviour-attachment-systems_intervention_for_parents">the more parents find themselves</a> relying on practices that work to manage it in the moment, yet play into daily cycles of parent-child conflict and stress in the long term. </p>
<p>As such conflict continues, children often become more and more skilled in the art of oppositional behaviour, and therefore increasingly harder to discipline. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-it-matters-to-transform-parent-involvement-from-early-childhood-to-primary-school-80144">Why it matters to transform parent involvement from early childhood to primary school</a>
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<p>Child behavioural problems often become so embedded in family life, shifting them requires new strategies to be incorporated into the day-to-day routine at home. This is why the most powerful interventions are those that train parents as therapists, so to speak. </p>
<h2>So what can you do?</h2>
<p>The earlier you can intervene in behavioural problems, the better. Use parenting strategies that take the emotion out of discipline and put it back into the rest of family life. </p>
<p>For example, you might try:</p>
<p><strong>1) Rewarding good behaviour</strong> (such as cooperatively playing with a sibling) with rewards based in the parent-child relationship (such as physical affection and short bursts of parent-child time) given at the time of the good behaviour.</p>
<p><strong>2) Rewarding good behaviours even in the context of discipline</strong>. This might mean enthusiastically praising a child for helping to pack away toys, having disciplined him or her for being destructive with those toys just moments earlier. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/216627/original/file-20180427-175077-x8nz7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/216627/original/file-20180427-175077-x8nz7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/216627/original/file-20180427-175077-x8nz7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/216627/original/file-20180427-175077-x8nz7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/216627/original/file-20180427-175077-x8nz7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/216627/original/file-20180427-175077-x8nz7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/216627/original/file-20180427-175077-x8nz7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Reward good behaviour at the time, even if it comes after bad behaviour.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/1076529503?src=-k-dmQSnPFYkD0aEcg4eyw-1-81&size=medium_jpg">By NadyaEugene</a></span>
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<p><strong>3) Responding to misbehaviour immediately, with a calm and clear instruction</strong> that directs the child to what they should instead be doing. For instance, get the child’s attention and say, “The way you are speaking is very rude, you need to use a nice voice”, following the first instance of such behaviour. </p>
<p><strong>4) Responding immediately to escalations with a consequence</strong>, such as a brief time-out or quiet time. This is where the child sits alone somewhere safe and boring and is only permitted to leave once they have been quiet for a period; say, two minutes. </p>
<p>These strategies can act as an effective circuit-breaker for cycles of parent-child escalation. They also provide young children with opportunities to develop vital skills in self-regulation. </p>
<p>With simple strategies such as these, parents can avoid accidentally rewarding misbehaviour, which is easy to do when these behaviours demand so much time and attention. </p>
<h2>Getting help</h2>
<p>You can find more evidence-based strategies for preventing and reducing oppositional behaviour at the <a href="http://www.parentworks.org.au">ParentWorks</a> online program. </p>
<p>However, when child behaviour problems are significant, parents may need the support of psychologists or other professionals at a clinic such as the CBRC. More severe oppositional behaviour can often occur alongside other emotional and developmental disorders, so it’s important such children have a comprehensive assessment.</p>
<p>If you are seeking assistance for oppositional and aggressive child behaviour, don’t stop until you find the help that is right for you.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/acting-out-acting-their-age-or-something-more-serious-dealing-with-difficult-behaviour-in-children-90233">Acting out, acting their age or something more serious? Dealing with difficult behaviour in children</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95439/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David J Hawes, PhD receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the National Health and Medical Research Council, and the Movember Foundation.</span></em></p>Some children’s tantrums, irritability and defiance well exceed that typically found in healthy children of the same age. This can be overwhelming for parents, especially as children grow.David J Hawes, Associate Professor of Clinical Psychology, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/898532018-02-22T19:11:44Z2018-02-22T19:11:44ZNo, you’re probably not ‘addicted’ to your smartphone – but you might use it too much<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207423/original/file-20180222-132663-9vh4t6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The average smartphone user checks their device 85 times a day.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/VJRP_JnKoU0">Mikaela Shannon</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The term “addiction” is often bandied about when we think someone spends too much time on something we deem detrimental to their health and well-being. From checking our phones repetitively, to playing with specific apps and texting, the modern culprit is excessive smartphone use. </p>
<p>Worldwide, <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/330695/number-of-smartphone-users-worldwide/">more than two billion people</a> own smartphones and the average user <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283305882_Beyond_Self-Report_Tools_to_Compare_Estimated_and_Real-World_Smartphone_Use">checks their phone 85 times</a> a day. </p>
<p>Obsessively checking our smartphone apps may look like addiction but, for most people, it is reinforced behaviour that could be broken without severe or long-lasting withdrawal effects. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/constantly-texting-your-friends-about-problems-may-be-increasing-your-anxiety-83960">Constantly texting your friends about problems may be increasing your anxiety</a>
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<p>Having said this, a small proportion of people may be more prone to behavioural addictions to smartphone functions such as online gambling, pornography, games and social media. Clinically speaking, you can’t become addicted to a device, but you can develop behavioural addictions to smartphone functions.</p>
<h2>What is addiction?</h2>
<p>The World Health Organisation (WHO) <a href="http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/definition1/en/">classifies addiction as a</a> dependence on a substance, such as illicit or prescription drugs, tobacco or alcohol. A person is addicted when they have a physical and behavioural dependence on the substance. </p>
<p>In 2013, the <a href="http://www.jpsychopathol.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/12_Art_ORIGINALE_Pinna1.pdf">fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</a> (known as the “clinician’s bible”) introduced wider criteria for “behavioural addictions”, which doesn’t include the physical dependence element. These are compulsions to engage in a task or act that leads to psychological pleasure. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3164585/">Behavioural addictions</a>, such as gambling or sex addiction, can cause psychological harm, as well as wider relationship problems with friends, family and colleagues. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207443/original/file-20180222-152379-10oq9s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207443/original/file-20180222-152379-10oq9s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207443/original/file-20180222-152379-10oq9s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207443/original/file-20180222-152379-10oq9s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207443/original/file-20180222-152379-10oq9s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207443/original/file-20180222-152379-10oq9s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207443/original/file-20180222-152379-10oq9s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Smartphone obsessions don’t usually involve severe mental dysfunction and therefore aren’t addictions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/J01KEXy3XQk">Tony Lam Hoang</a></span>
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<p>Both “substance” and “behavioural” addictions <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27151528">impact the way we process information</a>. Over time, the brain rewires itself to seek out the reward it needs to gain pleasure or relief from stress. The more an addict seeks a specific reward that triggers both dopamine and other physiological effects (such as stress and pain relief), the more the brain decreases sensitivity to the reward circuits. </p>
<p>To date, smartphone use has not led to mass accounts of severe mental dysfunction. So we’re unlikely to all be “addicted” to our smartphones, as we often tell each other. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-people-really-be-addicted-to-sex-16391">Can people really be addicted to sex?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Rather than addiction, smartphone users more commonly report obsessive behaviour. Users constantly check their phone, seeking opportunities for a short dopamine reward, or a distraction from boredom or mundane tasks such as travelling on public transport. </p>
<p>Nonetheless, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5112893/">some researchers</a> have yet to rule out the potential for smartphone addiction in people who are at high risk of behaviour addiction. These people may experience several negative behavioural changes over time, such as anxiety and irritability, as well as extreme distress when they’re unable to access their smartphone.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4712764/">Recent studies in Switzerland</a> have confirmed that people under the age of 18 are at risk of obsessive or addictive-like behaviours around their smartphone use, most likely due to poor impulse control related to their developing frontal lobe. This suggests that adults with poor impulse control and/or personality disorders <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4988723/">may be more at risk</a> for smartphone addiction. </p>
<h2>The problem with social media</h2>
<p>The behavioural impact of smartphone social media use spans from obsessive behaviour (engaging in and checking smartphone apps until they no longer provide a rewarding dopamine hit) to behavioural addiction (compulsively seeking a dopamine hit via a reward provided by our phone).</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-parents-and-teens-can-reduce-the-impact-of-social-media-on-youth-well-being-87619">How parents and teens can reduce the impact of social media on youth well-being</a>
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<p>The <a href="http://flurrymobile.tumblr.com/post/157921590345/us-consumers-time-spent-on-mobile-crosses-5">average user in the US</a> spends around five hours a day on functional smartphone activities such as texting, social media use, internet searchers, phone calls; half that time is spent on social media (including texting). </p>
<p>The specific functional use of our smartphone is what we need to look more closely at. Social media rewards users via “likes”, emoji use and social engagement with a large audience. The more people respond to a post, the more we gain a sense of enjoyment that people are validating our thoughts or interests.</p>
<p>Social media engagement, and constantly texting friends and family, may be more of a concern than the device on which it is used, because it <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27247125">does lead to dopamine increases</a>, and thus, pleasure or stress relief. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207440/original/file-20180222-133208-1ht91mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207440/original/file-20180222-133208-1ht91mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207440/original/file-20180222-133208-1ht91mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207440/original/file-20180222-133208-1ht91mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207440/original/file-20180222-133208-1ht91mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207440/original/file-20180222-133208-1ht91mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207440/original/file-20180222-133208-1ht91mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Turn off your notifications if you want to cut down on your smartphone use.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/33oxtOMk6Ac">Jamie Street</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>People are hard-wired to seek affirmation and acceptance in social settings. Before the rise of Facebook and Instagram, humans sought out one another via many settings for social engagement and social validation. So it’s no surprise that when we have the technology to extend our social connections into wider communities – we do so without question. </p>
<p>As adults, we know we can’t socialise all the time because of other demands on our time. Yet, as young people, the social world is our priority, as it influences our identity development and need to feel validated outside our tried-and-true friends and family. </p>
<p>Those who have problems with prolonged use of smartphone functions such as social media, media streaming services, games and frequent texting, may fit the criteria of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563200000418">“problematic internet use”</a>. </p>
<p>In these cases, it’s important to unpack the specific reward you get from the function you engage in the most on your smartphone, to see if you can obtain the same reward through more productive and healthy activities. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/theres-a-new-addiction-on-campus-problematic-internet-use-piu-54226">There's a new addiction on campus: Problematic Internet Use (PIU)</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<p>If you are always on social media, for instance, ask yourself: what do I gain from posting and replying online? Can I gain the same rewarding benefits from face-to-face social engagements? </p>
<p>For some, online engagement diversifies their offline social engagement, while others are unaware that most of their life is now lived online.</p>
<h2>Time to put the smartphone down?</h2>
<p>Many smartphone users are obsessed or infatuated with their smartphone functions. But over time, they will become less interesting and far more a tool we engage with when we need to, just as society has adjusted to computer use.</p>
<p>In the meantime, we need to educate young people about problematic internet use and help them understand why using functions on their smartphone can be potentially time-wasting and, at worst, negatively impact their mental wellness. This can be communicated in early childhood and reinforced throughout the developmental stages. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207441/original/file-20180222-133198-xurald.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207441/original/file-20180222-133198-xurald.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207441/original/file-20180222-133198-xurald.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207441/original/file-20180222-133198-xurald.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207441/original/file-20180222-133198-xurald.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207441/original/file-20180222-133198-xurald.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207441/original/file-20180222-133198-xurald.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Yes, it’s time for a smartphone detox.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/Q-RP-Or3tD4">Jacob Ufkes</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As for adult smartphone users, here are some evidence-based tips for reducing your smartphone use: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>Reduce the number of apps on your phone – assess what you actually need and use most often, not just for distraction purposes. The fewer icons on your home screen the better.</p></li>
<li><p>Turn off notifications through your settings button. Your phone should only notify you for meaningful events to aid in your health and productivity during work hours.</p></li>
<li><p>When charging your phone at night, don’t do it next to your bed. It’s tempting to reach for your smartphone first thing upon waking. Instead, try and wake up thinking about the day ahead rather than “what did I miss on social or news media while I was asleep?”</p></li>
<li><p>Be aware when reaching for your phone during the day, especially when bored – try a mindfulness breathing exercise instead to relax and clear your mind. There are many techniques that are evidence based, but here is <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Bs0qUB3BHQ">one example</a> that takes just three minutes.</p></li>
<li><p>If you truly want to reduce time checking your smartphone, look more closely at your social media use and, if necessary, remove your social media apps.</p></li>
</ol><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89853/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew J. Campbell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Clinically speaking, you can’t become addicted to a device, but you can develop behavioural addictions to smartphone functions.Andrew J. Campbell, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/902332018-01-30T18:55:24Z2018-01-30T18:55:24ZActing out, acting their age or something more serious? Dealing with difficult behaviour in children<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202769/original/file-20180122-110113-1sve263.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">For almost one in seven Australians aged four to 17 years, behaviour is significant in nature, persists over time and tends to mismatch their developmental stage.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><hr>
<p><em>This <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/back-to-school-2018-48951">series</a> draws on the latest research on back to school transitions. In it, the experts explain how best to prepare children for school, and counter difficulties such as stress or bad behaviour.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>At some stage in every child’s life they will exhibit defiant, impulsive or even disobedient behaviours. </p>
<p>A lot of this is normal, but when behaviour disrupts a child’s everyday functioning, it becomes abnormal and parents should seek professional advice. Parents can make a difference by using evidence-based strategies to encourage positive behaviours. </p>
<h2>When does ‘normal’ behaviour become abnormal behaviour?</h2>
<p>For almost <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/9DA8CA21306FE6EDCA257E2700016945/$File/child2.pdf">one in seven</a> Australians aged four to 17 years, the occurrence of disruptive behaviour is significant in nature, persists over time and tends to mismatch with their developmental stage. </p>
<p>Signs the behaviours are more severe include if it impacts on the child’s functioning at school or with family and friends, and if it causes the child personal distress. These indicate the behaviour needs deeper investigation and the support of a specialised professional as early as possible. </p>
<p>There is disagreement about whether preschool-aged children can or should be diagnosed with disorders, given the vast range of behaviour considered “normal” at this age. Most disorders tend to be <a href="https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/docview/220475857/fulltextPDF/F1F3EA137AB749DBPQ/1?accountid=36155">diagnosed in school aged children</a>, generally aged 10-14 years. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202776/original/file-20180122-110100-268oi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202776/original/file-20180122-110100-268oi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202776/original/file-20180122-110100-268oi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202776/original/file-20180122-110100-268oi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202776/original/file-20180122-110100-268oi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202776/original/file-20180122-110100-268oi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202776/original/file-20180122-110100-268oi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If a child’s own behaviour causes them distress, this may be a signal that they have more severe behaviourla issues.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Where can parents go for help?</h2>
<p>Knowing where to start can be overwhelming when seeking support for severe and persistent disruptive behaviour. Avoid “Dr. Google” or websites claiming to provide symptom checkers, as they can give alarmist findings. </p>
<p>You should read and learn more about the various behavioural disorders to become informed, but always make sure you’re using reputable sources. These include <a href="https://www.beyondblue.org.au/">beyondblue</a>, <a href="https://parents.au.reachout.com/">Reach Out</a>, <a href="https://headspace.org.au/">Headspace</a>, <a href="https://www.kidsmatter.edu.au/">KidsMatter</a> and <a href="https://www.mindmatters.edu.au/">MindMatters</a>. </p>
<p>Some of the resources teacher educators refer to can be useful, such as <a href="http://www.responseability.org/">Response Ability</a>, which provides <a href="http://www.responseability.org/home/fact-sheets-and-podcasts/mental-illnessdisorders.html">fact sheets and podcasts</a> on various behavioural disorders. </p>
<p>If you’re still concerned after doing some reading, a visit to the GP is a good starting point. The GP can provide an initial assessment and refer the child and family to other professionals if additional assessment, treatment and support are necessary. </p>
<p>Access to specialists, such as a paediatrician or psychiatrist, requires a GP’s referral. Referrals are not required to visit a psychologist, but it’s best to visit the GP initially to help determine whether this is necessary. The GP can also refer to someone they highly recommend. </p>
<h2>Pitfalls of punishment</h2>
<p>Meltdowns, yelling and defiance or even being ignored by a child is usually normal – most likely, they are just acting their age. For the majority of children, instances of disruptive behaviour are minor in nature and infrequent. Importantly though, it’s possible to prevent difficult behaviour by using some effective, evidence-based strategies. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-i-dont-wanna-wahhhh-a-parents-guide-to-managing-tantrums-87175">'No, I don't wanna... wahhhh!' A parent's guide to managing tantrums</a>
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<p><a href="http://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/doi/pdf/10.3109/01612840.2010.498078?needAccess=true">Research</a> shows using positive strategies to address difficult behaviour is more effective than using punishment or coercion. Although you might notice an immediate response, punishment only temporarily stops the behaviour, and it’s likely the behaviour will appear again in the future. </p>
<p>Think about when you drive past a speed camera. What do most people do? They temporally slow down, but once they’ve passed the camera they usually speed up again. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202925/original/file-20180123-182945-19b1fkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202925/original/file-20180123-182945-19b1fkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202925/original/file-20180123-182945-19b1fkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202925/original/file-20180123-182945-19b1fkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202925/original/file-20180123-182945-19b1fkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202925/original/file-20180123-182945-19b1fkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202925/original/file-20180123-182945-19b1fkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Punishment and can have a number of negative consequences, including rebellion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Punishment also has a number of unintended consequences, such as undermining relationships. It can lead to rebellion and reduces a person’s autonomy and problem-solving skills. </p>
<h2>Effective strategies to improve behaviour</h2>
<p>Using positive behavioural <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3109/01612840.2010.498078?needAccess=true">strategies</a> not only decreases unwanted behaviour, it promotes positive social behaviour and strengthens relationships. Some strategies will be more effective than others, depending on the child’s preferences. Try a few different strategies, and if one doesn’t work, stop using it. Move to another technique. Try some of these effective strategies:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>give attention through <a href="https://www-clinicalkey-com-au.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/#!/content/playContent/1-s2.0-S014521341730025X?returnurl=null&referrer=null">warmth and affection </a> when your child is behaving appropriately. Tell them what about their behaviour you like, and smile when praising. For example, “I really like when you listen carefully, we can get so much more done and get to the good things faster”</p></li>
<li><p>give <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/101/4/723">praise and rewards</a> immediately after the desirable behaviour is displayed, rather than waiting until later</p></li>
<li><p>think about what your child would value as a <a href="http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CA18842556&v=2.1&u=uwsydney&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w">reward</a> so it has appeal and drives their motivation to be good. Would they prefer time to play on a device, a toy, food treat, or choice of a movie?</p></li>
<li><p>for particularly challenging behaviour, consider setting up a <a href="http://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/doi/pdf/10.1080/13668250412331285127?needAccess=true">reward chart</a>. Reward your child frequently throughout the day by catching them being good and when you notice improvements, gradually reduce how often you reward them</p></li>
<li><p>offering <a href="http://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/doi/pdf/10.3109/01612840.2010.498078?needAccess=true">choices</a> helps them feel ownership over decision making and assist them in evaluating the consequences of their choices</p></li>
<li><p>know when to ignore, and when to intervene. It’s unrealistic to discipline every challenging behaviour, so ignore the little things. Consider overlooking the occasional mess, whining or slowness to respond to requests</p></li>
<li><p>give clear instructions and set <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/pediatrics/101/4/723.full.pdf">behaviour expectations</a>, such as “use a talking voice at all times” or “keep your hands and feet to yourself” and so on. <a href="https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/docview/1326316189?accountid=36155&rfr_id=info%3Axri%2Fsid%3Aprimo">Negotiating the expectations</a> with your child will increase their commitment to follow them. You can maximise the effectiveness of setting rules by also negotiating rewards for successfully following them and consequences if they do not</p></li>
<li><p>before you leave the house, remind them of the rules and the rewards for following them</p></li>
<li><p>actively listen to your child by stopping what you’re doing and taking time out. Behaviour concerns often arise because the child is seeking your attention.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202780/original/file-20180122-110097-stb8sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202780/original/file-20180122-110097-stb8sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202780/original/file-20180122-110097-stb8sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202780/original/file-20180122-110097-stb8sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202780/original/file-20180122-110097-stb8sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202780/original/file-20180122-110097-stb8sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202780/original/file-20180122-110097-stb8sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If bad behaviour continues after employing positive behavioural strategies, it’s time to introduce consequences.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If you find the behaviour persists after using a range of positive strategies, it’s time to introduce consequences. A continuum of consequences start with the least obtrusive strategies and incrementally increase in severity. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-the-best-ways-to-discipline-kids-34966">What are the best ways to discipline kids?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>First, use prompts such as eye contact or facial expressions to note disapproval. </p>
<p>Then, remind them of what behaviour you want to encourage. For example, “what should you be doing?” </p>
<p>Move closer to the child and use a calm matter-of-fact <a href="http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CA18842556&v=2.1&u=uwsydney&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w">tone of voice</a>, or try using a whisper voice.</p>
<p>Redirect behaviour by giving choices. For older children, ask them what would be a better choice of behaviour. For younger children, give them constrained choices. For example, please put the lollies back in the bag or give all of the lollies to me. </p>
<p>Remind the child of the behaviour you do want to see.</p>
<p>Let them know they have three warnings and what the consequence is if they continue. Follow through on this, and don’t change the number of warnings or consequence. This means you need to be measured in the timing of your warnings and match the action to the consequence. Consistency is the key. </p>
<p>Finally, when used well, <a href="https://www-clinicalkey-com-au.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/service/content/pdf/watermarked/1-s2.0-S1876285916304077.pdf?locale=en_AU">time out</a> can be effective. Consider having an appropriate location for the time-out period. It needs to be quiet, private with minimal stimulation. </p>
<p>Act quickly after the behaviour occurs and give a concise reason for sending them to time-out. Prompt them to think about what they could have been doing differently. Ignore secondary behaviours while in the time-out period (like screaming, wriggling or pleading). </p>
<p>Avoid talking to them until the end of the time-out period. Two to three minutes is usually the amount of time. Before exiting, ask the child to remind you why they were put in time out and what they could have done differently. Catch them being good as soon as you can and remind them how much you love them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90233/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katrina Barker does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It can be difficult to tell the difference between disordered and difficult behaviour, and the approach is different for both.Katrina Barker, Senior Lecturer in Educational Psychology, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/825872017-10-23T03:41:12Z2017-10-23T03:41:12ZHealth Check: do boys really have a testosterone spurt at age four?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/182699/original/file-20170821-20193-p8clu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There's lots going on in the lives of four-year-old boys, including how to regulate their emotions. Let's not blame their hormones.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/594435866?src=vUIze5kpCfgxwZaN2ReyJg-1-54&size=medium_jpg">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The idea that four-year-old boys have a spurt of testosterone is <a href="http://www.powerfulmothering.com/that-tricky-thing-called-testosterone/">often used to explain</a> challenging behaviour at this age.</p>
<p>But how did this idea come about? Is there any truth in it? And if not, what else could explain their behaviour?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/helicopter-snowplow-or-free-range-whats-your-parenting-style-15123">Helicopter, snowplow or free range – what's your parenting style?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Psychologist and author Stephen Biddulph <a href="http://www.canberratimes.com.au/preschoolers/preschooler-development/when-testosterone-kicks-in-for-young-boys-20140625-3asn6.html">is often credited</a> with being the source of the idea that four-year-old boys have a testosterone spurt.</p>
<p>Although he mentioned it in his bestselling book <a href="http://finch.com.au/books/steve-biddulphs-raising-boys-4th-edition">Raising Boys</a>, he was writing about someone else’s work:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>According to Professor Mitchell Harman in the US Department of Aging, boys undergo a testosterone burst at age four … Not all researchers have agreed with this finding though, so it remains controversial.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Biddulph said Professor Harman wrote about this for an article in the men’s magazine Esquire in 1999 and “stood by these findings” when contacted in 2015.</p>
<h2>So, what does the evidence say?</h2>
<p>As a researcher and adolescent endocrinologist, who specialises in puberty hormones, I can say there is no evidence this testosterone spurt exists. Many studies of hormones in boys in peer-reviewed journals <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/00365513.2014.942694">confirm</a> <a href="https://www.karger.com/Article/Pdf/358560">this</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.news-medical.net/health/Testosterone-Physiological-Effects.aspx">Raised levels of testosterone</a> are not possible when testes (where testosterone is made) are small and levels of the hormone that stimulates testosterone production is low.</p>
<p>The only time when a four-year-old’s testosterone level is high is in a serious and uncommon condition called <a href="http://www.msdmanuals.com/en-au/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/precocious-puberty">precocious puberty</a>, where boys enter puberty and their testicles enlarge much earlier than usual.</p>
<h2>Yes, testosterone rises, but not at this age</h2>
<p>There are rises in testosterone during a boy’s development, which coincide with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2989000">major brain development</a>. But these don’t happen at the age of four.</p>
<p>Testosterone first increases to puberty-like levels in boys during the <a href="https://www.womenshealth.gov/pregnancy/youre-pregnant-now-what/stages-pregnancy">first two trimesters of pregnancy</a>. This testosterone is responsible for the development of the penis and scrotum, a process known as the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3443292">masculinisation of external genitalia</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-what-you-need-to-know-about-testosterone-31687">Here's what you need to know about testosterone</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The second testosterone increase occurs in the first six months or so of life. This <a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-1-4419-1795-9_39.pdf">mini-puberty</a> results in boys’ genitalia briefly looking more prominent, which many parents notice.</p>
<p>Puberty is the third and final rise in testosterone, with levels increasing 10- to 20-fold over two to three years. Puberty is a time of major physical growth accompanied by <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/content/35/40/13539">significant behaviour changes</a>, clearly influenced by brain development. </p>
<h2>Yes, there are hormone changes, but not testosterone</h2>
<p>There are hormone changes starting at around five to six years in both sexes in a period known as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21164255">adrenarche</a>. Perhaps this has also contributed to the confusion.</p>
<p>Adrenarche is the maturation of part of the adrenal glands where hormones similar to, but much weaker than, testosterone are made. Their most common effect is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21164255">body odour</a>. However, researchers don’t know why exactly boys and girls have this phase. And no-one has yet seen any clear effects on childhood behaviour.</p>
<h2>No, testosterone doesn’t spurt</h2>
<p>Use of the word “<a href="https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/spurt">spurt</a>” to describe testosterone production is also incorrect. </p>
<p>Testosterone does not spurt at any time of life. The word “spurt” creates a sense of rapidity and urgency, giving testosterone a reputation in childhood it does not deserve. Instead, when testosterone levels rise in puberty, it <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4949545/">increases gradually at first, then accelerates in mid to late puberty</a>.</p>
<h2>So, what else can explain behaviour?</h2>
<p>So is there an alternative explanation for boys’ behaviour at this age, which parents regularly report?</p>
<p>We see differences in boys’ and girls’ <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20826305">brains</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00424-013-1268-2">behaviour</a> well before puberty. Rises in testosterone in the womb and during the mini-puberty in the first six months of life likely explain these. </p>
<p>Studies that look at behaviour in four to five-year-olds tend to focus on play and social interactions, because these are what children this age do most of the time.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/187718/original/file-20170927-24193-1rt2joc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/187718/original/file-20170927-24193-1rt2joc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/187718/original/file-20170927-24193-1rt2joc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187718/original/file-20170927-24193-1rt2joc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187718/original/file-20170927-24193-1rt2joc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187718/original/file-20170927-24193-1rt2joc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187718/original/file-20170927-24193-1rt2joc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187718/original/file-20170927-24193-1rt2joc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Boys and girls this age tend to have different styles of play.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/245148427?src=PgfeMmrAnQHDwA_WguLr5w-1-52&size=medium_jpg">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Such studies show boys and girls this age generally have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2951011/">different ways of playing and communicating</a>. Boys’ play is generally more physical, engaging with mobile toys or building structures. Girls generally have more socially interactive play, and are more articulate. </p>
<p>Interestingly, girls with <a href="https://www.rch.org.au/uploadedFiles/Main/Content/MedEd/fracp/CAH%20PIR%202009.pdf">congenital adrenal hyperplasia</a>, when they are exposed to high levels of testosterone in the womb, tend to have more “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12760514">rough and tumble</a>” play styles, consistent with a testosterone effect on early brain development.</p>
<h2>So, how might being four or five change boys’ behaviour?</h2>
<p>At this age, children <a href="http://raisingchildren.net.au/preschoolers/preschoolers.html">learn how to</a> interact with others, understand another’s needs, share, and to deal with new and unfamiliar situations.</p>
<p>So, children must learn to <a href="https://www.kidsmatter.edu.au/early-childhood/resources-support-childrens-mental-health/about-emotions/self-regulation">regulate their own emotions</a>, like fear, concern, upset and anger. </p>
<p>When children don’t do this, we see the emotional outbursts, which can be explosive. Children can struggle to either understand or articulate why they lost control of their emotions. Boys <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2951011/">may respond</a> more physically and be less able to articulate what happened.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/talking-to-kids-about-emotions-matters-more-than-you-think-21955">Talking to kids about emotions matters more than you think</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Learning how to regulate their emotions is an important skill for children to develop. Parents can <a href="https://www.kidsmatter.edu.au/early-childhood/resources-support-childrens-mental-health/social-development">model good emotional regulation</a>, make sure children have regular daily routines, enough time to practice play and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28129449">enough sleep</a>. Praising positive behaviour and not overreacting to minor attention-seeking misbehaviour also helps.</p>
<p>We shouldn’t blame hormones for children’s behaviour. Instead, we need to better understand those behaviours.</p>
<p>For instance, persistent and distressing behaviours in a child may signal underlying anxieties, reaction to family stresses, which are felt but not understood, or be a result of <a href="http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2427470">adversities when they were younger</a>. So, if you are concerned, seek professional advice.</p>
<p>For all children, we need to prioritise <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/news/world-leading-academic-appointed-to-lead-play-research-centre">time to play</a>. That could mean space, action and permission to be noisy and boisterous.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>For more information about behaviour in preschoolers see the <a href="http://raisingchildren.net.au/preschoolers/preschoolers.html">Raising Children Network</a>. If you are concerned about your preschooler’s behaviour and want support, see <a href="https://healthyfamilies.beyondblue.org.au/age-1-5?&gclid=EAIaIQobChMIi4ei4eCh1gIVhggqCh3VdgheEAMYASAAEgJR5_D_BwE">beyondblue</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82587/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kate Steinbeck does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Some parents think their four-year-old boy’s emotional outbursts and aggressive behaviour can be blamed on their hormones. Here’s why that’s a myth.Kate Steinbeck, Medical Foundation Chair in Adolescent Medicine, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/601012016-05-27T05:38:31Z2016-05-27T05:38:31ZChildren with sexualised behaviours need support, not silence and stigma<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124281/original/image-20160527-869-16o9cu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Isolating a child from their peers does nothing to address the underlying concerns that may have lead to a child behaving in this way.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Reports of coercive sex acts among small children quite understandably provoke strong and broad ranging reactions. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/grade-one-student-sex-acts-cover-up-angers-and-shocks-parents-20160526-gp4goz.html">case</a> of a child in grade one performing sex acts on other children in a Victorian primary school point to what specialised child counsellors see as an <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-06-03/calls-for-action-to-halt-child-on-child-sex-abuse/5497196">increase</a> in the number of children with sexualised behaviours.</p>
<p><a href="https://crimecommission.gov.au/sites/default/files/problem_sexual_behaviour_in_children_complete.pdf">Sexualised behaviours</a> may include excessive self-stimulation, sexual approaches to adults, an obsessive interest in pornography and sexual overtures to other children, including, in some cases, coercive sex acts with other children.</p>
<p>But a lack of data means it is difficult to know how prevalent this is.</p>
<h2>The need for more data</h2>
<p>Many acts go unreported, as parents or schools seek to deal with these behaviours quietly. </p>
<p>Where parents or teachers do reach out for assistance, they often find it difficult to locate appropriate services. </p>
<p>Calls to police, child protection, or the education department don’t necessarily result in a referral to the specialised services designed to counsel children with sexualised behaviours. </p>
<p>Although specialised counselling services don’t collect data uniformly, longitudinal data from the services themselves clearly indicate an <a href="https://www.crimecommission.gov.au/sites/default/files/NIITF-PSB-REPORT-2010.pdf">increased demand</a> for sexualised behaviours counselling in recent years.</p>
<p>This apparent increase is something that we need to reflect quite carefully on as a society. </p>
<p>Although the tendency is to apportion blame to individuals - the child themselves, or their parents - to do so is to miss a much larger point. </p>
<p>Clinical practitioners that work closely with children report that sexualised behaviours are most often part of a complex set of challenges faced by a child. </p>
<p>Children, by virtue of their developmental immaturity, require secure attachments with adults, and nurturing supports, to ensure that they develop the capacity to make decisions progressively for themselves. </p>
<p>Where children’s attachment is disrupted, due to caregiver substance abuse, or a fractious home-life, for example, the supports that children need, and deserve, are lacking. </p>
<p>Enhancing our understanding of the challenges that children face is important. </p>
<p>Recent commissions of inquiry are directing much needed attention to questions about the extent to which exposure to <a href="http://www.rcfv.com.au/Report-Recommendations">family violence</a>, and <a href="http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/Online_access_to_porn">exposure to online pornography</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/silent-victims-royal-commission-recommends-better-protections-for-child-victims-of-family-violence-56801">impact adversely</a> on children during their crucial early years. </p>
<p>We know, however, that a child’s wellbeing is not just influenced by their immediate home context. The contexts of school, and community, also have the potential to act as strong supports for a child. </p>
<h2>Children shouldn’t be isolated</h2>
<p>For this reason, it is crucial that when a child comes to attention for sexualised behaviours, they are not further isolated from their immediate community. </p>
<p>The cultures of silence and denial that surround child sexualised behaviours mean that adults often lack the information that they need to respond appropriately. </p>
<p>There is a risk that parents or teachers minimise such behaviours, calling it “child’s play” or “boys being boys”. </p>
<p>By assuming that the behaviours are not harmful means that the supports that are required for all affected children are then not provided. This creates ongoing risks for all children. </p>
<p>At the same time, further harm is caused by panic-driven responses that stigmatise a child as a “perpetrator” and seek to isolate or punish the child.</p>
<h2>…or treated as criminals</h2>
<p>In Australia, children under the age of ten cannot be held criminally responsible for their actions – and for very good reason. </p>
<p>Children’s developmental capacity is such that the law deems that they are incapable of forming <a href="http://www.alrc.gov.au/publications/18-childrens-involvement-criminal-justice-processes/age-thresholds-criminal-justice-pro">criminal intention</a>, and the principle of <em>doli incapax</em> presumes that this also applies to children between the ages of ten and 14. </p>
<p>A criminal justice response is therefore inappropriate in instances where young children display coercive sexualised behaviours. There is no sense in which children can be described as “perpetrators,” and to do so causes a child further harm. </p>
<p>Instead, when a child comes to adult attention for sexualised behaviours it is important that the adult response is calm, non-stigmatising, and focused only on ensuring the wellbeing of all children involved. </p>
<p>Children subjected to the behaviours require the support of their caregivers, and child-centred trauma counselling. </p>
<h2>A sensitive response needed</h2>
<p>Importantly, children with sexualised behaviours are equally in need of a sensitive therapeutic response to provide them with the appropriate supports to adopt respectful behaviours towards others.</p>
<p>In school settings it is crucial that a sensible and sensitive safety plan is implemented that prioritises the wellbeing and integration of all children, including the child with the behaviours. </p>
<p>Practitioners have <a href="https://www.crimecommission.gov.au/sites/default/files/NIITF-PSB-REPORT-2010.pdf">reported</a> instances where children with sexualised behaviours are segregated by being forced to spend lunchtime seated outside the principal’s office. </p>
<p>Isolating a child from their peers and treating them with disrespect is not a sensible course of action if we seek to teach a child respectful behaviours. </p>
<p>A punitive measure of this kind strips a child of the social interaction that we know to be a protective factor. Punishing a child in this way does nothing to address the underlying concerns that may have lead the child to display sexualised behaviours in the first place.</p>
<p>Children require calm and coordinated responses from parents, teachers and counsellors.</p>
<p>After gently intervening to create a situation of safety, the response should be informed by <a href="http://www.dhs.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/644772/children-problem-sexual-behaviours-families-specialist-practice-resource-2012.pdf">specialist guidelines</a> and be sensitive to the individual circumstances and context.</p>
<p>Generic advice to suit all circumstances isn’t possible, given the legal and regulatory requirements in various contexts, depending on the age of children and the acts performed. </p>
<p>In contexts where clear response protocols are lacking, professionals working with children, including teachers, should be informed by <a href="http://www.dhs.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/644772/children-problem-sexual-behaviours-families-specialist-practice-resource-2012.pdf">specialist practice guidelines</a> suitable for the context. </p>
<p>Measures by schools to create secrecy around these issues fail to acknowledge the uncomfortable fact that child sexualised behaviours are a facet of contemporary life. </p>
<p>If we seek to understand why this is the case, and we wish to respond appropriately, then instead of silence and stigma we need to promote open and respectful conversations about the role that we can all play to support and nurture children while they develop the skills to negotiate the adult world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/60101/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>In her former role, Wendy O'Brien conducted research on sexualised behaviours, and children's wellbeing, for the Australian Crime Commission.</span></em></p>The cultures of silence and denial that surround child sexualised behaviours mean that adults often lack the information they need to respond appropriately.Wendy O'Brien, Lecturer in Criminology, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/569082016-03-29T19:06:18Z2016-03-29T19:06:18ZTablets at the table can influence child development, not always in a good way<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116574/original/image-20160329-10194-htzcn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How you let young children use a tablet device can influence their behaviour in later years.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Nataliia Budianska</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Do you “i-Pad your child” when you go to a restaurant? </p>
<p>I couldn’t help but notice the one-year-old at the restaurant table next to me who had been iPad-ed. That is, an iPad loaded with his favourite animation had been propped up on the table to act as a surrogate babysitter.</p>
<p>While screens can solve short-term issues of keeping children quiet, consistently using them to anaesthetise kids does us all a disservice in the long term. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/technology-science/technology/over-three-quarters-british-mums-6455379">Research</a> shows that 75% to 80% of parents now use technology to <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/pediatrics/early/2015/10/28/peds.2015-2151.full.pdf">placate or distract children</a>, for example on a long car trip, waiting for a doctor’s appointment, when mum or dad is cooking dinner, or when it’s nap time.</p>
<h2>Take a tablet and keep quiet</h2>
<p>While this strategy works, it raises important questions about how children will develop all the social skills they need for our world. Screens may ward off kids’ complaints (or complaints from adults around us) but we’re doing children a disservice if our go-to strategy is always to use technology to keep them quiet.</p>
<p>How can we grumble about kids not knowing how to act in public, or how to manage boredom when they haven’t had the chance to learn those skills?</p>
<p>Technology has enormous potential to support children’s learning. But how adults guide that use is key. </p>
<p>Research published in the journal <a href="http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleID=2498404">Psychology</a> consistently shows that television has for many years been effectively used as a strategy to calm children with identified difficult behaviour, but mobile devices takes this one big step further.</p>
<p>Parents can now calm down – or digitally sedate – wherever and whenever they feel they are (or may) lose control over a child’s behaviour. It’s unlikely that a child will say no to the device being handed to them, therefore it’s a parent’s responsibility to give this strategy some careful thought, especially in terms of how often to use technology as a pacifier. </p>
<h2>Early adopter</h2>
<p>Most children start using mobile devices in their <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/pediatrics/early/2015/10/28/peds.2015-2151.full.pdf">first year of life</a> and from day one the context around when and why that device is given to them is crucial.</p>
<p>Is a mobile automatically handed to a child when waiting in line? Is the family iPad or other tablet device mostly used to reward or punish behaviour? Are your devices loaded with apps to keep your child quiet? Is a parent always angry or disappointed with the child when letting them use a device? </p>
<p>Consistent negative uses of technology, which aim to suppress child behaviour, have many long-term implications.</p>
<p>For example, knowing how to change our speech and actions in different social situations comes from engaging in different social scenarios over and over again. If a child is always encouraged to be head down and focused on their screen when they are in a café or on the bus, then they will miss developing these understandings and skills.</p>
<p>Can we really blame them for inappropriate behaviour if they’ve never had opportunity to become familiar with what is appropriate and understand it? Similarly, we often lament dinner table conversation or conversation in the car but if the DVD player is always turned on when children get in the car, then the learnt behaviour is not talk in that context.</p>
<h2>A positive influence</h2>
<p>Very different implications are achieved if a device is used in a positive and empowering way, for example when a device is consistently handed to a child at home to support their creativity, imagination, communication and language skills.</p>
<p>Not only is technology being used in a way that will enhance learning, but it’s also communicating the understanding that it is an empowering part of our lives.</p>
<p>This is important in the long term if we actually want children to have positive attitudes towards using technology to learn at school and in future employment. Imagine a child’s confusion if they were asked to work on a iPad at school, when at home it had only been given to them in response to screaming and bad behaviour.</p>
<p>From a practical point of view, there are times when parents need quiet but consistently using tablets or mobile devices as the preferred method for achieving it is a problem. It dumbs down the potential that technology holds for children’s learning. </p>
<p>It also strips our children of important knowledge and skills for life today.</p>
<p>The effects are exacerbated since this use often begins when a child is still in infancy. Consistently demanding children disengage with the world around them and expecting them to be quiet all the time limits their opportunities to learn how to engage confidently with society. It teaches them that they are not important. </p>
<p>They may be having fun using a device, but the message is subliminal. If we want happy and successful children then it’s important to take stock of our own actions for developing their behaviour so that technology is an empowering part of children’s lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56908/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanne Orlando does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If you use a tablet device to keep a child quiet at the dining table or other event then you could be limiting their social skills. That could have an impact on the way they behave later in life.Joanne Orlando, Researcher: Technology and Learning, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/486962015-10-07T15:25:33Z2015-10-07T15:25:33ZBenefit cuts for parents will fail if we ignore the reasons why young people skip class<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97598/original/image-20151007-7345-vg58z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Playing truant is no game. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Young student via kilukilu/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>David Cameron <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-34450882">has announced</a> further measures to curb pupils’ absence from school through the use of financial sanctions. Fines are already imposed on parents when a “child is missing from school without good reason” as <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-34450882">a legal action</a> to enforce school attendance. The latest measures mean that those who do not or cannot pay the fine will see their child benefit deducted by £120.</p>
<p>It’s time for a confession. During my extended adolescent rebellion, truancy featured as part of my life. It was a way of escaping possible failure at school and some difficult circumstances at home. It provided me with a sense of adventure, of uncertainty and of risk in a world where I perceived myself as having little control. My parents did all they could to try to engage me in school, but the more they did, the more a wedge came between us. </p>
<p>In the end, the solution to my own particular circumstances came through intensive and concerted efforts of teachers, and my local youth worker, working with my family, to re-engage me in the education system. Since Cameron’s announcement, I’ve been reflecting on what those people around me did right. They listened, were patient, challenged me but supported me and thought of creative ways to help me to begin to see the value of why schooling mattered.</p>
<p>Those pivotal moments are the things that yield longer term and more valuable change – they certainly were for me. </p>
<h2>No quick fixes</h2>
<p>The prime minister, like all politicians who extol the virtues of a “good education”, starts from an undoubtedly noble position. Few could argue against the idea that children will benefit from attending school. Truancy can in many cases be a <a href="http://jar.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/05/28/0743558415587324.full.pdf+html">major factor</a> in provoking further social problems for young people.</p>
<p>But when politicians rely on describing things through a dichotomy, such as “attend/truant” or “victim/offender”, such simplicity strips an issue of all its difficult and challenging complexity. Truancy is one example where causes are complex and there are no quick fixes, punitive or otherwise.</p>
<p>But it’s vital that any policies recognise that truancy has multiple causes, encompassing low self-esteem, abuse in the home, caring responsibilities, social isolation and educational failure. <a href="http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/8655/1/RR424.pdf">Research in 2003</a> for the then Department for Education and Skills found that around a quarter of all young people truant without the collusion of their parents, finding themselves caught in a cycle that is hard to break. Parents perceived the main causes for truancy to be bullying, peer pressure and problems with teachers.</p>
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<p>When problems are multiple and complex, they require more intensive and considered solutions. Chris Yeates, general secretary of the teachers union NASUWT, is right <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-34450882">to argue</a> that punitive financial sanctions are more likely to contribute to deprivation and chaos in those families already more prone to risk. These are often the families that most need help, not more welfare conditionality – where benefits depend on a certain type of behaviour, such as fines for non-attendance. The <a href="https://www.jrf.org.uk/report/welfare-sanctions-and-conditionality-uk">Joseph Rowntree Foundation has argued previously</a> that welfare conditionality could further distance people from support.</p>
<h2>Listen to young people</h2>
<p>Cameron’s announcement once again shows the gulf between policy pronouncements and the everyday experiences of young people. We could start by doing much more to hear from those who engage in skipping school. </p>
<p>Recent <a href="http://jar.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/05/28/0743558415587324.full.pdf+html">research</a> in the US acknowledges that: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>In the process of addressing truancy as a national problem… it seems that less attention has been given to understanding the individual characteristics and contexts of truancy as seen through the daily routines of truants. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>In short, we base our policy interventions not from the starting point of how young people describe their lives, but from the point of <a href="http://jar.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/05/28/0743558415587324.full.pdf+html">the “preferred futures”</a> we determine to be best for young people. To an extent, academic research mirrors this, and in so doing, academics collectively put young people into neat boxes and reduce social challenges from the fluid and volatile to the <a href="http://jar.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/05/28/0743558415587324.full.pdf+html">absolute</a>.</p>
<p>So the issues are complex. And for that reason, more fines are unlikely to result in a signifcant impact.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/48696/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Pandya-Wood has previously conducted evaluations for national and local government. He is a member of the Labour Party.</span></em></p>David Cameron’s plans to deduct child benefit from parents of truants will not fix a complex problem.Jason Pandya-Wood, Head of Sociology and Reader in Social Policy, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/478092015-10-01T05:34:36Z2015-10-01T05:34:36ZChildren in care need early help with emotional and behavioural problems<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96676/original/image-20150929-30967-162en6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Left scarred by going into care. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">greggsphoto/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine you’re eight, and you’ve just returned home from school. You always walk home because mummy doesn’t like going out, because she says it makes her feel as if she’s going to die. Your five and six-year-old brother and sister are with you, one on each hand. When you get to your front door, you shout your name several times through the letterbox before the door is opened. But your heart sinks when mummy starts talking funny, which means she’s drunk again. </p>
<p>Then a man and a woman who you’ve never seen before come storming through the door, accompanied by the police, and mummy goes into hysterics, screaming, shouting and spitting at them. Your little brother and sister are both screaming too, but you’re trying to be brave for both of them. Before you know it, you and your two siblings are being led out of the house, with your mum screaming in the background that they’re stealing her babies. You are put in a car and driven away.</p>
<p>This fictitious story is based on our many years’ experience researching the topic of children in care, and speaking directly to children and young people about how they enter the care system. Imagine how frightened and confused this child would be. In many of these cases, children are then separated from their siblings and placed with a foster family, but then <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-34292394">moved from home to home</a> several times. Imagine the intense pain and fear caused by such a major upheaval. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.qub.ac.uk/research-centres/InstituteofChildCareResearch/filestore/Filetoupload,473903,en.pdf">In a recent study</a> that we conducted examining the lives of young people when they return home from care, it was the memory of first entering care that left the most indelible scar, especially if they were not properly informed at the time why they were being taken away from their parents.</p>
<h2>Living with trauma</h2>
<p>These traumatic experiences, combined with the years of abuse and neglect that many children will already have suffered prior to entering care, can lead to significant mental health difficulties. We have just completed a study called <a href="http://www.ofmdfmni.gov.uk/mind-your-health-report-october-2015.pdf">Mind Your Health</a> examining the physical and mental health needs of looked-after children and young people in Northern Ireland. Of the 233 children and young people included in the study (approximately 10% of the total looked-after population in Northern Ireland), we found that 40% had been diagnosed with behavioural problems, 35% with emotional problems, and 21% with depression or anxiety. Many of the carers for these children were concerned at a lack of support and services to deal with these issues in a timely manner.</p>
<p>These fit with findings from <a href="http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/190/4/319">similar studies in the UK</a>, indicating that almost half the population of looked-after children and young people across the UK are struggling with their behaviour and emotions. </p>
<p>All this creates a huge challenge for social services. Just as evidence has shown that being in care <a href="http://www.communitycare.co.uk/2015/09/16/care-damaging-childrens-education-research-finds/">does not appear to damage a child’s education</a>, these high levels of behavioural and emotional problems are not an indictment of the care system. But it is the care system’s responsibility to address these problems when children enter that legal jurisdiction. </p>
<h2>Spotting problems early</h2>
<p>In order to treat these emotional and behavioural problems properly, it’s vital that interventions are made when problems are initially detected. This could involve screening all children entering the care system to pick up on particular problems and refer these for immediate attention. Interventions could also be arranged with young people at risk of entering the care system as teenagers, and to provide additional support to both foster carers and young people during the teenage years, when there is the greatest risk of placement breakdown.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96776/original/image-20150930-5809-h3th2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96776/original/image-20150930-5809-h3th2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96776/original/image-20150930-5809-h3th2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96776/original/image-20150930-5809-h3th2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96776/original/image-20150930-5809-h3th2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96776/original/image-20150930-5809-h3th2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96776/original/image-20150930-5809-h3th2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Get young people help early.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Meg Wallace Photography/www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
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<p>Services also need to be made engaging and easily accessible for young people in care. This means reducing waiting lists, providing local outreach services, making information accessible, reducing social work staff turnover, and making sure professionals are available when needed. Foster care placements also need to be appropriately supported, especially those involving a child with complex needs. The stability of placements and a positive caring environment are crucial factors for promoting a child’s well-being.</p>
<p>To their credit, the government in Northern Ireland has begun to take a more preventative and early-interventionist approach in partnership with the US charity <a href="http://www.atlanticphilanthropies.org/">Atlantic Philanthropies</a>. They are providing <a href="http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/early_intervention_transformation_programme_eitp_newsletter_march_2015.pdf">£58m</a> to take forward an <a href="http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/early_intervention_transformation_programme">Early Intervention Transformation Programme</a>, with universal services geared towards supporting parents of babies and young children. Get these early relationships right, and you’re building a strong foundation and resilience in parents against the natural stresses of life that can push any one of us over the edge. </p>
<p>They have also developed a specific intervention called the Edges project, aimed at steering vulnerable teenagers on the edge of care away from the system. However, although this funding is to be loudly applauded, it is only short-term, and it is not at all clear that the political and civic will exists to provide these services on an ongoing basis. </p>
<p>There are approximately <a href="https://www.fostering.net/all-about-fostering/resources/statistics/statistics-children-in-care#.VgqyqXsb66N">80,000 children and young people</a> in care across Northern Ireland and Great Britain at any one time and many of them face significant behavioural and emotional problems. That’s 80,000 reasons why we need to ensure that these children and young people and their families get the vital support that they need, and as early as possible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/47809/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dominic McSherry receives funding from: the Economic and Social Research Council; Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister; Public Health Agency.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Montserrat Fargas-Malet receives funding from: the Economic and Social Research Council; Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister; Public Health Agency.</span></em></p>Going into care is traumatic for children – early intervention can help their mental health.Dominic McSherry, Senior Research Fellow, School of Sociology, Social Policy and Social Work , Queen's University BelfastMontserrat Fargas Malet, Research Fellow, School of Sociology, Social Policy and Social Work, Queen's University BelfastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/461162015-08-28T05:38:12Z2015-08-28T05:38:12ZDoes developing bad behaviour in primary school affect a child’s grades?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/92936/original/image-20150825-15912-vnio5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bad education. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Badly behaved boys via Monkey Business images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A few mischievous children acting out in a classroom and disrupting an entire lesson is a common scenario that teachers deal with. However, trouble-making children who hit out and misbehave are not only disruptive to teachers and classrooms, they are also likely to get lower grades. </p>
<p>In <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00787-015-0758-5">recent research</a>, my colleagues and I examined the links between the development of problem behaviour in 5,400 children between the ages of eight and 11 from 138 primary schools in England. The children were in Years 4, 5 and 6 – the last three years of primary school and what’s called Key Stage 2. We found that those who developed disruptive behaviour in these three “middle childhood” years did worse in the tests, also known as SATs, at the end of Year 6. </p>
<p>The problem behaviours we looked at in our study were when children got angry, hit out, broke things, hurt people or lost their temper. These behaviours were measured through a questionnaire in the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/184060/DFE-RR177.pdf">Me and My School</a> study, a study of mental health in English schools, funded by the Department for Education. </p>
<p>Children whose problem behaviours improved between Years 4 and 6 still did relatively badly in the maths, literacy and science tests at the end of primary school compared to their peers who had never demonstrated any problem behaviours. The gains these better-behaving children made between tests at Key Stage 1 (age seven) and Key Stage 2 tests (age 11) were slightly less than those children who had been well-behaved throughout. As the graph below shows, 67% of these children met the governments Key Stage 2 targets. In comparison, 77% of children who had no problem behaviours at all throughout these later years of primary school, attained the expected standard. </p>
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<p>This suggests that the learning lag caused by problem behaviours at a younger age might lead to reduced academic performance, even when the problem behaviours have subsided. The negative effects of bad behaviour on learning can be hard to make up fully. However, the ones who improve their behaviour do still do significantly better than their misbehaving peers. </p>
<p>Children whose behaviour worsened during the later years of primary school showed the least progress between the Key Stages. Just over 50% of the children with increasing behavioural problems over these three years of primary school met the government’s Key Stage 2 targets.</p>
<p>There is plenty of evidence showing that both behaviour and attainment in childhood have life-long consequences: for <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18423100">economic</a>, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18423100">social</a> and <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09645290110110227#.VdNmziZVhB">health</a> outcomes as well as <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ecoj.12170/abstract">life satisfaction</a>.</p>
<p>About half the children in the age group we studied demonstrated no conduct problems at any age. Another third demonstrated moderate levels of disruptive behaviour by the final year in primary school. In those children we studied, 3% went from being well-behaved to demonstrating high levels of problem behaviour. Another 10% already demonstrated problem behaviours by Year 4 which continued up to Year 6, while 5% had reduced their problem behaviours in these years. </p>
<p>So in an average classroom of 25 to 30 children, we estimate that four of them would display high levels of problematic conduct or disruptive behaviour. This affects the teaching environment of classrooms and makes it tougher for teachers to teach and other students to learn.</p>
<h2>Can early intervention help?</h2>
<p>Our results suggest there may be a relationship between disruptive behaviour and the capacity of a child to benefit from school, and therefore on their grades. But it’s also possible that a whole host of other factors negatively affect a child’s learning and behaviour. Children developing problem behaviours in the age group we studied were more likely to be boys, have special educational needs, be eligible for free school meals and have had lower scores earlier on in primary school.</p>
<p>It is possible that both explanations are at play, with a certain amount of negative consequences begetting more negative consequences in a vicious cycle. </p>
<p>Whatever the cause, early intervention to improve behaviour could be key. Research <a href="http://www.nasponline.org/publications/spr/abstract.aspx?ID=4151">in England</a> indicated that when schools were provided funding to support their students’ mental health, primary schools mainly used the money for interventions targeted towards student’s disruptive behaviours. The additional funding and support was associated with a decrease in problem behaviour. </p>
<p>The recent appointment of former teacher and blogger Tom Bennett as a <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/jun/16/school-behaviour-tsar-classroom-disruption">school “behaviour Tsar”</a> shows that the government is taking behaviour seriously. But schools would still benefit from greater resources to be able to support their students to minimise the impact of adversity and problem behaviour on learning and healthy development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46116/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The Department of Education funded the wider study that is the source of the data used and the Policy Research Unit in the Health of Children, Young People and Families, which is funded by the Department
of Health Policy Research Programme supported this work.
The views expressed are not necessarily those of either Department.</span></em></p>New research shows that children who develop bad behaviour towards the end of primary school, fall behind the most.Praveetha Patalay, Research Associate , UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/435612015-06-25T16:15:39Z2015-06-25T16:15:39ZOne theory all teachers with disruptive children should know about<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86270/original/image-20150624-31498-hzxlet.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Have you heard of attachment theory?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bath Spa University</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine a classroom where children are unable to wait their turn or stay focused on their work. They are easily distracted, cannot remember basic instructions or hold enough information in their head to solve problems – skills teachers rely on in order to teach successfully. </p>
<p>These behavioural issues are all examples of problems that can arise from attachment issues – based on the relationship between children and their main caregiver. </p>
<p>Attachment theory is now one of the world’s most well-researched theories about human development. It was first proposed by the <a href="http://www.simplypsychology.org/bowlby.html">20th-century British psychiatrist John Bowlby</a>, who considered that children needed to develop a secure attachment with their main caregiver via sufficiently consistent, responsive, sensitive, appropriate and predictable care and support. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.allanschore.com/pdf/SchoreIMHJAttachment.pdf">Research</a> has shown that secure attachments create mental processes <a href="http://www.drdansiegel.com/uploads/1271-the-verdict-is-in.pdf">that enable</a> a child to regulate emotions and attune to others. Securely attached children also have self-understanding and insight, empathy for others and appropriate moral reasoning. </p>
<p>In turn, these processes support the foundation of “executive functioning skills”. These entail a range of key skills that enable children to focus, hold and manipulate information, solve problems, make decisions, persist at tasks, inhibit impulsive behaviour, set goals and monitor their progress. These are all the skills <a href="http://developingchild.harvard.edu/index.php/resources/reports_and_working_papers/working_papers/wp11/">needed</a> for academic learning in the classroom.</p>
<h2>Trauma takes its toll</h2>
<p>Insecure attachments develop if early interactions between a child and their parent or caregiver are more negative, more inconsistent or more insensitive. They can also develop if the parent is unresponsive, inappropriate or unpredictable. This can have unfortunate consequences for a child’s achievements in school. Insecurely attached children <a href="http://edsource.org/wp-content/uploads/ClassroomAttachment.pdf">invariably have lower academic grades</a>, have reduced social competence, are less willing to take on challenges and have higher levels of ADHD and delinquency. </p>
<p>Children who have experienced early relational trauma, in particular, appear to have difficulty in developing effective executive functioning skills. They often have a reduced capacity to plan ahead, inhibit inappropriate behaviour and self-reflect. They <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/The_Social_Neuroscience_of_Education_Opt.html?id=YhXUVwkAQsAC&redir_esc=y">also often have</a> poor concentration, are restless and struggle with relationships. </p>
<p>Attachment research indicates that at least one-third of children have an insecure attachment with at least one caregiver, which in <a href="http://edsource.org/wp-content/uploads/ClassroomAttachment.pdf">turn is likely to affect</a> their school performance and behaviour. </p>
<p>One <a href="http://www.researchgate.net/publication/254000383_Identifying_the_Incidence_of_Psychological_Trauma_and_Post_Trauma_Symptoms_in_Children">study</a> in 2004, of 162 primary school children living in Clackmannanshire, indicated that 98% had experienced one or more trauma event (such as divorce or an accident) and for one in four this trauma resulted in behavioural or emotional disturbance. Other studies <a href="http://www.researchgate.net/publication/244915739_Attention_Deficit_Hyperactivity_Disorder_is_Associated_with_Attachment_Insecurity">have suggested</a> that a large proportion of children with ADHD may have attachment issues. </p>
<h2>Making teachers aware</h2>
<p>Attachment theory is well known to professionals within health and social care, but is less understood by teachers. Teachers <a href="http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Janice_Kennedy/publication/227662689_Attachment_theory_Implications_for_school_psychology/links/0deec5213b3b320854000000.pdf">may misinterpret</a> insecurely attached children’s behaviour as uncooperative, aggressive, demanding, impulsive, withdrawn, reactive or unpredictable. So it’s important for teachers to better understand this behaviour and some of its possible causes. </p>
<p>Increasingly, research in attachment <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Attachment_in_the_Classroom.html?id=xT2LOwAACAAJ">is turning its attention</a> to its relevance to the classroom teacher and their pupils. </p>
<p>Some pilot studies in England have been working towards increasing teachers’ knowledge and insight into attachment theory and its implications for the classroom. New ways of thinking, which include adopting whole-school strategies as well as targeted interventions with individual children based on attachment principles and processes, are being implemented in numerous schools around the country. </p>
<p>Examples of interventions include the use of emotion coaching (a way of communicating during behavioural incidents), nurture groups and <a href="http://www.theraplay.org/index.php/what-is-theraplay-3">theraplay</a>, a form of family therapy designed to reinforce attachment between parents and children. These pilot studies of an “attachment aware” approach are yielding some promising results. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86271/original/image-20150624-31510-672xjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86271/original/image-20150624-31510-672xjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86271/original/image-20150624-31510-672xjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86271/original/image-20150624-31510-672xjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86271/original/image-20150624-31510-672xjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86271/original/image-20150624-31510-672xjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86271/original/image-20150624-31510-672xjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Emotion coaching can help.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bath Spa University</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These <a href="http://attachmentawareschools.com/resources/documents/BF_BPP_BSU_Final_Evaluation_Report_8_June_2014.pdf">include significant reductions</a> in behavioural incidents, improved attendance, gains in maths and English scores beyond expected levels and improved well-being in both children and school staff. </p>
<p>This <a href="http://www.futureacademy.org.uk/files/menu_items/other/13vol159.pdf">evidence</a> suggests that such strategies provide longer-term solutions and are more cost-effective than many of the existing systems in place. As one deputy headteacher noted:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It took a series of children with needs that we just found hard to identify until we started to apply attachment theory thinking. And it just unlocked these children and made us able to understand what was going on with far greater clarity. As a result we got to make much more progress with them.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Some <a href="https://theconversation.com/on-the-subject-of-subjects-27035">critics</a> might consider that “attachment aware schools” will distract teachers from their focus on acquiring knowledge, but we are not advocating that teachers become therapists or take over parents’ roles. We <a href="http://attachmentawareschools.com/">do consider</a>, however, that attachment theory opens up new opportunities for teachers to revisit traditional ways of managing children’s behaviour and acquire new insights and solutions for the benefit of pupils and teachers alike.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/43561/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Janet Rose works part-time for Kate Cairns Associates, which offers training in attachment awareness and trauma informed practice. Bath Spa University has received funding for research in this area from Wiltshire and Somerset County Councils and the National College for Teaching and Learning. Janet Rose is affiliated to the Consortium for Emotional Well-being in Schools, EmotionCoachingUK. </span></em></p>Attachment theory can help in understanding some disruptive class behaviour.Janet Rose, Programme Leader and Award Leader for the Early Education Award, Bath Spa UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/392842015-03-30T18:12:50Z2015-03-30T18:12:50ZEight sneaky tricks to get your children to eat healthy food<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76243/original/image-20150327-16090-ncof3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Easier said than done but there are ways.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Eating by Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A child’s diet should be high in fruit and vegetables, high in complex carbohydrates such as brown bread, brown pasta and brown rice and relatively low in fat and sugary foods. It should also be low in salt. But as many of us know, getting children to eat what is good for them can be easier said than done. So how do you get your child to eat a healthy diet? Eating is essentially <a href="http://www.fooddudes.co.uk/media/25639/bc_2_loweet.1998changingwhatchildreneat.pdf">a learned behaviour</a> – so here are eight simple tips to encourage better eating. </p>
<h2>1. Get a fruit bowl</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76247/original/image-20150327-16135-1llreu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76247/original/image-20150327-16135-1llreu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76247/original/image-20150327-16135-1llreu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76247/original/image-20150327-16135-1llreu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76247/original/image-20150327-16135-1llreu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76247/original/image-20150327-16135-1llreu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76247/original/image-20150327-16135-1llreu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Better than crisps.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Fruit by Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Buy fruit and bring it into the house. Children like to graze and grab food when they are hungry. If there are bags of crisps around they will grab them. But if there is fruit then this is what they will find when they are hungry. So buy grapes, satsumas, small bananas and apples and place them in a fruit bowl. Then put the fruit bowl in a central place where your children can reach it whenever they feel hungry. </p>
<h2>2. Use mindless eating in a good way</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76248/original/image-20150327-16124-nqxl7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76248/original/image-20150327-16124-nqxl7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76248/original/image-20150327-16124-nqxl7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76248/original/image-20150327-16124-nqxl7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76248/original/image-20150327-16124-nqxl7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76248/original/image-20150327-16124-nqxl7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76248/original/image-20150327-16124-nqxl7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">But not the driving.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Car by Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23219989">Where you are when you eat</a> makes a difference to how much you eat and what you might eat. And distraction can be used as a tool. Throw a box of grapes into the back of the car or try giving your child a bowl of chopped up fruit or carrot sticks when they are watching the TV and watch it disappear as they make their way through it without thinking.</p>
<h2>3. Buy what you want them to eat</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76250/original/image-20150327-16135-vwpxls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76250/original/image-20150327-16135-vwpxls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76250/original/image-20150327-16135-vwpxls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76250/original/image-20150327-16135-vwpxls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76250/original/image-20150327-16135-vwpxls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76250/original/image-20150327-16135-vwpxls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76250/original/image-20150327-16135-vwpxls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You’re in charge.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shopping by Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>You are in charge of the money, the shopping and the cooking. They are not. So buy vegetables, brown bread and fruit and bring them into the house. Then give them to your children. They cannot eat vegetables if they are not on offer. And will only eat white bread if that’s what you buy. </p>
<h2>4. Use peer pressure</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76251/original/image-20150327-16120-11icwvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76251/original/image-20150327-16120-11icwvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76251/original/image-20150327-16120-11icwvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76251/original/image-20150327-16120-11icwvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76251/original/image-20150327-16120-11icwvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76251/original/image-20150327-16120-11icwvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76251/original/image-20150327-16120-11icwvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Copying friends.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Play by Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Children may well not eat cauliflower/broccoli/beans/brown pasta at home but strangely will wolf them down when at a friend’s house. So when they are going to a friend’s for tea never say “they don’t like X” and if you’re asked “what do they like?” just answer “feed them whatever you were going to cook”. Likewise when you have children back for tea give all the children the same food and even use it as a time to cook a food you know your child says they don’t like. If their friend eats it, <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1129283?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">then they may well eat it</a> as well.</p>
<h2>5. Persist</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76453/original/image-20150330-1253-119n3mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76453/original/image-20150330-1253-119n3mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76453/original/image-20150330-1253-119n3mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76453/original/image-20150330-1253-119n3mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76453/original/image-20150330-1253-119n3mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76453/original/image-20150330-1253-119n3mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76453/original/image-20150330-1253-119n3mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Keep going.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tired dad by Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Keeping going is always the key. Children like what they know and know what they get. And some don’t like change. But if you just persist, very soon what they know will shift and so will what they like, particularly if you eat with them and show them that you like the food you want them to eat. One day they will just eat it. And don’t forget the peer pressure, as this is particularly effective if they have a friend round for tea. If their friend eats their broccoli your child will too.</p>
<h2>6. Don’t mention it</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76455/original/image-20150330-1274-19d5aw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76455/original/image-20150330-1274-19d5aw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76455/original/image-20150330-1274-19d5aw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76455/original/image-20150330-1274-19d5aw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76455/original/image-20150330-1274-19d5aw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76455/original/image-20150330-1274-19d5aw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76455/original/image-20150330-1274-19d5aw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hide it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brown bread by Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At its simplest, if you don’t mention that the pasta/rice/bread are now brown then children won’t notice the difference. They actually don’t taste that different particularly when covered in sauce or toasted and buttered. </p>
<p>But if you feel that your children are more sensitive to such things then mix it up for a while. Cook pasta that is half white and half brown and see how they get on. You could mix it in with orange, green and brown pasta so it is all just a different colour and the chances are they will eat it. Nowadays there is even wholemeal bread that looks white that you could use. Then after a while tell them “by the way that’s brown bread you’ve been eating” and shift to the proper thing.</p>
<h2>7. Be a good role model</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76454/original/image-20150330-1274-hy33ln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76454/original/image-20150330-1274-hy33ln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76454/original/image-20150330-1274-hy33ln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76454/original/image-20150330-1274-hy33ln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76454/original/image-20150330-1274-hy33ln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76454/original/image-20150330-1274-hy33ln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76454/original/image-20150330-1274-hy33ln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Focus on what’s good about the food.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Family by Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>Eat with your children as much as possible and comment on how nice the vegetables are. Instead of saying “eat your beans they are good for you”, try saying “have some beans, they are really juicy”. Then be seen to eat your own vegetables and enjoy them.</p>
<h2>8. Say the right things</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76457/original/image-20150330-1229-mrtiiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76457/original/image-20150330-1229-mrtiiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76457/original/image-20150330-1229-mrtiiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76457/original/image-20150330-1229-mrtiiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76457/original/image-20150330-1229-mrtiiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76457/original/image-20150330-1229-mrtiiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76457/original/image-20150330-1229-mrtiiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">They haven’t walked in your shoes yet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Life by Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Don’t say “we’re going to eat brown bread as it’s healthier”. Health <a href="http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/05/140508110841.htm">doesn’t really work as a motivation</a> for children as its too long term and they live in the present. Be positive and say “this bread is much more filling” or “this pasta goes much better with this sauce” or even “this rice is much less mooshy than the other rice” or just “ooh this is lovely”. Then eat your food with pleasure in front of them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39284/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<h4 class="border">Disclosure</h4><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Ogden is author of The Good parenting Food Guide.</span></em></p>A child’s diet should be high in fruit and vegetables, high in complex carbohydrates such as brown bread, brown pasta and brown rice and relatively low in fat and sugary foods. It should also be low in…Jane Ogden, Professor of Health Psychology, University of SurreyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/365732015-01-22T15:02:02Z2015-01-22T15:02:02ZWell-being programmes in schools might be doing children more harm than good<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69734/original/image-20150122-12105-5mzeam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Finally, a break from talking about our emotions.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-31553884/stock-photo-children-s-feet-in-sports-hall.html?src=pp-same_artist-31553872-TTUnQPo0zQI4ylefzcqkdQ-1&ws=1">Children's feet via Pavel L Photo and Video/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Apocryphal depictions of an unprecedented <a href="http://www.youngminds.org.uk/news/news/2094_devastating_cuts_leading_to_childrens_mental_health_crisis">crisis in young people’s mental ill-health</a> and their general vulnerability have been accompanied by increasingly alarmist claims that only schools can address this <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/11320091/Head-warns-of-ticking-time-bomb-in-schools.html">social “ticking time bomb”</a>. </p>
<p>There have been calls, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/all-secondary-schools-could-do-with-a-head-of-well-being-35874">in an article on The Conversation</a> by Rachel Dodge, for schools to appoint heads of well-being. Yet there is little evidence that programmes aimed at improving children’s emotional well-being are having any impact. </p>
<p>Over the past two decades, these unchallenged mantras have produced a plethora of expensive government-sponsored initiatives such as the <a href="http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110809101133/nsonline.org.uk/node/87009">Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning</a> strategy for primary and secondary schools, the <a href="http://www.ppc.sas.upenn.edu/prpsum.htm">Penn Resilience programme</a>, the <a href="http://www.episcenter.psu.edu/ebp/altthinking">Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies</a> programme (PAThS), alongside a huge growth in programmes for resilience, “mental toughness” and “mindfulness”. </p>
<p>Once reserved for those diagnosed with specific mental health conditions or behavioural problems, supporters of such approaches claim that it’s essential to teach emotional well-being to all children and young people. Skills such as emotional expression, empathy, resilience, determination, self-esteem and mindfulness, hope and humour, have become a non-negotiable foundation to combat a widening array of deep-seated problems – from teenage pregnancy, obesity and poor parenting to mental ill-health, unemployment and low educational achievement. </p>
<h2>Where’s the evidence?</h2>
<p>Such claims often come from those with vested interests in a lucrative market of expensive, externally delivered programmes for pupils and students, training courses for teachers and classroom assistants, and endless “how-to” guides for teachers and parents. </p>
<p>Yet there is no evidence that interventions produce any real short-term, let alone long-term, benefit in either impact or transferability. My own forthcoming research has found that some of these interventions actually have negative effects. In general, the research field is fragmented, one-sided, inconclusive and methodologically flawed.</p>
<p>Emotional well-being, mental health and character are defined in increasingly vague and fluctuating ways. For example, interventions such as the <a href="http://www.episcenter.psu.edu/ebp/altthinking">PAThS programme</a> teach children that merely having “uncomfortable feelings” requires an explicit psychological “strategy”.</p>
<p>Yet, as the chief medical officer <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/351629/Annual_report_2013_1.pdf">argued in March 2014</a>, constant elision of “mental health” and “well-being” in policy, research and practice hinders both the proper assessment of the extent of mental ill-health and clear evidence for effective intervention. Some <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02671522.2012.690237#.VL_OVi7eKmc">historians argue</a> that it’s impossible to claim with any degree of certainty that young people’s mental health has declined significantly over time. </p>
<h2>Vested interests</h2>
<p>My research with Clare Rawdin at the University of Birmingham has shown that the methods used to generate evidence to show the impact of school-based well-being programmes are also flawed. We argue that there have been no large-scale, independent and systematic evaluations of any of the main programmes. Instead, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02671522.2012.690242">supporters cite</a> reviews of existing studies and small-scale evaluations. These are often carried out in self-recruited schools, led by researchers already disposed to some sort of interviewing or surveying of teachers who are similarly well-disposed. This makes it impossible to isolate any effects attributed to a particular programme from the impact of a school’s overall climate or ethos.</p>
<p>Further flaws arise from self-report measures that aim to translate the highly complex and fluctuating social and emotional traits into simple ranking scales. Questionnaires seek teachers’ perceptions of an intervention’s impact, often narrowing their judgement of pupils’ overall social and emotional learning to motivation and self-esteem. Supporters present psychological and emotional capacities as if they are things that are consistently revealed in behaviour. They also treat subjective accounts of emotional and mental state as reliable. They are neither of these things.</p>
<p>When some pupils and parents give positive responses if they are diagnosed with emotional and psychological conditions, this is treated as synonymous with “impact”. So too is simple enjoyment. For example, Rawdin’s forthcoming research shows that children and teachers welcomed a series of expensive, externally-delivered “positive psychology” training days in a secondary school as a diversion from the tedium of normal school life. </p>
<p>These problems, together with inconclusive and partial evidence, have failed to stop calls for wider roll-out, more regular use of a programme or better fidelity to its principles and methods. Bias towards advocacy and confirmation and overstating findings are therefore widespread, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-resilience-programme-evaluation-final-report">sometimes in the face of evidence</a> that interventions may be counter-productive for some children. </p>
<h2>Programmes may be counter-productive</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69736/original/image-20150122-12085-aw3qkh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69736/original/image-20150122-12085-aw3qkh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69736/original/image-20150122-12085-aw3qkh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69736/original/image-20150122-12085-aw3qkh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69736/original/image-20150122-12085-aw3qkh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69736/original/image-20150122-12085-aw3qkh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69736/original/image-20150122-12085-aw3qkh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">How do you feel?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-121016074/stock-photo-worried-child.html?src=x14YZGBg9Jn5r1wUIa7FvQ-1-13&ws=1">Worried child via fasphotographic/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Research <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01425692.2011.547305?journalCode=cbse20#.VMDkPi7eKmc">has also revealed</a> both a lack of impact and negative responses from children and young people. These range from indifference, compliance or oblivion that participants are in a programme at all, to rejection of activities for being intrusive, mere behaviour training and, occasionally, “brainwashing”. </p>
<p>Outside these research studies, there are emerging signs of increased sensitivity to “uncomfortable feelings” and stressful situations. This suggests that, far from developing resilience, attempts to teach emotional well-being actually exacerbate young people’s perceptions of adversity and risk so that even everyday challenges create circular expectations of a need for emotional support. It is perhaps no coincidence that university counselling services are reporting unprecedented student demands for help.</p>
<p>Problems of labelling <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01425692.2011.547305">also appear</a> when children who stay silent are categorised as having “esteem issues”, repressing emotions or simply being disruptive. Yet they may prefer to remain silent during supposedly “voluntary” classroom disclosures, or are unable or unwilling to learn “anger management” or choose other ways of dealing with problems. In general, it’s too easy to deflect bigger social and educational problems onto individuals deemed to have “emotional issues”.</p>
<p>Perhaps in thinking of alternatives to largely pointless, possibly harmful interventions, we should take more account of views from pupils that <a href="https://theconversation.com/all-secondary-schools-could-do-with-a-head-of-well-being-35874">Dodge alludes to</a> in her article. Their well-being should come from the core business of education: a stimulating, enriched, challenging curriculum and extra-curricula activities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/36573/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kathryn Ecclestone has received funding from the Economic and Social Research Council 2008-10 for work relevant to ideas in this article.</span></em></p>Apocryphal depictions of an unprecedented crisis in young people’s mental ill-health and their general vulnerability have been accompanied by increasingly alarmist claims that only schools can address…Kathryn Ecclestone, Professor of Education, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/365222015-01-20T16:27:53Z2015-01-20T16:27:53ZExplainer: what happens to kids who are kicked out of school?<p>In 2013, 3,900 young people were permanently excluded from secondary schools in England. The most common reason for these children to be removed from the mainstream school system was <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/183498/DFE-RR190.pdf">persistent disruptive behaviour</a>. Many of these children will go on to attend Pupil Referral Units (PRUs), which have the challenging task of delivering an academic curriculum for pupils with complex learning and social needs, many of who have extreme behavioural problems.</p>
<p>A new BBC Three documentary series, <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b050gr79">Excluded: Kicked out of School</a>, provides a look inside one of the country’s largest secondary-level PRUs: <a href="http://www.tbap.org.uk/bridge/">The Bridge AP Academy</a> in Hammersmith. Based on a year of filming at the school, the series gives pupils’ own accounts of school life and its challenges. What emerges is a picture of young people living in complex and often disturbing circumstances.</p>
<h2>Who gets excluded?</h2>
<p>While the background varies for each excluded child, there are some clear trends emerging regarding who gets excluded from schools and so who is likely to attend a PRU. </p>
<p>Family income is a significant factor. Children eligible for free school meals are <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/a-profile-of-pupil-exclusions-in-england">four times more likely</a> to be permanently excluded than their peers, and three times more likely to be excluded for fixed periods. Ethnicity is also significant, with Black Caribbean pupils nearly four times as likely to be permanently excluded. Boys are three times as likely as girls to be excluded and are also more likely to be excluded from school for fixed periods – meaning they are excluded but remain on the school register.</p>
<p>But more significant than any of these characteristics is having any <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/183498/DFE-RR190.pdf">form of special educational needs</a>: these pupils account for seven in ten permanent exclusions. Although most of these pupils are excluded for behavioural problems, that is not the only reason. </p>
<h2>What is a PRU</h2>
<p>PRUs were first introduced in England and Wales in 1994 as a form of alternative educational provision for children who could not attend a mainstream school, due to exclusion or medical needs. Between 1999 and 2009, the number of pupils attending PRUs <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/218952/main_20text_20sfr092010.pdf">doubled to 15,370</a> and they have become the most common form of alternative provision, with 450 PRUs distributed across <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13540602.201">95% of local authorities</a>.</p>
<p>A decade ago, Labour government policies increasingly advocated <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4615941.stm">“inclusive education”</a> through which all children would attend their local mainstream school. But the number of pupils attending PRUs during this period actually created an increase in the percentage of children attending schools in non-mainstream settings. </p>
<p>In recent years, PRUs have been <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/alternative-provision-academies">applying for academy status</a> as “AP Academies”. These are charitable companies, limited by guarantee, with the possibility of being managed by a sponsor – such as a school, charity, faith community or business. The Bridge AP Academy, for example, is part of The Tri-borough Alternative Provision, a multi-academy trust. </p>
<h2>Intention to reintegrate</h2>
<p>Because PRUs cater for so many pupils with special educational needs and do not need to follow the full national curriculum, they can be seen as a form of special school. </p>
<p>But in the BBC Three series, we see that pupils at The Bridge still take formal examinations and there is an expectation that the children will get five GCSEs. But <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationopinion/10030406/Shocking-underclass-of-our-school-system-creating-the-criminals-of-tomorrow.html">nationally there is a concern</a> that a large number of pupils leave PRUs without achieving meaningful qualifications.</p>
<p>The majority of pupils attending a PRU have been excluded from school or have been transferred to a PRU as part of a “managed move” because their behaviour persistently disrupted the education of other students. </p>
<p>This move to alternative provision is <a href="http://www.open.edu/openlearn/education/educational-technology-and-practice/educational-practice/the-exclusion-debate-discussion-hub">not intended to be permanent</a>. Instead, the aim is that with support, some students can be integrated back into mainstream schools. But in reality, many young people will remain in PRUs for significant parts of their school lives.</p>
<h2>Flexible curriculum</h2>
<p>One issue affecting re-integration, identified in a <a href="http://www.teachers.org.uk/files/nut-survey-of-pru-teachers-2012.pdf">National Union of Teachers survey</a>, is the inflexibility of the curriculum in mainstream schools. By contrast, the curriculum flexibility of many PRUs can support educational experiences that might not fit into more rigid curricula, and create space for building on pupils’ personal interests. </p>
<p>Recent research has shown that PRU teachers who have moved there from mainstream schools, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13540602.2013.848518?journalCode=ctat20">have reported</a> valuing the creativity that is possible outside of these mainstream constraints. They also felt that, although challenging, their PRU work had a stronger “moral purpose”. Both children and teachers <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13540602.2013.848518?journalCode=ctat20">have reported</a> the importance of persistent personal relationships in creating positive PRU experiences.</p>
<p>It is worth emphasising that <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/184078/DFE-RR218.pdf">many children</a> labelled as having behavioural, emotional and social difficulties are educated in mainstream schools. And the most recently available data shows that there were <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/thousands-fewer-pupils-excluded-from-school-since-2010">1,000 fewer permanent exclusions in 2012-13 compared to 2009-2010</a>. </p>
<p>But this positive trend must be seen in the context of research indicating numerous <a href="https://www.barnardos.org.uk/illegal_school_exclusions_in_wales.pdf">“illegal exclusions” </a> – in which parents are asked to keep their children away from school, but not given an official notification of an exclusion. This has revealed a continued tension between national targets to keep pupils in mainstream school and the capacity of the schools to keep them there. In light of this, it looks like the PRUs are here to stay. </p>
<hr>
<p>Next read: <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-good-tv-but-most-excluded-boys-cant-afford-mr-drews-summer-school-26419">It’s good TV, but most excluded boys can’t afford Mr Drew’s summer school</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/36522/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kieron Sheehy has received funding from the British Council and the National Council for Special Education, Ireland. He was an academic advisor for the BBC Three show Excluded. </span></em></p>In 2013, 3,900 young people were permanently excluded from secondary schools in England. The most common reason for these children to be removed from the mainstream school system was persistent disruptive…Kieron Sheehy, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Education and Language Studies, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/341412015-01-07T19:26:58Z2015-01-07T19:26:58ZThe eyes have it: changing kids’ minds about bad behaviour<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67197/original/image-20141215-6057-w65ci5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Conduct problems in childhood are the most common precursor to a variety of disorders affecting mental and physical health in adulthood.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/expose_switch/4566783151">Sergio Vassio Photography/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Aggression and oppositional behaviour in childhood doesn’t just make short-term problems for children, their friends and families. It also places kids at risk of long-term issues with mental and physical health. And while there are some effective treatments around, not all children respond to them. Now, neuroscience is helping guide better treatment. </p>
<p>Temper tantrums, breaking rules, playground fights, or just seeming to delight in annoying other people – most children will show one or more of these behaviours at least occasionally while growing up. And some level of contrariness might even be a sign of healthy development. </p>
<p>But, for some children, such behaviour can escalate into more persistent patterns of violating other people’s rights and hurting their feelings. This creates significant problems for both the child and the people around them. </p>
<p>Being consistently oppositional towards the world, or more overt actions such as aggression, theft, and destruction of property, are collectively referred to in the field of child and adolescent mental health as disruptive behaviours or conduct problems. </p>
<p>Beyond their immediate consequences, conduct problems in childhood are the most common precursor to a variety of disorders affecting mental and physical health, as well as social function, in adulthood. So intervening early in conduct problems is important both in the short term and to prevent longer-term issues as children mature.</p>
<p>But effective interventions depend on understanding what causes aggression and other conduct problems in the first place. Why do some children seem angry all the time, or act as if they just don’t care about the feelings of others? </p>
<p>As frustrating as this kind of behaviour is, and tempting as it might be to just try to stop it with punishment, many parents find that just doesn’t work. What appears to work better is designing interventions based on understanding how a given child’s emotions or ways of thinking might be contributing to the way they’re acting. And how family or other communities might be interacting with the child to elicit such behaviour. </p>
<h2>Different conduct problems</h2>
<p>Not all children with conduct problems are alike. <a href="http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/200/3/177.long">Developmental psychology</a> and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24105343">cognitive neuroscience</a> studies suggest such aggressive behaviour may be of at least two distinct types. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67199/original/image-20141215-6030-wl5516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67199/original/image-20141215-6030-wl5516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67199/original/image-20141215-6030-wl5516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67199/original/image-20141215-6030-wl5516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67199/original/image-20141215-6030-wl5516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67199/original/image-20141215-6030-wl5516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67199/original/image-20141215-6030-wl5516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Consistently having temper tantrums, breaking rules, and playground fights are some of the symptoms of conduct problems.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/22326055@N06/8378024526">Philip Howard/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
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<p>The more common type is associated with the fight-or-flight response, which is the set of emotional and physiological reactions people (as well as animals) have in response to feeling threatened. It may include the release of hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol, faster heart rate, and blood flow being directed to the muscles to prepare for action. </p>
<p>Since it’s important to respond to danger quickly, these reactions often start before the person has a chance to determine whether something is actually a threat. And once the response is underway, you have to exert self-control to stop and think. If you find this difficult for some reason, then there’s greater risk of inappropriate behaviour. </p>
<p>This is the child with an explosive temper who impulsively does something harmful often because he or she feels threatened, but who feels quite remorseful afterwards. Beneath the bravado, many of these children suffer from significant anxiety, which contributes to their tendency to interpret other people as being hostile, and reacting accordingly. </p>
<p>Most existing treatments for conduct problems work well for this group, especially if intervention takes place early. But the second type of conduct problems is more challenging. </p>
<p>These children use aggression to get something they want in a more callous way. Instead of high levels of anxiety, they may show less emotional reaction to experiences most people would find distressing. Other people’s feelings seem to just not matter to these kids and now neuroscience is helping explain why. </p>
<p><a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11920-009-0086-x">Brain imaging studies</a> show their amygdala (the brain region that normally increases activity in response to a potential threat) doesn’t display the expected reactivity. <a href="http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1503/2519.long">Studies in twins</a> have suggested that while the hyper-aroused type of aggression is often associated with external risks, such as growing up in an unsafe environment, this second type appears more strongly genetic. </p>
<h2>Seeing other people’s feelings</h2>
<p>So what might cause this kind of behaviour? One <a href="http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/200/3/191.long">clue comes from research</a> suggesting part of the answer may lie in the neural systems underpinning attention. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67203/original/image-20141215-6051-1xnbjvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67203/original/image-20141215-6051-1xnbjvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67203/original/image-20141215-6051-1xnbjvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67203/original/image-20141215-6051-1xnbjvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67203/original/image-20141215-6051-1xnbjvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67203/original/image-20141215-6051-1xnbjvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67203/original/image-20141215-6051-1xnbjvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Children with the callous type of conduct problems are known to not pay attention to other people’s eyes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/adselwood/4510703986">Adam Selwood/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Children in the second group have been found to often have difficulty recognising when other people look fearful. This failure has been linked to them paying less attention to other people’s eyes, the part of the face that reveals the most about what someone is feeling. </p>
<p>When the children were directed by researchers to look at other people’s eyes, their ability to recognise fear improved. This suggests improving attention to emotional cues may play a helpful in their treatment. </p>
<p>What isn’t known, though, is whether redirecting their attention will result in a more normal response in the relevant brain regions. Whether the amygdala is able to respond when the right cues are being seen. </p>
<p>My colleagues and I are using functional neuroimaging to study the effects on brain activity of changing what children with conduct problems pay attention to. Working with kids displaying callous types of aggression, we’re trying to find out if refocussing their attention normalises response in areas of their brain related to emotional activity. </p>
<p>We also want to know whether the same intervention in the children with more reactive aggression might have the negative effect of over-stimulating an already aroused fight-or-flight system. </p>
<p>Better understanding the differences between children with conduct problems is an essential step in making sure they receive the right treatment. It will help kids and their families decrease problem behaviours, and hopefully prevent some of the long-term issues that arise in the absence of timely intervention.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/34141/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rhoshel K. Lenroot receives funding from Australian Rotary Health, Perpetual Philanthropic Services, Beyond Blue, the National Health and Medical Research Council, the Australian Research Council, and the Stanley Medical Research Foundation. She is affiliated with the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatry, the Australian Medical Association, the Australian Neuroscience Society, the Australasian Society for Autism Research, the Society for Neuroscience, and the Society for Mental Health Research.</span></em></p>Aggression and oppositional behaviour in childhood doesn’t just make short-term problems for children, their friends and families. It also places kids at risk of long-term issues with mental and physical…Rhoshel K. Lenroot, Professor of Infant, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/343802014-11-24T06:10:07Z2014-11-24T06:10:07ZToday’s 13-year-olds are not as bad as we’re led to believe<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/65215/original/image-20141121-1058-1bd834x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What do you presume about me? </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-128632589/stock-photo-three-teenagers-sat-together.html?src=31oFJUgA3avnCHKRZD9Xtw-1-0">Teenagers via auremar/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 1982 I was toying with the idea of a career in teaching. That year a controversial film, <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0084287/">Made in Britain</a>, starring Tim Roth was released and I almost didn’t become a teacher. The film’s central character, Trevor was a dysfunctional, violent, foul-mouthed youth – everything society hates and fears. My natural fear was how would I, as a young teacher, cope with a classroom full of such kids? Of course the film is fictional. It portrayed the 1980s accurately – but did it portray Britain’s youth accurately?</p>
<p>With the way some of the media represents young people, you may be forgiven for thinking that Roth’s character is alive and well and infesting our streets and schools. Different newspapers have their favourite terms for teenagers: the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2398803/Yob-neighbours-lives-misery-kicking-footballs-cars-windows-BANNED-kind-ball-game.html">Daily Mail likes “yobs”</a>, while the Daily Express goes with <a href="http://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/369342/Capital-plagued-by-feral-kids-behind-800-crimes">“feral kids”</a>. </p>
<h2>Changing preoccupations of Year 9s</h2>
<p>But a <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/longitudinal-study-of-young-people-in-england-cohort-2-wave-1">new longitudinal study</a> of 13 to 14-year-olds has painted a very different picture of the youth of today. They are drinking and smoking less and bullying is on the decrease – despite the inexorable rise of social media <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-the-permanence-of-online-abuse-that-makes-cyberbullying-so-damaging-for-children-29874">making bullying</a> much easier than it was 30 years ago.</p>
<p>The media has briefly picked up on some of these elements, such as the decline in drinking and smoking and <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-30082251">bullying</a>. But they have also focused on how the <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/11236333/Pupils-shun-after-school-kickabouts-in-favour-of-Facebook.html">youth of today communicate less</a> with each other one-to-one and prefer computer games to actual contact with their peers. This cherry-picks the data to fit a stereotype of the lone child, shut off from society playing violent games – a potential outcast from society.</p>
<p>In my time as a teacher I saw the best and worst of Year 9, the pupils at the focus of this longitudinal study. It was common 30 years ago to explain the behaviour of Year 9 children as a consequence of puberty. Young girls were often more mature in their development and outlook than young boys. </p>
<p>Certainly there was the push against authority, the testing of boundaries and a feeling of invincibility that often led to risky behaviour – from drinking alcohol to trying drugs. In the inner-city schools where I worked, Year 9 was often the “dangerous year” where kids could easily go off the rails. We looked for the tell-tale signs of a hedonistic lifestyle, the aroma of strange cigarettes, the dark circles under the eyes or a pallor not usually seen in fresh-faced youth. It was easier to do this with the boys than the girls who covered up any blemish with make-up and any odd odour with perfume.</p>
<h2>Not a ‘dsyfunctional’ youth</h2>
<p>But what of the youth of today? The report is encouraging to say the least. It found that 64% of young people reported no risky behaviours and 68% of their parents reported no indications of risky behaviour, such as contact with the police. Despite what the media says, the majority of young people are neither dysfunctional, violent nor affiliated with gangs.</p>
<p>Of course there will always be some children who behave immorally, criminally or anti-socially, but the indications are that the youth of today are less likely to be involved in risky, criminal behaviour. More than three quarters – 76% – of those questioned had reported no instances of criminal behaviour and only 3% of children reported that they were actively engaged with a street gang.</p>
<p>Attitudes towards schooling have also changed significantly over the past 30 years. When I started teaching in the mid-1980s, it was a struggle to keep children in education past the school-leaving age of 16. A Levels and post-16 education concentrated mainly on the minority who were going on to university. Vocational qualifications were around, but never really valued.</p>
<p>Ten years ago, when the first longitudinal study was undertaken, 79% of children expected to stay on in post-16 education. This has now risen to just under 90%. Admittedly, the school-leaving age has increased, but the proportion looking to enter university has increased significantly in the past ten years from 34% to 41%.</p>
<h2>Parents happier</h2>
<p>Parents were also asked for their views in this study. Their support is a vital aspect of education and supportive parents who work with and trust the school make a big difference when it comes to positive educational achievement. A staggering 90% of the parents surveyed felt that their child’s school was either good or very good (as compared to 78% of schools similarly judged <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/education/2013/sep/09/schools-advances-ofsted-chief-wilshaw">by schools regulator Ofsted in 2013</a>).</p>
<p>A huge 93% were fairly or very satisfied with their child’s progress in school. Contrast this picture with the stream of negative rhetoric that comes from politicians of <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/tackling-underperformance-in-weak-primary-schools">underperformance in our schools</a> that needs to be tackled with some <a href="https://theconversation.com/conservatives-crack-team-of-superteachers-will-need-the-patience-of-gandhi-32974">bright new initiative from the Department of Education</a>.</p>
<h2>Focus on the positive</h2>
<p>So what can we learn from this new study? Well, it’s easy to find negatives in our education system. The press delight in feeding people’s fears – the stereotypes they create of badly behaved, criminal gangs of delinquent children, roaming the streets, drunk and drugged-up looking for a fight sells more newspapers. </p>
<p>But as any good teacher will tell you, a focus on the negative, always highlighting the bad behaviour, will not stop that behaviour. A focus on the positive that recognises good behaviour is a far better way to manage children and the classroom. This doesn’t mean that there should be no consequences for the bad behaviour, but tackling the bad often requires a deeper understanding of why children behave the way that they do.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/34380/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Williams does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In 1982 I was toying with the idea of a career in teaching. That year a controversial film, Made in Britain, starring Tim Roth was released and I almost didn’t become a teacher. The film’s central character…James Williams, Lecturer in Science Education, Sussex School of Education and Social Work, University of SussexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/332902014-10-28T05:57:49Z2014-10-28T05:57:49ZWhy early diagnosis of autism in children is a good thing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/62869/original/4p4qpfcj-1414407274.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Building on strengths.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-140268190/stock-photo-outdoors-portrait-of-cute-years-old-child-boy.html?src=YMiPsrtcOt-SWhPpQhWbxA-1-8">Child by Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many children with autism are put on waiting lists and miss out on early behavioural interventions and other benefits because health professionals are reluctant to diagnose autism early out of fear of labelling young children.</p>
<p>Until recently “autism is a lifelong developmental disability” was repeated in nearly all <a href="http://www.autism.org.uk/about-autism/autism-and-asperger-syndrome-an-introduction/what-is-autism.aspx">descriptions and definitions of autism</a>, even to the extent that some interventions, such as <a href="http://teacch.com/about-us/what-is-teacch">the TEACCH approach</a> – which focused on structuring the physical environment to suit “the autism”, rather than on developing socially relevant and important skills for life in everyday inclusive society – were based on the concept of autism as a lifelong condition.</p>
<p>So, in order to prevent labelling children between one and three as “autistic” for the rest of their lives, diagnosis <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17683451">is being deliberately delayed</a>, even if all the signs are there. Instead of receiving an early diagnosis, about half of the young children referred for diagnosis are put on a “watch-and-wait” list, in other words, <a href="https://www.whatdotheyknow.com/request/asd_pathway_2#incoming-369861">their diagnosis is deferred</a>. The rationale for this is to ensure that, when these children get the diagnosis, it is “stable” <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17683451">and does not change over time</a>.</p>
<p>Under these contentions, diagnosis can be delayed for <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8578.2010.00455.x/abstract">up to five years</a> and sometimes, until the child has reached school age and beyond.</p>
<h2>Getting started earlier</h2>
<p>But there is increasing evidence that autism <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23320807">may not necessarily be lifelong</a>.
More studies are now showing a notable number of children, who were previously diagnosed with autism, <a href="http://prognosismethods.cochrane.org/sites/prognosismethods.cochrane.org/files/uploads/Woolfenden%202012.pdf">no longer meet the diagnostic criteria</a> later on. This has led to <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-21029593">headlines such as</a>: “Children may grow out of autism.”</p>
<p>But the children in these studies did not miraculously “grow out of autism”. They received <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24799263">at least one to two years</a> of early intensive applied behaviour analytic interventions, starting when they were only about two years old. Applied Behaviour Analysis, or ABA, is the application of the science of <a href="http://www.behavior.org">behaviour analysis</a> that is widely used in the US and Canada to help a range of different people, including those on the autism spectrum, to lead fulfilled lives. </p>
<p>For young children with autism this means that the skills needed to enhance their quality of life <a href="https://theconversation.com/behavioural-method-is-not-an-attempt-to-cure-autism-19782">are taught playfully and systematically</a> by <a href="http://www.bacb.com">highly trained staff</a> who work under <a href="http://www.cengage.com/search/productOverview.do;jsessionid=0263FAC50C434B97B92A0D5716B4E47E?N=16%2040&Ntk=P_EPI&Ntt=673087743197852143623656162878512808&Ntx=mode+matchallpartial">strict ethical guidelines</a>. Early diagnosis is important because it allows this to happen much earlier. For young children with autism this means that the skills needed to reach their full potential are taught early when brain plasticity <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18606031">is much more pronounced</a> and consequently the impact of intervention is much more comprehensive. </p>
<p>ABA-based interventions are entirely in line with the <a href="http://www.un.org/disabilities/convention/conventionfull.shtml">UN Convention of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities</a> because programmes are dynamic and individually tailored to suit the needs of the child as the child grows and develops. Of course, this scientific approach to interventions also benefits many other populations <a href="http://www.iancommunity.org/ssc/webinar-skills-for-adulthood">including adults with autism</a> and children <a href="http://www.scie-socialcareonline.org.uk/why-reinvent-the-wheel-a-behaviour-analysts-reflections-on-pedagogy-for-inclusion-for-students-with-intellectual-and-developmental-disability/r/a1CG0000000GhIcMAK">in mainstream classrooms</a>.</p>
<p>There is much ill-informed nonsense <a href="http://www.autismtreatmentcenter.org/contents/other_sections/aba-vs-son-rise-program.php">that is written and said about ABA</a>. And it is sometimes difficult to decipher the motivations for this. For some there are clear financial reasons, while others may have suffered from quackery pretending to be ABA. </p>
<p>Worryingly, some well-known academics have joined the anti-ABA circus of criticisers, who are <a href="http://theskepticaladvisor.wordpress.com/2014/01/21/simon-baron-cohens-fantastically-false-article-on-radical-behavior-an-example-of-valid-but-false-premises/">often embarrassingly wide of the mark</a>: for example, that behaviour-based interventions are dead, despite the growing popularly of ABA and the rapidly rising numbers of certified behaviour analysts. Or they mix up ABA, the application of the science, with a procedure called <a href="http://www.autismconnectmd.org/education/methods/aba.html">Discrete Trial Teaching</a>(DTT), which may be used with young children with autism if they require well-structured, repeated learning opportunities early on. But DTT is just one way of applying behaviour analysis, not the science itself. </p>
<p>Readers interested to learn more about <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=autism%20%22applied%20behavior%20analysis%22%20OR%20%22early%20start%20denver%20model%22">the science</a> of behaviour analysis should listen to those <a href="http://www.autismspeaks.org/what-autism/treatment/applied-behavior-analysis-aba">trained in this science</a> rather than to second-hand quackery with hidden agendas.</p>
<p>Apart from accessing early intervention, a diagnosis is also necessary to access other benefits, such as carer’s benefits or disability living allowances. Bringing up a child with disabilities is <a href="http://www.lse.ac.uk/newsAndMedia/news/archives/2014/06/Autism.aspx">at least three times as expensive</a> as bringing up other children, and families need all the support they can get. There <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-8578.12038/abstract">is ample evidence</a> that parental stress can be alleviated through early diagnosis, support, and effective intervention. Delaying diagnosis prevents access to these.</p>
<h2>Early diagnosis: possible and reliable</h2>
<p>A recent secondary data analysis of the UK Millennium Cohort Study of just over 18,500 children showed that children who were diagnosed with autism by the time they were five were much more likely to have experienced health and developmental concerns from as early as nine months old, than children not on the spectrum. </p>
<p>By three years old, these children <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8578.2010.00455.x/abstract">were more likely to have</a> motor, communication, as well as sensory problems – and increasingly poorer emotional and social health.</p>
<p>Findings of the appropriateness and importance of early diagnosis are <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12638764">confirmed in studies</a> that have looked at babies whose older siblings have autism. These babies are considered “at risk of developing autism” and many of them show signs such as repetitive behaviours and lack of social engagement <a href="http://www.autismspeaks.org/site-wide/baby-siblings-research-consortium">before they are 18 months</a> (but as early as nine months). </p>
<p>A recent pilot intervention <a href="http://www.sacbee.com/news/local/health-and-medicine/healthy-choices/article2609066.html">study of these babies found</a> that early parent-led behaviour intervention led to significantly reduced autism symptoms. </p>
<h2>Unethical to delay diagnosis</h2>
<p>The detrimental long-term outcome of late diagnosis and lack of early intensive intervention is clear. The <a href="http://www.researchautism.net/autism/other-aspects-of-autism/outcomes-for-people-on-the-autism-spectrum">majority of adults with autism</a>, diagnosed when they were about the age of six, have unchanged IQ and functioning by the time they are 44-years-old, while a quarter of these adults cannot be assessed because they do not develop language above that of a three-year-old and engage in severe aggressive or self-injurious behaviours. This stands in stark contrast with the good <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24799263">outcomes of early ABA-based interventions found in the US</a>. </p>
<p>In the UK the prevalence of autism <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8578.2010.00455.x/abstract">is 3.5% among 11-year-olds</a> and ABA-based interventions are <a href="http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg170">not routinely available</a>. What are the chances for these children, when they reach the age of 44 years?</p>
<p>Of course, most children with autism grow into adults with autism and challenges are likely to increase. Much can and should be done to enhance their <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2005/nov/13/healthandwellbeing.health">strengths</a> and improve their choices and quality of life through early diagnosis and early intensive interventions. Delaying diagnosis out of ill-perceived and outdated concepts is unethical and simply no longer an option.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/33290/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karola Dillenburger receives funding from Office of the First and Deputy First Minister (OFMDFM) and the European Union (Framework 7).</span></em></p>Many children with autism are put on waiting lists and miss out on early behavioural interventions and other benefits because health professionals are reluctant to diagnose autism early out of fear of…Karola Dillenburger, Professor in the School of Education, Queen's University BelfastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.