tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/concentration-45984/articlesConcentration – The Conversation2024-01-10T19:14:22Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2194902024-01-10T19:14:22Z2024-01-10T19:14:22ZIt’s normal for your mind to wander. Here’s how to maximise the benefits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568116/original/file-20240107-23-jkmq1h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C17%2C5964%2C3970&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/focused-businesswoman-thinking-on-project-at-laptop-at-home-7034445/">George Milton/ Pexels </a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you ever found yourself thinking about loved ones during a boring meeting? Or going over the plot of a movie you recently watched during a drive to the supermarket? </p>
<p>This is the cognitive phenomenon known as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.01.002">mind wandering</a>”. Research suggests it can account for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044423">up to 50%</a> of our waking cognition (our mental processes when awake) in both <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1192439">western and non-western societies</a>. </p>
<p>So what can help make this time productive and beneficial? </p>
<h2>Mind wandering is not daydreaming</h2>
<p>Mind wandering is often used interchangeably with daydreaming. They are both considered types of inattention but are not the same thing. </p>
<p>Mind wandering is related to a primary task, such as reading a book, listening to a lecture, or attending a meeting. The mind <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00560/full">withdraws</a> from that task and focuses on internally generated, unrelated thoughts. </p>
<p>On the other hand, daydreaming does not involve a primary, active task. For example, daydreaming would be thinking about an ex-partner while travelling on a bus and gazing out the window. Or lying in bed and thinking about what it might be like to go on a holiday overseas. </p>
<p>If you were driving the bus or making the bed and your thoughts diverted from the primary task, this would be classed as mind wandering.</p>
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<img alt="A woman sits by a window gazing out onto trees outside." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568114/original/file-20240107-25-bf9x5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568114/original/file-20240107-25-bf9x5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568114/original/file-20240107-25-bf9x5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568114/original/file-20240107-25-bf9x5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568114/original/file-20240107-25-bf9x5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568114/original/file-20240107-25-bf9x5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568114/original/file-20240107-25-bf9x5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Daydreaming is not related to any task or stimulus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/pensive-woman-looking-at-window-3769012/">Andrea Piacquadio/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<h2>The benefits of mind wandering</h2>
<p>Mind wandering is believed to play an important role in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612446024">generating new ideas</a>, conclusions or insights (also known as “aha! moments”). This is because it can give your mind a break and free it up to think more creatively. </p>
<p>This type of creativity does not always have to be related to creative pursuits (such as writing a song or making an artwork). It could include a new way to approach a university or school assignment or a project at work.<br>
Another benefit of mind wandering is relief from boredom, providing the opportunity to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031569">mentally retreat</a> from a monotonous task. </p>
<p>For example, someone who does not enjoy washing dishes could think about their upcoming weekend plans while doing the chore. In this instance, mind wandering assists in “passing the time” during an uninteresting task. </p>
<p>Mind wandering also tends to be future-oriented. This can provide an opportunity to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2011.08.007">reflect upon and plan</a> future goals, big or small. For example, what steps do I need to take to get a job after graduation? Or, what am I going to make for dinner tomorrow? </p>
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<img alt="A person washes a glass in a sink, with dirty dishes on the side." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568117/original/file-20240107-27-ku3ul0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568117/original/file-20240107-27-ku3ul0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568117/original/file-20240107-27-ku3ul0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568117/original/file-20240107-27-ku3ul0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568117/original/file-20240107-27-ku3ul0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568117/original/file-20240107-27-ku3ul0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568117/original/file-20240107-27-ku3ul0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Letting your mind wander during tedious task can be a way of ‘retreating’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-pouring-water-on-clear-drinking-glass-4108676/">Cottonbro Studio/ Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/alpha-beta-theta-what-are-brain-states-and-brain-waves-and-can-we-control-them-219236">Alpha, beta, theta: what are brain states and brain waves? And can we control them?</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<h2>What are the risks?</h2>
<p>Mind wandering is not always beneficial, however. It can mean you miss out on crucial information. For example, there could be disruptions in learning if a student engages in mind wandering during a lesson that covers exam details. Or an important building block for learning. </p>
<p>Some tasks also require a lot of concentration in order to be safe. If you’re thinking about a recent argument with a partner while driving, you run the risk of having an accident. </p>
<p>That being said, it can be more difficult for some people to control their mind wandering. For example, mind wandering is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112901">more prevalent</a> in people with ADHD. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-your-brain-decides-what-to-think-198109">How your brain decides what to think</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What can you do to maximise the benefits?</h2>
<p>There are several things you can do to maximise the benefits of mind wandering. </p>
<ul>
<li><strong>be aware</strong>: awareness of mind wandering allows you to take note of and make use of any productive thoughts. Alternatively, if it is not a good time to mind wander it can help bring your attention back to the task at hand</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man writes in a diary." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568115/original/file-20240107-23-35m25l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568115/original/file-20240107-23-35m25l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568115/original/file-20240107-23-35m25l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568115/original/file-20240107-23-35m25l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568115/original/file-20240107-23-35m25l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568115/original/file-20240107-23-35m25l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568115/original/file-20240107-23-35m25l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Try and take note of things your realise when your mind wanders.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/unrecognizable-man-writing-notes-in-notebook-4559983/">Ketut Subiyanto/ Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>context matters</strong>: try to keep mind wandering to non-demanding tasks rather than demanding tasks. Otherwise, mind wandering <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00441">could be unproductive</a> or unsafe. For example, try think about that big presentation during a car wash rather than when driving to and from the car wash</p></li>
<li><p><strong>content matters</strong>: if possible, try to keep the content positive. Research <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00900">has found</a>, keeping your thoughts more positive, specific and concrete (and less about “you”), is associated with better wellbeing. For example, thinking about tasks to meet upcoming work deadlines could be more productive than ruminating about how you felt stressed or failed to meet past deadlines.</p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219490/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Mind wandering is often confused with daydreaming, but they are not the same thing.Dr Anchal Garg, Psychology researcher, Bond UniversityBruce Watt, Associate Professor in Psychology, Bond UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1985492023-02-02T09:00:56Z2023-02-02T09:00:56ZWhen critical thinking isn’t enough: to beat information overload, we need to learn ‘critical ignoring’<p>The web is an informational paradise and a hellscape at the same time. A boundless wealth of high-quality information is available at our fingertips right next to a ceaseless torrent of low-quality, distracting, false and manipulative information.</p>
<p>The platforms that control search were conceived in sin. Their business model auctions off our most precious and limited cognitive resource: attention. These platforms work overtime to hijack our attention by purveying information that arouses curiosity, outrage, or anger. The more our eyeballs remain glued to the screen, the more ads they can show us, and the greater profits accrue to their shareholders. </p>
<p>It is hardly surprising, therefore, all this should take a toll on our collective attention. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-09311-w">A 2019 analysis</a> of Twitter hashtags, Google queries, or Reddit comments found that across the past decade, the rate at which the popularity of items rises and drops has accelerated. In 2013, for example, a hashtag on Twitter was popular on average for 17.5 hours, while in 2016, its popularity faded away after 11.9 hours. More competition leads to shorter collective attention intervals, which lead to ever fiercer competition for our attention – a vicious circle. </p>
<p>To regain control, we need cognitive strategies that help us reclaim at least some autonomy and shield us from the excesses, traps and information disorders of today’s attention economy.</p>
<h2>Critical thinking is not enough</h2>
<p>The textbook cognitive strategy is <em>critical thinking</em>, an intellectually disciplined, self-guided and effortful process to help identify valid information. In school, students are taught to <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED541436.pdf">closely and carefully read</a> and evaluate information. Thus equipped, they can evaluate the claims and arguments they see, hear, or read. No objection. The ability to think critically is immensely important.</p>
<p>But is it enough in a world of information overabundance and gushing sources of disinformation? The answer is “No” for at least two reasons.</p>
<p>First, the digital world contains more information than the world’s libraries combined. Much of it comes from unvetted sources and lacks reliable indicators of trustworthiness. Critically thinking through all information and sources we come across would utterly paralyse us because we would never have time to actually read the valuable information we painstakingly identify.</p>
<p>Second, investing critical thinking in sources that should have been ignored in the first place means that attention merchants and malicious actors have been gifted what they wanted, our attention.</p>
<h2>Critical ignoring to make information management feasible</h2>
<p>So, what tools do we have at our disposal beyond critical thinking? <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09637214221121570">In our recent article</a>, we – a philosopher, two cognitive scientists and an education scientist – argue that as much as we need critical thinking we also need <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-navigate-the-dangers-of-the-web-you-need-critical-thinking-but-also-critical-ignoring-158617"><em>critical ignoring</em></a>.</p>
<p>Critical ignoring is the ability to choose what to ignore and where to invest one’s limited attentional capacities. Critical ignoring is more than just not paying attention – it’s about practising mindful and healthy habits in the face of information overabundance.</p>
<p>We understand it as a core competence for all citizens in the digital word.</p>
<p>Without it, we will drown in a sea of information that is, at best, distracting and, at worst, misleading and harmful. </p>
<h2>Tools for critical ignoring</h2>
<p>Three main strategies exist for critical ignoring. Each one responds to a different type of noxious information.</p>
<p>In the digital world, <strong><a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioural-public-policy/article/selfnudging-and-the-citizen-choice-architect/F526628F7F3C7B436FA2BCBFC1FC3C76">self-nudging</a></strong> aims to empower people to be citizen “choice architects” by designing their informational environments in ways that work best for them and that constrain their activities in beneficial ways. We can, for instance, remove distracting and irresistible notifications. We may set specific times in which messages can be received, thereby creating pockets of time for concentrated work or socialising. Self-nudging can also help us take control of our digital default settings, for instance, by restricting the use of our personal data for purposes of targeted advertisement.</p>
<p><strong>Lateral reading</strong> is a strategy that enables people to emulate how professional fact checkers establish the <a href="https://time.com/5362183/the-real-fake-news-crisis/">credibility of online information</a>. It involves opening up new browser tabs to search for information about the organisation or individual behind a site before diving into its contents. Only after consulting the open web do skilled searchers gauge whether expending attention is worth it. Before critical thinking can begin, the first step is to ignore the lure of the site and check out what others say about its alleged factual reports. Lateral reading thus uses the power of the web to check the web.</p>
<p>Most students <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/0013189X211017495">fail</a> at that task. Past studies show that, when deciding whether a source should be trusted, students (as well as <a href="https://www.niemanlab.org/2017/10/even-smart-people-are-shockingly-bad-at-analyzing-sources-online-this-might-be-an-actual-solution/">university professors</a>) do what years of school has taught them to do – they read closely and carefully. Attention merchants as well as merchants of doubt are jubilant.</p>
<p>Online, looks can be deceiving. Unless one has extensive background knowledge it is often very difficult to figure out that a site, filled with the trappings of serious research, peddles falsehoods about climate change or vaccinations or any variety of historical topics, such as the Holocaust. Instead of getting entangled in the site’s reports and professional design, fact checkers exercise critical ignoring. They evaluate the site by leaving it and engage in lateral reading instead.</p>
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<p>The <strong>do-not-feed-the-trolls heuristic</strong> targets online trolls and other malicious users who harass, cyberbully or use other antisocial tactics. Trolls thrive on attention, and deliberate spreaders of dangerous disinformation often resort to trolling tactics. One of the main strategies that science denialists use is to hijack people’s attention by <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/merchants-of-doubt-9781608193943/">creating the appearance of a debate where none exists</a>. The heuristic advises against directly responding to trolling. Resist debating or retaliating. Of course, this strategy of critical ignoring is only a first line of defence. It should be complemented by blocking and reporting trolls and by transparent platform content moderation policies including debunking.</p>
<p>These three strategies are not a set of elite skills. Everybody can make use of them, but educational efforts are crucial for bringing these tools to the public.</p>
<h2>Critical ignoring as a new paradigm for education</h2>
<p>The philosopher Michael Lynch has <a href="https://archive.nytimes.com/opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/03/09/googling-is-believing-trumping-the-informed-citizen/">noted</a> that the Internet “is both the world’s best fact-checker and the world’s best bias confirmer – often at the same time.”</p>
<p>Navigating it successfully requires new competencies that should be taught in school. Without the competence to choose what to ignore and where to invest one’s limited attention, we allow others to seize control of our eyes and minds. Appreciation for the importance of critically ignoring is not new but has become even more crucial in the digital world. </p>
<p>As the philosopher and psychologist William James astutely observed at the beginning of the 20th century: “The art of being wise is the art of knowing what to ignore.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198549/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ralph Hertwig receives funding from the Volkswagen Foundation and the European Commission (HORIZON 2022 grant GA 101094752). He has collaborated with researchers in the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephan Lewandowsky receives funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement no. 964728 (JITSUVAX). He also receives funding from Jigsaw (a technology incubator created by Google), from UK Research and Innovation (through the Centre of Excellence, REPHRAIN), and from the Volkswagen Foundation in Germany. He also holds a European Research Council Advanced Grant (no. 101020961, PRODEMINFO) and receives funding from the John Templeton Foundation (via Wake Forest University’s Honesty Project). He has worked with the European Commission on issues relating to social media governance and regulation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anastasia Kozyreva et Sam Wineburg ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur poste universitaire.</span></em></p>Lateral reading, self-nudging and a persistent refusal to feed the trolls are some of the ways one can better manage information.Ralph Hertwig, Director, Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human DevelopmentAnastasia Kozyreva, Cognitive scientist, Max Planck Institute for Human DevelopmentSam Wineburg, Professor of Education and (by courtesy) History, Stanford UniversityStephan Lewandowsky, Chair of Cognitive Psychology, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1978702023-01-18T19:00:01Z2023-01-18T19:00:01ZClimate change trauma has real impacts on cognition and the brain, wildfire survivors study shows<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504515/original/file-20230113-20-o70w2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C40%2C6720%2C4426&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The 2018 Camp Fire killed 85 people and destroyed 20,000 buildings in and around Paradise, Calif.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/michael-john-ramirez-hugs-his-wife-charlie-ramirez-after-news-photo/1062031052">Marcus Yam /Los Angeles Times via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Psychological trauma from extreme weather and climate events, such as wildfires, can have long-term impacts on survivors’ brains and cognitive functioning, especially how they process distractions, my team’s <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000125">new research shows</a>.</p>
<p>Climate change is increasingly affecting people around the world, including through extreme heat, storm damage and life-threatening events like wildfires. In <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/4/1487">previous research</a>, colleagues and I showed that in the aftermath of the 2018 fire that destroyed the town of Paradise, California, chronic symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety and depression were highly prevalent in the affected communities more than six months after the disaster.</p>
<p>We also found a graded effect: People whose homes or families were directly affected by fire showed greater mental health harm than those where who were indirectly effected, meaning people who witnessed the event in their community but did not have a personal loss.</p>
<p>In the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000125">new study</a>, published Jan. 18, 2023, our team at the <a href="https://neatlabs.ucsd.edu/index.html">Neural Engineering and Translation Labs</a>, or NEATLabs, at the University of California San Diego, wanted to understand whether the symptoms of climate change-related trauma translate to changes in cognitive functioning – the mental processes involved in memory, learning, thinking and reasoning.</p>
<p>We evaluated subjects’ cognitive functioning across a range of abilities, including attention; response inhibition – the ability to not respond impulsively; working memory – the ability to maintain information in mind for short periods of time; and interference processing – the ability to ignore distractions. We also measured their brain function while they performed cognitive tasks, using brain wave recordings obtained from electroencephalography, or EEG.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man at a keyboard with a cap that has nodes on it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504508/original/file-20230113-20-ncujzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504508/original/file-20230113-20-ncujzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=240&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504508/original/file-20230113-20-ncujzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=240&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504508/original/file-20230113-20-ncujzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=240&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504508/original/file-20230113-20-ncujzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504508/original/file-20230113-20-ncujzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504508/original/file-20230113-20-ncujzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A wireless EEG cap records brain activity as a person responds to cognitive tests. The image on the right shows significant differences in electrical brain activity recorded on the scalp between people directly exposed to wildfires and a control group, with greater activity in left frontal cortex (red) for the group directly exposed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/970598">Grennan et al., 2022, PLOS Climate</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The study included three groups of individuals: people who were directly exposed to the fire, people who were indirectly exposed, and a control group with no exposure. The groups were well matched for age and gender.</p>
<p>We found that both groups of people exposed to the fire, either directly or indirectly, dealt with distractions less accurately than the control group.</p>
<p>We also found differences in the brain processes underlying these cognitive differences. People who were exposed to the wildfire had greater frontal lobe activity while dealing with distractions. The frontal lobe is the center for the brain’s higher-level functions. Frontal brain activity can be a marker for cognitive effort, suggesting that people exposed to the fires may be having more difficulty processing distractions and compensating by exerting more effort.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>With climate change fueling more disasters, it is incredibly important to understand its impacts on human health, including mental health. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01477-6">Resilient mental health</a> is what allows us to recover from traumatic experiences. How humans experience and mentally deal with climate catastrophes sets the stage for our future lives.</p>
<p>There are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01477-6">strategies people can use</a> to help reduce the stress. Psychosocial research suggests that <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/mindfulness">practicing mindfulness</a> and developing healthy lifestyles, with regular exercise and enough sleep, can protect mental well-being in these scenarios, along with <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07448481.2022.2047706">developing strong social bonds</a>. </p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>There is much work to be done to understand if the effects we found are replicable in large sample studies. In this work, we focused on a total of 75 study participants. Scientists also need to understand how these effects evolve as climate disasters like wildfires <a href="https://theconversation.com/atmospheric-rivers-over-californias-wildfire-burn-scars-raise-fears-of-deadly-mudslides-this-is-what-cascading-climate-disasters-look-like-197563">occur more often</a>.</p>
<p>We are also pursuing research with community partners to implement interventions that can help alleviate some the impacts we observed on brain and cognitive functioning. There is no one-size-fits-all solution – each community must find the resiliency solutions that work best in their environmental context. As scientists, we can help them understand the causes and point them to solutions that are most effective in improving human health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197870/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jyoti Mishra received funding from the Tang Prize Foundation for this research. She is director of the NEATLabs at University of California (UC) San Diego and the Co-director of the UC Climate Change and Mental Health Initiative at the UC Center for Climate, Health and Equity.</span></em></p>A new neuropsychology study on California wildfire survivors found chronic cognitive problems in addition to anxiety and PTSD.Jyoti Mishra, Associate Professor of Psychiatry, University of California, San DiegoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1735052022-01-04T13:07:30Z2022-01-04T13:07:30ZWhy does experiencing ‘flow’ feel so good? A communication scientist explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438296/original/file-20211218-25-1ktuz4s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=87%2C227%2C2868%2C1623&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research shows that people who have flow as a regular part of their lives are happier and less likely to focus on themselves.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/winter-holidays-in-ski-resort-royalty-free-image/1280113636?adppopup=true">Yulkapopkova/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>New years often come with new resolutions. Get back in shape. Read more. Make more time for friends and family. My list of resolutions might not look quite the same as yours, but each of our resolutions represents a plan for something new, or at least a little bit different. As you craft your 2022 resolutions, I hope that you will add one that is also on my list: feel more flow.</p>
<p>Psychologist Mihály Csíkszentmihályi’s <a href="https://www.harpercollins.com/products/flow-mihaly-csikszentmihalyi">research on flow</a> started in the 1970s. He has called it the “<a href="https://www.ted.com/talks/mihaly_csikszentmihalyi_flow_the_secret_to_happiness">secret to happiness</a>.” Flow is a state of “optimal experience” that each of us can incorporate into our everyday lives. One characterized by immense joy that makes a life worth living.</p>
<p>In the years since, researchers have gained a vast store of knowledge about what it is like to be in flow and how experiencing it is important for our overall mental health and well-being. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53468-4_1">In short</a>, we are completely absorbed in a highly rewarding activity – and not in our inner monologues – when we feel flow. </p>
<p>I am an <a href="https://communication.ucdavis.edu/people/rwhuskey">assistant professor of communication and cognitive science</a>, and I have been studying flow for the last 10 years. My <a href="https://cogcommscience.com/">research lab</a> investigates what is happening in our brains when people experience flow. Our goal is to better understand how the experience happens and to make it easier for people to feel flow and its benefits.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man paints on canvas in a studio." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flow can arise when playing games or engaged in artistic pursuits, like writing, photography, sculpting and painting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-asian-male-woman-paint-drawing-acrylic-color-royalty-free-image/1314904308?adppopup=true">Somyot Techapuwapat/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What it is like to be in flow?</h2>
<p>People often say flow is like “being in the zone.” Psychologists Jeanne Nakamura and Csíkszentmihályi <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9088-8_16">describe it</a> as something more. When people feel flow, they are in a state of intense concentration. Their thoughts are focused on an experience rather than on themselves. They lose a sense of time and feel as if there is a merging of their actions and their awareness. That they have control over the situation. That the experience is not physically or mentally taxing.</p>
<p>Most importantly, flow is what researchers call an autotelic experience. Autotelic derives from two Greek words: autos (self) and telos (end or goal). Autotelic experiences are things that are worth doing in and of themselves. Researchers sometimes call these intrinsically rewarding experiences. Flow experiences are intrinsically rewarding.</p>
<h2>What causes flow?</h2>
<p>Flow occurs when a task’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9088-8_16">challenge is balanced with one’s skill</a>. In fact, both the task challenge and skill level have to be high. I often tell my students that they will not feel flow when they are doing the dishes. Most people are highly skilled dishwashers, and washing dishes is not a very challenging task.</p>
<p>So when do people experience flow? Csíkszentmihályi’s <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Beyond+Boredom+and+Anxiety%3A+Experiencing+Flow+in+Work+and+Play%2C+25th+Anniversary+Edition-p-9780787951405">research in the 1970s</a> focused on people doing tasks they enjoyed. He studied swimmers, music composers, chess players, dancers, mountain climbers and other athletes. He went on to study how people can find flow in more <a href="https://www.basicbooks.com/titles/mihaly-csikszentmihalhi/finding-flow/9780465024117/">everyday experiences</a>. I am an avid snowboarder, and I regularly feel flow on the mountain. Other people feel it by practicing yoga – not me, unfortunately! – by riding their bike, cooking or going for a run. So long as that task’s challenge is high, and so are your skills, you should be able to achieve flow.</p>
<p>Researchers also know that people can experience flow by using <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00318.x">interactive media</a>, like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207310026">playing a video game</a>. In fact, <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Beyond+Boredom+and+Anxiety%3A+Experiencing+Flow+in+Work+and+Play%2C+25th+Anniversary+Edition-p-9780787951405">Csíkszentmihályi said</a> that “games are obvious flow activities, and play is the flow experience par excellence.” <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/305501/reality-is-broken-by-jane-mcgonigal/">Video game developers</a> are very familiar with the idea, and they think hard about how to <a href="https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/theory-of-fun/9781449363208/">design games so that players feel flow</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram of the relationship between difficulty of a challenge, skill level and the experience of flow." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flow occurs when a task’s challenge – and one’s skills at the task – are both high.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adapted from Nakamura/Csíkszentmihályi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why is it good to feel flow?</h2>
<p>Earlier I said that Csíkszentmihályi called flow “the secret to happiness.” Why is that? For one thing, the experience can help people <a href="https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2021.39.4.526">pursue their long-term goals</a>. This is because research shows that taking a break to do something fun can help enhance one’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220941998">self-control, goal pursuit and well-being</a>. </p>
<p>So next time you are feeling like a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12107">guilty couch potato</a> for playing a video game, remind yourself that you are actually doing something that can help set you up for long-term success and well-being. Importantly, quality – and not necessarily quantity – matters. Research shows that spending a lot of time playing video games only has a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.202049">very small influence</a> on your overall well-being. Focus on finding games that help you feel flow, rather than on spending more time playing games.</p>
<p>A recent study also shows that flow helps people <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.05.005">stay resilient</a> in the face of adversity. Part of this is because flow can help <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000479">refocus thoughts</a> away from something stressful to something enjoyable. In fact, studies have shown that experiencing flow can help guard against <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.09.017">depression and burnout</a>.</p>
<p>Research also shows that people who experienced <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242043">stronger feelings of flow had better well-being</a> during the COVID-19 quarantine compared to people who had weaker experiences. This might be because feeling flow helped distract them from worrying. </p>
<h2>What is your brain doing during flow?</h2>
<p>Researchers have been studying flow for nearly 50 years, but only recently have they begun to decipher what is going on in the brain during flow. One of my colleagues, media neuroscientist René Weber, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2009.01352.x">has proposed</a> that flow is associated with a specific brain-network configuration. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pbr.2017.06.012">Supporting Weber’s hypothesis</a>, studies show that the experience is associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.08.019">activity in brain structures</a> implicated in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsr021">feeling reward</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsv133">pursuing our goals</a>. This may be one reason why flow feels so enjoyable and why people are so focused on tasks that make them feel flow. Research also shows that flow is associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00169">decreased activity</a> in brain structures implicated in self-focus. This may help explain why feeling flow can help distract people from worry.</p>
<p>[<em>Get the best of The Conversation, every weekend.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?nl=weekly&source=inline-weeklybest">Sign up for our weekly newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p><a href="https://www.medianeuroscience.org/">Weber</a>, <a href="https://www.jacobtfisher.com/">Jacob Fisher</a> and I have developed a video game called <a href="https://github.com/asteroidimpact/asteroid_impact_py3">Asteroid Impact</a> to help us better study flow. In my own research, I have participants <a href="https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-018-0612-6">play Asteroid Impact</a> while having their brain scanned. My work has shown that flow is associated with a specific brain network configuration that has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqy043">low energy requirements</a>. This may help explain why we do not experience flow as being physically or mentally demanding. I have also shown that, instead of maintaining one stable network configuration, the brain actually <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqab044">changes its network configuration</a> during flow. This is important because <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3470">rapid brain network reconfiguration</a> helps people adapt to difficult tasks.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Asteroid Impact" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A player controls a spaceship to collect crystals and avoid asteroids in a video game called Asteroid Impact.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jacob Fisher via https://github.com/asteroidimpact/asteroid_impact_py3</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What more can the brain tell us?</h2>
<p>Right now, researchers do not know how brain responses associated with flow contribute to well-being. With very <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-018-5378-0">few exceptions</a>, there is almost no research on how brain responses actually cause flow. Every neuroscience study I described earlier was correlational, not causal. Said differently, we can conclude that these brain responses are associated with flow. We cannot conclude that these brain responses cause flow.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.05.005">Researchers think</a> the connection between flow and well-being has something to do with three things: suppressing brain activation in structures associated with thinking about ourselves, dampening activation in structures associated with negative thoughts, and increasing activation in reward-processing regions.</p>
<p>I’d argue that testing this hypothesis is vital. Medical professionals have started to use video games in <a href="https://www.akiliinteractive.com/">clinical applications</a> to help treat attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD. Maybe one day a clinician will be able to help prescribe a Food and Drug Adminstration-approved video game to help bolster someone’s resilience or help them fight off depression. </p>
<p>That is probably several years into the future, <a href="https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/8cxyh">if it is even possible at all</a>. Right now, I hope that you will resolve to find more flow in your everyday life. You may find that this helps you achieve your other resolutions, too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173505/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Huskey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research shows that people with more flow in their lives had a higher sense of well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. Scientists are beginning to explore what happens in the brain during flow.Richard Huskey, Assistant Professor of Communication and Cognitive Science, University of California, DavisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1669502021-09-07T20:07:48Z2021-09-07T20:07:48ZIf you’re annoyed by other people’s fidgeting or finger-tapping, you’re not alone: Misokinesia affects 1 in 3<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419857/original/file-20210907-23-1givmyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=853%2C103%2C4725%2C3681&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Annoyance with others' fidgeting can reduce peoples' ability to enjoy social interactions, impair one's ability to learn in the classroom and create difficulties at work.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Are you bothered by seeing someone else fidget? Do you ever have strong negative feelings, thoughts or physical reactions when viewing other peoples’ repetitive movements such as foot shaking, finger tapping or gum chewing?</p>
<p>Well, if you do, you aren’t alone. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-96430-4">a new study</a> we ran as attentional neuroscientists, we put that question to a sample of over 2,700 undergraduates and found that more than one-third said yes. And it wasn’t just students who had such sensitivities. When we went out and asked people in the general population about how they feel when others around them begin to twiddle, tap or jiggle, they too reported negative reactions at a similar rate. </p>
<p>Many of us humans, it turns out, are challenged by fidgeting.</p>
<h2>‘Hatred of movement’</h2>
<p>Termed misokinesia, or “the hatred of movement” in Greek, these reactions can have <a href="https://drezracowan.com/misokinesia">serious social impacts</a> for those who experience them. As our findings confirmed, it can reduce peoples’ ability to enjoy social interactions, impair one’s ability to learn in the classroom and create difficulties at work. </p>
<p>There was a lot of individual variability in the range of challenges people reported: some had a lot of difficulties, some just a few. We also discovered that these negative social impacts seem to increase with age — the older you get, the more intense and widespread your misokinesia reactions may be.</p>
<p>And perhaps even more surprising? We’re only learning this now.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man's hands twiddling his thumbs" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A study on misokinesia found one in three people is annoyed or angered when other people twiddle thumbs, tap a foot, or otherwise fidget.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For several decades there has been growing scientific recognition of a similar challenge associated with hearing the sounds other people make. If you are bothered by sounds like slurping, lip-smacking and gum chewing, you may have a disorder called misophonia. It’s defined, in a paper that has not been peer-reviewed, as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.04.05.21254951">decreased tolerance to specific sounds, in which such sounds evoke strong negative emotional, physiological and behavioural responses</a>.</p>
<p>Misokinesia, on the other hand, has remained in the scientific shadows. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0054706">Originally mentioned</a> in a study of misophonia by the Dutch psychiatrist Arjan Schröder and his colleagues in 2013, it had never been the focus of a peer-reviewed study until our paper was published in August. So for now, we have a lot more questions than answers.</p>
<p>Most prominent among these is, why are so many of us bothered by fidgeting?</p>
<h2>Why we fidget</h2>
<p>We think the answer might tie back to why we fidget in the first place. In addition to evidence suggesting that we often fidget as a way to mindlessly burn <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5399.212">extra calories</a>, another clear reason is that we do it when we are feeling <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2014.919386">nervous or anxious</a>. And that’s where the problem may be for those who have to see it.</p>
<p>The trouble is, our human brains are equipped with an exquisite capacity to mimic the actions we see others perform. This is the function of our so-called “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144230">mirror neuron system</a>,” which helps us understand the actions and intentions of others by “mirroring” their actions in the same brain areas that we would use to make similar actions of our own. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Fingers drumming on a desk" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Misokenesia can affect social interactions, ability to learn in school or workplace interactions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While this can be critical to normal human <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0184">social interactions</a>, if we start mirroring actions that we associate with anxiety and other negative emotional states — actions like nervous fidgeting — that very well may trigger those negative states as we observe them. While this is speculative for now, we will soon be exploring it as an explanation for misokinesia in a new set of experiments.</p>
<p>But importantly, there is also a lot more to misokinesia’s immediate impacts than just the potential rush of negative emotions whenever fidgeting is encountered, and this raises another pressing question we’ve been pursuing.</p>
<h2>Fidgeting and attention</h2>
<p>In a new experiment we have yet to publish, we recently asked people to watch a pair of short instructional videos that showed a person talking, and then after each video we gave them a memory assessment, to determine how much information they retained from each one. The critical manipulation was that in one video the person talking occasionally fidgeted with their hand, and in the other they did not.</p>
<p>In interviews we’ve had with misokinesics, a common report is that beyond the aversive reactions fidgeting can trigger, it also impedes peoples’ ability to pay attention to whatever else may be happening around them. And so this raised another question for us — does misokinesia distract people from their surroundings?</p>
<p>The answer, our preliminary data suggest, is yes.</p>
<p>For those with higher levels of misokinesia, their memory performance was worse relative to both those not reporting any sensitivities, and those with lower sensitivity levels. And the effect wasn’t just due to overall poorer memory systems in those with higher levels of misokinesia; they performed equally well on basic assessments of memory.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman in business clothes clicking a ballpoint pen" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Repetitive motions such as clicking a pen or tapping a finger can trigger negative reactions in people with misokinesia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While this second study is still awaiting peer-review, what it helps to confirm is that misokinesia isn’t just an experience of negative emotions. It alters how people can engage with the world around them, impacting what they see, hear, or might otherwise simply enjoy.</p>
<p>This also helps to explain something else we’ve recently found. </p>
<p>In unpublished interviews we’ve had with misokinesics, they have reported adopting a variety of strategies to help them cope with these negative emotions and attentional distractions, including leaving rooms, blocking individuals from view, seeking out cognitive behavioural therapy and even physically mimicking the observed fidgeting behaviour. </p>
<p>Given what we’re now learning about misokinesia, this shouldn’t be surprising — the impacts can be serious, people need support, and we need to be more aware of this widespread social challenge.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166950/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Todd Handy receives funding from NSERC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sumeet Jaswal does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If fidgety movements like drumming fingers or a swaying foot annoy you, there’s a word for that: Misokinesia.Todd Handy, Professor of Psychology, University of British ColumbiaSumeet Jaswal, PhD Student in Psychology, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1645362021-07-23T12:15:25Z2021-07-23T12:15:25ZA winning edge for the Olympics and everyday life: Focusing on what you’re trying to accomplish rather than what’s going on with your body<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412756/original/file-20210722-13-1s2pyjg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=87%2C554%2C4116%2C2831&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Athletes' game-time concentration is legendary – but what should they be focusing on?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/germanys-defender-benjamin-henrichs-and-brazils-midfielder-news-photo/1234108664">Yoshikazu Tsuno/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>How do you get to the Olympics? Practice, practice, practice … but also know what to concentrate on during the heat of competition.</p>
<p>How fast someone runs, swims or rows; how high or long they jump; how accurately they hit a target; how well they balance; or how much weight they can lift depends to a significant extent on where they focus their attention.</p>
<p>I’m a sport scientist who for decades has <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=66RHFowAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">studied how people learn motor skills</a>. In the late 1990s I began examining how a performer’s <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20037032/">focus of attention</a> influences learning. </p>
<p>Research suggests that what an athlete concentrates on can be the difference between winning the gold and not even making the team. What might be surprising is that shifting your focus from within yourself – what’s going on in your body – to what’s out there – what you’re trying to accomplish – is a winning strategy.</p>
<h2>An athlete’s brain is busy</h2>
<p>Consider what the brain needs to do to organize complex movements.</p>
<p>It must coordinate the contractions of the necessary muscles – ensuring that they happen at the right time, for the proper duration, and with the required intensity. It also must inhibit other muscles, basically telling those not involved in the movement to stay on the sidelines for the moment.</p>
<p>Temporary task-specific connections among relevant brain networks are a precondition for smooth, efficient and precise movements. The functional <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077764">connectivity</a> of certain brain areas and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.01.003">suppression</a> of other areas enable an athlete to produce elegant jump shots, tennis strokes, golf swings or tumbling routines.</p>
<p>Learning to produce effective brain activation patterns is a long-term process, of course. Achieving a skill level at which performance is consistently accurate, automatic, fluent and economical requires considerable practice. Athletes hone their skills over many years or even decades.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, at the moment they perform, their focus of attention plays a critical role. If athletes have the wrong focus, their performance will suffer.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="female archer pulls back the bowstring" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thinking of how the arrow will fly into the target yields better results than thinking about how your hand should grip the bow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/in-this-handout-image-provided-by-the-world-archery-news-photo/1233565513">Dean Alberga/Handout/World Archery Federation via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Where to target your focus</h2>
<p>Based on the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728">findings of numerous studies</a>, it’s clear athletes should never concentrate on their own movements – what movement scientists call an internal focus of attention.</p>
<p>This might seem contradictory to the way many people learn a new sport. After all, those who instruct others in the process of acquiring movement skills typically refer to body movements. Think of a coach telling a young basketball player to flick her wrist while shooting the ball, or a golf coach telling a player to focus on his hip rotation. Consequently, athletes think about how to move their body parts, particularly in the early stages of learning. </p>
<p>But surveys have found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.12678/1089-313X.20.1.23">even experienced athletes often focus internally</a>. Especially when they’re under pressure – as they would be during competition – they tend to concentrate on their movements. Often, the result is that they “choke.”</p>
<p>Instead, for <a href="https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9">optimal performance</a>, the focus should be on the movement goal. This is called an external focus of attention.</p>
<p>It can mean concentrating on a target to be hit, such as the corner of a goal, a golf hole, a bull’s-eye or a catcher’s mitt. It can also be the intended motion or trajectory of an implement such as a javelin, discus or barbell; the desired spin of a ball; the force exerted against an apparatus or piece of equipment, the floor or an opponent; the water being pushed back in swimming or rowing; or the finish line in a race.</p>
<p>What it is not is the hand releasing the object or pulling the water back, the muscles producing the force, or the speed of leg movements.</p>
<h2>More efficient to focus on what than how</h2>
<p>Focusing on the intended outcome of your actions, rather than your body movements, reveals the body’s remarkable capability to produce effective and efficient movements. Even <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jmld/1/1/article-p2.xml">movement form</a> or <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02640414.2015.1012102?journalCode=rjsp20">technique</a> often improves immediately when a person switches from an internal to an external focus of attention. The body does what it has to do to complete the action – unless you interfere via conscious attempts to control your movements.</p>
<p>Researchers have noted the effects of an external focus on many aspects of performance: improved movement <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200902795323">accuracy</a>, enhanced <a href="https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/67983/1/jhse_Vol_12_N_2_463-479.pdf">balance</a>, greater <a href="https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001194">maximum forces</a>, higher <a href="https://doi.org/10.1260/1747-9541.5.4.533">speed</a> and better <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2011.10599779">endurance</a>.</p>
<p>With an external focus, movements are more efficient. Because brain and muscle activity are optimized, the resulting movements are produced with less energy. This is seen, for example, in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19787539/">reduced oxygen uptake</a> or <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-03359-002">lower heart rates</a> for the same physical work when performers adopt an external focus.</p>
<p>Researchers have quantified just how much of an edge this focus shift can provide to athletes. With an external focus:</p>
<ul>
<li>The same <a href="https://doi.org/10.1260/1747-9541.6.1.99">swimmers swam 1.4% faster</a> over the length of a 25-yard pool.</li>
<li>Resistance-trained individuals produced <a href="https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001194">9% greater maximal forces</a>, or were able to complete <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2011.10599779">11.4% more repetitions</a> with the same weight.</li>
<li>Boxers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1175651">punched 4% faster and 5% more forcefully</a>.</li>
<li>Runners needed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410903150467">9.5% less oxygen for the same running speed and distance</a>.</li>
<li>Kayakers completed a 100-meter wildwater sprint <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2020.102708">4.3% (or 1.3 seconds) faster</a>.</li>
</ul>
<p>Considering that races are often won or lost by very small margins, sometimes in the range of hundredths of a second, an athlete’s focus of attention can determine whether or not they win a medal. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="older man leans in and looks at his hands on the piano keyboard" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Don’t overthink it – let your hands do what they know how to do.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/the-elderly-man-enjoy-playing-piano-at-home-royalty-free-image/1191366938">Nitat Termmee/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Plenty of benefits beyond Olympic stadium</h2>
<p>While most people will never be Olympians, an external focus provides benefits regardless of the performer’s level of expertise, age or (dis)ability, or the type of skill.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 100,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletter to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=100Ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>Whether you are learning to play a musical instrument or are an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429418801573">experienced musician</a>, an external focus will result in better performance. Whether you are an older adult with <a href="https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20080045">Parkinson’s disease</a> or a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2019.1626489">young healthy adult</a>, your balance will be enhanced by an external focus. Whether you are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2013.02.002">unimpaired</a> or had a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0269215513513963">stroke</a>, you will perform <a href="https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.56.4.380">activities of daily living</a> more effectively with an external focus.</p>
<p>It turns out your body can more masterfully execute the actions you desire if you’re able to move your conscious focus from what your body is doing and instead think about what you want to accomplish.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164536/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gabriele Wulf does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A researcher who studies physical skills explains how getting your conscious thoughts out of the way lets your body do what it knows how to do, better.Gabriele Wulf, Distinguished Professor, Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences, University of Nevada, Las VegasLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1595222021-05-03T12:04:49Z2021-05-03T12:04:49ZWhy we remember more by reading – especially print – than from audio or video<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397136/original/file-20210426-13-1rudtwh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6048%2C3974&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When mental focus and reflection are called for, it's time to crack open a book.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/person-wears-a-protective-face-mask-while-reading-a-book-in-news-photo/1267783085">Noam Galai/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>During the pandemic, many college professors abandoned assignments from printed textbooks and turned instead to <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2021/02/24/faculty-turned-digital-materials-lieu-print-textbooks-after-pandemic-hit">digital texts</a> or multimedia coursework. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.american.edu/profiles/students/nbaron.cfm">professor of linguistics</a>, I have been studying how electronic communication compares to traditional print when it comes to learning. Is comprehension the same whether a person reads a text onscreen or on paper? And are listening and viewing content as effective as reading the written word when covering the same material? </p>
<p>The answers to both questions are often “no,” as I discuss in my book “<a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/how-we-read-now-9780190084097?cc=us&lang=en&">How We Read Now</a>,” released in March 2021. The reasons relate to a variety of factors, including diminished concentration, an entertainment mindset and a tendency to multitask while consuming digital content.</p>
<h2>Print versus digital reading</h2>
<p>When reading texts of several hundred words or more, learning is generally more successful <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-enduring-power-of-print-for-learning-in-a-digital-world-84352">when it’s on paper</a> than onscreen. A <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/how-we-read-now-9780190084097?cc=us&lang=en&">cascade of research</a> confirms this finding.</p>
<p>The benefits of print particularly shine through when experimenters move from posing simple tasks – like identifying the main idea in a reading passage – to ones that require <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858550">mental abstraction</a> – such as drawing inferences from a text. Print reading also improves the likelihood of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2016.1143794">recalling details</a> – like “What was the color of the actor’s hair?” – and remembering <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00038">where in a story events occurred</a> – “Did the accident happen before or after the political coup?”</p>
<p>Studies show that both <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.08.001">grade school students</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2017.1411877">college students</a> assume they’ll get higher scores on a comprehension test if they have done the reading digitally. And yet, they actually score higher when they have read the material in print before being tested. </p>
<p>Educators need to be aware that the method used for standardized testing can affect results. Studies of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2012.12.002">Norwegian tenth graders</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.12.007">U.S. third through eighth graders</a> report higher scores when standardized tests were administered using paper. In the U.S. study, the negative effects of digital testing were strongest among students with low reading achievement scores, English language learners and special education students.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2016.11.008">My own research</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197444">that of colleagues</a> approached the question differently. Rather than having students read and take a test, we asked how they perceived their overall learning when they used print or digital reading materials. Both high school and college students overwhelmingly judged reading on paper as better for concentration, learning and remembering than reading digitally.</p>
<p>The discrepancies between print and digital results are partly related to paper’s physical properties. With paper, there is a literal laying on of hands, along with the visual geography of distinct pages. People often <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/words-onscreen-9780199315765?cc=us&lang=en&">link their memory</a> of what they’ve read to how far into the book it was or where it was on the page. </p>
<p>But equally important is mental perspective, and what <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.003">reading researchers</a> call a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.043">shallowing hypothesis</a>.” According to this theory, people approach digital texts with a mindset suited to casual social media, and devote less mental effort than when they are reading print.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397144/original/file-20210426-15-1a4fs1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Students work on laptops in high school library" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397144/original/file-20210426-15-1a4fs1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397144/original/file-20210426-15-1a4fs1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397144/original/file-20210426-15-1a4fs1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397144/original/file-20210426-15-1a4fs1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397144/original/file-20210426-15-1a4fs1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397144/original/file-20210426-15-1a4fs1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397144/original/file-20210426-15-1a4fs1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students are more prone to multitasking and distraction when studying on screens.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/students-in-the-library-at-burlington-high-schools-new-news-photo/1231790889">Erin Clark/The Boston Globe via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Podcasts and online video</h2>
<p>Given increased use of <a href="https://www.schoology.com/blog/flipped-classroom">flipped classrooms</a> – where students listen to or view lecture content before coming to class – along with more publicly available podcasts and online video content, many school assignments that previously entailed reading have been replaced with listening or viewing. These substitutions have <a href="https://www.bayviewanalytics.com/reports/digitaltextsinthetimeofcovid.pdf">accelerated</a> during the pandemic and move to virtual learning. </p>
<p>Surveying U.S. and Norwegian university faculty in 2019, University of Stavanger Professor Anne Mangen and I found that <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/how-we-read-now-9780190084097?cc=us&lang=en&">32% of U.S. faculty</a> were now replacing texts with video materials, and 15% reported doing so with audio. The numbers were somewhat lower in Norway. But in both countries, 40% of respondents who had changed their course requirements over the past five to 10 years reported assigning less reading today.</p>
<p>A primary reason for the shift to audio and video is students refusing to do assigned reading. While the problem is <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-07173-017">hardly new</a>, a <a href="https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/handle/2022/24302">2015 study</a> of more than 18,000 college seniors found only 21% usually completed all their assigned course reading.</p>
<p>Audio and video can feel more engaging than text, and so faculty increasingly resort to these technologies – say, assigning a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKK7wGAYP6k">TED talk</a> instead of an <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-language-shapes-thought/">article</a> by the same person.</p>
<h2>Maximizing mental focus</h2>
<p>Psychologists have demonstrated that when adults <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1989.9917764">read news stories</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2001.89.3.483">transcripts of fiction</a>, they remember more of the content than if they listen to identical pieces. </p>
<p>Researchers found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00986283.2010.488542">similar results with university students</a> reading an article versus listening to a podcast of the text. A <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00892">related study</a> confirms that students do more mind-wandering when listening to audio than when reading.</p>
<p>Results with younger students are similar, but with a twist. A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02702710590910584">study in Cyprus</a> concluded that the relationship between listening and reading skills flips as children become more fluent readers. While second graders had better comprehension with listening, eighth graders showed better comprehension when reading.</p>
<p>Research on learning from video versus text echoes what we see with audio. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103796">researchers in Spain</a> found that fourth through sixth graders who read texts showed far more mental integration of the material than those watching videos. The authors suspect that students “read” the videos more superficially because they associate video with entertainment, not learning.</p>
<p>The collective research shows that digital media have common features and user practices that can constrain learning. These include diminished concentration, an entertainment mindset, a propensity to multitask, lack of a fixed physical reference point, reduced use of annotation and less frequent reviewing of what has been read, heard or viewed.</p>
<p>Digital texts, audio and video all have educational roles, especially when providing resources not available in print. However, for maximizing learning where mental focus and reflection are called for, educators – and parents – shouldn’t assume all media are the same, even when they contain identical words.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=youresmart">You can read us daily by subscribing to our newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/159522/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Naomi S. Baron does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People tend to think of digital media as entertainment, so they devote less mental effort than when they’re reading a printed book.Naomi S. Baron, Professor Emerita of Linguistics, American UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1556512021-03-24T15:54:12Z2021-03-24T15:54:12ZIs it adult ADHD? COVID-19 has people feeling restless, lacking focus and seeking diagnosis<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389411/original/file-20210314-13-1s4wa7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=389%2C0%2C3935%2C2975&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Symptoms related to ADHD have increased during the pandemic, but they don't necessary point to ADHD. Cabin fever has many similar symptoms, and social isolation also has negative effects on brain functioning.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the past year, many people have found it difficult to focus, pay attention and get tasks done. They notice, too, that they are more irritable and restless.</p>
<p>Certainly, our psychology clinic has received a large increase in referrals to evaluate previously asymptomatic people who are now wondering if they might have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). </p>
<p>Before self-diagnosing or consulting your doctor, consider these other common causes of ADHD symptoms.</p>
<h2>Symptoms of ADHD are non-specific</h2>
<p>Just as fever is a medical symptom, problems with attention, focus and concentration — alone or in combination with irritability and restlessness — are symptoms <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/adhd-like-symptoms-but-not-adhd-20583">common to a wide variety of disorders</a>. Self-reporting of ADHD symptoms on questionnaires has up to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1087054715625299">78 per cent false positive rate</a> for ADHD diagnosis. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1087054705283881">Symptoms alone are not enough to diagnose this disorder</a>. </p>
<p>Even recall of childhood behaviours is not an accurate way to make this diagnosis. Comprehensive long-term followup studies show that many adults whose records show they did not meet criteria for ADHD in childhood <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.11.1882">nevertheless inaccurately recall childhood behaviours similar to ADHD when questioned as adults</a>.</p>
<h2>What is ADHD?</h2>
<p>ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects about <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/data.html">9.4 per cent of school-aged children</a> and about <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.163.4.716">4.4 per cent of adults in North America</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Silhouette of head with coloured scribbles for brain" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390005/original/file-20210317-19-1wvlx7h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390005/original/file-20210317-19-1wvlx7h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390005/original/file-20210317-19-1wvlx7h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390005/original/file-20210317-19-1wvlx7h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390005/original/file-20210317-19-1wvlx7h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390005/original/file-20210317-19-1wvlx7h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390005/original/file-20210317-19-1wvlx7h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Other conditions, such as depression, anxiety, stress, sleep problems and substance use, can mimic the effects of ADHD.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pixabay)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/diagnosis.html">Diagnostic criteria</a> include more than just having symptoms. To be diagnosed with ADHD as a teen or young adult requires all of the following: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>a number of these symptoms must have been present and impairing in two or more major life areas (such as home and school) prior to age 12; </p></li>
<li><p>the symptoms must have been chronic; and </p></li>
<li><p>the symptoms cannot be due to other conditions that can mimic ADHD, such as depression, anxiety, stress, sleep problems, drugs/alcohol abuse, perfectionism, thyroid problems, trauma or personality disorder. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>The first five of those “ADHD mimics” are conditions <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health-news/depression-symptoms-3-times-higher-during-covid-19-lockdown#COVID-19-is-a-large-scale-traumatic-event">that have increased</a> due to the pandemic and lockdown rules. Past traumas or certain personality traits have also made coping with lockdown <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajp.2020.102130">much more stressful</a>.</p>
<h2>How common are ADHD symptoms in adults?</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="Woman alone looking out a window" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390036/original/file-20210317-13-pk37xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390036/original/file-20210317-13-pk37xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390036/original/file-20210317-13-pk37xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390036/original/file-20210317-13-pk37xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390036/original/file-20210317-13-pk37xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390036/original/file-20210317-13-pk37xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390036/original/file-20210317-13-pk37xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Social isolation has many negative effects on brain function.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/Mikotoraw)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even before the pandemic, symptoms of ADHD in the general population were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F108705479600100303">very common</a>. Studies of post-secondary students with and without ADHD show that a <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.888.9414&rep=rep1&type=pdf">high number of non-disabled students experience these non-specific symptoms on a daily basis</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/post-covid-stress-disorder-emerging-consequence-global-pandemic">Life during the pandemic has been very stressful</a> for many people. Research from our lab shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0829573513480616">the more anxious, depressed or stressed you are, the more symptoms of ADHD you’ll experience</a>, even if you have never previously been suspected of having ADHD. We know that <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/cabin-fever#symptoms">cabin fever</a> has many symptoms similar to ADHD, and <a href="https://www.the-scientist.com/features/how-social-isolation-affects-the-brain-67701#:%7E:text=Surveys%20of%20people%20who%20have,illness%20risks%2C%20and%20increased%20incidence">social isolation</a> also has many negative effects on brain functioning.</p>
<h2>Couldn’t it be undiagnosed ADHD?</h2>
<p>While it is possible that a diagnosis of ADHD was missed or overlooked in childhood, research shows this is rare. For the past 12 years our centre has run an ADHD screening clinic, evaluating young adults who think they may have ADHD. </p>
<p>Overall, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304015326_Screening_Young_Adults_for_Possible_ADHD_Think_Horses_Not_Zebras">we’ve only diagnosed about five per cent of these people with ADHD</a>. This finding is consistent with other studies <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.2017.17030298">showing that most of the time, later-onset symptoms of ADHD are due to something else</a>.</p>
<h2>Okay, so what do I do about these symptoms?</h2>
<p>Regardless of the cause, there are a number of things you can do to reduce or eliminate ADHD symptoms.</p>
<p><strong>1. Get into a groove</strong>. People function best when they have a consistent routine; COVID-19 and working from home have eliminated a lot of the structure we used to enjoy. Focusing when your children are home, the dog barks or your partner is on a loud meeting in the next room is extremely difficult. </p>
<p>Try to find a quiet location to do your work, put up a sign that alerts others when you need to focus, and prioritize doing your <a href="https://www.flexjobs.com/blog/post/how-to-keep-your-focus-when-working-at-home-v2/">most difficult work in the time of day that is best for you</a>. If that is late at night or first thing in the morning, then adjust your expectations for the rest of the day.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390027/original/file-20210317-13-1nzwx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390027/original/file-20210317-13-1nzwx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390027/original/file-20210317-13-1nzwx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390027/original/file-20210317-13-1nzwx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390027/original/file-20210317-13-1nzwx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390027/original/file-20210317-13-1nzwx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390027/original/file-20210317-13-1nzwx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Poor sleep quality results in significant problems with attention, focus and memory.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/Ketut Subiyanto)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>2. Say goodnight to sleep problems</strong>. Poor sleep quality and sleep disturbance result in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610220003324">significant problems with attention, focus and memory</a>. Additionally, waking up and going to bed at inconsistent times can cause significant problems, similar <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0015267">to being constantly jet lagged</a>. </p>
<p>To improve sleep quality, <a href="https://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/-/media/CCI/Mental-Health-Professionals/Sleep/Sleep---Information-Sheets/Sleep-Information-Sheet---04---Sleep-Hygiene.pdf">practise what is called good sleep hygiene</a>, such as keeping a regular sleep schedule, having a bedtime routine and maintaining a comfortable, quiet sleeping area. And, <a href="https://www.sclhealth.org/blog/2019/09/why-it-is-time-to-ditch-the-phone-before-bed/">get your phone out of your bedroom</a> because it’s disrupting your sleep!</p>
<p><strong>3. Read all about it</strong>. Strategies that work for those with ADHD work for anyone having these symptoms. Many excellent <a href="https://www.routledge.com/ADD-Friendly-Ways-to-Organize-Your-Life-Strategies-that-Work-from-an-Acclaimed/Kolberg-Nadeau/p/book/9781138190740">books describe</a> ways to improve focus and <a href="http://adultadhdbook.com/executive-functions-book/%22%22">get more done</a>. There are <a href="https://kwiklearning.com/kwik-tips/improve-your-concentration-with-these-4-mental-exercises/">also great websites</a> that describe proven ways to improve your attention.</p>
<p><strong>4. Cut down on use of electronic devices</strong>. With COVID-19 lockdown and working from home, most people are spending more time online, but <a href="https://online.king.edu/news/cell-phone-addiction/">electronic devices are highly addictive</a> and <a href="https://www.technologynetworks.com/neuroscience/news/digital-devices-make-us-more-distracted-distant-and-drained-307515">extremely distracting</a>. In fact, a review of the research shows that overuse of <a href="http://doi.org/10.1159/000338331">electronic devices leads to brain overload, increases distraction and lowers overall performance</a>. Studies have also shown a strong link between <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.062">mental health symptoms and excessive use of electronic devices</a>. </p>
<p>One of the biggest challenges we hear about from the post-secondary students we see at our centre is limiting the use of electronics. There are some great apps that <a href="https://www.humanetech.com/take-control">limit the amount of time you’re online, and websites that offer strategies</a> to help you take control of your smartphone use.</p>
<p><strong>5. Worry list/worry time</strong>. Pandemic stress has many people worrying constantly, so much so that their mind is always distracted and they can never focus. Further, their brains have become accustomed to hijacking thinking any time a worry surfaces, so you need some <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/media/universityofexeter/wellbeing/documents/covid-19self-help/'Managing_Your_Worries'_Workbook.pdf">cognitive behavioural techniques</a> to manage the worrying and encapsulate it to happen only at certain times of day. </p>
<p>You want to <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.ca/books/98905/the-worry-cure-by-robert-l-leahy-phd/9781400097661">retrain your brain</a> to understand that worry is allowed only at certain times. A worry list works like a meeting agenda, making sure you address all the worries, but only at a defined “worry” time.</p>
<p><strong>6. Exercise</strong>. Sitting in a chair all day staring at your computer screen is not doing wonders for either your cognitive or physical health. <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-chronic-stress-of-coronavirus-is-affecting-your-mental-health-heres-how-exercise-can-help-137963">We know that exercise helps people cope better with stress and anxiety</a>, but it also <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2016/jun/18/how-physical-exercise-makes-your-brain-work-better">helps your brain work better</a>. </p>
<p>Even going outside for a 20-30 minute walk each day <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/why-spending-more-time-outside-is-healthy-2017-7#enjoying-the-outdoors-helps-eliminate-fatigue-4">helps your mood and improves attention and focus</a>. At the very least, make sure you stand up and move around for at least five minutes every hour.</p>
<p>If all these things fail to make a difference, it might then be time to consult an expert. Remember, however, that medication won’t make you want to do your work or chores, and won’t help you become more organized or more attentive during endless Zoom meetings.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155651/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Allyson G. Harrison works for the Regional Assessment and Resource Centre, a government-funded clinic that conducts psychological and neuropsychological assessments for postsecondary students. </span></em></p>After a year of COVID-19 lockdowns, lack of focus, irritability and restlessness don’t necessarily point to an ADHD diagnosis. Consider some of these common causes of these symptoms, and ways to cope.Allyson G. Harrison, Associate Professor of Psychology and Clinical Director, Regional Assessment & Resource Centre, Queen's University, OntarioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1511432021-01-07T19:09:31Z2021-01-07T19:09:31ZPhysical activity is good for your concentration – here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374811/original/file-20201214-23-12333ej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C5%2C3982%2C2652&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Even short periods of physical activity can improve concentration throughout the day.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/asian-boys-girls-fitness-outdoor-concept-1661190802">Somkid Saowaros/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Whether it’s during the post-lunch slump or just one of those days, we all struggle to concentrate on what we’re doing sometimes, whether that’s at work, school, or home. Being able to concentrate on what we’re doing would inevitably make us more productive, but that’s often easier said than done. For people looking to improve their concentration, exercise is often recommended as the antidote – and for good reason, as research shows that physical activity can improve concentration in people of all ages.</p>
<p>I’ll define “concentration” as our ability to focus on a task and ignore distractions. So in order to have good concentration, we need to have two important aspects of cognitive function working at their best. The first is sustained attention, in which we’re able to focus on certain pieces of information for prolonged periods of time. The second is executive function, which is our ability to think and make decisions at a complex level.</p>
<p>But how does exercise help us improve these skills? Most research into the effects of exercise on concentration have studied the links in young people in schools. This is likely because of the clear effect concentration has on academic achievement, with a key priority of schools being to improve academic achievement and exam results. </p>
<p>Research shows that acute bouts of physical activity (such as walking or running during break) have a positive effect on concentration in young people. This effect has been shown after various forms of physical activity including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306452209001171?casa_token=37HK-ayyiTwAAAAA:ySXJUH_4zsOWtktEyYKLusdGsLueDqHeY4Y1Sx3OioJjKKeIPWX01lbx5V4eQWGF-p4U2fPEA9Q">walking</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4929070/">running</a> and <a href="http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/33530/1/11030_Cooper.pdf">team games</a> (such as football and basketball). But this effect tends to only last for around one hour, so regular opportunities to be active across the school day are important.</p>
<p>Another really interesting discovery is that young people with higher levels of fitness demonstrate <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-020-09484-w">superior concentration</a>, when compared with less fit children. For example, young people who have higher cardiorespiratory fitness display better concentration than those who are less fit. So based on current evidence, regular physical activity appears to be very important for improving concentration in children.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two boys challenge each other for the ball during a football match." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Team sports are especially good for concentration.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/boys-kicking-football-on-sports-field-172398914">Fotokostic/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Although there’s less evidence in adults, research does still show that acute bouts of physical activity, such as a 20 minute walk or jog, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899312004003?casa_token=4VvVk8VEeEQAAAAA:RNAGs9jDIA2bu13i47PjgMIbP1Axyeov0GNcUGGPu_U_zqPkvOSGhiCvg0Gl9ogOreE26QUfZpQ">enhance concentration</a> for up to one hour afterwards. Studies have also shown that having people take breaks for physical activity during the work day improves self-reported concentration and mood – both of which could improve productivity. Physical activity and higher levels of physical fitness have even been shown to benefit many parts of brain function – including concentration – in <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2015-55483-005">people aged 65 and over</a>.</p>
<p>We have less information though about the mechanisms that explain why physical activity improves our concentration. We think that it could be caused by certain psychological mechanisms – such as feeling more alert and having better mood following physical activity – that improve concentration. Increased blood flow to the brain and changes in the <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.14814/phy2.12163">parts of the brain</a> that are activated during and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-02060-009">after exercise</a> have also been suggested.</p>
<h2>Get moving</h2>
<p>But which types of exercise are best? The simple answer to this question is that it depends on a lot of things.</p>
<p>Some evidence shows that any exercise which <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0212482">requires decision making</a> (such as team games, like football and hockey) might be particularly beneficial to concentration, due to the fact that your brain is engaged during these types of exercise.</p>
<p>But research also shows that any exercise which is extremely vigorous or exhausting, such as high-intensity interval training workouts may – at least in the short-term – actually have a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5504581/#:%7E:text=Maximal%20intensity%20exercise%20in%20children,improve%20following%20a%20recovery%20period.">negative effect on concentration</a>, due to the fact that it’s very difficult to concentrate when exhausted.</p>
<p>The research is clear, however, that short bouts of moderate, physical activity are great at improving concentration immediately following exercise. This might include going for a brisk walk, a run, or even a leisurely cycle. But the best type of physical activity is one that you enjoy, and can be easily incorporated into daily life. Ultimately, people need to be able to regularly perform physical activity in order to gain both immediate and long-term benefits. </p>
<p>So if you spend a lot of time sitting at your desk during the work day, regular activity breaks will help you to keep your concentration on the task in hand. Even just taking your dog for a short walk or running to the shop for a quick errand will help.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151143/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Cooper has received no research funding that directly impacts upon the content of this article.</span></em></p>Research shows short bouts of physical activity can boost your concentration for up to one hour.Simon Cooper, Senior Lecturer in Sport Science, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1515002021-01-07T15:30:29Z2021-01-07T15:30:29ZThree ways to move more while working from home<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377584/original/file-20210107-14-1bw5q3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4896%2C3254&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Replace two hours of sitting with standing</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-black-male-standing-his-computer-309696404">Burlingham/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Though people with office jobs often sit for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2783690/">up to 80% of the working day</a>, many still manage to get an average of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1440244003802669">3,616 steps daily</a>, largely thanks to many small opportunities for activity throughout the day. But with many of us now working from home during the pandemic, this means that any exercise we might have had during our day – whether cycling to work, or walking to get lunch – may no longer exist. While the way we work has changed, that doesn’t mean we can’t easily find ways to be more active during our work day if we look at how we managed to get active while working in an office. </p>
<p>Here are a few things you can try to get you to move more while working from home: </p>
<h2>1. Stand up and move while working</h2>
<p>Prolonged standing burns more calories than sitting. While this won’t be enough to tackle weight loss, replacing two hours sitting each day with standing can burn up to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30673688/#:%7E:text=Results%3A%20The%20mean%20(95%25,min)%20from%20sitting%20to%20standing">130 calories a week</a>, and may <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0956797617721270?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub++0pubmed&">improve concentration</a>. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28952883/">Standing more often</a> during your day may also improve glucose, insulin levels, and blood pressure in the long term.</p>
<p>You may be surprised to hear that [fidgeting is also good]. These small, regular movements (such as tapping your foot or shifting position) while sitting also burn more calories by increasing energy expenditure by <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/72/6/1451/4729468">5–10% above resting values</a>.</p>
<p>Experts recommend office workers try to get at least <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/49/21/1357">two hours a day standing</a> or moving around during work hours – and should build up to four hours, if possible. To start out, try adding at least <a href="https://trialsjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13063-015-1015-4">30 to 60 minutes</a> of standing into your workday, perhaps by alternating between fifteen minutes standing followed by fifteen minutes sitting. Or perhaps try taking all your calls or meetings while standing.</p>
<h2>2. Take “exercise snacks”</h2>
<p>Short bursts of exercise – or “exercise snacks” – are beneficial for your health. Previously, it was thought bouts of exercise needed to last longer than ten minutes to be beneficial to our health – but <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30418471/">recent research</a> indicates activity of any duration is good for health. Regular exercise also improves memory and even has <a href="https://theconversation.com/exercise-and-the-brain-three-ways-physical-activity-changes-its-very-structure-150203">brain-enhancing effects</a> by improving memory and reducing inflammation in the brain (which can lead to conditions such as Alzheimer’s).</p>
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<img alt="Two people's feet as they climb downstairs." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377582/original/file-20210107-17-15nh4mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377582/original/file-20210107-17-15nh4mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377582/original/file-20210107-17-15nh4mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377582/original/file-20210107-17-15nh4mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377582/original/file-20210107-17-15nh4mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377582/original/file-20210107-17-15nh4mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377582/original/file-20210107-17-15nh4mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Climbing the stairs is a great way to get moving.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cropped-image-mother-son-walking-down-1166116492">Dragon Images/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Try to take regular active movement breaks or exercise snacks during your day. For example, climbing the stairs can be a useful exercise, with research showing ten minutes of stair climbing can have a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031938416310666">similar effect on energy levels</a> as a cup of coffee does in sleep-deprived people. Vigorously climbing three flights of stairs (60 steps) at least three times a day – separated by one to four hours of rest – may <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/apnm-2018-0675?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub++0pubmed&">improve your fitness</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/forget-the-gym-in-january-exercise-snacking-is-the-way-forward-69702">Forget the gym in January – exercise snacking is the way forward</a>
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<p>A lower impact option would be to walk a few laps around your house. Even something as simple as moving rooms to refill your water glass or tea cup can help you get a bit of extra movement in.</p>
<h2>3. Exercise at lunchtime (outdoors if possible)</h2>
<p>Emerging evidence shows that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7198870/">going outside to exercise</a> during the day in natural settings (such as parks, fields, or near rivers or coastlines) can be beneficial to our mental health and cognitive ability.</p>
<p>But many people aren’t lucky enough to live near easily accessible natural environments. Fortunately, research shows that even getting out in the fresh air for a short walk or run is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25423324/">health enhancing</a>. If you can’t get outside during lunch, exercising indoors can still be beneficial to your health. </p>
<p>Remember, any movement is better than none – and the more the better. While you are working from home, make a special effort to build activity back into your day for both your mental and physical health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151500/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julie Broderick does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Moving during the work day is not only good for our health, but can also improve our concentration.Julie Broderick, Assistant Professor, Physiotherapy, Trinity College DublinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1423292020-10-16T11:45:02Z2020-10-16T11:45:02ZAttention! How successful golfers stay focused on those crucial shots<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363693/original/file-20201015-19-10h3agv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=82%2C0%2C4166%2C2828&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Even shots that look easy need proper concentration.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-golf-player-crouching-study-green-279631133">Otmar W/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sporting history is <a href="https://www.standard.co.uk/sport/snatching-defeat-from-the-jaws-of-victory-famous-sporting-collapses-6391115.html">littered</a> with tales of defeat snatched from the jaws of victory. Famously, the US golfer <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2020/apr/14/doug-sanders-obituary">Doug Sanders</a> was a three-foot putt away from winning the 1970 Open Championship in St Andrews. He missed. Not only did it lose him the championship, it cost him several sponsorship and endorsement deals too.</p>
<p>Sanders later <a href="https://www.irishtimes.com/sport/sanders-reflects-on-a-missed-putt-and-missed-boats-1.102514">recalled</a> that he missed the crucial shot because he was wondering where to bow first when he’d won. The golfer failed to direct his attention to the information that mattered most before he took his shot. His mind had wandered. Sanders was no longer concentrating on what he needed to do to sink his putt.</p>
<p>The mechanism that helps us to realise the mind has wandered has become an area of interest in the field of sports psychology because it is the process which enables athletes to re-focus their attention. If they are aware of – and listen to – this mechanism, they are less likely to succumb to distractions. Crucially, having this knowledge and awareness means psychologists, athletes and coaches can put into place interventions to take control of attention, enabling a player to concentrate on the information that is most relevant.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/tsp/34/1/article-p11.xml">research</a> over the last four years has sought to understand what enables concentration in sport. In particular we examined golfers’ beliefs, knowledge and understanding of their own ability to focus to explain the processes behind concentration.</p>
<p>We specifically chose this sport because golfers normally experience changes in their concentration before, after and between shots. This means the game provides a useful lens to examine the processes that enable the focusing and re-focusing of attention.</p>
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<h2>In the spotlight</h2>
<p>Our research revealed that this attention-alerting mechanism can be understood as an ongoing process called “meta-attention”, which has its origins in educational psychology but is also considered <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315784946">relevant to sport</a>. Meta-attention simply means the awareness, knowledge and control of attention – the mechanism that reminds us to pay attention to what we believe is most important in any given situation.</p>
<p>If we picture our attention as a spotlight – one that can shine not just outwards to our environment, but inwards into our own minds – meta-attention is the awareness of where the spotlight is shining and what we do to direct its beam. </p>
<p>But while we have awareness of how attention may operate, like the spotlight, it is only recently that research has looked further to understand the mechanisms that may be directing the spotlight. In particular, our study has developed a theory to understand the processes that can help divert a spotlight, uncovering the mechanisms that underlie concentration.</p>
<p>To understand what golfers know about attention, I interviewed eight elite golfers. These revealed how golfers evaluated the resources they needed for the shot they were taking, such as a past experience, then put in place a plan which was followed by a consistent pre-shot routine. This might entail creating a mental image of where the player wants the ball to go while performing practice swings for example. </p>
<p>Afterwards, the golfers explained, they would run though their post-shot routine where they reflected on the outcome of the shot. Then they would switch off, directing their spotlight to less relevant thoughts, like a drink at the bar.</p>
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<img alt="Golfer taking a shot on a beautiful course on a sunny blue-sky day." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Meta-attention is the process which enables players to fully concentrate on taking a shot.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/smiling-african-american-man-cap-sunglasses-666708034">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Golf aloud</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1612197X.2020.1766536?journalCode=rijs20">second study</a> followed on from our original research, examining what meta-attention looks like as it happens during a performance. Here, with club-level golfers, we used a research method called “think aloud”, where every thought and internal speech has to be spoken out loud. Viewing meta-attention in a live performance setting allowed us to examine golfers’ awareness of their attention, including what was illuminated by their attentional spotlight and the strategies they used to direct it.</p>
<p>The results showed that during performance, golfers engaged in the process of meta-attention and used control strategies such as pre-shot routines. Interestingly, furthering established understanding, each golfer did not verbalise drawing on “attention resources” like past experiences, for every shot. Instead it seems this process may be largely automatic, suggesting that golfers are only aware of drawing on attention resources at times when they are most needed. </p>
<p>The study revealed that when golfers did verbalise their attention resources, it tended to be for more challenging shots – reflecting on training experiences prior to a recovery shot from a bunker, for example. In line with our theoretical understanding of meta-attention was the way club-level golfers implemented consistent control strategies – like pre- and post-shot routines – and frequently focused on helpful environmental information such as a clear visual target which could be seen from the tee. </p>
<p>The think aloud findings showed that golfers would often move their spotlight to information that they felt would be most useful to their game throughout performance. In other words, when faced with a challenge, they might consciously look for a similar experience to guide and inform the situation they are facing.</p>
<p>Having awareness of, and acting upon, the information that is highlighted to help players concentrate is key. If golfers perceive their spotlight is not shining on information they believe to be most relevant – like Doug Sanders experienced – then they can initiate control strategies to redirect the spotlight.</p>
<p>Noting some of the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10413200903403216">previous research</a> alongside our own findings, we recommend golfers opt for consistent pre- and post-shot routines when it comes to concentration. In doing so, players have greater control of their attention and are less likely to miss the shot of a lifetime, like the unfortunate Sanders. Once asked if he ever thought of his career-defining miss, the breezy golfer replied: “Only every four or five minutes.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142329/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex Oliver does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>For optimal concentration, players need to cultivate ‘meta-attention’, the mechanism that enables us to refocus our attention when the mind has wandered.Alex Oliver, PhD Psychology Researcher School of Health & Life Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1420172020-07-15T13:04:25Z2020-07-15T13:04:25ZDoes cannabis really affect memory? Here’s what research currently says<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347657/original/file-20200715-37-uiv1zo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=35%2C8%2C5955%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">THC and CBD, both cannabis compounds, have very different effects on the brain.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/large-number-cannabis-flowers-hands-medetsinsky-1005685864">Dmytro Tyshchenko/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cannabis use has long been associated with memory loss. But until now, this notion was largely anecdotal. As researchers begin to look into cannabis and the effect that it has on human health, they’re beginning to better understand the effect it has on the human brain – and whether cannabis really does impair memory.</p>
<p>Memory is divided into both short-term and long-term memory. Short-term memory is where immediate events are temporarily stored, whereas long-term memory is where information is stored indefinitely.</p>
<p>Current evidence shows that <a href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/what-are-marijuanas-long-term-effects-brain">cannabis intoxication</a> may temporarily alter or distort short-term memory processing. This seems to be caused by compounds in cannabis that disrupt neural signalling when binding to receptors <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/the-effects-of-marijuana-on-your-memory">responsible for memory</a> in the brain. Interrupted short-term memory can indeed <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-016-4383-x">impact on learning</a>, and may also cause loss of interest or <a href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/how-does-marijuana-use-affect-school-work-social-life">problems with concentration</a>.</p>
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<p>However, early research also shows that cannabis could have a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6514832/">positive impact</a> on neurodegenerative diseases that affect memory, such as Alzheimer’s, Huntington Chorea, and epilepsy. In mainly animal studies, when researchers used components found in cannabis, they found it could <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6970569/">slow or even prevent</a> the advance of these diseases – essentially through the creation of neurons. </p>
<p>These apparently paradoxical effects from the same drug are best explained by two chemicals found in cannabis. Namely delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). We all have naturally occurring cannabinoid receptors in our brains. THC is able to effectively bind to these receptors, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10826084.2020.1731547">creating euphoric effects</a>. However CBD can <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10826084.2020.1731547">interfere with this binding process</a>, which dampens the feeling of euphoria.</p>
<p>Different ratios of these two chemicals are found in various types of cannabis. Consuming a cannabis product with THC but no CBD <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11920-019-1044-x">increases the risk</a> of developing mental health problems, such as psychosis. However, CBD could actually be <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/8/7/1058">used to treat</a> psychosis.</p>
<p>Cannabis with higher levels of THC and lower, or negligible, amounts of CBD appear to have a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352464218303420">detrimental effect on short-term memory</a>, particularly in adolescents. The main problem is their ability to retain and recall information. Fortunately this is not permanent.</p>
<p>But these recent discoveries about the role of THC and CBD in cannabis show that we can no longer simply say cannabis itself causes psychosis, or is detrimental to memory. Rather, it might be the type of cannabis, and the compounds it contains, that may have specific risks or benefits.</p>
<p>And while there’s <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924977X20300614?casa_token=jJd-YCv468sAAAAA:xo4KcnhHYJEwWfWUnhEOmucgGqC733A27q5Bt8Fk6i-F4HZP-FHoqcYrFTHbZtiD5jxJLdz8zzeM">little doubt</a> that some people who use cannabis do experience impaired memory, establishing that cannabis is the cause is tricky. One reason for this is because it’s difficult to rule out the impact of other drugs that people may have used – and whether these drugs contributed to this memory impairment. For example, alcohol misuse can also cause <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrneurol.2011.42">brain damage and memory loss</a>. Another obvious problem when researching this is when asking people with impaired memory to recall their past drug use and any associated problems. Their <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/117/9/4585.short">ability to recall</a> these details could be compromised.</p>
<p>Recent research even suggests that any memory impairment associated with using cannabis <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/add.13946">can be reversed</a> when people stop using cannabis. This effect was seen mainly in those who used cannabis at least once a week.</p>
<p>Just as higher doses of alcohol can <a href="https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/about-dementia/types-dementia/alcohol-related-brain-damage#content-start">potentially cause brain damage</a>, higher doses or <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-018-0191-x">more frequent use</a> of cannabis may also cause long-term memory problems – the ability to learn effectively and the ability to concentrate on a task for example. Some people will use <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40429-017-0149-8">both alcohol and cannabis</a>, often at the same time, which may both worsen the potential impact on memory. </p>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/adaw.32279?casa_token=ykInFcs7wIMAAAAA%3AP_xloPckXZZfpT9mMt76QgAefhd5iB7cBeaXNYPHdEYf6F4pWK4y1dJFfBKqp9lJd3NCpxHxjZkm_RG7cw">New research also suggests</a> that it’s cannabis, rather than alcohol, that’s responsible for damage to developing teen brains. Though alcohol can <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0960327107070499?casa_token=QEnZyYlKZs0AAAAA:LcIP3qmomZ2DSuox91ez9FZZ_Z1g27wxOzDfBHpzxvh2YpPZnlmwj_WiQYh9S-5yrzINgoi9SmI2r5Y">destroy or severely damage</a> brain neurons and their signalling functions, this study showed cannabis actually changes the neural brain tissue responsible for memory. But this change can be reversed within a matter of weeks if a person abstains. Though surveys suggest fewer young people are using both cannabis and alcohol, those teenagers that do use cannabis use it <a href="https://www.apa.org/monitor/2015/11/marijuana-brain">twice as frequently</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347658/original/file-20200715-25-qk5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347658/original/file-20200715-25-qk5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347658/original/file-20200715-25-qk5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347658/original/file-20200715-25-qk5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347658/original/file-20200715-25-qk5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347658/original/file-20200715-25-qk5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347658/original/file-20200715-25-qk5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Frequent cannabis by teens may impact their memory and ability to concentrate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/confused-teenager-doing-his-homework-alone-1257634138">mooremedia/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Research shows that young, frequent users of cannabis have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166432816307823?casa_token=7FHf1lhk7tYAAAAA:evoeWjbKpodZKKXHq9xnHWWcVAZ-QexBUr7qFEEIyqt_B1Kb5xVVareNAIIrYpANf7SSAO4LZ3yi">thinner temporal and frontal cortices</a>, which are both areas that help process memory functioning. Memory is a critical aid to learning and study – but cannabis doesn’t just effect memory, it can also reduce <a href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/how-does-marijuana-use-affect-school-work-social-life">motivation to learn</a>. This dual influence reduces a young person’s engagement in education and their ability to perform.</p>
<p>However, using cannabis <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40429-019-00285-9">later in life</a> (age 50 and over) appears to have only a moderate impact on cognitive functioning, including on memory. These modest declines are not fully understood, and there is a lack of high quality research in this area. That will need to change as it’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/comfortably-numb-why-some-older-people-turn-to-cannabis-for-pain-relief-91350">not just young people</a> that use cannabis. As more countries <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2333721418781668">legalise cannabis</a>, older people might also want to try it.</p>
<p>While there is likely to be no great harm to a person’s memory if they <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6587572/">experiment</a> with cannabis, current research seems to agree that the more frequent the use, the <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2019-64488-001">greater the risk</a>. Though there is still a lot that researchers don’t yet know about cannabis use on memory, current evidence suggests that any memory impairment can be reversed if a person abstains from use.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142017/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Hughes receives funding from National Institute for Health Research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Hamilton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Current research suggest it can be both helpful and harmful to memory – here’s why.Ian Hamilton, Associate Professor, Addiction and Mental Health, University of YorkElizabeth Hughes, Professor of Mental Health, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1262632019-11-18T03:00:29Z2019-11-18T03:00:29ZTurn down for what? Why you turn down the radio when you’re trying to park your car<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300428/original/file-20191106-88399-1hxq9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C5682%2C3828&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When you're looking for a destination, you might need to cut down the volume</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’re driving down an unfamiliar street on a clear spring evening. You’ve been invited to a friend of a friend’s party, at a house you’ve never been to before. </p>
<p>Tracking the street numbers, you see you’re getting close, so you (almost automatically) turn the radio down. Finally, with all that music out of the way, you might actually be able to <em>see</em> the house.</p>
<p>Why is it that Cardi B must be silenced so you can better see the address of your party? For that matter, why do we have a convention to read silently when in a library?</p>
<p>One response might be: “When we need to concentrate a little more, like when we’re looking for a house in the dark, we often try to get rid of distractions so we can focus.”</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-is-it-ok-to-listen-to-music-while-studying-125222">Curious Kids: is it OK to listen to music while studying?</a>
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<p>This answer is intuitively appealing. It’s also exactly the kind of answer cognitive psychologists try to avoid.</p>
<p>The words <em>concentrate</em>, <em>distractions</em>, and <em>focus</em> all point towards something (attention) that is left undefined. Rather than detailing its properties and how it works, we just assume people intuitively know what it means. </p>
<p>This is a little circular, like a dictionary using a word in its own definition. </p>
<h2>Hashtag nofilter</h2>
<p>When you have a problem that seems inseparable from intuition, one way to get a handle on it is to a use a metaphor. </p>
<p>One of the most important metaphors for attention was provided by psychologist Donald Broadbent in 1958: <a href="http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/d_e._broadbent_-_perception_and_communication_1958.pdf">attention acts like a filter</a>. In his metaphor, all sensory information – everything we see, hear, feel on our skin, and so on – is retained in the mind for a very short period simply as physical sensation (a colour in a location, a tone in the left ear). </p>
<p>But when it comes to bringing meaning to that sensory information, Broadbent argued, we have limited capacity. So attention is the filter that determines which parts of the torrent of incoming sensation are processed. </p>
<p>It might seem like this broad description of a filter doesn’t buy us much in terms of explanation. Yet, sadly for Broadbent, he gave just enough detail to be proven incorrect. </p>
<p>A year after the publication of Broadbent’s book, the psychologist <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1080/17470215908416289">Neville Moray found</a> that when people are listening to two simultaneous streams of speech and asked to concentrate on just one of them, many can still detect their own name if it pops up in the other stream.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-does-our-attention-span-mean-52897">What does our attention span mean?</a>
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<p>This suggests that even when you’re not paying attention, some sensory information is still processed and given meaning (that a mass of sounds is our name). What does that tell us about how this central bottleneck of attention might act?</p>
<h2>Radar love</h2>
<p>One answer comes from <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225765926_Divided_attention_between_simultaneous_auditory_and_visual_signals">a remarkable 1998 study</a> by Anne-Marie Bonnel and Ervin Hafter. It builds upon one of the most successful theories in all psychology, <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/signal-detection-theory">signal detection theory</a>, which describes how people make decisions based on ambiguous sensory information, rather like how a radar might detect a plane. </p>
<p>One of the basic problems of radar detection is to work out whether it is more likely that what is being detected is a signal (an enemy plane) or just random noise. This problem is the same for human perception.</p>
<p>Although apparently a metaphor like Broadbent’s filter, signal detection theory can be evaluated mathematically. The mathematics of human identification, it turns out, largely match those of radar operation. </p>
<h2>A perfect circle</h2>
<p>Bonnel and Hafter recognised that if people have a finite amount of attention to divide between vision and hearing, you could expect to see a particular pattern in certain experiments. </p>
<p>Imagine attention as an arrow of a fixed length that can swing back and forth between sight and hearing. When it’s pointing entirely towards sight, there’s no room for any focus on hearing (and vice versa). But if a little attention is taken up by hearing, that means there is less directed towards sight. If you graph this relationship, the tip of the arrow will draw a neat circle as it swings from one to the other.</p>
<p>Sure enough, the data from their experiments did indeed form a circle, but only in a certain case. When people were asked simply to <em>detect</em> whether a stimulus was present, there was no trade-off (paying more attention to vision did not change hearing performance and vice versa). It was only when people were asked to <em>identify</em> the specific stimulus that this circle appeared.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-can-people-actually-multitask-56677">Health Check: can people actually multitask?</a>
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<p>This suggests that while do we indeed have a limited capacity to process information, this is only the case when we’re processing the information for meaning, rather than being aware of its presence.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25222469">own research</a> suggests this pattern indicates some deeper constraint at the heart of the way we perceive the world. </p>
<p>The circle represents a fundamental limit on processing. We can never leave that circle, all we can do is move forwards or backwards along it by choosing to focus our attention. </p>
<p>When our visual task becomes difficult – like finding a house number in the dark rather than simply scanning the road – we move along that circle to optimise the signal from our visual system. In many cases, we can only do that by turning down the input to our auditory system, by literally turning down the radio. Sorry, Cardi B.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126263/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip Smith receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Lilburn does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Do you ever find you suddenly need to turn off the radio so you can concentrate on what you’re doing? It’s because you only have a finite amount of attention, for particular types of tasks at least.Simon Lilburn, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, The University of MelbournePhilip Smith, Professor of Psychology, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1176192019-05-23T10:06:50Z2019-05-23T10:06:50ZUsing your smartphone at the supermarket can add 41% to your shopping bill<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275908/original/file-20190522-187179-53ltq6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pretty-africanamerican-millennial-girl-reading-text-1036450444?src=vL9N8iEPGRIveajQpf7ZQQ-1-0">Shutterstock/Rocketclips Inc</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Are you constantly checking your phone when you’re out and about? Do you have trouble resisting the lure of ever more screen time? If so, be careful when you go grocery shopping – as your phone may be costing you more than you think. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://researchportal.bath.ac.uk/en/publications/in-store-mobile-phone-use-and-customer-shopping-behavior-evidence">recent study</a> suggests that grocery shoppers who use their phones in the supermarket end up spending, on average, 41% more than those who don’t. </p>
<p>This may sound counter intuitive. Previously, many bricks-and-mortar retailers have regarded shoppers’ smartphones as a distraction – or worse. They worried that customers who paid attention to their phones spent less time looking at enticing product displays in the store, or might use their phones to search for better deals online.</p>
<p>To find out if these fears were justified (specifically when people go grocery shopping) a team of researchers conducted an experiment. We placed special eye-tracking glasses on more than 400 shoppers, who then went about their shopping as usual. </p>
<p>The glasses allowed us to see precisely what the shoppers were doing when they were shopping – and what they looked at. Some of the participants were encouraged to use their mobile phones, while some were asked to put them away for the duration of their shopping trip.</p>
<p>It turned out that the effect is ultimately the opposite of what we might have thought. Shoppers who checked their phone while shopping spent on average 41% more at the till – and those people who used their phones the most also tended to spend the most money.</p>
<h2>Inside a shoppers’ mind</h2>
<p>The reason for this lies in the way the human brain works when we are shopping – and the vast amount of choices on offer.</p>
<p>Even a small grocery store may keep 10,000 unique products in stock, while large supermarkets stock many times that. It is impossible for the human mind to consciously process and choose between all these available items. We simply cannot cope with all these decisions, which means our brains are trying to simplify the complexity of a grocery store in different ways.</p>
<p>One way is to activate a kind of internal autopilot, which acts as a kind of shopping script, prescribing what we do and see in the store. Essentially, this means that most shoppers usually go to the shelves and sections they always go to, and buy the same products repeatedly. </p>
<p>Say, for example, that you regularly buy milk, chicken and bananas. Your inner autopilot will lead you between the points in the store where you know these items belong. </p>
<p>Similarly, if you are cooking food for a weekday dinner, you may have an inner script of what products should be in that. Products that are not part of that script are most often filtered away by your brain as irrelevant information. </p>
<p>After all, why would you be interested in looking at baking products when you are planning a quick shop for a stir fry, before getting home after a long day at work? All these products we do not consciously see do not stand a chance of getting into the shopping basket. The harsh fact is that shoppers are very habitual creatures – most of us vary our grocery purchases between fewer than 150 products a year.</p>
<h2>Smartphone distractions</h2>
<p>But something different happens when we pick up our phones. Whether it’s to make a call, send a text message, check social media or browse holiday destinations, our minds are forced to switch our very limited attention capacity from the shopping task to the phone. </p>
<p>As attention is distracted, the way shoppers behave in the store drastically changes. They suddenly walk more slowly and in unpredictable patterns, wandering along the aisles.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275905/original/file-20190522-187157-11ibvhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275905/original/file-20190522-187157-11ibvhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275905/original/file-20190522-187157-11ibvhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275905/original/file-20190522-187157-11ibvhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275905/original/file-20190522-187157-11ibvhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275905/original/file-20190522-187157-11ibvhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275905/original/file-20190522-187157-11ibvhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Author on auto-pilot.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">University of Bath</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>They find themselves spending more time in the store, and becoming more receptive to looking at a wider assortment of products as the autopilot has been interrupted. This means they (you) are less likely to filter off information regarding products outside the normal script and more like to be inspired to buy more of them.</p>
<p>In essence, shoppers who look at their phones spend more time in the store, look at more products, and buy more things. This is not necessarily a bad thing, as you may be reminded to buy products that are needed at home that were not on your mental shopping list – or you may be inspired to try a new ingredient. </p>
<p>But if you are conscious of sticking to your shopping plan and budget, then it may be best to keep your phone in your bag or pocket. Remember that an online friendly store – with free wi-fi or smartphone docking stations on trolley handles – may simply be landing you with a bigger shopping bill.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117619/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carl-Philip Ahlbom has been working for Retail Academics Research Institute who collected some of the data for this project. He receives funding from the Swedish Retail and Wholesale Council. At the time of the research study, he was affiliated with the Stockholm School of Economics. </span></em></p>Online distractions come at a considerable cost when you’re out for groceries.Carl-Philip Ahlbom, Prize Fellow in Management, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1001752018-07-22T20:06:35Z2018-07-22T20:06:35ZMove it, move it: how physical activity at school helps the mind (as well as the body)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228337/original/file-20180719-142411-1nnxkvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Encouraging physical activity in the playground, in classrooms and before and after school can help.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?u=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.shutterstock.com%2Fgatekeeper%2FW3siZSI6MTUzMTk4OTQ1OSwiYyI6Il9waG90b19zZXNzaW9uX2lkIiwiZGMiOiJpZGxfMTEyNTIzMTkyMCIsImsiOiJwaG90by8xMTI1MjMxOTIwL21lZGl1bS5qcGciLCJtIjoxLCJkIjoic2h1dHRlcnN0b2NrLW1lZGlhIn0sImVyVnQvYjZ3di9MRjZoTzNaVWNUSTFuUkx6MCJd%2Fshutterstock_1125231920.jpg&pi=41133566&m=1125231920&src=ZiNUiViYTR7UDwYrdxz_aQ-1-6">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Federal Sports Minister Bridget McKenzie recently unveiled <a href="https://www.heraldsun.com.au/kids-news/push-for-compulsory-school-sport-and-pe-kicks-off/news-story/ef92bd4292ec6b680c9d5a2034804e18?nk=169d54edbe92baeb4267a9b672695752-1531953073">plans</a> to convince state education and sports ministers to ensure sport and physical education is compulsory in schools.</p>
<p>The physical benefits of getting kids moving have been well <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673614606486">recognised</a> to help prevent chronic disease and develop movement habits across their <a href="https://insights.ovid.com/mespex/201405000/00005768-201405000-00014">lifespan</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-rise-of-the-fitbit-kids-a-good-move-or-a-step-too-far-64429">The rise of the Fitbit kids: a good move or a step too far?</a>
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<p>Yet one of McKenzie’s key <a href="https://www.heraldsun.com.au/kids-news/push-for-compulsory-school-sport-and-pe-kicks-off/news-story/ef92bd4292ec6b680c9d5a2034804e18">points</a>, to push for mandatory physical education, was based on improving school results.</p>
<p>This statement is an important and positive shift in the education sector. Until recently, bodies and minds were often considered separate entities when it came to education. </p>
<p>Physical education has been <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/18377122.2015.1054149">perceived</a> as only dealing with the “movement of the body” or the “non-thinking thing”. So historically, it has been pushed to the periphery. For example, physical education is yet to be an endorsed focus for the national <a href="https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/senior-secondary-curriculum/">senior secondary curriculum</a>. </p>
<p>Yet over the past two decades, growing research has strongly recognised the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/18377122.2015.1054149">inter-connections</a> between body and mind.</p>
<h2>How can movement help a student’s brain?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627315002597">Brain processing</a> takes up about 20% of our total metabolism through cognitive activities like memory, attention and concentration. </p>
<p>This cognition needs a strong <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.14814/phy2.12163">flow</a> of fuel (glucose, oxygen) and hormones to activate and enhance the brain’s capacity to perform, learn and get rid of waste.</p>
<p>So any prolonged sitting and inactivity can lead to negative cognitive <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/early/2016/05/06/bjsports-2015-095551?utm_source=trendmd&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=alljjs&utm_content=consumer&utm_term=1-A&casa_token=MYGJWSTxlfAAAAAA:kiCWJs8CAJQIJLW8Qqp_c4x-zwcSOXbagAXK6v8oLvMIFVQtGm9JWV6_3_juVW5TlkHuca7p2tCXcw">consequences</a>. For instance, inactivity in childhood has been linked to reduced <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022347617307758">working memory</a>, <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0103559">attention</a> and learning. </p>
<p>A student’s brain does not keep itself healthy independently. It is the connection with a healthy, moving body that can help improve brain performance.</p>
<p>Physical activity is also important in <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=CFhhBQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT13&dq=Ratey+%26+Hagerman&ots=6GjsNnv75T&sig=UucMNka1u_naqwqldZztpt4O3ME#v=onepage&q=Ratey%20%26%20Hagerman&f=false">developing</a> students’ brain structures (cells/neurons) and functioning at an early age. </p>
<p>The human brain is not fully developed until the third <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/pes.2013-0125">decade</a> of life, so getting kids moving can be a powerful academic strategy. </p>
<h2>What does the research tell us?</h2>
<p>More studies are linking physical activity and improved cognitive function. One of the most globally <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306452209001171">recognised</a> found primary school students’ level of cognitive function increased from just 20 minutes of walking. Students did better in an academic test and had improved attention. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228324/original/file-20180718-142411-ri3xqi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228324/original/file-20180718-142411-ri3xqi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228324/original/file-20180718-142411-ri3xqi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228324/original/file-20180718-142411-ri3xqi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228324/original/file-20180718-142411-ri3xqi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228324/original/file-20180718-142411-ri3xqi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228324/original/file-20180718-142411-ri3xqi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Brain scan of child before (left) and after (right) walking on a treadmill for 20 minutes. Increased brain activity was linked with better cognitive function. Courtesy: Dr Chuck Hillman, University of Illinois.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since this study, there have been many other US studies that have established links between physical activity and students’ academic performance, including from the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2008.00371.x">north east</a> (with more than 1800 students) and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02701367.2010.10599690">Texas</a> (2.5 million students). </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091743511000557">Several large</a> <a href="https://shapeamerica.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02701367.2011.10599785">scale</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095254612000737">reviews</a> have also identified links between physical activity and students’ academic performance, for example, grades and test scores.</p>
<p>In Australia, a <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/pes.24.1.45">study</a> of 757 primary school students across 29 primary schools found fitter children had higher NAPLAN scores. Students with specialist physical education teachers also had higher numeracy and literacy <a href="https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300220">scores</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-grassroots-to-gold-the-role-of-school-sport-in-olympic-success-8849">From grassroots to gold: the role of school sport in Olympic success</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There is also <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0890856717303180">evidence</a> of improved cognitive performance (attention, memory, concentration), <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0134804">self-esteem</a>, <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/early/2011/07/31/bjsports-2011-090185.short">mental health</a> (reduced depression, anxiety, stress), <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24524375">enjoyment</a> and <a href="https://shapeamerica.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02701367.2017.1294244#.W0_NloVOLmI">lesson engagement</a> from school students’ participation in physical activity.</p>
<h2>What type of physical activity is best?</h2>
<p>Researchers are still <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095254614001203">working out</a> what types, conditions and length of physical activities can have the most effect.</p>
<p>For instance, going for a routine walk requires less decision-making and intensity than completing a <a href="https://toughmudder.com.au/">Tough Mudder</a> or <a href="https://www.9now.com.au/australian-ninja-warrior">Ninja Warrior</a> course.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-we-should-put-yoga-in-the-australian-school-curriculum-89962">Why we should put yoga in the Australian school curriculum</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Top 5 tips to provide high quality physical activity at school</h2>
<p><strong>1. Curriculum</strong></p>
<p>Opportunities to take part in authentic (resembling real-world) <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1356336X13496001">games</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13573322.2011.624594">sports</a>, embedded with <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/18377122.2015.1051268">reflective</a> and guided thinking opportunities. This can help students develop solutions to movement problems and understand sporting traditions, roles, teamwork and rules.</p>
<p><strong>2. Classroom</strong></p>
<p>Provide <a href="https://www.heart.org/idc/groups/heart-public/@wcm/@fc/documents/downloadable/ucm_455767.pdf">active breaks</a> (short break of a few minutes) with simple and/or integrated physical activities like moving to music during prolonged, inactive lessons to improve academic <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091743516301049">engagement</a>. </p>
<p><strong>3. Recess</strong></p>
<p>Access to a larger variety of mobile equipment can engage students in more <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14729679.2018.1436078">creative</a> exploration of physical activities. </p>
<p>Mobile equipment can encourage more variety and choice for students to design complex, evolving physical activities beyond fixed locations. </p>
<p><strong>4. Before and after school</strong></p>
<p>Partnering with national sporting organisations through programs such as Australia’s <a href="https://www.sportingschools.gov.au/about">Sporting Schools</a>.</p>
<p>Students can then pursue sports and physical activity beyond those facilitated at school and by the program.</p>
<p><strong>5. Active transport</strong></p>
<p>Set up a <a href="http://www.walkingschoolbus.org/">walking school bus</a> or <a href="http://guide.saferoutesinfo.org/walking_school_bus/bicycle_trains.cfm">bicycle train</a> to plan a safely structured walk or ride to school with one or more adults, depending on air quality, distances to school and busyness of streets.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100175/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brendon Hyndman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Compulsory sport and physical education at school will improve children’s memory, attention and ability to concentrate, not just boost fitness. The evidence is in.Brendon Hyndman, Senior Lecturer and Course Director of Postgraduate Studies in Education, Charles Sturt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/917982018-02-20T10:18:16Z2018-02-20T10:18:16ZMartial arts can improve your attention span and alertness long term – new study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206984/original/file-20180219-116360-1ads7jy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-woman-dressed-traditional-kimono-practicing-665550745?src=F21ByMoRehpAjHawrm4oig-1-11">Jasminko Ibrakovic/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Martial arts require a good level of physical strength, but those who take up training need to develop an incredible amount of mental acuity, too. </p>
<p>Mental strength is so important to martial arts that researchers have found karate experts’ stronger punching force may be down to a <a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/news-articles/1208/15082012-Karate-experts-brains-increase-punching-power-Husain">better control of muscle movement in the brain</a>, rather than increased muscular strength. Other studies have also found that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0193397304000309">children who practice Taekwondo</a> improved in maths test scores, and behaviour.</p>
<p>Which leads to an interesting question – does taking part in martial arts cause the brain to develop better control, or do people with these brain characteristics choose to do martial arts? It is something that our team has been researching, with interesting results. </p>
<h2>Martial attention</h2>
<p>We’ve been specifically measuring attention to assess mental control, as previous research has suggested that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211949316300011">mindfulness</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335516300547">exercise</a> can both have beneficial effects on attention. You could argue that martial arts are a combination of both – active sports that involve aspects of meditation and mindfulness.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206981/original/file-20180219-116360-c3pvl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206981/original/file-20180219-116360-c3pvl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206981/original/file-20180219-116360-c3pvl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206981/original/file-20180219-116360-c3pvl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206981/original/file-20180219-116360-c3pvl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206981/original/file-20180219-116360-c3pvl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206981/original/file-20180219-116360-c3pvl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sparring black belts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/people-gym-martial-arts-training-exercising-69614008?src=zywHWFLMVXS_eTe_46QuCg-1-0">Kzenon/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00080/full">recently published study</a>, we recruited 21 amateur adults who practice martial arts (karate, judo and taekwondo, among others) and 27 adults with no experience in the sports, to take part in an <a href="https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/089892902317361886">attention network test</a>. This test assesses three different types of attention: alerting (maintaining a sense of alertness), orienting (the shifting of attention), and executive (involved in choosing the correct response when there’s conflicting information).</p>
<p>We were particularly interested in the alert network, which can reveal how vigilant a person is. If a person has a high alert score on this test, it would suggest that they are better able to respond to unpredictably timed targets than those with a low score. </p>
<p>While there are differences across each <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/get-inspired/23436235">martial art</a> in terms of their core philosophies, whether they’re more of a “fighting” martial art or more “meditative”, and their intensity, we did not discriminate about the type our participants took part in. Future research could compare the different types, but for this study we were more interested in general martial artists’ attention compared to non-martial artists’.</p>
<h2>Sparring tests</h2>
<p>We invited the participants to our lab, and recorded details of their martial arts experience (including the type, how often they practice, and how many years they’ve been involved in the sport) before asking them to take part in the computer-based task. This involved participants seeing a row of five arrows, and having to respond to the direction of the central arrow by pressing a letter button on a keyboard (“c” for left-facing arrows, and “m” for right) as quickly as possible. In some trials, they were given a warning cue that told them the arrows would appear soon, and in others they weren’t. </p>
<p>Typically, in most martial arts training, there’s an element of sparring, which is a form of simulated fighting with a partner. One of the aims of this is that the partners will be attempting to remain focused and avoid their partner making contact. After all, nobody <em>wants</em> to be punched in the face. It is rare for a sparring opponent to give a clear warning of the exact timing of a punch so the defending partner needs to stay alert, or vigilant, at all times so that they are ready to dodge the hit.</p>
<p>During our research, the martial arts participants produced higher alert scores than our non-martial artists. This means that the martial artists responded to the arrows fastest, especially when they were not given a warning. This signifies that they have a greater level of vigilance, which could reflect stronger cognitive control.</p>
<p>We also looked at the effects of long-term martial arts practice, and found that alertness was better in the martial artists with the most amount of experience. Several of our participants who had more than nine years’ experience in the sport, showed the best alertness in our tests. This suggests that the longer a person sticks at martial arts, the bigger their reward. Taking this a step further, it appears that the effects of improved attention may be long lasting, rather than just a short boost after training. </p>
<p>While it could be argued that martial arts simply are among many activities that can lead to better health, what we and other researchers have found is that their practice is one of those rare crossovers that helps significantly improve the brain just as much as the body.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91798/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ashleigh Johnstone receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC).</span></em></p>Martial arts help boost both brain and body.Ashleigh Johnstone, PhD Researcher in Cognitive Neuroscience, Bangor UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/903742018-01-25T23:17:38Z2018-01-25T23:17:38ZMarijuana at school: Loss of concentration, risk of psychosis<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203316/original/file-20180124-107937-xbltv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1552%2C395%2C3624%2C2669&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A 2015 study from the Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse describes youth perceiving marijuana as “relatively harmless” and “not as dangerous as drinking and driving.” </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash/Conor Limkbocker)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of the enduring myths about marijuana is that it is “harmless” and can be safely used by teens. </p>
<p>Many high school teachers would beg to disagree, and consider the legalization of marijuana to be the biggest upcoming challenge in and around schools. And the evidence is on their side. </p>
<p>As an education researcher, I have visited hundreds of schools over four decades, conducting research into both education policy and teen mental health. I’ve come to recognize when policy changes are going awry and bound to have unintended effects. </p>
<p>As Canadian provinces scramble to <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/a-look-at-provincial-marijuana-plans-1.3682177">establish their implementation policies</a> before the promised <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/new-laws-and-rules-coming-into-effect-in-2018-1.3731434">marijuana legalization date of July 2018</a>, I believe three major education policy concerns remain unaddressed. </p>
<p>These are that marijuana use by children and youth is harmful to brain development, that it impacts negatively upon academic success and that legalization is likely to increase the number of teen users. </p>
<h2>‘Much safer than alcohol’</h2>
<p>Across Canada, province after province has been announcing its marijuana implementation policy, focusing almost exclusively on the control and regulation of the previously illegal substance. This has provoked fierce debates over <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/3867467/marijuana-legalization-canada-progress/">who will reap most of the excise tax windfall and whether cannabis will be sold in government stores or delegated to heavily regulated private vendors</a>. </p>
<p>All of the provincial pronouncements claim that their policy will be designed to protect “public health and safety” and safeguard “children and youth” from “harmful effects.”</p>
<p>However, a 2015 report from the Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse cites rates of past-year cannabis use ranging from 23 per cent to 30 per cent among students in grades seven to 12 in Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and
Newfoundland and Labrador during 2012-2013. And notes that, “<a href="http://www.ccdus.ca/Resource%20Library/CCSA-Effects-of-Cannabis-Use-during-Adolescence-Report-2015-en.pdf">of those Canadian youth who used cannabis in the past three months, 23 per cent reported using it on a daily or near daily basis.</a>”</p>
<p>The report also describes youth perceptions of marijuana as “relatively harmless” and “not as dangerous as drinking and driving.” </p>
<h2>Early-onset paranoid psychosis</h2>
<p>So what does the evidence say? First, heavy marijuana use can damage brain development in youth aged 13 to 18.</p>
<p>The 2015 Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse study <a href="http://www.ccdus.ca/Resource%20Library/CCSA-Effects-of-Cannabis-Use-during-Adolescence-Report-2015-en.pdf">confirmed the direct link</a> between cannabis use and loss of concentration and memory, jumbled thinking and early onset paranoid psychosis. </p>
<p>One of the leaders in the medical field, <a href="https://medicine.dal.ca/departments/department-sites/psychiatry/our-people/faculty/phil-tibbo.html">Dr. Phil Tibbo</a>, initiator of Nova Scotia’s Weed Myths campaign targeting teens, has seen <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/haliffax-marijuana-panel-1.3407110">the evidence, first hand,</a> of what heavy use can do as director of Nova Scotia’s Early Psychosis Program.</p>
<p>His brain research shows that regular marijuana use leads to <a href="https://www.schizophrenia.ca/docs/Drs%20Phil%20and%20Crocker.pdf">an increased risk of developing psychosis and schizophrenia</a> and effectively explodes popular and rather blasé notions that marijuana is “harmless” to teens and “recreational use” is simply “fun” and “healthy.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203309/original/file-20180124-107950-gbamrt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203309/original/file-20180124-107950-gbamrt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203309/original/file-20180124-107950-gbamrt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203309/original/file-20180124-107950-gbamrt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203309/original/file-20180124-107950-gbamrt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203309/original/file-20180124-107950-gbamrt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203309/original/file-20180124-107950-gbamrt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The miminum age for purchasing marijuana will be 18 in some Canadian provinces.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash/ Smoke & Vibe)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Damaging to academic performance</h2>
<p>Second, marijuana <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3930618/">negatively impacts neurocognitive performance</a> in teens and users perform more poorly in quantitative subjects requiring precision — like mathematics and senior science. </p>
<p>In 2017, Dutch researchers Olivier Marie and Ulf Zolitz found that the academic performance of Maastricht University students <a href="https://academic.oup.com/restud/article-abstract/84/3/1210/3091869">increased substantially when they were no longer legally permitted to buy cannabis</a>. The effects were stronger for women and low performers and academic gains were larger for courses needing numerical or mathematical skills.</p>
<p>Third, legalization of marijuana may increase the number of teen users. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/01/180108161204.htm">Research from Oregon Research Institute</a> conducted in 2017 showed that teenagers who were already using marijuana prior to legalization increased their frequency of use significantly afterwards. <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/02/140225112904.htm">Research from New York University</a>, published in 2014, indicated that many high school students normally at low risk for marijuana use (e.g., non-cigarette-smokers, religious students, those with friends who disapprove of use) reported an intention to use marijuana if it were legal.</p>
<p>Medical researchers and practitioners have warned us that <a href="http://www.nshealth.ca/news/bold-new-nova-scotia-based-cannabis-education-campaign-created-youth-youth-busts-through-myths">legalization carries great dangers</a>, particularly for vulnerable and at-risk youth between 15 and 24 years of age.</p>
<h2>Age of restriction</h2>
<p>Marijuana legalization policy across Canada is a top-down federal initiative driven largely by changing public attitudes and conditioned by the current realities of the widespread use of marijuana, purchased though illicit means.</p>
<p>Setting the age of restriction, guided by the proposed federal policy framework, has turned out to be an exercise in “compromise” rather than one focused on heeding the advice of leading medical experts and the <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/2927387/make-21-the-minimum-age-to-smoke-pot-canadian-medical-association-urges-govt/">Canadian Medical Association (CMA).</a> </p>
<p>In a <a href="http://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/3100676/CMA-Submission-Legalization-and-Regulation-of.pdf">2016 submission to the government</a>, the CMA argued that 25 would be the ideal age for legal access to marijuana, as the brain is still developing until then, but that a lower minimum age of 21 should be considered — to discourage children from purchasing marijuana from organized crime groups.</p>
<p>The report argued that: “Marijuana use is linked to several adverse health outcomes, including addiction, cardiovascular and pulmonary effects (e.g., chronic bronchitis), mental illness, and other problems, including cognitive impairment and reduced educational attainment. There seems to be an increased risk of chronic psychosis disorders, including schizophrenia, in persons with a predisposition to such disorders.”</p>
<p>In fact, <a href="http://thechronicleherald.ca/canada/1534807-a-brief-look-at-provincial-approaches-to-recreational-marijuana-sales">the minimum age for purchasing and possessing marijuana</a> is going to be age 18 in Alberta and Quebec, and 19 in most other provinces. Getting it “out of high schools” was a critical factor in bumping it up to age 19 in most provinces.</p>
<p>Every Canadian province is complying with the federal legislation, but — in our federal system – it’s “customized” for each jurisdiction. </p>
<p>The Canadian Western provinces — Alberta, British Columbia and Saskatchewan —have opted for regulating private retail stores, while Ontario and the Maritime provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and P.E.I.) are expanding their liquor control commissions to accommodate retail sales of cannabis.</p>
<p>High school teachers, as of September 2018, may be battling a spike in marijuana use and greater peer pressure to smoke pot on the mistaken assumption that it is “harmless” at any age. </p>
<h2>Clamping down in schools</h2>
<p>For high school principals and staff, this will be <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/02/140225112904.htm">a real test</a>. </p>
<p>By September 2018, the old line of defence that using marijuana is illegal will have disappeared. Recreational marijuana will be more socially acceptable. The cannabis industry will be openly marketing its products. High school students who drive to school will likely get caught under new laws prohibiting motor vehicle use while impaired by drugs or alcohol. Fewer students are likely to abstain when it is perfectly legal to smoke pot when you reach university, college or the workplace.</p>
<p>We have utterly failed, so far, in <a href="http://www.nshealth.ca/news/bold-new-nova-scotia-based-cannabis-education-campaign-created-youth-youth-busts-through-myths">getting through</a> to the current generation of teens, so a much more robust approach is in order. </p>
<p>“Be firm at the beginning” is the most common sage advice given to beginner teachers. Clamping down on teen marijuana use during and after school hours will require clarity and firm resolve in the year ahead — and the support of engaged and responsible parents.</p>
<p>Legalization of recreational marijuana is bound to complicate matters for Canadian high schools everywhere. Busting the “Weed Myths” should not be left to doctors and health practitioners. Pursuing research-based, evidence-informed policy and practice means getting behind those on the front lines of high school education.</p>
<p><em>This is a corrected version of a story originally published Jan. 25, 2018. The earlier story incorrectly stated that “one in five young people between 15 and 24 years of age…report daily or almost daily use of cannabis.”</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90374/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul W Bennett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Provincial policies to implement the legal consumption of marijuana are unlikely to protect children and youth. High school teachers and parents will be on the front line.Paul W Bennett, Research Associate in Education, Saint Mary’s UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/869522017-11-09T09:54:24Z2017-11-09T09:54:24ZMusic only helps you concentrate if you’re doing the right kind of task<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193606/original/file-20171107-1017-5pm1sy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Music and work don't always mix.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hipster-student-studying-library-university-340653119?src=QzwYyaR96cElh1N0RNobwA-2-18">wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many of us listen to music while we work, thinking that it will help us to concentrate on the task at hand. And in fact, recent research has found that music can have <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0182210">beneficial effects on creativity</a>. When it comes to other areas of performance, however, the impact of background music is more complicated.</p>
<p>The assumption that listening to music when working is beneficial to output likely has its roots in the so-called “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8413624">Mozart effect</a>”, which gained wide media attention in the early 1990s. Put simply, this is the finding that spatial rotation performance (mentally rotating a 3D dimensional shape to determine whether it matches another or not) is increased immediately after listening to the music of Mozart, compared to relaxation instructions or no sound at all. Such was the attention that this finding garnered that the then US governor of Georgia, Zell Miller, <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/1998/01/15/us/georgia-s-governor-seeks-musical-start-for-babies.html">proposed giving free cassettes or CDs</a> of Mozart’s music to prospective parents.</p>
<p>Subsequent studies have cast doubt on the necessity of the music of Mozart to produce this effect – a “<a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-9280.00170">Schubert effect</a>”, a “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16597767">Blur effect</a>”, and even a “<a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-9280.00170">Stephen King effect</a>” (his audiobook rather than his singing) have all been observed. In addition, musicians could show the effect <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12144-014-9232-7">purely from imagining the music</a> rather than actually listening to it.</p>
<p>So researchers then suggested that the “Mozart effect” was not due to his music as such, but rather to people’s optimum levels of mood and arousal. And so it became the “<a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-9280.00170">mood and arousal effect</a>”. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, the situations in which most mood and arousal effects are observed are slightly unrealistic. Do we really sit and listen to music, switch it off, and then engage in our work in silence? More likely is that we work with our favourite tunes playing in the background. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193809/original/file-20171108-14199-1h15svh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193809/original/file-20171108-14199-1h15svh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193809/original/file-20171108-14199-1h15svh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193809/original/file-20171108-14199-1h15svh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193809/original/file-20171108-14199-1h15svh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193809/original/file-20171108-14199-1h15svh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193809/original/file-20171108-14199-1h15svh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Distracted at work.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cheerful-african-american-businessman-listening-music-615313214?src=u7_Nu2-ZKXkExf1TgKe_EA-1-4">Pressmaster/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>How sound affects performance has been the topic of laboratory research for over 40 years, and is observed through a phenomenon called the irrelevant sound effect. Basically, this effect means that <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pchj.44/abstract">performance is poorer</a> when a task is undertaken in the presence of background sound (irrelevant sound that you are ignoring), in comparison to quiet.</p>
<p>To study irrelevant sound effect, participants are asked to complete a simple task which requires them to recall a series of numbers or letters in the exact order in which they saw them – similar to trying to memorise a telephone number when you have no means to write it down. In general, people achieve this by rehearsing the items either aloud or under their breath. The tricky thing is being able to do this while ignoring any background noise. </p>
<p>Two key characteristics of the irrelevant sound effect are required for its observation. First, the task must require the person to use their rehearsal abilities, and second, the sound must contain acoustical variation – for example, sounds such as “n, r, p” as opposed to “c, c, c”. Where the sound does not vary much acoustically, then performance of the task is much closer to that observed in quiet conditions. Interestingly, it does not matter whether the person likes the sound or not. <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.1731/abstract">Performance is equally as poor</a> whether the background sound is music the person likes or dislikes.</p>
<p>The irrelevant sound effect itself comes from attempting to process two sources of ordered information at the same time – one from the task and one from the sound. Unfortunately, only the former is required to successfully perform the serial recall task, and the effort expended in ensuring that irrelevant order information from the sound is not processed actually impedes this ability. </p>
<p>A similar conflict is also seen when reading while in the presence of lyrical music. In this situation, the two sources of words – from the task and the sound – are in conflict. The subsequent cost is poorer performance of the task in the presence of <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.2994/abstract">music with lyrics</a>.</p>
<p>What this all means is that whether having music playing in the background helps or hinders performance depends on the task and on the type of music, and only understanding this relationship will help people maximise their productivity levels. If the task requires creativity or some element of mental rotation then listening to music one likes can increase performance. In contrast, if the task requires one to rehearse information in order then quiet is best, or, in the case of reading comprehension, quiet or instrumental music.</p>
<p>One promising area of the impact of music on cognitive abilities stems from actually learning to play a musical instrument. Studies show that children who are being musically trained show an <a href="http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/%7Ew3psygs/SchellenbergCDPS2005.pdf">improvement in intellectual abilities</a>. However, the reasons behind this are, at present, unknown and likely to be complex. It may not be the music per se that produces this effect but more the activities associated with studying music, such as concentration, repeated practice, lessons and homework.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86952/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Perham does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Listening to your favourite album might not be the best idea if you’ve got something to do.Nick Perham, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Cardiff Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.