tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/forensic-pathology-8409/articlesForensic pathology – The Conversation2023-07-30T20:08:31Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2074182023-07-30T20:08:31Z2023-07-30T20:08:31ZSecrets wrapped in fabric: how our study of 100 decomposing piglet bodies will help solve criminal cases<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539908/original/file-20230728-23-ku5ia8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=19%2C3%2C1274%2C857&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Stevie Ziogos</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Until the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081018729000042">late 19th century</a>, the success of criminal investigations largely hung on witness reports and (often extorted) confessions. A lack of scientific tools meant investigators needed advanced <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/deductive-reasoning">deductive reasoning</a> abilities – and even then they’d often hit a dead end.</p>
<p>Today, investigations demand an interdisciplinary and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00414-022-02846-6">high-tech</a> approach, involving experts from diverse scientific disciplines. Stabbing investigations are particularly important, as fatal stabbings are the leading cause of homicide in countries with restricted access to firearms, including <a href="https://www.aic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-05/tbp045.pdf">Australia</a>.</p>
<p>Carefully interpreting <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-camera-never-lies-our-research-found-cctv-isnt-always-dependable-when-it-comes-to-murder-investigations-199828">CCTV footage</a> can be useful, but sometimes the crime scene won’t have surveillance cameras. The victim’s body may be discovered days, weeks, or months after the event. By then it may be partially consumed by insects – or rain may have washed away the blood stains, or potentially even the murder weapon.</p>
<p>In such a case, analysing damage to a <a href="https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/comparing-alleged-weapon-damage-clothing-value-multiple-layers-and">victim’s clothing</a> can provide crucial insight. But how does clothing on a decomposing body react to environmental and biological factors?</p>
<p>This was our question as we conducted research using the decomposing bodies of more than 100 stillborn piglets. Our findings from this <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/14/7/618">first-of-its-kind experiment</a> could help investigators solve future (and past) crimes in which stabs, tears or other damages to clothing are in question.</p>
<h2>Pigs wrapped in fabric</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1355030618301680">Textile analysis</a> has a significant role in forensic investigation. Clothes can preserve crucial information about the events leading up to someone’s death. Evidence might come in the form of fibres under a victim’s fingernails, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1917222117">tears in the clothing</a> resulting from movement or traction, or cuts and holes caused by weapons. </p>
<p>However, the decomposition process itself will also alter the fabric and existing damages. It may even introduce new damages that complicate the analysis.</p>
<p>To understand how clothing might change throughout this process, we conducted an experiment in the summer heat of Western Australia. We used more than 100 stillborn piglets (simulating human remains) wrapped in common fabrics including cotton, stretchy synthetic material, and a fabric blend. Some piglets were left unclothed as control samples.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The experiment was conducted at a facility in Western Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/14/7/618">Photo by Stevie Ziogos</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>We intentionally inflicted cuts and tears on most of the fabrics, before leaving the carcasses to decompose naturally in a bushland environment until only bones remained. The bodies were shielded from <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20171028/">large scavengers</a>, but not from <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19836175/">carrion insects</a>. </p>
<p>While previous research has explored the impact <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21602003/">of clothing on decomposition</a>, we were focused on the other side of the coin: how do insects impact the fabric on a decomposing carcass? And in what ways could this jeopardise an investigation? </p>
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<p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/flies-maggots-and-methamphetamine-how-insects-can-reveal-drugs-and-poisons-at-crime-scenes-176981">Flies, maggots and methamphetamine: how insects can reveal drugs and poisons at crime scenes</a>
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<h2>Exposed to natural elements</h2>
<p>It wasn’t long before the fabrics started to transform due to exposure to bacteria, fungi, insects and other environmental factors. </p>
<p>They changed in shape and texture, and became stretched as a result of the natural bloating of the carcasses. Less than a week after the carcasses were placed, new holes appeared in the fabric – especially in cotton – as the fibres broke down.</p>
<p>There were also chemical changes due to potential exposure to body fluids and the chemical products of bacteria and fungi.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Experimental fabrics observed with a ‘scanning electron microscope’ (SEM) showed fungal colonisation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/14/7/618">Photo by Stevie Ziogos</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Insects were particularly active in areas where body fluids were present. Of twenty insect groups collected and identified, blowflies and carrion beetles were the most common antagonists. </p>
<p>Throughout the 47 days of the experiment, we managed to collect a range of data on fabric degradation throughout the decomposition process. It’s the first time this has been documented in such detail in a controlled experiment. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Insects visited the bloodstains of the fabric during the early stages of the experiment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Stevie Ziogos, Author provided</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>New tools to solve new (and old) mysteries</h2>
<p>Although textile damage analysis is vital for forensics, there has been limited research on how it overlaps with forensic entomology and taphonomy (the study of how organisms decompose). Our research shows fabrics can hold significant evidence, and this evidence changes as bodies decompose while being exposed to the environment.</p>
<p>There are myriad examples of crimes where evidence related to clothing has been crucial to solving the case. </p>
<p>In the 1980 <a href="https://www.injustice.law/2021/07/05/the-shameful-tale-of-what-happened-to-lindy-chamberlain/">Chamberlain case</a>, a jury wrongly found Lindy Chamberlain and her husband Michael guilty of murdering their nine-week-old daughter Azaria, who had disappeared. </p>
<p>It was only when Azaria’s clothing was recovered a week after her disappearance that investigators had evidence of a dingo having snatched her (as the clothes showed signs of having been dragged through sand). The Chamberlains were exonerated as a result.</p>
<p>More recently, a person of interest was arrested in New York as the “<a href="https://7news.com.au/news/crime/architect-charged-over-murders-after-pizza-crust-leads-to-craigslist-ripper-breakthrough-c-11284691">Craigslist ripper</a>”, a serial killer responsible for the murder of more than ten people. Investigators obtained DNA evidence from strands of hair found in <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/world/hunt-for-ripper-as-new-york-beach-body-count-mounts-20111202-1obc7.html">burlap sacks</a> used to hide and transport the bodies. </p>
<p>Although many details of this particular case remain undisclosed, such investigations will most likely use insect-related evidence and other trace evidence on textiles to help make important inferences, including about time of death.</p>
<p>More generally, our work will help investigators avoid misinterpreting evidence from clothing. For instance, if investigators aren’t aware holes in fabric can form through exposure to insects and natural elements, they might incorrectly attribute them to an animal or human attacker. </p>
<p>Similarly, by gauging which portion of clothing has the most insect damage, they might be able to understand where the most fluid was present on the body (if it’s found as skeletal remains). This could help them figure out where and how damage was inflicted.</p>
<p>This year we published <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367352/">guidelines</a> to help other forensic professionals in the process of observing and collecting insects at a crime scene, and in considering how insect activity may be connected with a victim’s clothing. We hope our work can help future investigations, and maybe even reopen some cold cases.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207418/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research has been conducted in collaboration with Stevie Ziogos (PhD candidate, Murdoch University) and Kari Pitts (ChemCentre). Forensic entomology guidelines have been updated in collaboration with Tharindu Bambaradeniya (PhD candidate, Murdoch University).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Dadour does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fatal stabbings are the leading cause of homicide in countries with restricted access to firearms, including Australia. New research could help solve these cases.Paola A. Magni, Senior Lecturer in Forensic Science, Murdoch UniversityIan Dadour, Adjunct professor, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2049212023-05-18T02:02:23Z2023-05-18T02:02:23ZForensics are different when someone dies in a body of water. First, you need to locate them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526663/original/file-20230517-17-ox0x4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=98%2C44%2C5784%2C3943&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Roxane 134</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/police-diver-wet-suit-employed-emergency-1578479857">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While the iconic “crime scene – do not cross” tape may be a familiar sight on land, it’s a different story when it comes to water.</p>
<p>With no way to tape off an entire lake or a slice of the vast expanse of the ocean, investigations in, under or beside the water present a unique challenge. This work is not just due to suspicious criminal activity, but also search and recovery operations or accidents. </p>
<p>With the human body not equipped to survive in water, many fatalities are recorded every year as a consequence of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/dec/28/10-australians-dead-in-water-accidents-as-lifesavers-urge-caution-in-heightened-danger-of-holidays">natural death</a> or <a href="https://7news.com.au/news/western-australia-police/womans-body-found-floating-in-fremantle-fishing-harbour-sparking-mystery-death-probe-c-9060847">suspected murder</a>. Bodies can be found not only in the ocean, but also <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/tvandshowbiz/12115770/naya-rivera-cause-of-death/">lakes</a>, <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/western-australia-news-body-of-man-discovered/8b7769c5-48c2-48a0-a8a1-4e17a3dae3de">rivers</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23568015/">wells</a>, <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/murky-water-hid-dead-body-in-pool-for-2-days/">swimming pools</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/21/body-found-hotel-cistern-water">cisterns</a>.</p>
<p>Sometimes the scenario is more complex, such as a 2021 case when a body was discovered <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/wa-murder-human-remains-found-in-wheelie-bin-floating-in-perth-dam/413c4059-491b-4d05-8e9f-33e1e9a0568a">concealed in a wheeled bin at the bottom of a dam</a>, or when the severed foot of fraudster Melissa Caddick was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/sep/29/melissa-caddicks-severed-foot-likely-floated-to-beach-after-93-days-underwater-expert-says">found in a shoe washed up on a beach</a>.</p>
<p>Investigators called to such scenes must rely on specialised techniques and technology to gather evidence and piece together what happened. Sometimes they are supported by experts in the niche and multidisciplinary field of “aquatic forensics”, such as <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-02-15/shipwreck-animal-bones-forensic-science-murdoch-university/100829198">our research team</a>.</p>
<p>The sheer size of a body of water can make it difficult to know where to start, but there are always four main questions to drive the investigators’ work. Who are the victims? How did they die? When did the death occur? And where did it happen?</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-police-forensic-scientists-investigate-a-case-a-clandestine-gravesite-recovery-expert-explains-171959">How do police forensic scientists investigate a case? A clandestine gravesite recovery expert explains</a>
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<h2>Finding the body</h2>
<p>Sometimes the first issue is finding the deceased person. Depending on the body of water and the circumstances surrounding the case, teams of divers can be dispatched to conduct a search. </p>
<p>Since investigators and pathologists usually do not experience the actual scene and <a href="https://myjms.mohe.gov.my/index.php/JCHS/article/view/13166">will see the victim only when retrieved</a>, underwater images and memories provided by divers become essential.</p>
<p>However, the safety of the divers always comes first. Divers can operate only for a certain period in an underwater scenario. This is determined by factors such as depth, water temperature, currents and waves that affect the divers’ breathing rate and air consumption from the tank.</p>
<p>Narrowing the search area is a pivotal fist step. <a href="https://phys.org/news/2015-09-cadaver-dogs-underwater-corpses.html">Specially trained dogs</a> can detect the scent of submerged human remains from the surface, if it’s not too deep. Technology can help, too – satellites and <a href="https://www.imarest.org/themarineprofessional/on-the-radar/5693-forensic-oceanography-challenges-in-police-search-operation">oceanographic data</a> can help locate floating objects, and <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-04253-9_182">sonar</a> can scan the water to detect any objects at the bottom, including a body.</p>
<p>Divers can then take what’s known as a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589871X23000165">visual record of the scene</a> directly, or they can use remotely operated vehicles equipped with cameras. It is also important to use a reference photo scale – in the water objects appear up to 25% closer and 33% larger than their real size.</p>
<p>Despite the best efforts, depth, distance from the target and clarity of the water can affect the quality of the images. Some underwater areas have zero visibility, making the investigation more <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28480488/">challenging and potentially unsafe</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A sign on the side of a footpath that says police diving is underway and people should stop their boats before proceeding" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">For searches conducted underwater, such as in this Manchester city canal in 2019, police can employ specially trained divers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/manchester-united-kingdom-12th-nov-2019-1558006295">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Identifying and retrieving the body</h2>
<p>Sometimes, identifying the victim is straightforward, for example in cases with <a href="https://7news.com.au/news/nsw/details-emerge-as-witness-describe-efforts-to-save-sydney-dad-of-two-who-drowned-retrieving-sons-ball-from-lake--c-5188684">witnesses present</a>. However, bodies can be unrecognisable after a time spent underwater. Being submerged causes <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6474513/">several changes</a> due to temperature, currents, and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29445874/">interactions with animals</a> and obstacles.</p>
<p>For example, cold and wet environments like the ocean cause fat tissue to turn into a waxy substance (<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33596512/">adipocere</a>) in less than <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17316224/">40 days</a>. Limb loss is also common – investigators might have to identify a body based only on <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10882826/">some parts</a>. If a body loses a foot, it may be found floating thanks to the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30453176/">buoyancy offered by shoes</a>.</p>
<p>As with cases on dry ground, clothing and personal items such as wallets and <a href="https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/forensic-jewellery-a-design-led-approach-to-exploring-jewellery-i">jewellery</a> can assist the identification process. To avoid losing personal items during recovery, <a href="http://www.disastermedtech.com/amphibious-body-bag.html">amphibious body bags</a> have been developed. They allow body collection directly from the water, retaining associated objects but allowing the water to drain away.</p>
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<h2>Drowned or already dead?</h2>
<p>One of the main questions is if the death happened in the water or elsewhere, with the body dumped afterwards. There are an estimated 236,000 annual <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drowning">drowning deaths worldwide</a>.</p>
<p>Investigators can also be called upon a body found at sea after <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/07/fisherman-lost-at-sea-436-days-book-extract">months gone missing</a>, or <a href="https://www.perthnow.com.au/news/nsw/caucasian-mans-head-washes-up-in-a-bag-on-rottnest-island-beach-ng-ee7ec09b774ea580384c70c8068cba1b">remains washed up on a beach</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16378701/">Drowning is one of the most difficult diagnoses</a> in forensic pathology. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35725698/">It is based</a> on a few scattered findings, such as frothy fluid in the airways, lung damage, and fluid in the upper gastrointestinal tract.</p>
<p>Another tool is the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26256845/">diatom test</a> – it compares microscopic algae found in the tissues of the body with the one present in the water where the body was recovered. For highly decomposed bodies, new <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33147546/">molecular</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35725699/">artificial intelligence</a> and “<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31282630/">virtopsy</a>” (virtual autopsy) technologies are fast developing.</p>
<p>Sometimes drowning is the mechanism of death, but there may have been other underlying causes – such as a cramp, a heart attack, drugs or an accident of some sort. It takes careful interpretation to discern these.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A diver in a wetsuit on the sea floor manipulating instruments" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rossella Paba conducting an underwater archaeology survey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rossella Paba, Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Old tools and new technologies are helping</h2>
<p><a href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XL-5-W5/7/2015/">Photogrammetric surveys</a> developed to map submerged archaeological sites, and underwater drones equipped with multiple sensors, special lights and acoustic imaging technologies to locate submerged targets, can help to create a 3D image of the underwater area. This helps to distinguish large items, such as shipwrecks and vehicles, bodies or <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00414-017-1546-1">bones</a>, and pieces of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33218795/">clothing</a>.</p>
<p>After retrieval, macro and microorganisms can provide information on the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25538026/">provenance</a>, the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2019.00404/full">causes of death</a> and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-centuries-old-bones-from-australias-historic-shipwrecks-can-help-us-solve-crimes-174963">submersion time</a>.</p>
<p>Unlike the standardised methods on dry land, procedures in underwater criminal scenarios are still being developed. Forensic scientists are also borrowing the knowledge, techniques and tools from other fields, such as underwater archaeology and marine biology – but without the crime scene tape.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204921/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>You can’t tape off an entire ocean. But ‘aquatic forensics’ is an emerging field, with techniques borrowed from archaeology, marine biology and more.Paola A. Magni, Adjunct Research fellow, The University of Western Australia; Research Fellow, Harry Butler Institute, Senior Lecturer in Forensic Science, Murdoch UniversityEdda Guareschi, Adjunct Lecturer in Forensic Sciences, Murdoch UniversityRossella Paba, PhD candidate, University of Cagliari, James Cook UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1719592021-11-18T02:19:57Z2021-11-18T02:19:57ZHow do police forensic scientists investigate a case? A clandestine gravesite recovery expert explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432536/original/file-20211117-17-12mhnhc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5729%2C3739&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brendan Chapman</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Recent high-profile missing persons cases, including that of William Tyrrell – who went missing in Kendall, New South Wales, at the age of three in 2014 – have focused public attention on the forensic practices involved in crime scene investigations. </p>
<p>As a forensic scientist who has worked at thousands of homicide, sexual assault and serious crime scenes, I can tell you this process is not as straightforward as depicted on popular true crime shows.</p>
<p>I <a href="https://scholar.google.com.au/citations?user=RxkDXXAAAAAJ&hl=en">research</a> and teach <a href="https://www.murdoch.edu.au/thisisfreethinking/home">forensic science at Murdoch University</a> and specialise in <a href="https://www.murdoch.edu.au/news/articles/cold-case-review-at-murdoch">cold-case</a> techniques and clandestine gravesite recovery. Here’s what typically happens behind the lines of police tape when forensic teams are at work.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/this-is-going-to-affect-how-we-determine-time-since-death-how-studying-body-donors-in-the-bush-is-changing-forensic-science-117662">'This is going to affect how we determine time since death': how studying body donors in the bush is changing forensic science</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432534/original/file-20211117-17-a8pr7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432534/original/file-20211117-17-a8pr7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432534/original/file-20211117-17-a8pr7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432534/original/file-20211117-17-a8pr7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432534/original/file-20211117-17-a8pr7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432534/original/file-20211117-17-a8pr7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432534/original/file-20211117-17-a8pr7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432534/original/file-20211117-17-a8pr7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The author teaches students clandestine grave site evidence collection techniques to Murdoch University students.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brendan Chapman</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The crucial first moments</h2>
<p>In the first moments after a major crime, what has happened is often a mystery. </p>
<p>Like a scene from a painting, it’s as if time stood still; many regular household items sit as they did before the violent event took place. Investigators take great care not to disturb the initial scene, lest valuable evidence be lost.</p>
<p>The first task is to record everything as it appears in incredible detail – by video, photo and in written notes. Even items that may first appear innocuous can later take on new significance.</p>
<p>This stage is vital; years later, this may be the only way cold-case teams can virtually revisit the scene to identify new clues. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432531/original/file-20211117-28-9dneev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432531/original/file-20211117-28-9dneev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432531/original/file-20211117-28-9dneev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432531/original/file-20211117-28-9dneev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432531/original/file-20211117-28-9dneev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432531/original/file-20211117-28-9dneev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432531/original/file-20211117-28-9dneev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432531/original/file-20211117-28-9dneev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The first task, before anything in the scene is disturbed, is to record everything as it appears.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brendan Chapman</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Evidence testing and collection</h2>
<p>As the forensic investigation unfolds, information and evidence are gathered and given to investigators at the crime scene. This helps provide context to guide the search for evidence.</p>
<p>The crime scene team works meticulously to identify and “field-test” items (meaning tests are done in situ) before securing them in bags. </p>
<p>In some cases, that’s by using chemicals and testing kits to identify body fluids or other traces associated with the crime. </p>
<p>We also use some very high-tech torches that can emit a specific type to light to help us see otherwise invisible clues. This works a bit like the lighting in nightclubs that might expose lint on your black outfit.</p>
<p>At this stage, the best crime scene examiners invoke the scientific method, proposing <a href="https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/widm.1354">hypotheses</a> as to what has happened, and then searching for evidence that may refute their suggestion. </p>
<p>Theories are presented and then ruled out in place of new theories as new evidence emerges. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432295/original/file-20211116-27-102xibz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432295/original/file-20211116-27-102xibz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432295/original/file-20211116-27-102xibz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432295/original/file-20211116-27-102xibz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432295/original/file-20211116-27-102xibz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432295/original/file-20211116-27-102xibz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432295/original/file-20211116-27-102xibz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432295/original/file-20211116-27-102xibz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The crime scene team works meticulously to identify and field test items of evidence before securing them in bags.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Testing for traces of blood, semen and other body fluids</h2>
<p>On the scene, forensic investigators have a suite of tools to help identify body fluids such as semen and blood.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2523691/?page=1">Kastle–Meyer test</a>, deployed to test for the possible presence of blood, has been used since the early 20th century.</p>
<p>A chemical called phenolophthalin is dropped onto the suspected sample, followed quickly by a drop of hydrogen peroxide. These chemicals can detect the blood ingredient haemoglobin. If it rapidly turns pink, there’s a good chance there’s blood in the sample.</p>
<p>A different method called the acid phosphatase test, which can detect an enzyme secreted from the prostate gland, is used to identify the presence of semen. A prepared chemical is dropped onto a sample of the suspected stain; a colour change from clear to dark purple suggests the likely presence of semen.</p>
<p>You may also have heard of investigators using <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-11-17/william-tyrrell-investigation-technology-explained/100626684">luminol</a>, which can detect old blood stains or traces a person has tried to scrub away. The investigator sprays luminol and other chemicals on a darkened area; a blue glow suggests traces of blood may be present.</p>
<p>For all these tests, and everything we do as forensic investigators, meticulous records are kept about both observations and ideas. These notes will eventually become part of the huge case file that goes to court. </p>
<h2>Different types of forensic experts work together</h2>
<p>There are many different types of specialist crime scene investigators, such as:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>fingerprint specialists</strong>, who use chemicals and powders to visualise fingerprints invisible to the naked eye and determine if they’re good enough to compare with prints on a database</p></li>
<li><p><strong>bloodstain pattern analysis experts</strong> who, like Dexter from the eponymous crime show, observe the shape of blood droplets or marks in an effort to reconstruct a bloodshed scenario</p></li>
<li><p><strong>physical evidence comparison experts</strong>, who record evidence such as shoe impressions or tool marks to compare with objects at the scene (for example, was <em>this</em> screwdriver used to create <em>that</em> mark on a window frame?)</p></li>
<li><p><strong>ballistics and firearms experts</strong>, who identify and analyse evidence such as gunshot residues and fired bullets. They can also reconstruct shooting events to determine trajectories and distances</p></li>
<li><p><strong>clandestine grave recovery experts</strong> (like me!), whose knowledge of the natural processes after death can help <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11896-021-09457-8?wt_mc=Internal.Event.1.SEM.ArticleAuthorOnlineFirst&utm_source=ArticleAuthorOnlineFirst&utm_medium=email&utm_content=AA_en_06082018&ArticleAuthorOnlineFirst_20210521">locate and exhume grave sites</a> using painstakingly careful archaeological approaches. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Other specialised forensic practitioners include pathologists, <a href="https://theconversation.com/trust-me-im-an-expert-forensic-entomology-or-what-bugs-can-tell-police-about-when-someone-died-124416">insect experts</a>, anthropologists, biologists and chemists. </p>
<p>Forensic investigations are most successful with a <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JCP-09-2019-0038/full/html">multidisciplinary</a> team, which allows for many different opinions and ideas. </p>
<p>Specialists must work together to ensure one person’s evidence-collection method doesn’t ruin another specialist’s chance to use their own techniques.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/trust-me-im-an-expert-forensic-entomology-or-what-bugs-can-tell-police-about-when-someone-died-124416">Trust Me, I'm An Expert: forensic entomology, or what bugs can tell police about when someone died</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<h2>Clandestine gravesites</h2>
<p>Outdoor scenes present extra challenges, as evidence can be damaged or destroyed by weather, wildlife and the landscape itself. Clandestine gravesites, however, can help preserve clues underground.</p>
<p>It’s not easy to find a hidden burial site; even a freshly dug gravesite, if done well, can be difficult to identify in an expansive bush scene. </p>
<p>Investigators will be looking for areas where the ground looks disturbed or spots where vegetation has grown unusually lushly (caused by the decomposition of a body underneath).</p>
<p>Investigators may also deploy cadaver dogs to search for human remains, or <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-11-17/william-tyrrell-investigation-technology-explained/100626684">ground-penetrating radar</a>, which uses radio waves to identify changes in the soil underground.</p>
<p>Once a grave is identified, you can’t just roughly dig it up; the grave fill must be gradually removed using small brushes and shovels, like those used on archaeological dig sites.</p>
<p>All removed soil is sifted and searched for tiny pieces of evidence; even a tiny fibre or hair could connect the grave to a suspect. </p>
<p>Even the sidewalls of the grave can offer clues about the type or shape of the shovel used to dig it. </p>
<p>Layer by layer, we work down until we reveal the deceased person at the bottom of the grave. Utmost care is taken here, as repatriation of the remains to loved ones is a pivotal part of the process of gaining closure.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432533/original/file-20211117-23-qhvavi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432533/original/file-20211117-23-qhvavi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432533/original/file-20211117-23-qhvavi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432533/original/file-20211117-23-qhvavi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432533/original/file-20211117-23-qhvavi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432533/original/file-20211117-23-qhvavi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432533/original/file-20211117-23-qhvavi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432533/original/file-20211117-23-qhvavi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s not easy to find a hidden burial site; even a freshly dug gravesite, if done well, can be very difficult to identify in an expansive bush scene.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brendan Chapman</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Time is of the essence</h2>
<p>All evidence has a life span. The sooner forensic scientists can identify and analyse a piece of evidence, the better the chances are of it producing a result. </p>
<p>This can be one of the greatest challenges in a cold case, where a crime scene has been changed by the elements over many years.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171959/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brendan Chapman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As a forensic scientist who has worked at thousands of homicide, sexual assault and serious crime scenes, I can tell you the process is not as straightforward as depicted on popular true crime shows.Brendan Chapman, Senior Lecturer in Forensic Science, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1702392021-11-03T09:25:11Z2021-11-03T09:25:11ZForensic science is unlocking the mysteries of fatal lightning strikes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428469/original/file-20211026-27-1weocut.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lightning storm over Johannesburg, South Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dr Carina Schumann, Johannesburg Lightning Research Lab, University of the Witwatersrand.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Lightning is one of the most powerful sources of energy in the natural environment. As anyone who has spent time in Johannesburg during the South African summer will attest, there is nothing as spectacular as a Highveld thunderstorm at the end of a long, hot day: the scent of <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/types-of-weather/rain/petrichor">petrichor</a>, torrents of cooling rain, booms of thunder and great spears of lightning across the sky.</p>
<p>These storms are awe inspiring – but also dangerous to people, animals and the built environment. <a href="https://journals.sajs.aosis.co.za/index.php/sajs/article/view/740/1074">African countries</a>, among them Zambia and Uganda, have some of the highest lightning fatality rates in the world. In South Africa, more than <a href="https://journals.lww.com/amjforensicmedicine/Abstract/2005/03000/Lightning_Fatalities_on_the_South_African.11.aspx">250 people are killed by lightning annually</a>. </p>
<p>The exact number of deaths isn’t clear, due to under reporting, but estimates from <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-77563-0">28 countries</a> suggest there are up to 24,000 lightning fatalities annually worldwide.</p>
<p>Deaths can’t always be definitely attributed to lightning because, while its marks are easy to spot on the skin or in the organs, nobody was sure how to identify its marks on skeletonised remains. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Lightning storm over Johannesburg, South Africa. Video produced by Patrick Randolph-Quinney (Northumbria University and the University of the Witwatersrand).</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our research changes this. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsisyn.2021.100206">Our study</a>, published in the journal Forensic Science International: Synergy, represents collaboration between specialists in forensic anthropology, histology, lightning physics, and micro-focus X-ray computed tomography from the universities of the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/news/latest-news/research-news/">Witwatersrand</a> in South Africa, <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/academic-departments/applied-sciences/research/">Northumbria</a> in the UK, and the <a href="https://www.necsa.co.za/">Nuclear Energy Corporation of South Africa</a>.</p>
<p>This work can help forensic teams understand whether people or animals were the victims of fatal lightning strikes, based solely on an analysis of their skeletons. This may allow an attribution of accidental death in cases where cause is not apparent, and allow experts to build a more complete picture of the true incidence of lightning fatalities.</p>
<h2>Cause and effect</h2>
<p>When a lightning death is suspected, forensic pathologists determine cause of death by looking for signs of lightning trauma in the deceased’s skin and internal organs. </p>
<p>When a body is struck, fatally or not, the immense electrical current can cause cardiac and respiratory arrest, as well as neurological damage. Ear drums may rupture; bones may fracture, and there will be severe electrical burns at entry and exit sites, particularly on the soles of the feet. Lightning can also produce unique markers in the skin, termed <a href="https://www.iflscience.com/health-and-medicine/what-does-it-look-when-person-gets-struck-lightning/">Lichtenberg figures</a>. These are branching or fern-like patterns caused by electrical damage to superficial blood vessels in the skin.</p>
<p>However, when a skeletonised body is recovered, soft tissues are absent; lightning cannot confidently be attributed as the cause of death. </p>
<p>Our research started with a simple question of cause and effect: does lightning leave recognisable traumatic traces or characteristic lesions when passing through the skeleton? If we discovered unidentified human remains in the South African bush, could we determine whether they were the victim of a fatal lightning strike?</p>
<p>We then generated artificial lightning in the laboratory applied directly to human bone samples extracted from donated bodies who had died of natural causes. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ecOSDOPc_Y4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Artificial lightning produced in the lab passing through a block of human bone. Video produced by Patrick Randolph-Quinney (Northumbria University and the University of the Witwatersrand).</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/eie/research-groups/johannesburg-lightning-research-lab--wits/">Lightning physicists</a> set up a high-current impulse generator in our lab at the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/anatomicalsciences/">Wits Medical School</a> which could deliver up to 15,000 amps to the bone in a few micro seconds.</p>
<p>Generating such high impulse currents allowed us to mimic the effect of lightning passing through the skeleton. Natural lightning can often have significantly higher current levels, but this experimental setup gave us much greater control than trying to somehow place human tissue in the path of a natural lightning strike.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428293/original/file-20211025-27-pf3epl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428293/original/file-20211025-27-pf3epl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428293/original/file-20211025-27-pf3epl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428293/original/file-20211025-27-pf3epl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428293/original/file-20211025-27-pf3epl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428293/original/file-20211025-27-pf3epl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428293/original/file-20211025-27-pf3epl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428293/original/file-20211025-27-pf3epl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Experimental lightning trauma in action. Left image shows bone before current is applied. Middle image is a high-speed capture of the passage of current. Right image is the bone following current passage, with effects of barotrauma showing the splitting apart of bone tissue by internal pressure wave.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nicholas Bacci, School of Anatomical Sciences and Hugh Hunt, Johannesburg Lightning Research Laboratory, University of the Witwatersrand.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Imaging lightning damage</h2>
<p>Once the current was applied, we cut the bone into thin slices and imaged it using optical microscopy and micro-CT. By looking at the bone at a cellular level we saw there was a pattern of damage uniquely caused by short duration lightning current passing through its cells. </p>
<p>This damage took the form of cracks radiating out from the centre of canals in the bone, or jumping irregularly between clusters of cells. The overall pattern of damage looked very different when compared to other high energy trauma, such as that caused by burning in fire. </p>
<p>We saw the same pattern of trauma in animals killed by natural lightning. We compared the human results with bone from a <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6973330">wild giraffe</a> that was known to have been struck; the pattern of damage was identical even though the micro-structure of human bone is very different from giraffe bone. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/429184/original/file-20211028-28-x5cu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/429184/original/file-20211028-28-x5cu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1304&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/429184/original/file-20211028-28-x5cu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1304&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/429184/original/file-20211028-28-x5cu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1304&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/429184/original/file-20211028-28-x5cu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1638&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/429184/original/file-20211028-28-x5cu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1638&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/429184/original/file-20211028-28-x5cu0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1638&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Patterns of micro-trauma and micro-factures caused by the passage of experimentally induced current in human bone (middle) and a known case of fatal natural lightning strike in a juvenile giraffe (bottom). A control sample of human bone (undamaged) is seen in the top panel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Patrick Randolph-Quinney, Forensic Science Research Group, Northumbria University and Tanya Augustine & Nicholas Bacci, School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The smoking gun</h2>
<p>So, what was the specific mechanism that caused these micro-fractures to form? We think there are two options which, alone or in combination, would produce this damage. </p>
<p>Firstly, the current itself produces a high-pressure shock wave when travelling through the bone. Lightning specialists term this barotrauma: the passage of electrical energy literally blows bone cells apart. </p>
<p>Secondly, bone behaves strangely when placed in an electric field. This is termed a <a href="https://inflammregen.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41232-018-0059-8">piezoelectric</a> effect. Collagen, the organic part of bone, is arranged as fibres or fibrils. These fibrils rearrange themselves when a current is applied, causing stress to build up in the mineralised and crystallised component of bone, in turn leading to deformation and cracking.</p>
<p>Both of these mechanisms would cause fractures to form. This unique pattern of micro-trauma was the smoking gun we were looking for. </p>
<p>Our research offers a new tool to study lightning fatality in real-world forensic cases. At a time when global climate change <a href="https://environmentjournal.online/articles/the-future-is-not-forecast-how-lightning-is-affected-by-climate-change/">may be driving increases</a> in the number and severity of thunderstorms and lightning strikes, this tool may sadly have to be called upon regularly in death investigation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170239/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas Bacci received funding from the FRC, University of the Witwatersrand and the JJJ Smieszek fellowship, School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tanya Augustine has received funding from the National Research Foundation, Carnegie Corporation Transformation Programme at Wits and the University of the Witwatersrand.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick Randolph-Quinney does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>This tool can identify cause of death by fatal lightning strike in skeletonised remains.Patrick Randolph-Quinney, Associate Professor of Forensic Science, Northumbria University, NewcastleNicholas Bacci, Lecturer, School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the WitwatersrandTanya Nadine Augustine, Senior Lecturer, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1698902021-10-15T16:15:47Z2021-10-15T16:15:47ZDeath in space: here’s what would happen to our bodies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/426677/original/file-20211015-30-1frhrda.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/s/photos/space">Nasa / Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As space travel for recreational purposes is becoming a very real possibility, there could come a time when we are travelling to other planets for holidays, or perhaps even to live. Commercial space company Blue Origin has already started sending <a href="https://www.space.com/blue-origin-first-crewed-launch-four-world-records">paying customers</a> on sub-orbital flights. And Elon Musk hopes to start a <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/23/elon-musk-aiming-for-mars-so-humanity-is-not-a-single-planet-species.html">base on Mars</a> with his firm SpaceX.</p>
<p>This means we need to start thinking about what it will be like to live in space – but also what will happen if someone dies there.</p>
<p>After death here on Earth the human body progresses through a number of stages of decomposition. These were described as early as 1247 in
Song Ci’s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collected_Cases_of_Injustice_Rectified">The Washing Away of Wrongs</a>, essentially the first forensic science handbook.</p>
<p>First the blood stops flowing and begins to pool as a result of gravity, a process known as livor mortis. Then the body cools to algor mortis, and the muscles stiffen due to uncontrolled build-up of calcium in the muscle fibres. This is the state of rigor mortis. Next enzymes, proteins which speed up chemical reactions, break down cell walls releasing their contents.</p>
<p>At the same time, the bacteria in our gut escape and spread throughout the body. They devour the soft tissues - putrefaction - and the gases they release cause the body to swell. Rigor mortis is undone as the muscles are destroyed, strong smells are emitted and the soft tissues are broken down.</p>
<p>These decomposition processes are the intrinsic factors, but there are also external factors which influence the process of decomposition, including temperature, insect activity, burying or wrapping a body, and the presence of fire or water.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/scans-reveal-new-details-of-how-egyptian-pharaoh-met-a-violent-death-155171">Mummification</a>, the desiccation or drying out of the body, occurs in dry conditions which can be hot or cold.</p>
<p>In damp environments without oxygen, adipocere formation can occur, where the water can cause the breakdown of fats into a waxy material through the process of hydrolysis. This waxy coating can act as a barrier on top of the skin to protect and preserve it. </p>
<p>But in most cases, the soft tissues will ultimately disappear to reveal the skeleton. These hard tissues are much more resilient and can survive for thousands of years. </p>
<h2>Halting decomposition</h2>
<p>So, what about death in the final frontier? </p>
<p>Well, the different gravity seen on other planets will certainly impact the livor mortis stage, and the lack of gravity while floating in space would mean that blood would not pool.</p>
<p>Inside a spacesuit, rigor mortis would still occur since it is the result of the cessation of bodily functions. And bacteria from the gut would still devour the soft tissues. But these bacteria need oxygen to function properly and so limited supplies of air would significantly slow down the process.</p>
<p>Microbes from the soil also help decomposition, and so any planetary environment that inhibits microbial action, such as extreme dryness, improves the chances of soft tissue preserving. </p>
<p>Decomposition in conditions so different from the Earth’s environment means that external factors would be more complicated, such as with the skeleton. When we are alive, bone is a living material comprising both organic materials like blood vessels and collagen, and inorganic materials in a crystal structure. </p>
<p>Normally, the organic component will decompose, and so the skeletons we see in museums are mostly the inorganic remnants. But in very acidic soils, which we may find on other planets, the reverse can happen and the inorganic component can disappear leaving only the soft tissues. </p>
<p>On Earth the decomposition of human remains forms part of a balanced ecosystem where nutrients are recycled by living organisms, such as insects, microbes and even plants. Environments on different planets will not have evolved to make use of our bodies in the same efficient way. Insects and scavenging animals are not present on other planets in our system.</p>
<p>But the dry desert-like conditions of Mars might mean that the soft tissues dry out, and perhaps the windblown sediment would erode and damage the skeleton in a way that we see here on Earth.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The dry rocky and sandy orange surface of Mars" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/426689/original/file-20211015-7373-15mx7oc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/426689/original/file-20211015-7373-15mx7oc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=608&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426689/original/file-20211015-7373-15mx7oc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=608&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426689/original/file-20211015-7373-15mx7oc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=608&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426689/original/file-20211015-7373-15mx7oc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=764&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426689/original/file-20211015-7373-15mx7oc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=764&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426689/original/file-20211015-7373-15mx7oc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=764&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The arid environment of Mars.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/mars-planet-surface-space-11604/">https://pixabay.com/users/wikiimages-1897</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Temperature is also a key factor in decomposition. On the Moon, for example, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20130920-how-cold-is-space-really">temperatures can range from 120°C to -170°C</a>. Bodies could therefore show signs of heat-induced change or freezing damage. </p>
<p>But I think it is likely that remains would still appear human as the full process of decomposition that we see here on Earth would not occur. Our bodies would be the “aliens” in space. Perhaps we would need to find a new form of funerary practice, which does not involve the high energy requirements of cremation or the digging of graves in a harsh inhospitable environment.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/william-shatner-oldest-astronaut-at-90-heres-how-space-tourism-could-affect-older-people-169548">William Shatner oldest astronaut at 90 – here's how space tourism could affect older people</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/169890/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Thompson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The vastly differing environment would need a whole new approach to disposing of dead bodies.Tim Thompson, Dean of Health & Life Sciences + Professor of Applied Biological Anthropology, Teesside UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1213862019-09-12T12:59:29Z2019-09-12T12:59:29ZWhy knowing what black mamba venom does to the human body is crucial<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286755/original/file-20190802-117861-h5lp88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Black mamba venom can be lethal.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photograph courtesy Thomas Birkenbach </span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/b/black-mamba/">Black mambas</a> are extremely dangerous reptiles – in fact, many consider the species to be one of the world’s deadliest snakes. They are found in southern and eastern Africa, and are shy, evasive creatures. They won’t seek out human interaction. But if cornered or confronted, they will strike. And their venom is lethal. </p>
<p>Black mambas (don’t let the name fool you – they’re very rarely black, and are more usually a dark brown – it is the inside of the mouth which is black) probably cause the largest number of <a href="https://www.africansnakebiteinstitute.com/snakebite/">snake-related deaths</a> in southern Africa. In a recent case, a South African judge <a href="https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2019-05-21-sa-judge-dies-from-black-mamba-bite-on-zambia-holiday/">died after being bitten by a black mamba</a> while he was travelling in Zambia. But the data for the whole continent is limited, so the precise number isn’t known. This is chiefly because most of these deaths occur in rural parts of Africa with limited health infrastructure and other resources. </p>
<p>Sub-optimal mortuary facilities, inadequate professional manpower, poorly developed protocols and the lack of an efficient and reliable toxicology service means many of these deaths in Africa’s more rural areas are not properly diagnosed. It is most likely that these snakebite victims get buried without a thorough forensic pathological autopsy.</p>
<p>The black mamba is born with two to three drops of venom per fang. It is a front-fanged snake, with fangs up to 6.5 mm in length, located at the front of the upper jaw. An adult of the species has between 12 and 20 drops per fang. It takes just <a href="http://www.krugerpark.co.za/krugerpark-times-17-facts-about-the-black-mamba.html">two drops of venom</a> to kill an adult human. This means that even young black mambas are extremely dangerous.</p>
<p>Not much is known about the pathology of trauma of black mamba bites – that is, what the black mamba’s toxin does, physically, inside a victim’s system. We do know that the venom is neurotoxic and cardiotoxic. That means that it has a direct effect on the nerves and the heart.</p>
<p>The more we know, the better. If we know precisely what the toxin does, hospitals and clinics might be better prepared to treat those who’ve been bitten. </p>
<h2>A recent case study</h2>
<p>Recently my colleagues and I <a href="https://europepmc.org/abstract/med/31318708">examined</a> the case of a young man who was bitten by a black mamba in South Africa. He arrived at the hospital 20 minutes after being bitten and had already suffered cardiac arrest with accompanying hypoxic brain injury.</p>
<p>This was my third encounter with the victim of a black mamba bite. My first fatal encounter, in 2000, involved a 12-year-old girl who was bitten on the thigh by a black mamba. The second involved a British tourist who was accidentally bitten at a snake park, and who also died.</p>
<p>In this latest case, the co-workers of the young man who died were certain that the snake was a black mamba. This gave us, as forensic pathologists, an excellent opportunity to thoroughly investigate this matter. Oftentimes, the history is scant, with victims unable to properly identify the snake which bit them.</p>
<p>The forensic examination consists of a thorough macroscopic post mortem examination, followed by histological (microscopic) examination and blood tests. </p>
<p>A black mamba’s venom is complex. It interferes with transmission across the motor end-plate, which is where the nerves and muscles connect, so it will result in paralysis. The venom is also cardiotoxic, which means it may have a direct effect on the heart. </p>
<h2>How to treat it</h2>
<p>So what should you do if you or someone around you is bitten by a black mamba? </p>
<p>The first priority is to transport the victim to an appropriate medical facility as soon as possible. First-aid should focus on maintaining vital functions, such as respiratory support. Keep the victim still and try limit any unnecessary movement. Remove constricting items (for example rings and clothing), especially those close to the bite site. </p>
<p>The first-aid treatment of black mamba bites includes lymphatic retardation with the pressure immobilisation technique – in other words try and wrap a tight crepe bandage or tourniquet close to the bite site. </p>
<p>Medical management comprises continuous monitoring, making sure the airways are open, treating symptoms and the immediate administration of antivenom. The antivenom is injected intravenously because absorption is poor via the muscles. It’s also important not to inject into or around the bite site. In rare instances the victim may be put on <a href="https://heart.bmj.com/content/105/18/1437">extracorporeal membrane oxygenation</a>, which is a way of providing prolonged cardiac and respiratory support to those whose heart and lungs are unable to provide oxygen to the body.</p>
<p>This combination of respiratory support and antivenom may save a person’s life. Over time, the antivenom will ease muscle paralysis and set the victim on the road to recovery.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121386/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan Blumenthal does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Not much is known about the pathology of trauma of black mamba bites – that is, what the black mamba’s toxin does, physically, inside a victim’s system.Ryan Blumenthal, Senior Specialist, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/581842016-05-09T08:55:24Z2016-05-09T08:55:24ZWhat forensic science can teach people about healthy scepticism<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121505/original/image-20160506-32031-3c5rwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How can you navigate a world full of outlandish claims?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Scepticism has a bad reputation. Sceptics are considered to be a grumpy bunch who automatically distrust anything and everything. But as any forensic scientist can tell you, it’s a very valuable approach to everyday situations– especially in a world where people are constantly being bombarded with information. </p>
<p>Every day we’re presented with <a href="https://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/the-miracle-cure-for-everything/">“miracle cures”</a> and <a href="http://www.iflscience.com/health-and-medicine/dr-oz-admits-%E2%80%98miracle%E2%80%99-diet-products-he-advocates-are-pseudoscience">“wonder diets”</a>. Conspiracy theories and urban myths abound. We’re told that <a href="http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/superfoods/Pages/superfoods.aspx">“superfoods”</a> can change our lives. We’re assured that the appliances in our homes are perfectly safe. All of these claims are accompanied by what’s referred to as “evidence”. But how often do we critically interrogate this evidence?</p>
<p>I’m a trained forensic pathologist and teach the subject at a South African university. Some of the things that our students learn can be applied to help navigate those fantastic claims leaping out at you from pharmacy shelves, Facebook pages and in grocery stores.</p>
<h2>How forensic scientists think</h2>
<p>Most scientists, when approached with a claim that sounds too good to be true, will respond: “That’s nice – let’s prove it!” Forensic scientists, though, will reply: “That’s nice – let’s disprove it!” That’s the way we’re trained to think.</p>
<p>Our work entails asking many questions and looking at all of the available data. Two famous sceptics who applied forensic thinking to their work, <a href="http://www.michaelshermer.com/about-michael/">Michael Shermer</a> and <a href="http://www.csicop.org/si/show/burden_of_skepticism">Carl Sagan</a>, came up with a list of <a href="http://www.michaelshermer.com/2009/06/baloney-detection-kit/">basic questions</a> that can be asked to get to the heart of the validity of any fantastic claim. Sagan was a world renowned professor of astronomy and director of the Laboratory for Planetary Studies at Cornell University. He was also a consultant and adviser to NASA. Shermer is a science writer, science historian and the publisher of <a href="http://www.skeptic.com/">Skeptic</a> magazine.</p>
<ol>
<li><p>How reliable is the source of the claim? </p></li>
<li><p>Does this source often make similar claims? </p></li>
<li><p>Have the claims been verified by another source? </p></li>
<li><p>How does the claim fit with what we know about how the world works? </p></li>
<li><p>Has anyone gone out of the way to disprove the claim, or has only supportive evidence been sought? </p></li>
<li><p>Does the preponderance of evidence point to the claimant’s conclusion or to a different one? </p></li>
<li><p>Is the claimant employing the accepted rules of reason and tools of research, or have these been abandoned in favour of others that lead to the desired conclusion? </p></li>
<li><p>Is the claimant providing an explanation for the observed phenomena or merely denying the existing explanation? </p></li>
<li><p>If the claimant proffers a new explanation, does it account for as many phenomena as the old explanation did? </p></li>
<li><p>Do the claimant’s personal beliefs and biases drive the conclusions, or vice versa? </p></li>
</ol>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/aNSHZG9blQQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">How to think like a sceptic.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Scepticism in action</h2>
<p>I saw this sort of questioning in action while attending a coroner court hearing in Britain. A man had hit a woman with his car. She then developed deep venous thrombosis – a blood clot – in her legs, which broke off and travelled to her lungs, causing a pulmonary embolism. She died. </p>
<p>At the hearing, the man was asked why he thought he’d collided with the woman. He explained that he’d been blinded by sunlight and hadn’t even seen her. The forensic scientists involved in the case put his story through rigorous tests. They confirmed that the sun was blinding at that particular time of year at that particular intersection and at 4pm specifically – which was when the crash had happened. All of the questions Sagan and Shermer outlined were applied and lots of data was gathered.</p>
<p>The magistrate ordered that a billboard be erected near that intersection so that the sunlight wouldn’t blind drivers at 4pm at that time of year.</p>
<p>The man’s claims were treated with scepticism and carefully assessed. It was solved with what medical practitioners call a <a href="http://p4mi.org/p4medicine">“P4 approach”</a>: predictive, preventative, participatory and personalised. In this case, it would prevent the same kind of accident from happening again. This is one of the most valuable aspects of forensic, sceptical thinking. If you carefully analyse claims and sift through the available evidence, you can make educated choices that can save time, money – and even lives – later on. This is the feedback system that all societies need.</p>
<h2>Empowering people</h2>
<p>This sort of thinking can be applied in many situations. In large parts of the developing world, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3415938/">primus stoves</a> cause hundreds of deaths and many more injuries, almost every winter. Imagine if communities were equipped with the sort of forensic, sceptical tools I’ve described in this article? They’d be better able to assess which sorts of stoves are safe and which aren’t, and to demand improvements from the manufacturers. They wouldn’t be forced to take manufacturers’ or retailers’ claims at face value.</p>
<p>Forensic thinking and healthy scepticism can help us all to navigate the world much more thoughtfully – and safely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/58184/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan Blumenthal does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Forensic scientists are trained to disprove claims. This sort of thinking is useful when you’re trying to make sense of “miracle cures”, “wonder drugs” and other fantastic claims.Ryan Blumenthal, Senior Specialist, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/317512014-09-16T23:10:43Z2014-09-16T23:10:43ZNine blows to the head and then he was dead: forensics shed light on killing of Richard III<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59181/original/f2ns55yx-1410880833.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In better days.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/lex-photographic/10653564703/sizes/l/in/photolist-heqiC4-7oiNjr-e2WtMx-5qzhge-5dPxna-ois1z3-o3YWo9-o3ZeJa-ois8hm-o3Zg29-o3Zo5Y-okhaJS-okrU8u-ois6s9-okrXvb-7YByWJ-7YykPi-7Xdt8t-aWx8Wc-rW1vo-7XgGz9-5gJTH1-aWx4Li-aWx622-aWx7f6-7YykDa-6TYjhF-dSJ71d-8tFntm-7YBzbj-a99aZn-8Fkd1P-8FomYu-dCzw5-7Xruzw-8V4w9Z-8Tr1S3-fdok3K-5qzhc6-5qyGbH-8NbDMG-8NbFG7-8NbFbG-8N8z5M-8NbDfA-8NbDuU-8NbE3s-8NbFUW-8N8yfk-8NbD9y-8NbFif/">Lex Photographic</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-burial-fit-for-a-king-from-car-park-to-cathedral-for-richard-iii-12001">discovery of</a> Richard III’s skeletal remains under a car park in Leicester revealed the final resting place of the last English monarch to die in battle. We know that he was killed at the Battle of Bosworth Field on August 22 1485 but not about what ultimately proved fatal.</p>
<p>Using modern forensic examination, we have now discovered that Richard’s skeleton sustained 11 wounds at or near the time of his death – nine of them to the skull, which were clearly inflicted in battle. The injuries to the head suggest he had either removed or lost his helmet. The other two injuries that we found were to a rib and his pelvis. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59177/original/fmhxmy3d-1410878240.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59177/original/fmhxmy3d-1410878240.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59177/original/fmhxmy3d-1410878240.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59177/original/fmhxmy3d-1410878240.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59177/original/fmhxmy3d-1410878240.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=590&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59177/original/fmhxmy3d-1410878240.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=590&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59177/original/fmhxmy3d-1410878240.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=590&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">View from below.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Lancet</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These injuries to his skeleton were all perimortem, in other words inflicted at or close to the time of death, because there was no evidence that these were old wounds that had subsequently healed.</p>
<p>With help from the Royal Armouries in Leeds, who have expertise in the medieval weaponry of that time, we also wanted to identify the medieval weapons that were potentially responsible for his injuries using an analysis of the tool marks on the bones. The most likely injuries to have caused Richard’s death are two wounds to the bottom of the skull: a large sharp-force trauma, possibly from a sword or staff weapon such as a halberd or bill; and a penetrating injury from the tip of an edged weapon. </p>
<p>We didn’t find any defensive wounds on his arms which would suggest he was otherwise armoured, and while the injury to his </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59178/original/7rc8r5wy-1410878320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59178/original/7rc8r5wy-1410878320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59178/original/7rc8r5wy-1410878320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59178/original/7rc8r5wy-1410878320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59178/original/7rc8r5wy-1410878320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1163&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59178/original/7rc8r5wy-1410878320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1163&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59178/original/7rc8r5wy-1410878320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1163&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">May have been missing helmet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Lancet</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>pelvis was potentially fatal, his armour would have given protection against this injury on the battlefield and therefore we think it most likely that it was inflicted after death.</p>
<p>Richard’s head injuries are consistent with some <a href="http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/4300442-the-crowland-chronicle-continuations-1459-1486">near-contemporary accounts</a> of the battle, which suggested that Richard abandoned his horse after it became stuck in a mire and was killed while fighting his enemies.</p>
<p>Microscopic marks (striations) on the bones result from the way in which the imperfections on the edge of a blade from manufacturing, sharpening and use leave a distinct pattern or fingerprint on the bone surface. The striations found on three of the injuries to the top of the skull show three different directions to the marks and therefore could have come from one or several assailants. However, other striations in different injuries have similar patterns and so were most likely the result of multiple blows from one single sharp-bladed weapon. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/t6S0ku1R9nE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Modern techniques</h2>
<p>Our study, published in The Lancet, was the result of work by a team of archaeologists and a forensic imaging team from Leicester University’s East Midlands Forensic Pathology Unit and the Department of Engineering. Despite Richard’s skeleton being 500 years old, it still holds many clues for modern scientists and archaeologists. For example, other pieces of research have shown that the king had scoliosis of the spine and have <a href="http://app.dundee.ac.uk/pressreleases/2013/february13/richard.htm">re-constructed his face</a>, while geneticists <a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-to-sequence-richard-iiis-genome-23104">may be able to find clues</a> about Richard III’s health while he lived.</p>
<p>We wanted to use the modern techniques applied in forensic medicine and engineering as a powerful complement to traditional archaeological techniques. Using full-body CT scans <a href="http://www.le.ac.uk/richardiii/science/microct.html">and computed and micro-computed X-ray tomography</a> (another type of CT scan that can be used to create 3D images) of the injured bones, we were able to develop a fuller picture of the significant injuries. </p>
<p>While it is not possible to know, after 500 years, whether Richard sustained significant soft-tissue injuries that could have led to his death, the skull injuries would certainly have been fatal. </p>
<h2>From battle to obscurity and back</h2>
<p>Our findings add to the winding story of Richard III’s journey from battle to obscurity and legal dispute <a href="https://theconversation.com/consent-and-discontent-what-will-become-of-richard-iiis-bones-21960">over where he should be interred</a>. After his death, Richard was buried in the church of Greyfriars in Leicester, a friary of the Friars Minor (or Franciscans) which was dissolved in 1538 in the reign of Henry VIII. </p>
<p>Although local stories from this time said that his remains were disinterred and his body thrown from the Bow Bridge in Leicester into the River Soar, the ruins of Greyfriars were also discovered in the car park excavation and the skeleton was found in the choir of the church, a location typically reserved for people of high status. DNA comparison with matrilineal descendants of his sister showed that it was indeed Richard. While historians have pieced together much about how this monarch lived; with the discovery of his remains we certainly now know more about how he died.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/31751/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Hainsworth and the team behind the study were funded by the University of Leicester.</span></em></p>The discovery of Richard III’s skeletal remains under a car park in Leicester revealed the final resting place of the last English monarch to die in battle. We know that he was killed at the Battle of…Sarah Hainsworth, Professor of Materials Engineering, University of LeicesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/220392014-01-17T05:02:20Z2014-01-17T05:02:20ZDeath in a hot climate: southern heatwave to take its toll<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/39288/original/s9zhbs87-1389932634.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The physiological stress of the heat accumulates and takes its toll after two or three days.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP Image/Joe Castro</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Hopefully the southern Australian heatwave is coming to an end – for now. But for health-care providers and death investigators, such as me, the fallout will continue for some time to come.</p>
<p>It’s unclear what toll the current heatwave will take on human life but <a href="http://climatehealthcluster.org/projects/project-4">we know</a> that when the temperature exceeds 32.2C for three or more consecutive days (considered a heatwave), the rate of heat-related illness and unexpected death rises.</p>
<p>The European heatwave of 2003 <a href="http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2006/02/17/ije.dyl025.full.pdf">resulted in</a> between 22,000 and 45,000 deaths in excess of those expected for that time of year. Similarly, in Victoria in 2009, there were <a href="http://docs.health.vic.gov.au/docs/doc/F7EEA4050981101ACA257AD80074AE8B/%24FILE/heat_health_impact_rpt_Vic2009.pdf">374 “extra” deaths</a> beyond what would have been expected over the summer. </p>
<p>Many of the excess deaths occur two or three days after the heatwave starts, as the physiological stress of the heat accumulates and takes its toll on those vulnerable individuals in our community.</p>
<p>The elderly and the very young, in particular, are unable to react adequately to high ambient temperatures. Individuals who are very obese, very malnourished or have poor physical fitness are also more physically vulnerable to extreme heat. </p>
<p>A range of medications and illicit drugs may also reduce the body’s capacity to react to heat or increase the stress effects of heat, placing a person at increased risk of heat-related illness and death.</p>
<h2>How does heat affect the body?</h2>
<p>As warm-blooded mammals we have built-in mechanisms that allow us to maintain our body temperature within safe limits, whether the environment is cold or hot. </p>
<p>Some of these mechanisms involve physiological responses and feedback loops that drive involuntary reactions such as sweating which cools us down and shivering which warms us up. </p>
<p>We are able to change our skin blood flow ten-fold in response to thermal stress, shunting warm blood from our body core to increase our heat loss when we are too warm, and lowering skin blood flow when we are cold.</p>
<p>But these mechanisms can fail in extreme heat, leading to heat-related illness.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/39279/original/yg8ys5t8-1389931782.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/39279/original/yg8ys5t8-1389931782.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/39279/original/yg8ys5t8-1389931782.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/39279/original/yg8ys5t8-1389931782.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/39279/original/yg8ys5t8-1389931782.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/39279/original/yg8ys5t8-1389931782.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/39279/original/yg8ys5t8-1389931782.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The elderly are particularly vulnerable to extreme heat because it’s more difficult to regulate body temperature.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr/sunsurfr.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Death from heatstroke</h2>
<p>Deaths from pure “heat stroke” in otherwise young, fit people are uncommon. Local data isn’t available, but in the United States <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20522730">some 200 deaths</a> each year are attributed to this cause. </p>
<p>Heat stroke deaths usually involve high temperatures together with high-risk situations, such as <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/02/27/AR2009022701549.html">leaving children in cars</a> and <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/defence/10178631/Two-soldiers-die-in-heat-while-training-in-Brecon-Beacons.html">participating in intense sports or military training</a>. Indeed, many of these situations may involve individuals or organisations being found to have some legal liability for the fatal outcome. </p>
<p>The exact mechanism of death from <a href="http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd=6&ved=0CEsQFjAF&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dtic.mil%2Fdtic%2Ftr%2Ffulltext%2Fu2%2Fa559070.pdf&ei=34_YUrSrNYa8kgX_54CQAQ&usg=AFQjCNF3BzOM__YsmnBxgE0axhtQZWnT3w&bvm=bv.59568121,d.dGI">heat-related illnesses</a> is still subject to some conjecture and it is likely to be a multifactorial process. </p>
<p>One important process seems to be the triggering of a systemic inflammatory response, as a result of damaged cells from the the lining of the bowel leaking endotoxins. These find their way into the <a href="http://www.fi.edu/learn/heart/systems/systemic.html">systemic circulation</a> and trigger a range of inflammatory processes in body organs that can lead to tissue damage and eventually organ failure. </p>
<p>Fluid balance and changes in electrolyte levels can also have significant effects on heart function and muscle blood flow. This may be part of the mechanism that causes muscle cramps and muscle injury in heat-related illnesses.</p>
<h2>Heat-related death</h2>
<p>In contrast to pure “heat stroke” deaths, the numbers of deaths that have been in part “caused” by the heat is probably far greater. These cases are difficult to prove and in many cases the doctor’s death certificate will not record heat as a contributing cause. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/39293/original/yhqbknzn-1389933579.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/39293/original/yhqbknzn-1389933579.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/39293/original/yhqbknzn-1389933579.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/39293/original/yhqbknzn-1389933579.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/39293/original/yhqbknzn-1389933579.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/39293/original/yhqbknzn-1389933579.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/39293/original/yhqbknzn-1389933579.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A range of medications and illicit drugs may also reduce the body’s capacity to react to heat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Image from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The problem lies in the fact that the people who are most at risk of dying in the heat are people with existing diseases. </p>
<p>During moderate environmental conditions, they are able to manage the various minor physiological stresses on their body because their organ systems, though diseased, still have sufficient capacity to deal with the changes around them. </p>
<p>But when these environmental factors become more extreme, they can exceed the limited physiological reserves their diseased organ systems have to cope with factors such as extreme heat. This leads to a variety of organ failures that are defined as much by the degree of pre-existing disease as the severity of the heat.</p>
<h2>Determining the cause of death</h2>
<p>An autopsy takes place when the functions of the body’s organs have ceased. A pathologist therefore cannot “see” organ failure and instead has to infer the previous state of organ failure from the changes they can see. </p>
<p>The problem is that the changes of heat-related organ failure are often exactly the same as those cause by natural disease-related organ failure. Diabetes, heart disease, and infectious diseases are good examples of disease types that can impair organ function to varying degrees and increase the risk of dying in a very hot environment.</p>
<p>My clinical and <a href="http://www.ambulance.vic.gov.au/About-Us/Media-Centre/News/20140114-People-treated-for-heat-exposure-kids-locked-in-cars.html">paramedical</a> colleagues have been coping with the increased health care demands of this heatwave with increased ambulance call-outs and hospital presentations. Unfortunately, on day four of the southern Australian heatwave, forensic pathologists are now facing these issues.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/22039/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Ranson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Hopefully the southern Australian heatwave is coming to an end – for now. But for health-care providers and death investigators, such as me, the fallout will continue for some time to come. It’s unclear…David Ranson, Forensic Pathologist at Monash University and Deputy Director, Victorian Institute of Forensic MedicineLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/212452013-12-19T14:53:49Z2013-12-19T14:53:49ZAs a pathologist, it’s my job to speak up for the dead<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/37876/original/ywt55688-1387192883.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C11%2C1979%2C1401&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Silent Witness, more added glam to the final exam.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">BBC Pictures</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Pulling bullets out of homicide victims makes up <a href="http://pathologyexpert.blogspot.co.uk/">part of my job</a> as a forensic pathologist, but not the most interesting part. No, I love a head-scratcher. Dead for no clear reason is the real whodunit. My favourite autopsies are unresolved hospital cases, when other doctors need my help in figuring out what went wrong, and what to do about it.</p>
<p>The paperwork told me the young woman on my table bled to death a few hours after receiving a transplanted liver from the victim of a motor vehicle accident. She had survived the transplant surgery, but afterwards appeared to be bleeding internally. Her surgeons had rushed her back into the operating room and performed a second operation in a failed effort to stem the haemorrhage.</p>
<p>When you bury an organ recipient you are putting two patients in the ground, so it was doubly important to me to figure out why this procedure had failed; but tracking down the source of internal bleeding during autopsy can be tricky. It’s like tracing a leak in an old house: a pool of water in the basement could be coming from a broken pipe or an over-running bathtub, or from a leaky roof. Blood inside the body might have trickled over time from faulty small vessels or gushed out all at once from torn large ones. It can slosh around inside one of the enclosed cavities of the torso, or it might sneak into unexpected and otherwise invisible spaces. </p>
<p>If enough of it leaves the closed loop of your circulatory system, however, the end result is always the same: you end up on my table in the morgue.</p>
<p>I took a scalpel to the woman’s chest and sliced down through the soft tissues until I reached bone. After cutting the ribs and opening the torso, I scissored the surgical sutures to open the patient’s stomach cavity to look for possible bleed sites, turning my attention first to the anastamosis, the connecting “suture” line between the blood vessels of the donor’s liver and the recipient’s body. </p>
<p>The sewn juncture of the inferior vena cava – the large vein that runs behind the liver – had a ratty look, with clotted blood around tiny tears in the vessel wall. This is normal, and if the clots had held this would not account for a belly full of blood. Around the surgery site I only found about a tablespoon’s worth. </p>
<p>However, in the rest of the abdomen there were small burst blood vessels (petechial haemorrhages) all over the place. Most of them had been burnt to a crisp with a cauterising tool during the emergency surgery. Cauterising is used to stop small haemorrhages during surgery. Could those pinprick leaks have been the source of all the bleeding? I’d seen plenty of transplant surgeries, but had never found so many bleeds.</p>
<p>It appeared the patient had died because she was prone to bleeding – but all liver transplant patients are. The blood’s clotting factors are proteins manufactured in the liver, and it can sometimes take a while for the newly transplanted organ to start producing them. The only clots I could find were around the suture line. From the autopsy it was clear this patient had continued to bleed from elsewhere – from everywhere. So the transplant surgery was a success, but the patient died. </p>
<p>The day after the autopsy I called the surgeon to get his story. What he described matched my naked-eye findings. “When we opened her back up she was oozing from everywhere,” he said. “Even the peritoneal wall was leaking blood.” He was chiefly interested in finding out whether the stitches on the inferior vena cava appeared intact. They had, I assured him. Based on what I saw when I dissected his work, both operations had been performed properly.</p>
<p>About two weeks later I got a call from a risk manager at the medical centre. Risk managers are hospital lawyers who can be either the bane of a clinician’s life or a knight in shining armour when something goes wrong and a patient gets hurt or dies. </p>
<p>The risk manager wanted to know which role he should assume for the surgeon in this case. “I wasn’t in the operating room,” I began, “but your surgeon’s story is consistent with my findings on autopsy. Well, not inconsistent anyway.” I told him that the tears I saw on the suture line could have been the source of lots of haemorrhage – or not. It depends on the patient’s blood flow and circulation at the time and whether the clot around the vessel held.</p>
<p>The lawyer didn’t much like that answer. It would be very hard for him to defend the hospital in a lawsuit by making a case that the patient died because she was “prone to bleeding”, since the reason she was prone to bleeding in the first place was the liver transplant surgery. That’s blaming the victim, which is never a good tactic. The lawyer had been hoping I would give him some other avenue to pursue.</p>
<p>But it’s my job to see for myself what happened to the body. That’s what the word autopsy means: “See for yourself”. I saw that this patient had slipped away in a seeping death of a thousand cuts, which no amount of desperate operating-room cauterising could have stemmed.</p>
<p>I never heard back from the lawyer so I assume no lawsuit happened. It struck me after filing this death certificate that I could have served as a witness for either the dead woman’s family or for the hospital. After I perform an autopsy I serve as advocate for no one but my patient. I am <a href="http://www.drworkingstiff.com/">a doctor to the dead</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/21245/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Judy Melinek is co-author of Working Stiff: The Making of a Medical Examiner. She blogs at Forensic Pathology Forum.</span></em></p>Pulling bullets out of homicide victims makes up part of my job as a forensic pathologist, but not the most interesting part. No, I love a head-scratcher. Dead for no clear reason is the real whodunit…Judy Melinek, Associate Clinical Professor of Pathology, University of California, San FranciscoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.