tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/hunting-4059/articlesHunting – The Conversation2024-02-02T17:35:14Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2218062024-02-02T17:35:14Z2024-02-02T17:35:14ZHow trophy fishing can have a sustainable future<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572280/original/file-20240130-29-g3zie3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Blue sharks are popular targets of a catch-and-release fishery along the southern coast of England</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/magnificent-blue-shark-elegant-proud-look-2318078271">Vladimir Turkenich/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It was 1984, and a hot tropical sun beat down on the inky blue depths of the Huon Gulf, a large inlet of the Solomon Sea just off the coast of Papua New Guinea. Suddenly, the peace was broken by the scream of a fishing reel as a four-metre-long blue marlin (<em>Makaira mazaraburst</em>) burst from the water. </p>
<p>For the next hour the giant fish surged, leapt and tail walked, as my best friend and fishing companion mostly just held on. Then, suddenly, it was gone. </p>
<p>The trace had frayed. No fishermen likes to lose a fish, but for me, there was also a sense of relief that it had got away. That fish was the most magnificent creature I’d ever seen, and that moment helped inspire my lifelong career in marine biology.</p>
<p>Recreational fishing for the largest species and individual fish in the sea like this is often called trophy fishing. Anglers seek to set new size records, either overall or using particular line strengths. These can be incredible specimens – the <a href="https://www.marlinmag.com/biggest-marlin-ever-caught/">largest marlin ever caught</a> weighed over 700kg, similar to a small car. </p>
<h2>What’s the catch?</h2>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aqc.4051">In a new paper</a>, we analysed 80 years of trophy fishing world records, using data recorded by the International Game Fishing Association (IGFA) to reveal some intriguing trends. Notably, in the 1950s, the average record-holding fish weighed a hefty 168kg, but this figure fell drastically to just 8kg in the 2010s. </p>
<p>The fish are not shrinking, instead anglers are now targeting a broader range of smaller species. However, this might signal a concerning decline in the population of larger fish species.</p>
<p>There has also been a noticeable expansion of trophy fishing worldwide. While the US dominated the scene historically, recent decades have seen an uptick in records from regions like Japan and New Zealand. </p>
<p>This global spread offers potential social and economic benefits to these new areas, but also raises concerns about increased fishing pressure on local fish populations that were previously less targeted.</p>
<p>Perhaps our most significant observation was the sharp decline in new records for fish species listed as threatened with extinction by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Comparing the last decade (2010–2018) to the 2000s, there has been a roughly 66% decrease in records for these at-risk species. </p>
<p>This trend could indicate a growing awareness towards conservation issues in trophy fishing or could reflect the worrying reality of diminished populations of these species. The exact implications of this trend are yet to be fully understood.</p>
<p>Trophy fishing is controversial. Some people will never be fans. The largest fish in the ocean are often <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/71/8/2171/748104">the most productive breeders</a>, so catching and killing them, especially threatened species, doesn’t make sense. However, while world record fish accredited by the IGFA gain the spotlight, they account for a very small number of fish in total. </p>
<p>Much more concerning are the fishing tournaments that offer <a href="https://www.bisbees.com/News/Article/166">highly lucrative prizes</a> for landing the largest and most fish and <a href="https://sharkallies.org/shark-fishing-tournaments">sharks</a> in a given period of time. </p>
<h2>Tackling sustainability</h2>
<p>Trophy fishing, and sport fishing in general, is changing to become more sustainable, and even a force for good. In 2011, the IGFA introduced the <a href="https://igfa.org/announcement/igfa-launches-all-tackle-length-record-release-category/">“all-tackle length” category</a>. This approach records the length of the fish rather than weight, enabling it to be released without needing to kill it. </p>
<p>The Shark Angling Club of Great Britain has been releasing all sharks for decades and the <a href="https://anglingtrust.net/2023/11/22/update-from-british-record-fish-committee/">British Record Fish Committee</a> recently decided to only allow length-based records for large sharks, with fish having to be measured while still in the water. Although releasing fish does not guarantee survival, that can be maximised by using <a href="https://academic.oup.com/conphys/article/11/1/coad100/7503354">the right gear and careful handling</a>. Such approaches should become mandatory for all trophy anglers.</p>
<p>Anglers dedicate extensive time to their passion, developing a wealth of knowledge about the fish they catch. Harnessing this expertise is crucial for better estimating the extent of trophy fishing and increasing knowledge of fish stocks in general. </p>
<p>In the UK, anglers and scientists are working together through initiatives such as <a href="https://anglingtrust.net/sea/sea-angling-science/shark-hub-uk/">Shark Hub UK</a> and <a href="https://anglingtrust.net/sea/sea-angling-science/pollack-project/">Project Pollack</a> to gather catch data, collect samples and tag fish. </p>
<p>This approach not only aids conservation efforts but also aligns with the anglers’ interest in maintaining healthy fish populations for the future. After all, the recreational fisheries are not only a source of livelihood but also contribute to the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-3986/4/3/30">mental and physical wellbeing</a> of those who engage with them.</p>
<p>Nearly 40 years after that experience in Papua New Guinea, I marvelled at huge schools of giant fish off the coast of southern England last summer. These Atlantic bluefin tuna (<em>Thunnus thynnus</em>) have had <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/78/5/1672/6231587?login=false">a remarkable recovery</a> around the coast, most likely due to a combination of improved management and changing environmental conditions. </p>
<p>From this year, the UK government has authorised a <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/recreational-fishing-for-atlantic-bluefin-tuna-set-to-start-in-english-waters-next-year#:%7E:text=Each%20UK%20fisheries%20administration%20will,commercial%20fishery%20for%20bluefin%20tuna.">catch and release only recreational fishery</a> for these fish. With continued careful management this should bring exciting angling, social and economic benefits for years to come.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bryce Stewart receives funding from Defra and UK Research and Innovation. He is a member of the Marine Conservation Society and the Yorkshire Wildlife Trust and sits on the Marine Stewardship Council Stakeholder Advisory Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Boon does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Trophy fishing is a big threat to some of the most threatened species of fish, but there are ways to adapt the sport with marine conservation in mind.Bryce Stewart, Senior research fellow, Marine Biological AssociationJames Boon, PhD candidate in Marine Ecology, University of NottinghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2221562024-01-30T06:04:53Z2024-01-30T06:04:53ZAllowing duck hunting to continue in Victoria is shameful and part of a disturbing trend<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572072/original/file-20240130-27-mofxc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=51%2C0%2C3755%2C2528&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/rifle-hunter-silhouetted-beautiful-sunset-summer-507952288">KOCHMARYOV, Shutterstock. </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Victorian government has <a href="https://www.premier.vic.gov.au/continuing-recreational-duck-hunting-victoria">confirmed</a> duck and quail hunting will continue in the state, albeit with changes which would purportedly ensure the practice “remains safe, sustainable and responsible”.</p>
<p>The controversial decision is a rejection of recommendations by a bipartisan <a href="https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/get-involved/committees/select-committee-on-victorias-recreational-native-bird-hunting-arrangements/">parliamentary committee</a> chaired by a Labor MP, which <a href="https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/news/environment/birdhuntreport">recommended ending native bird hunting</a> this year.</p>
<p>I, along with my Elder Anthony McKnight, made a submission to the <a href="https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/get-involved/inquiries/nativebirdhunting/submissions">inquiry</a>. To us as Yuin men, Yumburra (black duck) – one of the species being hunted – is a <a href="https://theconversation.com/humpback-whales-hold-lore-for-traditional-custodians-but-laws-dont-protect-species-for-their-cultural-significance-213073">culturally significant species</a> and our tribal totem. Yumburra is Country, we are Country. Harm to Yumburra is harm to us. </p>
<p>Our submission argued against recreational hunting of native birds based on concerns for the ongoing health of duck populations and questions over the ethics of the sport. We acknowledge that not all Traditional Custodians share the same position, but this is ours. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572053/original/file-20240130-27-38gy0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Artwork showing a family of Yumburra (black duck) swimming together, mother and three ducklings" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572053/original/file-20240130-27-38gy0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572053/original/file-20240130-27-38gy0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572053/original/file-20240130-27-38gy0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572053/original/file-20240130-27-38gy0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572053/original/file-20240130-27-38gy0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572053/original/file-20240130-27-38gy0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572053/original/file-20240130-27-38gy0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Yumburra the black duck is a Yuin tribal totem.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lyn Harwood</span></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-duck-shooting-season-still-isnt-on-the-endangered-list-92926">Why duck shooting season still isn't on the endangered list</a>
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<h2>Open season for controversy</h2>
<p>Duck hunting has <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-duck-shooting-season-still-isnt-on-the-endangered-list-92926">long been contentious in Victoria</a>. The issue emerges every autumn when the responsible minister is set to announce the details of the shooting season. Each year the same groups come out to wade through the muddy water and thrash out the same bloody arguments. </p>
<p>Advocates of the sport argue it brings money into regional communities and that it has become a tradition (albeit one with a short history in the context of this old land).</p>
<p>But the fact remains that waterfowl populations are in long-term <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367180582_Eastern_Australian_Waterbird_Aerial_Survey_-October_2022_Annual_Summary_Report?channel=doi&linkId=63c5dd1bd9fb5967c2e03e4e&showFulltext=true">decline</a>. The inquiry heard that habitat destruction is the major contributor to this trend but that hunting was likely to be a small contributing factor. </p>
<p>Duck hunting also causes avoidable injuries to birds. The inquiry heard non-lethal wounding rates of ducks could be as high 6-40%, or 15,700 to 105,000 based on the 2022 season. </p>
<p>I cannot accept such high rates of injury to a significant totem. I hunt for feral deer, species that cause great damage to Country, but I only shoot when I’m confident of a humane kill. And I fish, but I only take fish when I’m comfortable that crayfish and abalone numbers are strong on the reefs where I have swum all of my life. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Legislative Council Select Committee Chair Ryan Batchelor talks about the report’s findings and recommendations.</span></figcaption>
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<p>In allowing duck hunting to continue, the Victorian government is ignoring the main recommendation of the committee.</p>
<p>The government says it will accept the other seven recommendations “in full or in principle”, by changing the rules from 2025. This includes:</p>
<ul>
<li>making education and training for hunters mandatory</li>
<li>improving compliance and toughening penalties</li>
<li>reducing the risk of wounding</li>
<li>increasing recognition of Traditional Owners’ knowledge of hunting and land management.</li>
</ul>
<p>In theory this addresses many of the problems. But in practice these measures will be resource-intensive and challenging to implement effectively. Education and compliance activities will need to be well funded and staffed. And hunting-related harm to individual ducks and populations can only be reduced, when it could have been eliminated. </p>
<p>Finally, these measures fail to address the issues that have been driving waterbird populations down over decades.</p>
<h2>A disturbing pattern of behaviour</h2>
<p>The Victorian government has form in ignoring evidence of the declining health of our environment.</p>
<p>In December 2021 I was <a href="https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/48e803/contentassets/5ebe773305454e0e80e02b78b3b62f39/6.-dr-jack-pascoe.pdf">invited to present an Indigenous perspective</a> to an <a href="https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/get-involved/inquiries/inquiry-into-ecosystem-decline-in-victoria/">inquiry into ecosystem decline in Victoria</a>. I told them of watching the decline of the manna gum woodlands I had grown up in, and how that impacted me. </p>
<p>That inquiry found threatened native species are suffering severe declines and are not being holistically protected. It also recommended the Victorian government consider revoking the “<a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-29/dingo-wild-dog-unprotection-order-bait-trap-buffer-zone/102914828">unprotection order</a>” that allows dingoes, a <a href="https://www.wildlife.vic.gov.au/our-wildlife/:%7E:text=The%20dingo%20is%20listed%20as,under%20the%20Wildlife%20Act%201975.">threatened native species</a>, to be killed over vast areas of Victorian private and public land.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-boss-of-country-not-wild-dogs-to-kill-living-with-dingoes-can-unite-communities-214212">'The boss of Country', not wild dogs to kill: living with dingoes can unite communities</a>
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<p>Three weeks afterward as part of the Independent Expert Panel reviewing the Wildlife Act, I submitted our report to the state government. The government commissioned the review because it was concerned about limitations of the laws following two high-profile cases, including the deliberate <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-05-04/wedge-tailed-eagle-deaths-prompt-review-of-wildlife-act/12210956">mass killing of wedge-tailed eagles</a>, a species acknowledged by many Indigenous Victorians as the Creator.</p>
<p>In the two years since we submitted our report, the Victorian government has not responded nor released our report publicly. </p>
<p>In September last year, the Barengi Gadjin Land Council called for an end to indiscriminate killing of dingoes, a species Indigenous Australians consider <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-boss-of-country-not-wild-dogs-to-kill-living-with-dingoes-can-unite-communities-214212">kin</a>. Just weeks later, the Victorian government extended the unprotection order for dingoes. </p>
<p>In October 2022 the Victorian Auditor General’s Office released a report titled <a href="https://www.audit.vic.gov.au/report/protecting-victorias-biodiversity?section=">Protecting Victoria’s Biodiversity</a>. It highlighted flaws in the state environment department’s threatened species protection and the data that informed decision-making. </p>
<p>That report also noted the department received less than half of the funding it requested to meet its own targets. What’s more, the most recent state budget <a href="https://greens.org.au/vic/news/media-release/labors-state-budget-fails-struggling-victorians-greens">decreased spending on the environment</a>.</p>
<p>So where does this get us? Late last year the Victorian State of the Environment <a href="https://www.ces.vic.gov.au/soe2023">report</a> was quietly tabled in parliament. Among the grim findings were that biodiversity continues to decline. Most biodiversity indicators assessed had deteriorated since 2018. These declines included “waterbird species in the Murray–Darling Basin” and “distribution and abundance of waterbirds in the Murray–Darling Basin”.</p>
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<h2>Demand more from the Victorian government</h2>
<p>The Victorian government’s support for recreational duck hunting is just one in a litany of failures to respond adequately to environment decline and to support the views of Indigenous Victorians. </p>
<p>The world is achingly beautiful, but that beauty is fading. It’s not fading in a faraway place, it’s happening on your doorstep, within your sphere of influence. </p>
<p>We, as Victorians, must accept our responsibility to care for this place that sustains us both physically and spiritually. We must demand that governments acknowledge the environment is being devastated and prioritise policies to reverse the trend. We cannot abdicate this responsibility to Country any longer.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/humpback-whales-hold-lore-for-traditional-custodians-but-laws-dont-protect-species-for-their-cultural-significance-213073">Humpback whales hold lore for Traditional Custodians. But laws don't protect species for their cultural significance</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jack Pascoe is affiliated with Back to Country and is Co-Chief Councilor of the Biodiversity Council. </span></em></p>Victoria’s decision this week to reject a ban on duck hunting is a shot to the heart for proud Yuin man Jack Pascoe, son of Bruce Pascoe. The black duck Yumburra is a Yuin tribal totem.Jack Pascoe, Research fellow, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2203182024-01-08T23:41:27Z2024-01-08T23:41:27ZWhen polar bears hunt snow geese, hunger justifies the means<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567181/original/file-20231220-19-d2je5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C1%2C989%2C745&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The adaptations that polar bears will have to make to meet the challenges brought about by climate change are numerous and unpredictable.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Polar bears (<em>Ursus maritimus</em>) take advantage of the winter to build up their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/physzool.69.2.30164186">fat reserves</a>. Intensive hunting of seals, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/z75-117">a resource rich in fat</a>, allows bears to store up enough energy to get through the summer.</p>
<p>As the climate warms, hunting opportunities on the ice pack are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.12685">diminishing</a>. Experts believe that as a result, there is not sufficient food resources on the land to allow bears to build up <a href="https://doi.org/10.1890/140202">the energy reserves they require</a>.</p>
<p>Faced with these changes, some polar bears are taking advantage of colonies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.3128">of nesting birds and their eggs</a>, one of the few resources readily available on land, to compensate for their energy deficits. The adaptations that bears will have to make to meet the challenges brought about by climate change are numerous and unpredictable.</p>
<p>As a student researcher in ecology, I was going to take advantage of a short trip north of Baffin Island, in Nunavut, to do some work on the small fauna of Bylot Island. One afternoon, a polar bear decided otherwise. Here we report on his exploits, which led to observations of unprecedented behaviour.</p>
<h2>An unusual sighting – a polar bear in fresh water</h2>
<p>It was Aug. 8, 2021. Some 80 km from the Inuit community of Mittimatalik, the Bylot Island field station was bustling with activity.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/as-2023-0029">Established 30 years ago</a>, the field station is located in the heart of the breeding grounds of the largest known colony of snow geese (<em>Anser caerulescens caerulescens</em>). Today, scientists from a variety of backgrounds scour the Quarliktuvik valley floor, which is generally flat, to study the soil, water, plants and wildlife.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566995/original/file-20231220-25-jybcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Bylot Island main research station TimMoser x" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566995/original/file-20231220-25-jybcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566995/original/file-20231220-25-jybcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=246&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566995/original/file-20231220-25-jybcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=246&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566995/original/file-20231220-25-jybcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=246&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566995/original/file-20231220-25-jybcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566995/original/file-20231220-25-jybcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566995/original/file-20231220-25-jybcic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Bylot Island research camp.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Tim Moser)</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Coming out of a ravine, one of the few landforms in the area, I was scanning the valley with my binoculars when two pairs of legs in the distance caught my eye. The image was foggy, but what I initially thought were two colleagues walking side by side, turned out to be the distinctive shape of a polar bear. Everyone in our group had the necessary protective equipment — bear spray, anti-bear cartridges and sometimes even a rifle — but I alerted them by radio and immediately returned to the field station.</p>
<p>Several colleagues had gathered on a small hill to keep an eye on the newcomer. In fact, by the time I’d covered the kilometre distance to the camp, the bear had walked three kilometres and was moving around a pond where geese were gathered. At this time of year, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jav.00982">the geese are moulting</a> — and therefore unable to fly — so they congregate near ponds to avoid the <a href="https://doi.org/10.14430/arctic604">Arctic fox (<em>Vulpes lagopus</em>)</a>, which is reluctant to jump into the water. With a bear in the vicinity, we ceased our field activities and took advantage of the radiant afternoon to watch the king of the ice pack.</p>
<p>True to form, the geese took refuge in the nearest pond at the first sight of danger. They waded in quickly enough to keep the bear, who was swimming on the surface, at a safe distance.</p>
<p>But the bear was about to use a new hunting technique: he dove under the water, disappeared from the eyes of the geese who had stopped fleeing, and emerged from underneath one of them.</p>
<p>My colleague Mathilde Poirier recorded the behaviour in her notebook:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>1:45 p.m. - 2:00 p.m.: the bear swims in the lake […], makes 4 dives to try to catch a goose. Succeeds in its 4th attempt (catches the goose from below, during a dive).</p>
</blockquote>
<p>During the afternoon, the bear used this technique two more times, once failing and once with success.</p>
<h2>What are the benefits of this behaviour for bears?</h2>
<p>Two months later, back at Laval University, we were still fascinated by this observation. Nowhere in the scientific literature is there any mention of such behaviour. At best, there are reports of <a href="https://doi.org/10.33265/polar.v41.8176">attacks on murres in the ocean</a> near the coasts, an environment very different from the calm, shallow ponds where we observed the bear’s attacks.</p>
<p>Being aware of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1890/140202">energy challenges</a> bears face during the summer, our research group — led by Matthieu Weiss-Blais — wanted to answer the following question: would this hunting technique allow polar bears to benefit from eating snow geese?</p>
<p>The information recorded in the field, i.e. the time the bear spent swimming and its success in hunting, allowed us to answer this question. By combining our observations with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00300-017-2209-x">estimates of the energy cost</a> of swimming in bears and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/cow045">the energy contained in a snow goose</a>, we were able to model the energy efficiency of the technique.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/AS-2023-0036">These calculations reveal</a> that this hunting technique could allow bears to acquire more energy than they expend, particularly for smaller bears, and if they manage to catch a goose quickly.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566994/original/file-20231220-25-lint0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="polar bear" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566994/original/file-20231220-25-lint0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566994/original/file-20231220-25-lint0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566994/original/file-20231220-25-lint0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566994/original/file-20231220-25-lint0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566994/original/file-20231220-25-lint0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566994/original/file-20231220-25-lint0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566994/original/file-20231220-25-lint0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The bear was moving around near a pond occupied by geese.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Yannick Seyer)</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An energy boost, but far from sufficient</h2>
<p>However, this energy contribution would be very limited in scope.</p>
<p>First of all, a goose provides relatively little energy — around 200 times less than a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/z75-117">ringed seal weighing 45 kilograms</a>.</p>
<p>What’s more, the geese are rarely available as prey: they lose the ability to fly for only three or four weeks each summer and they only have colonies in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.879">a few places</a> in the Arctic.</p>
<p>Hunting geese could therefore be of benefit to certain bears from time to time, but on a population-wide scale, it will not alleviate the energy deficits caused by the melting ice pack.</p>
<p>Although our observation highlights the range of behaviours bears can adopt in order to exploit terrestrial resources, this type of interaction between snow geese and polar bears should have no impact on the populations of either species.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220318/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Bolduc received funding from the NSTP and the Canadian Association for Humane Trapping.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthieu Weiss-Blais received funding from NSERC, FRQNT and NSTP.
</span></em></p>Researchers have made a fascinating observation: a polar bear used a diving hunting technique, never before reported, to capture large moulting snow geese.David Bolduc, Étudiant au doctorat en écologie animale, Université LavalMatthieu Weiss-Blais, Étudiant la maîtrise en biologie, Université LavalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2199322023-12-19T16:53:58Z2023-12-19T16:53:58ZGrouse shooting in Scotland has an alarming death toll – and not just for game birds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566557/original/file-20231219-27-8q5cdk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3912%2C3125&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/red-grouse-lagopus-scotica-amongst-heather-397974433">Mark Caunt/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Scottish moors are considered areas of outstanding beauty, and often assumed to be “wild” and “untamed”. However, these landscapes are the result of management techniques that are now under scrutiny by the Scottish government. </p>
<p>These practices include burning the moorlands (muirburn) and controlling the number of animals on the moors through trapping, snaring and poisoning. All of these measures are pursued to keep the number of red grouse artificially high so they can be shot in grouse season.</p>
<p>An estimated <a href="https://revive.scot/publication/hanged-by-the-feet-until-dead-an-analysis-of-snaring-and-trapping-on-scottish-grouse-moors/">260,000 animals</a> are killed each year in Scotland as part of these legal “predator control” measures. Targeted animals include <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/fox-mammal">foxes</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/weasel">weasels</a>, <a href="https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/mammals/stoat">stoats</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/rat">rats</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/rabbit">rabbits</a> and various types of corvid like <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/crow-bird">crows</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/magpie">magpies</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/jackdaw">jackdaws</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/jay">jays</a>. </p>
<p>Many animals are also killed unintentionally. A <a href="https://revive.scot/publication/hanged-by-the-feet-until-dead-an-analysis-of-snaring-and-trapping-on-scottish-grouse-moors/">report</a> that was commissioned by the League Against Cruel Sports Scotland, a UK-based animal welfare charity, shows that as many as 39% of the trapped animals are not the intended target. These animals include <a href="https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/mammals/pine-marten">pine martens</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/hedgehog-mammal">hedgehogs</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/badger">badgers</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/deer">deer</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/hare-mammal">hares</a>. But there have also been reports of endangered and protected animals, such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/falconiform">raptors</a> and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/capercaillie">capercaillie</a>, being killed.</p>
<p>In a recent <a href="https://www.league.org.uk/media/filer_public/03/1c/031cdbb4-847b-4cb8-8d3b-36197dc068e6/league_scotland_grouse_ethics_final.pdf">report</a>, which I co-authored with Dr Katie Javanaud and Professor Andrew Linzey from the Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics, we examined the moral basis for these practices. We found that it is impossible to overstate the severity of the suffering caused to animals caught in traps.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The western capercaillie in a spruce forest." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566553/original/file-20231219-15-5aengq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566553/original/file-20231219-15-5aengq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566553/original/file-20231219-15-5aengq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566553/original/file-20231219-15-5aengq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566553/original/file-20231219-15-5aengq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566553/original/file-20231219-15-5aengq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566553/original/file-20231219-15-5aengq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some endangered and protected animals, like the capercaillie (pictured) are unintentionally killed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/western-capercaillie-tetrao-urogallus-known-eurasian-2372812729">Jaroslav Macenauer/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Prolonged suffering</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://fur.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/AIHTS-Copy-of-Agreement.pdf">Agreement on International Humane Trapping Standards</a>, to which the UK is a signatory, is the primary measure against which the welfare of trapped animals is judged. The standards consider traps to be “sufficient” and “efficient” if the animals are killed in anywhere between 45 seconds and five minutes. In fact, the standards still consider traps efficient if 20% of animals do not die within five minutes. </p>
<p>Any system of killing that only causes death after 45 seconds to five minutes is unnecessarily cruel. The animals suffer an appalling range of injuries that would not be acceptable in any other context. Entrapment for free-living animals is at best a distressing experience that obviously involves <a href="https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20130402141656/http:/archive.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-pets/wildlife/management/documents/snares-iwgs-report.pdf">psychological and emotional harm</a>.</p>
<p>All forms of predator control, whether that be trapping, snaring or poisoning, are predicated on exposing animals to hours or days of prolonged suffering. And all of this supposes that these traps can practically be inspected often. This is a question in and of itself given the vast area over which the methods are used and the limited manpower available, as well as adverse weather conditions. </p>
<h2>Stopping the suffering</h2>
<p>The suffering caused by these “management techniques” is also made invisible, reduced to being a private matter on private estates. However, cruelty to animals is a public moral issue and should be subject to political accountability.</p>
<p>Effective legislation requires three important components: compliance, inspection and enforcement. However, the illegal trapping of raptors indicates that there is limited compliance with the current legislation. </p>
<p>All raptors are protected under the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1981/69/contents">Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981</a>. But traps and poisons kill animals indiscriminately. So, as long as traps and poisons continue to be in use, legally protected animals like raptors will continue to be <a href="https://www.scottishraptorstudygroup.org/conservation/">caught and killed</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A golden eagle standing behind a clump of heather." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566554/original/file-20231219-21-o7yxd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566554/original/file-20231219-21-o7yxd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566554/original/file-20231219-21-o7yxd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566554/original/file-20231219-21-o7yxd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566554/original/file-20231219-21-o7yxd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566554/original/file-20231219-21-o7yxd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566554/original/file-20231219-21-o7yxd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">All raptors are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/moorland-eagle-magnificent-golden-stands-behind-1056669830">Ian Duffield/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Raptor persecution is one of the main concerns of the Scottish government’s proposed <a href="https://www.parliament.scot/bills-and-laws/bills/wildlife-management-and-muirburn-scotland-bill">Wildlife Management and Muirburn Bill</a>. The bill aims to change “rules around how people can capture and kill certain wild birds and wild animals” and “rules around the making of muirburn”. </p>
<p>The government plans to address these problems by licensing the use of traps and giving the Scottish Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SSPCA) powers of inspection, as well as introducing a licensing scheme for grouse hunting and the management of land. </p>
<p>It also intends to bring in an outright ban on <a href="https://www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/wildlife/deterrents">glue traps</a>. These traps consist of a small board coated with a sticky adhesive, a practice the RSPCA argue causes “unacceptable cruelty”. </p>
<h2>We need to do more</h2>
<p>The plan to introduce powers of inspection for the SSPCA should be commended. But licensing the killing of animals on Scotland’s moors serves only to codify and ingrain the suffering and deaths of those animals. </p>
<p>All current methods of “predator control” either cause (often prolonged) suffering or make animals liable to suffering. To license any of the traps currently in use is to institutionalise the suffering and death of thousands of animals a year.</p>
<p>Our report concludes that predator control is uncontrollable. There simply are not the mechanisms in place to control it. Poisons and traps of various kinds are readily available for purchase in shops and on the internet. There is no moral alternative to making all of these practices illegal.</p>
<p>We propose the promulgation of a new charter for free-living animals. Scotland could lead the way in pioneering legislation that protects all animals, domestic and free-living. This legislation should begin with the recognition of sentience and enshrine in law the value and dignity of wild animals such that their right to live unmolested is respected.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clair Linzey is the deputy director of the Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics. The report the article is based on, "Killing to Kill: An Ethical Assessment of “Predator Control” on Scottish Moors," is a report of the Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics. The report was commissioned by the League Against Cruel Sports to produce an independent review of the ethics of “predator control” on Scottish moors. The League is not a neutral bystander in the debate about grouse shooting, of course, but it is to its credit that it was prepared to commission independent academic research on this topic. While we have requested research information from the League, it has at no point sought to place restrictions on the nature and type of our deliberations, or the nature of our conclusions. Our work has been considerably improved with the help of two independent academic peer reviewers. We gratefully acknowledge the many academics, intellectuals, and writers who have indicated their public support for this report.
</span></em></p>The welfare of wild animals is severely compromised to sustain grouse shooting in Scotland.Clair Linzey, Research Fellow in Animal Ethics, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2179572023-11-21T18:01:59Z2023-11-21T18:01:59ZCanada-EU summit: Will Canada push for an end to cultural violence against seal hunters?<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/canada-eu-summit-will-canada-push-for-an-end-to-cultural-violence-against-seal-hunters" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p><a href="https://www.pm.gc.ca/en/news/news-releases/2023/10/30/canada-host-canada-european-union-summit-newfoundland">Canada is about to host European Union leaders</a> Charles Michel and Ursula von der Leyen at a summit in Newfoundland and Labrador aimed at emphasizing and strengthening Canadian and EU ties. </p>
<p>But it seems a discussion about the EU’s ban on seal product imports, <a href="https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/nature-and-biodiversity/trade-seal-products_en#:%7E:text=Since%202009%2C%20the%20Trade%20in,the%20EC%2DSeal%20products%20case.">implemented in 1983 and 2009 respectively</a> due to animal welfare concerns, is not on the agenda. </p>
<p>The EU and leading European nations <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/canada-germany-hydrogen-partnership-nl-1.6559787">like Germany</a> are extremely interested in Newfoundland and Labrador, and Canada more broadly, for access to natural resources. </p>
<p>This interest creates an unprecedented diplomatic opportunity for Canada to put the sealing issue back on the table at the summit. Will Canada let this window of opportunity slip through its proverbial fingers? </p>
<h2>Why discuss sealing now?</h2>
<p>Newfoundland and Labrador <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003356158">is Ground Zero for anti-sealing activism</a>. </p>
<p>Generations of fishers and their families have endured decades of cultural violence from activists and their supporters. <a href="https://doi.org/10.22584/nr51.2021.002">They have experienced</a> death threats, <a href="https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/39-1/FOPO/meeting-22/evidence">threats to kidnap and murder their children</a>, attacks on the ice, racist slurs, xenophobia and stalking and intimidation from protesters and their supporters. </p>
<p>The 2005 documentary <a href="https://www.nfb.ca/film/my_ancestors_were_rogues_murderers/"><em>My Ancestors Were Rogues and Murderers</em></a> by Anne Troake, a Newfoundland filmmaker, highlighted the underrepresented experiences of Newfoundland and Labrador sealers.</p>
<p>The documentary uses Troake’s family experiences as the focal point and includes a profanity-strewn message left from an anti-sealing activist:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Would you like a meat hook stuck in your brain? Lay off the animal rights people. I think it’s … reprehensible. You people out there, you don’t even know whose money you’re living off of. You’re living off of central Canada and western Canada. You can’t even make your own … way in life. If you don’t like it, get the fuck out of our country, you fucking assholes.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://biblio.com.au/book/battle-lost-unsuccessful-attempt-save-seal/d/236523951?placement=morelikethis">These types of communications are commonly directed</a> to sealers and their families.</p>
<p>Troake, too, <a href="https://doi.org/10.14430/arctic77177">faced death threats, ethnic slurs and a brick thrown through her home window after releasing her documentary</a>. </p>
<p>The portrayal of sealers as slaughterers <a href="https://www.peta.org/category/campaigns/canadian-seal-slaughter/">is prominent online</a> and in some media coverage, as exemplified by stories in publications that include <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/apr/13/animalwelfare.environment"><em>The Guardian</em></a> and <a href="https://www.straight.com/article-209222/end-commercial-canadian-seal-hunt-sight"><em>The Georgia Straight</em></a>. </p>
<h2>What is cultural violence?</h2>
<p>Broadly speaking, culture is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00248.x">a system of meanings and practices maintained over time by a group of people</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343390027003005">According to Norwegian sociologist Johan Galtung</a>, cultural violence means “aspects of culture … can be used to justify or legitimize direct or structural violence.” </p>
<p>Cultural violence is insidious because it “makes direct and structural violence look, even feel, right – or at least not wrong,” he adds.</p>
<p>Galtung, <a href="https://www.galtung-institut.de/en/home/johan-galtung/">the founder of peace and conflict studies</a>, argues that cultural violence is sometimes portrayed as non-violence, since direct and immediate violence or killings are avoided and it unfolds over a longer time period. But for victims, he argues, this means “the loss of freedom and identity instead of loss of life and limbs.”</p>
<h2>Relevance to Canada-EU trade relations</h2>
<p>The EU has participated in cultural violence against sealers. Its ban is the result of European politicians accepting, unreservedly, activist narratives that essentially portray sealers as monsters.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ifaw.org/ca-en/projects/ending-the-commercial-seal-hunt-canada">The International Fund for Animal Welfare</a>, in fact, celebrates the fact that the EU ban on seal products occurred at its instigation. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/canada-loses-wto-appeal-eu-seal-products-ban-upheld-1.1833331?cache=yesclipId10406200text%2Fhtml%3Bcharset%3Dutf-80404%2F7.258454">Canada and the EU have fought</a> about the seal product ban before. In 2014, Canada lost its appeal to the World Trade Organization (WTO) on the legality of the ban. </p>
<p>The EU argued the ban is “necessary to protect public morals.” But the EU has issues with its own animal welfare track record. In 2018, <a href="https://op.europa.eu/webpub/eca/special-reports/animal-welfare-31-2018/en/#:%7E:text=We%20concluded%20that%20EU%20actions,to%20promote%20higher%20animal%20welfare">the European Court of Auditors</a> raised serious <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/14/farm-animal-abuses-widespread-across-europe-warn-auditors">concerns over animal abuses in Europe’s farming industry</a>. </p>
<p>In 2023, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/eu-frog-leg-trade"><em>National Geographic</em> reported the EU exhibited “extreme cruelty”</a> towards frogs. A report by the magazine on the frog leg trade found “millions of wild frogs are killed and exported to the EU each year … leading to inhumane practices and population declines of over-exploited species.”</p>
<h2>Sealing industry has evolved</h2>
<p>The EU has also failed to account for changes in the sealing industry. </p>
<p>Fisheries and Oceans Canada <a href="https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/seals-phoques/humane-sans-cruaute-eng.html">states that 70 per cent of seals are now hunted with rifles</a>. This is a major shift from the use of clubs.</p>
<p>Additionally, the role of traditional knowledge in fisheries management is changing. <a href="https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/science/documents/mammals-mammiferes/atlantic-seal-phoque-atlantique/appendix5-annex5/ASSTT-Final-report-English.pdf">Fisheries and Oceans Canada</a> now acknowledges that seals affect cod stocks <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/cod-northern-status-1.5972503#:%7E:text=NL-,Seals%20not%20significantly%20affecting%20health%20of%20northern%20cod%20stocks%2C%20says,biomass%20of%20the%20iconic%20groundfish.">after decades of dismissing and downplaying local knowledge</a> on the subject. </p>
<p>Furthermore, the EU remains ambiguous on the difference between subsistence and commercial hunting, and it’s failed to acknowledge and accommodate non-Indigenous subsistence hunting traditions and cultural practices in its ban. </p>
<p>A discussion on the EU seal product ban needs to be reopened. The EU’s role in perpetrating cultural violence against working-class sealers and their families needs to be addressed. </p>
<p>The summit in Newfoundland and Labrador is a prime opportunity for it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217957/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Danita Catherine Burke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The sealing industry has evolved but the EU’s ban on seal imports has contributed to the enduring cultural violence experienced by Canadian sealers.Danita Catherine Burke, Research Fellow, Center for War Studies, University of Southern DenmarkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2143472023-11-17T13:29:56Z2023-11-17T13:29:56ZForget ‘Man the Hunter’ – physiological and archaeological evidence rewrites assumptions about a gendered division of labor in prehistoric times<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560041/original/file-20231116-21-sqjk8p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=544%2C53%2C4368%2C2812&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In small-group, subsistence living, it makes sense for everyone to do lots of jobs.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/tribe-of-hunter-gatherers-wearing-animal-skin-live-royalty-free-image/1194512903">gorodenkoff/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Prehistoric men hunted; prehistoric women gathered. At least this is the standard narrative written by and about men to the exclusion of women.</p>
<p>The idea of “Man the Hunter” runs deep within anthropology, convincing people that hunting made us human, only men did the hunting, and therefore evolutionary forces must only have acted upon men. Such depictions are found not only in media, <a href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/museum-of-human-evolution">but in museums</a> and introductory anthropology textbooks, too. </p>
<p>A common argument is that a sexual division of labor and unequal division of power exists today; therefore, it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/0591-2385.00226">must have existed in our evolutionary past</a> as well. But this is a just-so story without sufficient evidentiary support, despite its pervasiveness in disciplines like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2013.804899">evolutionary psychology</a>.</p>
<p>There is a growing body of physiological, anatomical, ethnographic and archaeological evidence to suggest that <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-theory-that-men-evolved-to-hunt-and-women-evolved-to-gather-is-wrong1/">not only did women hunt</a> in our evolutionary past, but they may well have been better suited for such an endurance-dependent activity.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YE6ZrpwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">We are both</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=u3iE81oAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">biological anthropologists</a>. Cara specializes in the physiology of humans living in extreme conditions, using her research to reconstruct how our ancestors may have adapted to different climates. Sarah studies Neanderthal and early modern human health, and excavates at their archaeological sites.</p>
<p>It’s not uncommon for scientists like us – who attempt to include the contributions of all individuals, regardless of sex and gender, in reconstructions of our evolutionary past – to be accused of rewriting the past to fulfill a politically correct, woke agenda. The actual evidence speaks for itself, though: Gendered labor roles did not exist in the Paleolithic era, which lasted from 3.3 million years ago until 12,000 years ago. The story is written in human bodies, now and in the past.</p>
<p>We recognize that biological sex can be defined using multiple characteristics, including chromosomes, genitalia and hormones, each of which <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.23623">exists on a spectrum</a>. Social gender, too, is not a binary category. We use the terms female and male when discussing the physiological and anatomical evidence, as this is what the research literature tends to use.</p>
<h2>Female bodies: Adapted for endurance</h2>
<p>One of the key arguments put forth by “Man the Hunter” proponents is that <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/title/444294299">females would not have been physically capable</a> of taking part in the long, arduous hunts of our evolutionary past. But a number of female-associated features, which provide an endurance advantage, tell a different story.</p>
<p>All human bodies, regardless of sex, have and need both the hormones <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/estrogen">estrogen</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/testosterone">testosterone</a>. On average, females have more estrogen and males more testosterone, though there is a <a href="https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/tests/testosterone#:%7E:text=Normal%20Results,0.5%20to%202.4%20nmol%2FL">great deal of variation</a> <a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=167&ContentID=estradiol#:%7E:text=30%20to%20400%20pg%2FmL,50%20pg%2FmL%20for%20men">and overlap</a>.</p>
<p>Testosterone often gets all the credit when it comes to athletic success. But estrogen – technically the estrogen receptor – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1086185">is deeply ancient</a>, originating somewhere between 1.2 billion and 600 million years ago. It <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna38268611">predates the existence of sexual reproduction</a> involving egg and sperm. The testosterone receptor originated as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1086185">duplicate of the estrogen receptor</a> and is only about half as old. As such, estrogen, in its many forms and pervasive functions, seems necessary for life among both females and males.</p>
<p>Estrogen influences athletic performance, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-022-01651-w">particularly endurance performance</a>. The greater concentrations of estrogen that females tend to have in their bodies likely confer an endurance advantage – an ability to exercise for a longer period of time without becoming exhausted.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559161/original/file-20231113-27-iz9t0v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="sihoutte of a woman's body with cartoon systems highlighted" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559161/original/file-20231113-27-iz9t0v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559161/original/file-20231113-27-iz9t0v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559161/original/file-20231113-27-iz9t0v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559161/original/file-20231113-27-iz9t0v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559161/original/file-20231113-27-iz9t0v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559161/original/file-20231113-27-iz9t0v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559161/original/file-20231113-27-iz9t0v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The hormone estrogen has multiple effects throughout the body and plays a role in people regardless of sex.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cara Ocobock</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/H00-024">Estrogen signals the body to burn more fat</a> – beneficial during endurance activity for two key reasons. First, fat has more than twice the calories per gram as carbohydrates do. And it takes <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556002">longer to metabolize fats than carbs</a>. So, fat provides more bang for the buck overall, and the slow burn provides sustained energy over longer periods of time, which <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/apha.12234">can delay fatigue during endurance activities</a> like running.</p>
<p>In addition to their estrogen advantage, females have a greater proportion of <a href="https://blog.nasm.org/fitness/fast-twitch-vs-slow-twitch">type I muscle fibers</a> relative to males.</p>
<p>These are slow oxidative muscle fibers that prefer to metabolize fats. They’re not particularly powerful, but they take awhile to fatigue – unlike the powerful type II fibers that males have more of but that tire rapidly. Doing the same intense exercise, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/JAPPL.1998.85.3.1175">females burn 70% more fats</a> than males do, and unsurprisingly, are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00422739">less likely to fatigue</a>. </p>
<p>Estrogen also appears to be important for post-exercise recovery. Intense exercise or heat exposure can be stressful for the body, eliciting an inflammatory response via the release of heat shock proteins. Estrogen limits this response, which would otherwise inhibit recovery. Estrogen also stabilizes cell membranes that might otherwise be damaged or rupture due to the stress of exercise. Thanks to this hormone, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2165/11319760-000000000-00000">females incur less damage during exercise</a> and are therefore capable of faster recovery.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559162/original/file-20231113-25-uu4rie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Silhouette of woman running with cartoon systems highlighted" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559162/original/file-20231113-25-uu4rie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559162/original/file-20231113-25-uu4rie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559162/original/file-20231113-25-uu4rie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559162/original/file-20231113-25-uu4rie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559162/original/file-20231113-25-uu4rie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559162/original/file-20231113-25-uu4rie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559162/original/file-20231113-25-uu4rie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A variety of physiological differences add up to an advantage for women in endurance activities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cara Ocobock</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Women in the past likely did everything men did</h2>
<p>Forget the Flintstones’ nuclear family with a stay-at-home wife. There’s no evidence of this social structure or gendered labor roles during the 2 million years of evolution for the genus <em>Homo</em> until the last 12,000 years, with the advent of agriculture. </p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal">Our Neanderthal cousins</a>, a group of humans who lived across Western and Central Eurasia approximately 250,000 to 40,000 years ago, formed small, highly-nomadic bands. Fossil evidence shows <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.05.039">females and males experienced the same bony traumas</a> across their bodies – a signature of a hard life hunting deer, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/aurochs">aurochs</a> and wooly mammoths. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1212(199703)7:2%3C133::AID-OA326%3E3.0.CO;2-4">Tooth wear that results from using the front teeth as a third hand</a>, likely in tasks like tanning hides, is equally evident across females and males.</p>
<p>This nongendered picture should not be surprising when you imagine small-group living. Everyone needs to contribute to the tasks necessary for group survival – chiefly, producing food and shelter and raising children. Individual mothers are not solely responsible for their children; in foragers, the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dev0001601">whole group contributes to child care</a>.</p>
<p>You might imagine this unified labor strategy then changed in early modern humans, but archaeological and anatomical evidence shows it did not. Upper Paleolithic modern humans leaving Africa and entering Europe and Asia show very few sexed differences <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20950">in trauma and repetitive motion wear</a>. One difference is more evidence of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2016.09.001">“thrower’s elbow” in males than females</a>, though some females shared these pathologies.</p>
<p>And this was also the time when <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.2000.0435">people were innovating with hunting technologies</a> like <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/spear-thrower">atlatls</a>, fishing hooks and nets, and bow and arrows – alleviating some of the wear and tear hunting would take on their bodies. A recent archaeological experiment found that using <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-40451-8">atlatls decreased sex differences</a> in the speed of spears thrown by contemporary men and women.</p>
<p>Even in death, there are no sexed differences in how Neanderthals or modern humans <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199569069.013.0017">buried their dead, or the goods affiliated with their graves</a>. These indicators of differential gendered social status do not arrive until agriculture, with its stratified economic system and monopolizable resources.</p>
<p>All this evidence suggests paleolithic women and men did not occupy differing roles or social realms.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560074/original/file-20231116-22-l4g97u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="young women adorned with toucan and macaw feathers holding wooden sticks" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560074/original/file-20231116-22-l4g97u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560074/original/file-20231116-22-l4g97u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560074/original/file-20231116-22-l4g97u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560074/original/file-20231116-22-l4g97u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560074/original/file-20231116-22-l4g97u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560074/original/file-20231116-22-l4g97u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560074/original/file-20231116-22-l4g97u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Young women from the Awa Indigenous group in Brazil return from a hunt with their bows and arrows.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/portrait-of-a-group-of-young-awa-women-adorned-with-toucan-news-photo/1258052224">Scott Wallace/Hulton Archive via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Critics might point to recent forager populations and suggest that since they are using subsistence strategies similar to our ancient ancestors, their gendered roles are inherent to the hunter-gatherer lifestyle.</p>
<p>However, there are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.20046">many flaws in this approach</a>. Foragers are not living fossils, and their social structures and cultural norms have evolved over time and in response to patriarchal agricultural neighbors and colonial administrators. Additionally, ethnographers of the last two centuries brought their sexism with them into the field, and <a href="https://kernsverlag.com/en/book/distorting-the-past/">it biased how they understood forager societies</a>. For instance, a recent reanalysis showed that 79% of cultures described in ethnographic data <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287101">included descriptions of women hunting</a>; however, previous interpretations frequently left them out. </p>
<h2>Time to shake these caveman myths</h2>
<p>The myth that female reproductive capabilities somehow render them incapable of gathering any food products beyond those that cannot run away does more than just underestimate Paleolithic women. It feeds into narratives that the contemporary social roles of women and men are inherent and define our evolution. Our Paleolithic ancestors lived in a world where everyone in the band pulled their own weight, performing multiple tasks. It was not a utopia, but it was not a patriarchy. </p>
<p>Certainly <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00438243.2018.1433060">accommodations must have been made for group members</a> who were sick, recovering from childbirth or otherwise temporarily incapacitated. But pregnancy, lactation, child-rearing and menstruation are not permanently disabling events, as researchers found among the living Agta of the Philippines who <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00287829">continue to hunt during these life periods</a>.</p>
<p>Suggesting that the female body is only designed to gather plants ignores female physiology and the archaeological record. To ignore the evidence perpetuates a myth that only serves to bolster existing power structures.</p>
<ul>
<li><em>Read more on this topic in <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-theory-that-men-evolved-to-hunt-and-women-evolved-to-gather-is-wrong1/">Scientific American</a></em></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214347/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Female bodies have an advantage in endurance ability that means Paleolithic women likely hunted game, not just gathered plants. The story is written in living and ancient human bodies.Sarah Lacy, Assistant Professor of Anthropology, University of DelawareCara Ocobock, Assistant Professor of Anthropology, University of Notre DameLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2112522023-10-06T13:06:23Z2023-10-06T13:06:23ZBison are sacred to Native Americans − but each tribe has its own special relationship to them<p>The American bison, or American buffalo as they are commonly called, were once close to extinction. Their numbers dropped from <a href="https://www.nps.gov/gosp/learn/nature/where-the-buffalo-roamed.htm">30-60 million</a> to around 500 because of overhunting in the 19th century.</p>
<p>But they made an unlikely comeback and continue to captivate people. At Yellowstone National Park – home to the largest bison herd in the U.S., with almost 6,000 head of wild bison – they are a major attraction for visitors. In 2023 the park attracted <a href="https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/management/delivering-a-world-class-visitor-experience.htm">more than 3 million people</a>.</p>
<p>Conservationists and Indigenous people successfully saved the American bison from complete annihilation in the 20th century, increasing their numbers from less than 500 to <a href="https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/president-bidens-investing-america-agenda-help-restore-bison-populations-and-grassland">more than 15,000 wild bison</a>, which does not include the thousands of bison living on ranches. The U.S. even designated it as the “<a href="https://www.doi.gov/blog/15-facts-about-our-national-mammal-american-bison">national mammal</a>” in 2016. </p>
<p>Over thousands of years and across diverse landscapes, Indigenous peoples developed traditional ecological knowledge about the bison and their ecosystems. Meanwhile, they also developed religious customs and sacred places important to their relationship with bison. </p>
<p>As an <a href="https://www.rosalynlapier.com/">Indigenous scholar</a> and an enrolled member of the Blackfeet Tribe and Métis, I am interested in how Native Americans understand the natural world. <a href="https://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/nebraska/9781496201508/">I learned from my Blackfeet grandparents</a> that bison emerged from the supernatural underwater realm and were given to humans by the Divine to use as food and as material. In return, humans are to respect and revere the bison.</p>
<h2>Thousands of years of history</h2>
<p>The modern-day American bison evolved around 10,000 years ago during the end of the Pleistocene Epoch from an ancient bison species. Over these several thousand years, according to environmental historian <a href="https://www.umt.edu/history/people/emeriti-faculty.php?ID=628">Dan Flores</a>, <a href="https://wwnorton.com/books/9781324006169">Indigenous peoples and bison “co-evolved”</a> – meaning they influenced the others’ actions and behaviors. </p>
<p>Indigenous peoples used bison meat and fat for food; hides for clothing, footwear and covering for their lodges; bones for tools; and other parts of the bison for rope, thread, glue or dyes. Along with the longtime use of bison for practical purposes, religious rituals and ceremonies also emerged. </p>
<p>Environmental historian <a href="https://history.illinois.edu/directory/profile/rmorriss">Robert Morrissey</a> writes in “<a href="https://uwapress.uw.edu/book/9780295750880/people-of-the-ecotone/">People of the Ecotone</a>” that Indigenous peoples in what is now Illinois ritualized running, a skill necessary for hunting bison. They developed coming-of-age ceremonies that tested the ability of young people to run long distances, as well as fast, to prepare for bison hunting. </p>
<p>Indigenous peoples in what is now Alberta, Canada, constructed shrines out of rocks to offer prayers to divine entities <a href="https://www.aupress.ca/books/120137-imagining-head-smashed-in/">connected to bison hunting</a>. They left offerings of tobacco or other items at these shrines during their seasonal hunts. Some of these rock shrines still exist and are viewed as sacred places.</p>
<h2>Bison origins and sacred places</h2>
<p>Indigenous people continued to remember and revere bison in rituals and ceremonies. Every tribe on the Great Plains has its own “deep individual <a href="https://www.charkoosta.com/news/the-american-buffalo-reviews-history-renews-hope/article_0cdf03c8-0b9d-11ee-9fe1-3b4276296e25.html">connection to bison</a>,” says Whisper Camel-Means, a Salish-Kootenai tribal member and wildlife biologist working at the <a href="https://bisonrange.org/">tribe’s bison range</a>. “We are all connected, but we all have a different relationship. Native people are not all the same.”</p>
<p>The Blackfeet believe that certain <a href="https://theconversation.com/for-native-americans-a-river-is-more-than-a-person-it-is-also-a-sacred-place-85302">lakes and rivers are sacred areas</a> because they are the home of the Suyiitapi, the supernatural underwater persons, and the place where bison emerged from underneath the water. </p>
<p>The Lakota, similar to the Blackfeet, consider bison sacred and a gift from the Divine. For the Lakota, however, bison did not come out of water, they came from inside the earth.</p>
<p>According to anthropologist <a href="https://cla.umn.edu/about/directory/profile/alber033">Patricia Albers</a>, the Lakota believe that both bison and humans emerged <a href="https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/natlpark/158/">onto the Great Plains</a> from what is now <a href="https://www.nps.gov/wica/index.htm">Wind Cave National Park</a> in the Black Hills in South Dakota.</p>
<p>The Lakota believe this landscape to be their “most sacred and culturally significant” area because it is a place of genesis for humans and bison. </p>
<p>Gerard Baker, an elder from the Mandan-Hidatsa tribes, shared in a <a href="https://kenburns.com/films/the-american-buffalo/">new PBS documentary film</a> on the American bison, “When you look at a buffalo you just don’t see a big shaggy beast. You see life, you see existence, you see hope. Those are our relatives. They are a part of us.” </p>
<h2>New efforts to revive the bison</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552367/original/file-20231005-23-4oag72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A few bison Bison graze near a stream." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552367/original/file-20231005-23-4oag72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552367/original/file-20231005-23-4oag72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552367/original/file-20231005-23-4oag72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552367/original/file-20231005-23-4oag72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552367/original/file-20231005-23-4oag72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552367/original/file-20231005-23-4oag72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552367/original/file-20231005-23-4oag72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Bison are a major attraction for visitors at Yellowstone National Park.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/YellowstoneBisonEncounters/ab14e1b88dc140ce94e260a6f2f1f5af/photo?Query=bison%20yellowstone%20park&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=448&currentItemNo=16&vs=true">AP Photo/Robert Graves, File</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This year, the U.S. federal government <a href="https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/interior-department-announces-significant-action-restore-bison-populations-part-new">added US$25 million</a> to “restore wild and healthy populations” of American bison on federal lands and $5 million toward accomplishing the same goal on <a href="https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/president-bidens-investing-america-agenda-help-restore-bison-populations-and-grassland">tribal lands</a>. And new legislation this fall seeks to further “<a href="https://www.heinrich.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/indian_buffalo_management_act_bill_text.pdf">develop the capacity of tribes</a>” to manage bison and bison habitat.</p>
<p>“The restoration of buffalo back to our tribes and communities and reservations is <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/04/us/native-american-tribes-bison.html">part of our healing</a>,” Jason Baldes, a member of the Eastern Shoshone from Wyoming, and the tribal buffalo coordinator for the National Wildlife Federation, told The New York Times, emphasizing why this kind of funding is necessary. </p>
<p>As more bison are returned to tribal communities, I believe, as my grandparents did, that bison are a gift from the Divine. It is a reminder also of how Native peoples relate to and understand the natural world and its deep religious meaning.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211252/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rosalyn R. LaPier served as an advisor and was interviewed for the PBS documentary film "The American Buffalo". </span></em></p>Efforts are being made to develop the capacity of Native tribes to manage bison and bison habitats. An Indigenous scholar explains their sacred significance.Rosalyn R. LaPier, Professor of History, University of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2145072023-10-04T13:43:24Z2023-10-04T13:43:24ZLion protection fee paid by tourists could help stop trophy hunting – South African study<p>Trophy hunting is contentious. It typically involves paying for and pursuing a specific wild animal, often a large or iconic species, with the goal of killing it to obtain a trophy, such as the animal’s head, horns, or hide. </p>
<p>Popular public opinion is <a href="https://www.hsi.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/eu-trophy-hunting-poll.pdf">largely</a> in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2022.1061295/full">favour</a> of <a href="https://www.worldanimalprotection.org/press-release/new-trophy-hunting-research-puts-south-africas-tourism-industry-in-peril">ending</a> the killing of wild animals for sport. However, the topic is hotly debated by policymakers and academics because of the potential financial <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/conl.12877?src=getftr">incentives</a> it can provide to local communities and landowners to support conservation efforts.</p>
<p>Against this backdrop, we <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989423002913">set out</a> to test whether visitors to South Africa would be willing to pay a “lion protection fee” at border entry points. Our idea was that this could compensate for any lost revenue from trophy hunting were it to be banned. </p>
<p>We chose lions because they have wide appeal and are one of the most readily recognised trophy hunted animals.</p>
<p>We spoke to 907 people who were visiting, or planned to visit, the country. We <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989423002913">found</a> that a high percentage – over 80% – were in favour of the idea of a lion protection fee. And we calculated, on the basis of two scenarios, that the amount they were willing to pay could generate enough funds to equal, if not exceed, those currently generated by trophy hunting in South Africa. </p>
<p>Our findings come at an important time. South Africa is opening a public policy <a href="https://www.gov.za/speeches/minister-barbara-creecy-invites-comments-draft-policy-position-conservation-and-sustainable">consultation</a> on how the country can adopt a more sustainable and ethically driven approach to wildlife conservation.</p>
<h2>A complex debate</h2>
<p>The competitive nature of trophy hunting, in particular, has raised serious animal welfare concerns. Animals may experience huge stress as they’re pursued for days and separated from their family groups. Some hunting outfits use methods which may inflict prolonged and undue animal suffering.</p>
<p>From a conservation perspective, some advocate for trophy hunting because, for example, income generated may help mitigate human-wildlife conflicts, support anti-poaching efforts, and prevent land containing wildlife from being converted to other uses. They believe that <a href="https://www.conservationfrontlines.org/2019/10/trophy-hunting-bans-imperil-biodiversity/">banning</a> it could negatively affect conservation and community livelihoods. </p>
<p>Others, however, argue that trophy hunting could negatively affect conservation. For instance the specific targeting of certain animals – like males – could have a <a href="https://trophiccascades.forestry.oregonstate.edu/sites/trophic/files/Ripple_TREE_2016.pdf">harmful</a> effect on species population dynamics and social structures. Questions have also been <a href="https://digitalmallblobstorage.blob.core.windows.net/wp-content/2022/03/Trophy-Hunting-Working-paper.pdf">raised</a> as to whether funds from trophy hunting always reach local communities or those on the frontlines of conservation.</p>
<p>Ultimately, these discussions come down to a single issue: popular public opinion is <a href="https://www.worldanimalprotection.org/press-release/new-trophy-hunting-research-puts-south-africas-tourism-industry-in-peril">against</a> trophy hunting, but how could the financial revenue that it generates be replaced?</p>
<h2>Lion protection fee</h2>
<p>We surveyed people who had previously visited South Africa, or who would consider visiting in the future. We drew respondents from overseas countries and from the African continent.</p>
<p>Respondents were shown a statement saying that a total ban on trophy hunting in South Africa would help protect lions by preventing them from being hunted and killed as trophies. And that such a ban could be funded by introducing a “lion protection fee”, added to the visas of incoming tourists. </p>
<p>They were then asked questions to gauge what daily fee would be acceptable and how likely they would be to visit South Africa under different daily fee scenarios.</p>
<p>Of 907 respondents, 84.2% stated that being charged a “lion protection fee” was a “great” or a “good” idea. A minority (7.5%) had a negative view. Only two respondents (0.2%) indicated a pro-trophy hunting attitude.</p>
<p>We used this survey to create initial estimates of the maximum price ranges tourists would be willing to pay. </p>
<p>There were two main fee scenarios.</p>
<p>In the first scenario, overseas visitors would pay between US$6 and US$7 for every day they’re in the country for a maximum of six days. Southern African tourists would pay between US$3 and US$4. We worked on tourist numbers which we sourced from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989423002913?ref=cra_js_challenge&fr=RR-1#tbl0020">Statistics South Africa</a>. Our calculations were based on around 2.6 million overseas visitors and 12.3 million southern African tourists.</p>
<p>In the second scenario, fees would be collected as a one-off departure tax of US$6 for all foreign visitors leaving by land or sea, and US$33 for air passengers. Once again, we used tourist numbers from the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989423002913?ref=cra_js_challenge&fr=RR-1#tbl0020">Statistics South Africa</a>. Our calculations were based on around 10.5 million foreign visitors leaving by land, 70,000 leaving by sea, and 3.4 million flying out.</p>
<p>Our calculations show that in both scenarios enough funds could be generated to at least equal, but potentially exceed, the US$176.1 million currently generated by trophy hunting of all the iconic species in South Africa a year. These calculations are based on numbers of visitors from different traveller categories multiplied by the median number of days those traveller-types stay.</p>
<p>Based on the number of respondents who said they would rather not visit because of the fees, we calculated that there would be a 15% decrease in the number of tourists willing to visit South Africa. But we argue that these decreases could be partially compensated for by increased visits from travellers previously deterred by trophy hunting – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989423002913#bibliog0005">13%</a> of those who did not wish to travel to South Africa cited trophy hunting as a reason.</p>
<p>A 2021 <a href="https://www.hsi.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/eu-trophy-hunting-poll.pdf">survey</a> of European Union citizens backs up our findings. It showed that 84% of 10,687 respondents were either somewhat or strongly opposed to “the trophy hunting of wild animals found in Africa”.</p>
<h2>Replacing trophy hunting revenue</h2>
<p>Our findings could pave the way for a responsible transition away from trophy hunting without unintended repercussions for wildlife and the communities that rely on them. </p>
<p>The practical implementation would need diligent deliberation. For example, administrative logistics and sensitivity to fluctuations in visitor numbers must be taken into account.</p>
<p>In addition, while the idea of channelling these funds towards landowners and communities for wildlife conservation holds promise, there are concerns about public trust in institutions. Such funds must be carefully managed. </p>
<p>The types of tourism taxes we propose are not new. Twenty-two countries around the world currently <a href="https://blog.wego.com/tourist-tax/">charge</a> a tax on tourists to preserve their natural and cultural heritage. </p>
<p>This is a pivotal <a href="https://www.gov.za/speeches/minister-barbara-creecy-invites-comments-draft-policy-position-conservation-and-sustainable">moment</a> for the future of South Africa’s biodiversity and ethical wildlife tourism. The question now is whether the country seizes this opportunity to redefine its approach to conservation and chart a new course towards a more sustainable and compassionate future.</p>
<p><em>The authors extend their thanks to Dr Tom Moorhouse for his collaboration on this research and informative insights on this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214507/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil D’Cruze works for an international NGO, World Animal Protection as the Global Head of Wildlife Research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Angie Elwin works for an international NGO, World Animal Protection as a Wildlife Research Manager.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Herbert Ntuli did not receive funding to work on this article. </span></em></p>Lion protection fees paid by tourists could pave the way for a responsible transition away from trophy hunting without affecting the communities that rely on hunting revenue.Neil D’Cruze, Global Head of Wildlife Research, World Animal Protection, and Visiting Researcher, Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU), University of OxfordAngie Elwin, Wildlife Research Manager at World Animal Protection and Visiting Research Fellow, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityHerbert Ntuli, Senior Lecturer, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2120142023-08-24T02:03:32Z2023-08-24T02:03:32ZLeakage or spillover? Conservation parks boost biodiversity outside them – but there’s a catch, new study shows<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544193/original/file-20230823-23-fvjmxw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=146%2C0%2C1514%2C1005&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Southern Red Muntjac deer peering at a camera trap.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s easy to assume protected areas such as national parks conserve wildlife – that seems obvious. But what is the proof? And how does park success vary across different ecosystems – in deserts versus tropical rainforests, or wetlands versus oceans? </p>
<p>While we can use satellite imagery to measure the effect of protected areas in reducing human impacts such as logging, you can’t see the animals from space. In particularly dense tropical rainforests, it was nearly impossible to accurately monitor wildlife, until remotely triggered camera traps became available in the past decade.</p>
<p>There is a longstanding conservation debate on the benefits that protected areas such as national parks have for biodiversity. </p>
<p>Some scientists have argued that conservation success inside park boundaries may come at the expense of neighbouring unprotected habitats. Essentially, they suggest parks displace impacts such as hunting and logging to other nearby areas. The technical term for this is <a href="https://rest.neptune-prod.its.unimelb.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/018f26e0-7629-51b3-8bf4-5b3b4323c91d/content">leakage</a>. </p>
<p>On the other hand, marine parks have often reported higher biodiversity nearby. Fish reproduce successfully inside park boundaries and their offspring disperse, benefiting surrounding habitats in a “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1617138116300255">spillover</a>” effect. </p>
<p>We set out to see which of those effects actually prevails in protected land areas and their surrounds. Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06410-z">new study</a>, published today in Nature, shows parks do enhance bird diversity inside their borders. Large parks also support higher diversity of both birds and mammals in nearby unprotected areas.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/JQQ_5puMPy8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Rare rainforest species captured by camera traps used by the research team in protected areas across South-East Asia.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-new-major-players-in-conservation-ngos-thrive-while-national-parks-struggle-199880">The new major players in conservation? NGOs thrive while national parks struggle</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What did the study look at?</h2>
<p>We recruited an international team of scientists to conduct a comprehensive analysis of bird and mammal diversity inside and outside parks across South-East Asia. We used more than 2,000 cameras and bird surveys across the region.</p>
<p>South-East Asia is one of the <a href="https://www.wildcru.org/news/south-east-asias-hotspots-of-biodiversity/">most biodiverse regions</a> on Earth, but <a href="https://rdcu.be/dkacH">hunting is a key concern</a>. It’s a prime suspect for why diversity has often been assumed to decline outside protected park areas. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three people attaching a camera trap to a tree" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Members of the research team set up a camera trap in Sumatra.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Pheasant in a rainforest clearing" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Silver Pheasant eyes the camera.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Hunters are mobile, so hunting bans within park boundaries may only displace these activities to nearby unprotected areas, undermining their net benefit. To be honest, we were surprised mammal diversity was higher outside large parks. It’s common to see hunters both inside and outside parks in many countries. </p>
<p>We expected hunters’ removal of game animals would reduce diversity outside parks. However, it appears large parks limit the impacts of hunting so it does not completely remove these animals. Specifically, when comparing unprotected areas near large reserves to unprotected areas that didn’t border large reserves, we found large reserves boosted mammal diversity in unprotected areas by up to 194%.</p>
<p>However, a sad note from our study was the finding that only larger parks significantly enhanced mammal diversity, casting doubt on the effectiveness of smaller parks for mammal conservation. Recent work in the region suggests many <a href="https://science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq2307">large mammals persist in small parks</a>, but our study shows the presence of a few resilient animals in small parks doesn’t scale up to higher biodiversity overall.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A wild cat in a rainforest clearing" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A Marbled Cat looks back at the camera.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors</span></span>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-protecting-land-for-wildlife-size-matters-heres-what-it-takes-to-conserve-very-large-areas-201848">In protecting land for wildlife, size matters – here's what it takes to conserve very large areas</a>
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</em>
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<h2>Not all parks are equal</h2>
<p>These findings are especially timely for the United Nations, which recently announced more ambitious biodiversity targets, including significant expansions of global protected areas. The <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/kunming-montreal-global-biodiversity-framework">UN strategy</a> is to conserve 30% of Earth’s lands and waters by 2030 – the so-called “<a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/global-environment-summit-idAFL8N32R3GW">30 by 30 goal</a>”. Massive expansions of the global area of protected land will be difficult and expensive, but our results support this approach.</p>
<p>The work provides a clear case for park design to consider size. Larger parks routinely had higher bird diversity. Large mammals such as tigers and elephants travel huge distances and don’t see park boundaries drawn on maps. Larger parks support these wide-ranging animals that move across entire landscapes.</p>
<p>Considering the UN’s goal of increasing protected area to 30% of the world’s surface, our findings support the creation of fewer larger parks, rather than many smaller ones. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Elephant's foot and trunk in a rainforest clearing" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A Thai elephant captured by the camera trap moments before destroying it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors</span></span>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/protecting-30-of-australias-land-and-sea-by-2030-sounds-great-but-its-not-what-it-seems-187435">Protecting 30% of Australia's land and sea by 2030 sounds great – but it's not what it seems</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Next steps in South-East Asia and Australia</h2>
<p>Our findings also provide a much-needed conservation “win” for South-East Asia. Despite being a biodiversity hotspot, the region suffers from <a href="https://earth.org/deforestation-in-southeast-asia/">high rates of forest loss</a> and hunting, which pose threats to birds and mammals.</p>
<p>Our team built a collaborative network and massive database to conduct the analysis, and this can also be used to answer other questions. Our next project will quantify shifts in abundance – the numbers of animals rather than numbers of species – inside and outside parks. We suspect parks will support increased mammal and bird abundances, even more than increased in wildlife diversity.</p>
<p>Based on the success of the Asian collaborative network project, a related team is now building a domestic collaborative network and database to conduct similar analyses, called <a href="https://www.ecologicalcascades.com/wildobs">Wildlife Observatory of Australia</a>. Key questions will include the impact of fire and climate change on Australia’s wildlife diversity and abundance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212014/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The research discussed in this article was supported by the United Nations Development Programme, NASA grants NNL15AA03C and 80NSSC21K0189, the National Geographic Society’s Committee for the Research and Exploration award #9384–13, the Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Researcher Award DECRA #DE210101440, the Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, the Darwin Initiative, Liebniz-IZW, and the Universities of Aberdeen, British Columbia, Montana and Queensland. Mammal data collection in one study area (out of 65) was funded by Sarawak Energy Berhad; no personnel from that agency participated in the data collection or analysis or reviewed the manuscript before it was submitted.</span></em></p>The UN ‘30 by 30’ biodiversity strategy aims to set aside 30% of land as protected areas. New research shows these areas do support biodiversity, but big parks also increase it outside their borders.Matthew Scott Luskin, Researcher and Lecturer in Conservation Science, The University of QueenslandJedediah Brodie, Research Fellow, Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak; Associate Professor and John Craighead Endowed Chair of Conservation, University of MontanaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2112312023-08-10T13:58:23Z2023-08-10T13:58:23ZLion farming in South Africa: fresh evidence adds weight to fears of link with illegal bone trade<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541988/original/file-20230809-29-vnsu56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">GettyImages</span> </figcaption></figure><p>In South Africa an estimated <a href="https://www.conservationaction.co.za/answer-to-south-african-parlimentary-question-noting-there-are-approximately-7979-lions-in-captivity-in-366-facilities/">8,000 lions</a> are bred and kept in captivity for commercial purposes in more than 350 facilities. This is far more than the country’s wild population, estimated at <a href="https://h8l0bb.p3cdn1.secureserver.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/31.-African-Lion-Panthera-leo_LC.pdf">3,500 individuals</a>.</p>
<p>These big cats are exploited in a variety of different ways including interactive cub “petting” tourism, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-studies-review/article/abs/moving-targets-the-canned-hunting-of-captivebred-lions-in-south-africa/929CD0F7D4825D9DB6CD52DEEE1B9B27">“canned” trophy hunting</a> (where the lions are hunted in small enclosures with no chance of escape), <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0217409">live exports</a>, and the supply of body parts for use in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2022.906398/full">traditional</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1617138120301205?via%3Dihub">medicine</a>. </p>
<p>Despite <a href="https://theconversation.com/lions-are-still-being-farmed-in-south-africa-for-hunters-and-tourism-they-shouldnt-be-208584">ongoing controversy</a> surrounding this industry – in particular related to reports of <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/lion-farm-south-africa">animal cruelty</a> and risks to <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/9/1692">public health</a> – the commercial captive breeding and canned hunting of lions in South Africa is <a href="https://theconversation.com/lions-are-still-being-farmed-in-south-africa-for-hunters-and-tourism-they-shouldnt-be-208584">still legal</a>. </p>
<p>By contrast, the export of lion bones, claws, skulls, and teeth originating from lion farms is currently illegal. This follows a <a href="http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZAGPPHC/2019/337.html">high court declaration</a> in 2019 in which the lion bone export quota was declared unconstitutional. Subsequently, no official
<a href="https://speciesplus.net/species#/taxon_concepts/6353/legal">CITES export quotas</a> for lion skeletons have been set.</p>
<p>We are wildlife researchers who have been focused on various aspects of South Africa’s commercial captive lion industry including its <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/animal-welfare/article/welfare-concerns-associated-with-captive-lions-panthera-leo-and-the-implications-for-commercial-lion-farms-in-south-africa/BDD074F3A15EB226827F1BCE78AEE8ED">potential impacts</a>, how it is <a href="https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/article/85292/">being regulated</a>, and what may be influencing <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320719313448">consumer demand</a>. </p>
<p>We also work with <a href="https://www.worldanimalprotection.org/">World Animal Protection</a>, an animal protection organisation, that has released a <a href="https://www.worldanimalprotection.org/sites/default/files/media/SALions-Report23.pdf">new report</a> on the industry, which we contributed to. The report adds credence to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/who-buys-lion-bones-inside-south-africas-skeleton-trade">pre-existing</a> <a href="https://www.wildcru.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Bones_of_contention.pdf">concerns</a> <a href="https://mg.co.za/article/2019-08-06-nspca-wins-lion-bone-trade-case-against-department/">about</a> <a href="https://www.occrp.org/en/investigations/inside-south-africas-brutal-lion-bone-trade">how</a> some of these types of facilities operate. </p>
<p>Specifically, that some are using legal activities – like captive breeding and canned hunting – to fuel (and potentially cover) their involvement in the illegal international big cat bone trade. Lion bones are sought after for use in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2022.906398/full">traditional</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1617138120301205?via%3Dihub">medicine</a>. </p>
<p>This finding adds more weight to <a href="https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/com/ac/30/Inf/E-AC30-Inf-15x.pdf">various</a> <a href="https://www.occrp.org/en/investigations/inside-south-africas-brutal-lion-bone-trade">reports</a> about the <a href="https://www.wildcru.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Bones_of_contention.pdf">illegal</a> <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/who-buys-lion-bones-inside-south-africas-skeleton-trade">trade in lion</a> bones over the years.</p>
<h2>A nexus of legal and illegal trade</h2>
<p>Many of South Africa’s captive lion facilities are open to the public who pay to see and have direct contact with the big cats. However, others are situated in remote locations and operate ‘off grid’. They are closed to the public.</p>
<p>As part of our ongoing research into this industry, in late 2022, we received disturbing intelligence from anonymous sources employed by some of these ‘off grid’ lion farms. This information formed the basis of the new World Animal Protection <a href="https://www.worldanimalprotection.org/sites/default/files/media/SALions-Report23.pdf">report</a>.</p>
<p>When dealing with issues involving wildlife and illegality, researchers often rely on sources whose identity must be kept hidden for their own protection. Recent studies carried out in this way include those focused on the illegal <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/wildlife-watch-news-jaguar-poaching-trafficking-suriname?loggedin=true&rnd=1691567470159">killing</a>, <a href="https://crimesciencejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40163-019-0101-4">processing</a>, and <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/going-over-the-wall-insights-into-the-illegal-production-of-jaguar-products-in-a-bolivian-prison/14883C21875144A43E5AF6DFCEC72A02">trade</a> of jaguar parts in South America. </p>
<p>The South African sources told us about the involvement of captive lion facilities in the international big cat bone trade. Essentially, there’s a well-established and effective legal operation which is plugged into an illicit trade network.</p>
<p>Whereas after a canned trophy hunt the skin, paws, and skull of lions are prized trophies by hunters, the lion’s bones are coveted by illegal wildlife traffickers.</p>
<p>In some cases, entire carcasses are left intact and are packed into cardboard boxes ready for shipment and for Asian bone buyers to collect. The reason this is done is to certify authenticity (that it is a lion carcass) and ensure tracking devices have not been inserted into the bones. </p>
<p>Sources also described how these facilities use various tools and tactics, such as security cameras, patrols and messaging apps to avoid detection during inspections. </p>
<h2>A way forward</h2>
<p>The fact that the commercial captive lion bone trade in South Africa is juxtaposed within a network of dealers that operate both legally and illegally is nothing new. In fact, illegal and unethical activities associated with the industry were a contributing factor which led a team of relevant experts (including traditional leaders, lion farmers and scientists) <a href="https://www.dffe.gov.za/sites/default/files/reports/2020-12-22_high-levelpanel_report.pdf">to conclude in a report released in 2020 that</a> it was “tarnishing the country’s reputation with political and economic risks”.</p>
<p>Consequently, the South African Government <a href="https://www.dffe.gov.za/speeches/creecy_releaseofhlpreport_pretoria?fbclid=IwAR071TG1zwa1IX5kpFLvubD6NEhQfmculxdT6rYLBdh-TVPpY6jQn7RHKhU">announced its intention</a>, with cabinet’s approval, to immediately halt the “domestication and exploitation of lions, and to ultimately close all captive lion facilities in South Africa”. But nothing has changed so far. The captive breeding and canned hunting of lions has continued.</p>
<p>Moreover, in late 2022, a <a href="https://www.gov.za/speeches/minister-barbara-creecy-appoints-ministerial-task-team-identify-and-recommend-voluntary">ministerial task team</a> was asked to “develop and implement a voluntary exit strategy and pathways for captive lion facilities”. This raised serious questions about whether the government was wavering in its stated intention to shut down the commercial captive lion breeding.</p>
<p>But given the intertwined legal and illegal aspects of this industry, it is highly doubtful whether a voluntary phasing out of the industry will be enough to stop the commercial exploitation of lions in South Africa.</p>
<p>Instead, there should be a strategy which includes a <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/11/6/1717">mandatory time bound termination</a> of the lion farming industry in its entirety.</p>
<p>In the interim, to help enforcement agencies manage and ensure facilities comply with the law during an effective phase out, the industry needs to be fully audited, with all facilities officially registered.</p>
<p>To help prevent legal trade being used as a cover for illegal trade, farms should be required to stop breeding more lions. In addition, proper plans must be put in place to prevent the stockpiling of lion bones.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil D’Cruze works for an international NGO, World Animal Protection as the Global Head of Wildlife Research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Angie Elwin works for an international NGO, World Animal Protection as a Wildlife Research Manager.</span></em></p>South Africa’s legal commercial lion industry is helping to act as a cover for the illegal international big cat bone trade.Neil D’Cruze, Global Head of Wildlife Research, World Animal Protection, and Visiting Researcher, Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU), University of OxfordAngie Elwin, Wildlife Research Manager at World Animal Protection and Visiting Research Fellow, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2092182023-07-10T02:24:50Z2023-07-10T02:24:50Z10 reasons humans kill animals – and why we can’t avoid it<p>As long as humans have existed, they’ve killed animals. But the necessity of some types of animal killing are now questioned by many. So can humans ever stop killing animals entirely? And if not, what’s the best way forward?</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723039062">New research</a> I led investigates these questions. My colleagues and I identified the ten main reasons why humans kill animals. We found the need for some types of animal killing is questionable, but several forms are inescapable – a necessary part of humanity’s involvement in a single, functioning, finite global food web. </p>
<p>But the debate doesn’t end there. Even if humans must kill animals in some cases, they can modify their behaviours to improve the welfare of animals while they are alive, and to reduce an animal’s suffering when it is killed. </p>
<p>Doing so may improve the lives of animals to a greater extent than efforts to eliminate human killing entirely.</p>
<h2>Why humans kill animals</h2>
<p>Critics of animal-killing come from a variety of perspectives. Some oppose it on <a href="http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0048-9697(23)03906-2/rf0005">moral grounds</a>. Others claim animals should have <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.13494">rights equal</a> to humans, and say animal killing is a criminal act. Many people view any animal killing as <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.13126">cruel</a>, regardless of whether the animal suffers.</p>
<p>But as valid and important as these views might be, they largely fail to address <em>why</em> humans kill animals – and why in many cases, it can’t be avoided. Our research sought to shed light on this. </p>
<p>We focus our discussion on vertebrate animals which are almost universally recognised as “sentient” (or able to perceive and feel things). We identified ten main reasons humans kill animals: </p>
<p><strong>1. Wild harvest or food acquisition:</strong> such as killing wild animals for meat</p>
<p><strong>2. Human health and safety:</strong> such as reactively killing an animal when it attacks you</p>
<p><strong>3. Agriculture and aquaculture:</strong> such as killing that occurs in the global meat industries, or killing required to produce crops</p>
<p><strong>4. Urbanisation and industrialisation:</strong> such as clearing bushland to build homes</p>
<p><strong>5. Wildlife control:</strong> such as programs that eradicate introduced animals to stop them killing native ones</p>
<p><strong>6. Threatened species conservation:</strong> such as unintentionally killing animals when relocating them</p>
<p><strong>7. Recreation, sport or entertainment:</strong> such as trophy hunting or bull fighting, and animal killing required to feed domestic pets</p>
<p><strong>8. Mercy or compassion:</strong> such as euthanasing an animal hit by a car</p>
<p><strong>9. Cultural and religious practice:</strong> such as animal sacrifice during the Islamic celebration of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jul/01/sydney-muslims-take-eid-al-adha-livestock-sacrifice-into-their-own-hands">Eid al-Adha</a>, or those associated with the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1594756">Yoruba</a> religion of West Africa</p>
<p><strong>10. Research, education and testing:</strong> such as the laboratory use of rodents or primates.</p>
<h2>Understanding human killing behaviour</h2>
<p>So how best should we understand the above types of animal killing? Our research considers them in ecological terms – as behaviours consistent with our predatory and competitive roles in the global food web. Such behaviours are intended to improve human prospects for acquiring food or to protect and enhance life. These are innate life objectives for any sentient animal.</p>
<p>Maintenance of all life on Earth requires obtaining, using, disposing of and recycling chemical elements. Ecosystems can be thought of as a “battleground” for these elements.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/peter-singers-fresh-take-on-animal-liberation-a-book-that-changed-the-world-but-not-enough-205830">Some people argue</a> that directly killing animals is unacceptable, or that adopting certain lifestyles or diets, such as veganism, can eliminate or greatly reduce animal killing. But in our view, achieving a no-killing lifestyle is a physical and ecological impossibility. </p>
<p>For instance, most plant foods come from crops grown on land where animals have been <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/11/5/1225">killed or displaced</a>. And while an animal-free diet for humans might temporarily reduce the number of animals killed, this won’t last forever. As human populations continue to grow, more land will eventually be needed to meet their food requirements. At that point, humans will have to directly or indirectly kill animals again or risk dying themselves.</p>
<p>Humans also need space to live, which <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723039062?ref=pdf_download&fr=RR-2&rr=7e2e8f44ae1aaae3#bbb1045">results in</a> animal killing when habitat is razed.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/not-just-activists-9-out-of-10-people-are-concerned-about-animal-welfare-in-australian-farming-117077">Not just activists, 9 out of 10 people are concerned about animal welfare in Australian farming</a>
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<p>Of course, in rare cases an individual human may live without killing animals directly. Perhaps they live in a cave in the forest, and get sustenance from wild berries and mushrooms. But that human still lives inside the food web, and is competing against other animals for finite resources. In these cases, other animals may suffer and die because the human’s use of berries and caves leaves less food and space for them.</p>
<p>Even if that human could do no harm at all to any animal, it’s still impossible for societies at large to live in this way.</p>
<p>Some forms of animal killing are certainly not essential for human existence. Good examples are recreational hunting, euthanasia or keeping pets (which requires killing animals to feed them). And we certainly do not condone direct human participation in all forms of animal killing. </p>
<p>It’s also important to note that in many cases, current levels of animal killing are <a href="https://www.opsociety.org/stop-unsustainable-fishing/">unsustainable</a>. Human populations have increased to the point where animals must be killed on enormous scales to feed, house and protect ourselves. If this continues, animal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723039062?ref=pdf_download&fr=RR-2&rr=7e2e8f44ae1aaae3#bbb0905">populations</a> will <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723039062?ref=pdf_download&fr=RR-2&rr=7e2e8f44ae1aaae3#bbb0910">crash</a> – and with them, human populations.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, we maintain that the overall necessity of animal killing is an unavoidable reality for humanity as a whole. A variety of direct and indirect forms of animal killing will undoubtedly remain an ongoing human endeavour. </p>
<h2>Taking responsibility</h2>
<p>So what are the implications of all this? We hope our research leads to a constructive dialogue, which starts with accepting that human existence on Earth is dependent on animal killing. It should then focus on the nuances of animal welfare and sustainability. </p>
<p>Humans are the only known animals with an ethical or moral conscience. That means we have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723039062?ref=pdf_download&fr=RR-2&rr=7e2e8f44ae1aaae3#bbb0650">a responsibility</a> to assume a stewardship role over all other animals, to resolve negative interactions between them as best as possible, and to ensure good welfare for as many animals as we can.</p>
<p>Directing our attention in this way is likely to improve the lives of animals to a greater extent than trying to prevent humans from killing animals altogether – efforts my colleagues and I believe will ultimately be in vain.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-the-states-consider-animal-welfare-law-reform-what-changes-would-curb-cruelty-against-animals-201089">As the states consider animal welfare law reform, what changes would curb cruelty against animals?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209218/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This work arose and was funded, in part, from a CIB Fellowship awarded to Benjamin Allen by the inter-institutional Centre for Invasion Biology (CIB) Centre of Excellence in South Africa, co-funded principally by the South African Department of Science and Technology through the National Research Foundation (DST-NRF).</span></em></p>Humans must kill animals in many cases, but they can still modify their behaviours to improve the welfare of animals while they are alive.Benjamin Allen, Wildlife ecologist, University of Southern QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2085842023-06-29T14:35:11Z2023-06-29T14:35:11ZLions are still being farmed in South Africa for hunters and tourism – they shouldn’t be<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534742/original/file-20230629-21-1i6qhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lions at a commercial facility in South Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy Bloodlions</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>A man <a href="https://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/fur-crying-out-loud-man-en-route-to-vietnam-with-lion-bones-in-luggage-arrested-at-or-tambo-airport-20230624">was arrested</a> at the OR Tambo International Airport in Johannesburg, South Africa, on 23 June 2023 with five lion carcasses in his luggage. He was about to board a flight to Vietnam, where the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1617138120301205">use of lion bones</a> in traditional medicines is practised.</em></p>
<p><em>The seizure is commendable but highlights South Africa’s controversial legal industry of breeding lions in captivity. Wildlife researchers Neil D'Cruze and Jennah Green, who <a href="https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/article/85292/">have studied</a> <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/animal-welfare/article/welfare-concerns-associated-with-captive-lions-panthera-leo-and-the-implications-for-commercial-lion-farms-in-south-africa/BDD074F3A15EB226827F1BCE78AEE8ED">lion farming</a> in South Africa, share their insights into the industry and explain why it should be shut down.</em></p>
<h2>Why are lions being farmed?</h2>
<p>Lions have been intensively farmed for commercial purposes in South Africa since <a href="https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/article/85108/">the 1990s</a>. </p>
<p>These wild animals are exploited as entertainment attractions for tourists, like cub petting and “<a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJSSP-09-2019-0187/full/html?utm_source=TrendMD&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=International_Journal_of_Sociology_and_Social_Policy_TrendMD_1&WT.mc_id=Emerald_TrendMD_1&origin=3cae929be2db3212856de1b1d31d40b3">walk with lions</a>” experiences. Others are used for <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-studies-review/article/abs/moving-targets-the-canned-hunting-of-captivebred-lions-in-south-africa/929CD0F7D4825D9DB6CD52DEEE1B9B27">“canned” trophy hunting</a>, where the lion is hunted in an enclosed space, with no chance of escape. </p>
<p>They are also used for traditional medicine both in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2022.906398/full">South Africa</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1617138120301205?via%3Dihub">internationally</a>, where their body parts, particularly their bones, are exported to Asia. They’re used as ingredients in traditional Asian medicine, such as <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/who-buys-lion-bones-inside-south-africas-skeleton-trade">“wines” and tonics</a>. These would usually contain tiger bone, but lion bones are <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2015.18004">being used as a substitute</a>. </p>
<p>They’re also <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0217409">sold live</a>.</p>
<h2>What does the lion farming industry look like?</h2>
<p>According <a href="https://www.conservationaction.co.za/answer-to-south-african-parlimentary-question-noting-there-are-approximately-7979-lions-in-captivity-in-366-facilities/">to official records</a> in 2019, around 8,000 lions are being held in over 350 facilities in South Africa. In contrast, the current wild population in the country is estimated to be about <a href="https://research.tees.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/58421649/s10592_023_01530_5.pdf"> 3,500 lions</a>. </p>
<p>Some farms also breed <a href="https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/article/85108/">other big cats</a>, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/tigers-in-south-africa-a-farming-industry-exists-often-for-their-body-parts-198238">tigers</a>, cheetahs, leopards, jaguars and hybrids. </p>
<p>The exact number of lions and other species on commercial “lion farms” across South Africa, however, is unknown. The industry has <a href="https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/article/85108/">never been fully audited</a> and not all farms are officially registered. In addition, corruption and a lack of proper <a href="https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/article/85292/">record-keeping</a> make it difficult for authorities to manage the industry and ensure facilities comply with the law.</p>
<h2>How is the industry regulated?</h2>
<p>A major problem is how the lion farming industry is being regulated in South Africa. </p>
<p>At a national level, governance of this industry has fallen under a patchwork of legislation including the <a href="https://www.gov.za/documents/national-environmental-management-biodiversity-act-0">National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act</a> and regulations around <a href="https://www.gov.za/documents/national-environmental-management-biodiversity-act-lists-threatened-and-protected-species">threatened or protected species</a>. With national and provincial concurrence, the regulation of the industry falls to the provincial nature conservation authorities. </p>
<p>But, as there is no centralised national system, transparency and enforcement is difficult. This results in grey areas that cloud the legality of the industry and its associated activities, contributing to <a href="https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/article/85108/">confusion and noncompliance throughout</a>.</p>
<p>Likewise, at an international level, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0249306">lion bone exports are regulated</a> under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). But the industry has been under scrutiny since 2019, when a <a href="http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZAGPPHC/2019/337.html">high court in South Africa declared</a> the lion bone export quota unconstitutional – due in large part to <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/animal-welfare/article/welfare-concerns-associated-with-captive-lions-panthera-leo-and-the-implications-for-commercial-lion-farms-in-south-africa/BDD074F3A15EB226827F1BCE78AEE8ED">animal welfare concerns</a>. </p>
<p>Consequently, since that time, the CITES export quota <a href="https://speciesplus.net/species#/taxon_concepts/6353/legal">has been deferred</a>, resulting in a “zero quota”. This means that lion skeletons cannot be legally exported for commercial purposes. And any subsequent exports originating from lion farms are illegal.</p>
<h2>Why is this industry a problem?</h2>
<p>Lion farming in South Africa is controversial. </p>
<p>The industry has been <a href="https://academicjournals.org/journal/IJBC/article-abstract/6AC3AF766598">estimated by some</a> to contribute up to R500 million (US$42 million) annually to the South African economy. However, in 2021 a <a href="https://www.dffe.gov.za/sites/default/files/reports/2020-12-22_high-levelpanel_report.pdf">high level report</a> compiled by relevant experts (including traditional leaders, lion farmers and scientists) highlighted that the industry posed a risk to public health (because of the potential transmission of <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/9/1692">zoonotic disease</a> and <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/african-journal-of-wildlife-research/volume-53/issue-1/056.053.0021/Biting-the-Hand-that-Feeds-You--Attacks-by-Captive/10.3957/056.053.0021.short">lion attacks</a>), “does not contribute meaningfully to the conservation of wild lions”, and was tarnishing the country’s reputation with “political and economic risks”. </p>
<p>This led to the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/202106/44776gon566.pdf">announcing its intention</a>, which cabinet later adopted, to immediately halt the “domestication and exploitation of lions, and to ultimately close all captive lion facilities in South Africa”.</p>
<p>But nothing has changed. The captive breeding and canned hunting of lions has continued.</p>
<h2>What should be done about the industry?</h2>
<p>The minister’s public announcement of South Africa’s intention to stop lion farming was a defining development regarding this controversial industry and its future. However, in late 2022, a <a href="https://www.gov.za/speeches/forestry-fisheries-and-environment-ministerial-task-team-identify-and-recommend-voluntary">ministerial task team</a> was asked to “develop and implement a voluntary exit strategy for captive lion facilities”. This was the first time the word “voluntary” had been used in public government communications on this issue. It raised serious questions about whether the government was wavering in its stated intention to end commercial captive lion breeding.</p>
<p>It is highly doubtful whether a voluntary phasing out alone can halt the commercial exploitation of lions and establish a process to close lion farms as recommended in the high level panel report. Instead, it should only be considered as an initial step. <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/11/6/1717">There should be a strategy</a> which includes a mandatory time bound termination of the lion farming industry in its entirety. </p>
<p>Until then, to aid enforcement agencies and their efforts, lion farms should be required to stop breeding more lions and stop their canned hunting operations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208584/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil D’Cruze works for an international NGO, World Animal Protection as the Global Head of Wildlife Research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennah Green is affiliated with an international NGO, World Animal Protection as a Wildlife Research Manager. </span></em></p>About 8,000 lions are being held in facilities across South Africa. In some cases, a legal operation is plugged into an illicit trade network.Neil D’Cruze, Global Head of Wildlife Research, World Animal Protection, and Visiting Researcher, Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU), University of OxfordJennah Green, Wildlife Research Manager at World Animal Protection, and Visiting Research Fellow, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1976692023-02-28T13:25:15Z2023-02-28T13:25:15ZWolf restoration in Colorado shows how humans are rethinking their relationships with wild animals<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512301/original/file-20230226-1807-nfapm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=58%2C9%2C6416%2C4465&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A gray wolf in Yellowstone National Park.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nps.gov/media/photo/gallery-item.htm?pg=0&id=ceaf48b2-2bbd-465e-8371-c9d722b2c7a4&gid=25c97bd8-155d-451f-675e208be082fe26">NPS/Jim Peaco</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>From <a href="https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2057065-the-15-biggest-comebacks-in-sports">sports</a> to <a href="https://www.insider.com/celebrity-career-comebacks-2018-5#eminem-released-a-comeback-album-in-2017-16">pop culture</a>, there are few themes more appealing than a good comeback. They happen in nature, too. Even with the Earth <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/05/nature-decline-unprecedented-report/">losing species at a historic rate</a>, some animals have defied the trend toward extinction and started refilling their old ecological niches.</p>
<p>I’m a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=jn11FLMAAAAJ&hl=vi">philosopher based in Montana</a> and specialize in environmental ethics. For my new book, “<a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262047562/">Tenacious Beasts: Wildlife Recoveries That Change How We Think About Animals</a>,” I spent three years looking at wildlife comebacks across North America and Europe and considering the lessons they offer. In every case, whether the returnee is a bison, humpback whale, beaver, salmon, sea otter or wolf, the recovery has created an opportunity for humans to profoundly rethink how we live with these animals. </p>
<p>One place to see the rethink in action is Colorado, where voters <a href="https://ballotpedia.org/Colorado_Proposition_114,_Gray_Wolf_Reintroduction_Initiative_(2020)">approved a ballot measure in 2020</a> mandating the reintroduction of gray wolves west of the Continental Divide. Colorado’s Parks and Wildlife Agency has released a <a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/Documents/Wolves/DRAFT-CO-Wolf-Plan.pdf">draft plan</a> that calls for moving 30 to 50 gray wolves from other Rocky Mountain states into northwest Colorado over five years, starting in 2024.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.aldoleopold.org/about/aldo-leopold/">Aldo Leopold</a>, the famed conservationist and professor of game management at the University of Wisconsin, believed that moral beliefs <a href="https://www.aldoleopold.org/post/understanding-land-ethic/">evolve over time</a> to become more inclusive of the natural world. And what’s happening in Colorado suggests Leopold was right. Human attitudes toward wolves have clearly evolved since the mid-1940s, when <a href="https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/people-predators/wolves-in-colorado-history-and-status-8-007/">bounties, mass poisoning and trapping</a> eradicated wolves from the state.</p>
<p>Recovering animals encounter a world that is markedly different from the one in which they declined, especially in terms of how people think about wildlife. Here are several reasons I see why societal attitudes toward wolves have changed. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Wolves released in northwest Colorado will wear GPS collars that enable wildlife managers to track them.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>The importance of keystone species</h2>
<p>The idea that certain influential species, which ecologists call <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/keystone-species-15786127/">keystone species</a>, can significantly alter the ecosystems around them first <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4156.1058">appeared in scientific literature in 1974</a>. Bison, sea otters, beavers, elephants and wolves all exert this power. One way in which wolves wield influence is by preying on coyotes, which produces <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/Z08-136">ripple effects across the system</a>. Fewer coyotes means more rodents, which in turn means better hunting success for birds of prey.</p>
<p>Wolves also cause nervous behaviors among their prey. Some scientists believe that newly returned predators create a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2019.01.004">landscape of fear</a>” among prey species – a term that isn’t positive or negative, just descriptive. This idea has shifted thinking about predators. For example, elk avoid some areas when wolves are around, resulting in ecological changes that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-015-3515-z">cascade down from the top</a>. Vegetation can recover, which in turn <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/the-big-scientific-debate-trophic-cascades.htm">may benefit other species</a>. </p>
<h2>Insights into pack dynamics</h2>
<p>Animal behavioral science research has provided pointers for better wolf management. Studies show that wolf packs are less likely to prey on livestock <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0113505">if their social structure remains intact</a>. This means that ranchers and wildlife managers should take care not to remove the pack’s breeding pair when problems occur. Doing so can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2597">fragment the pack</a> and send dispersing wolves into new territories. </p>
<p>Wildlife agencies also have access to years of data from close observation of wolf behavior in places like <a href="https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/wolves.htm">Yellowstone National Park</a>, where wolves were reintroduced starting in 1995. This research offers insights into the wolf’s <a href="https://greystonebooks.com/collections/rick-mcintyre">intelligence and social complexity</a>. All of this information helps to show how people can live successfully alongside them. </p>
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<h2>Predators provide economic value</h2>
<p>Research has also demonstrated that wolves provide economic benefits to states and communities. Wisconsin researchers discovered that changes in deer behavior due to the presence of wolves have saved millions of dollars in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023251118">avoided deer collisions with cars</a>. These savings far exceed what it costs the state to manage wolves. </p>
<p>Wolf recovery has been shown to be <a href="https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3577&context=icwdm_usdanwrc">a net economic benefit</a> in areas of the U.S. West where they have returned. The dollars they attract from wolf-watchers, photographers and foreign visitors have provided a valuable new income stream in many communities. </p>
<p>Predators do kill livestock, but improved tracking has helped to put these losses in perspective. Montana Board of Livestock numbers show that wolves, grizzly bears and mountain lions caused the loss of <a href="https://liv.mt.gov/Attached-Agency-Boards/Livestock-Loss-Board/Livestock-Loss-Statistics-2022">131 cattle and 137 sheep</a> in the state in 2022. This is from a total of 2,200,000 cattle and 190,000 sheep. Of the 131 cattle, 36 were confirmed to be taken by wolves – 0.0016% of the statewide herd. </p>
<p>According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, dogs, foxes and coyotes in Montana <a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Montana/Publications/News_Releases/2021/MT-Sheep-Predator-Loss-02102021.pdf">all killed more sheep and lambs than wolves did</a> in 2020. Even eagles were three times more deadly to sheep and lambs than wolves were. </p>
<p>Actual costs to ranchers are certainly higher than these numbers suggest. The presence of wolves <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aat100">causes livestock to lose weight</a> because the animals feed more nervously when wolves are around. Ranchers also lose sleep as they worry about wolves attacking their livestock and guard dogs. And clearly, low statewide kills are small comfort to a rancher who loses a dozen or more animals in one year. Margins are always tight in the livestock business.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A northern Colorado rancher discusses options for protecting his cattle from wolves, which already are naturally present in the state.</span></figcaption>
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<p>What’s more, predators’ economic impacts don’t end with ranching. In Colorado, for example, elk numbers are likely to decline after wolves are reintroduced. This may affect state wildlife agency budgets that rely on license fees from elk hunters. It may also affect hunting outfitters’ incomes. </p>
<p>In my view, voters who supported bringing wolves back to Colorado should remain deeply aware of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2020.106656">the full distribution of costs</a> and support proactive compensation schemes for losses. They should be mindful that support for wolf reintroduction <a href="https://theconversation.com/will-colorado-bring-back-wolves-its-up-to-voters-147244">varies drastically between urban and rural communities</a> and should insist that effective mechanisms are in place ahead of time to ensure fair sharing of the economic burdens that wolves generate.</p>
<h2>A new ethical playing field</h2>
<p>Despite these complexities, the idea of the “big bad wolf” clearly no longer dominates Americans’ thinking. And the wolf is not alone. Social acceptance of many other wildlife species <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13493">is also increasing</a>. For example, a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.12885">2023 study</a> found that between <a href="https://www.umt.edu/news/2023/02/020623bear.php">80% and 90% of Montanans</a> believed grizzly bears – which are recovering and expanding their presence there – have a right to exist. </p>
<p>Aldo Leopold famously claimed to have experienced an epiphany when he shot a wolf in New Mexico in the 1920s and saw “<a href="https://mountainscholar.org/bitstream/handle/10217/178142/FACF_Rolston_Rediscovering-RethinkingGreenFire.pdf">a fierce green fire</a>” dying in her eyes. In reality, his attitude took several more decades to change. Humans may have <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Man-the-Hunted-Primates-Predators-and-Human-Evolution-Expanded-Edition/Hart-Sussman/p/book/9780813344034">an ingrained evolutionary disposition</a> to fear carnivorous predators like wolves, but the change ended up being real for Leopold, and it lasted.</p>
<p>Leopold, who died in 1948, did not live to see many wildlife species recover, but I believe he would have regarded what’s happening now as an opportunity for Americans’ moral growth. Because Leopold knew that ethics, like animals, are always evolving.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197669/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher J. Preston has received funding from the National Science Foundation, Humanities Montana, and the Kone Foundation. </span></em></p>Less than a century ago, Colorado hunted, trapped and poisoned all the wolves within its borders. Today it’s restoring them – a change that reflects a profound shift in human thinking.Christopher J. Preston, Professor of Philosophy, University of MontanaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1963982023-01-25T11:39:11Z2023-01-25T11:39:11ZLarge mammals shaped the evolution of humans: here’s why it happened in Africa<p>That humans originated in Africa is <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070509161829.htm">widely accepted</a>. But it’s not generally recognised how unique features of Africa’s ecology were responsible for the crucial evolutionary transitions from forest-inhabiting fruit-eater to savanna-dwelling hunter. These were founded on earth movements and aided physically by Africa’s seasonal aridity, bedrock-derived soils and absence of barriers to movements between north and south. </p>
<p>These features promoted extensive savanna grasslands marked by erratic rainfall, regular fires and abundant numbers of diverse grazing and browsing animals. </p>
<p>My lifelong studies have focused on the ecology of Africa’s large herbivores and their effects on savanna vegetation. In my <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/za/academic/subjects/life-sciences/evolutionary-biology/only-africa-ecology-human-evolution">recent book</a>, by linking pre-existing threads together for the first time, I explain how distinctive features of these animals’ ecology, founded on Africa’s physical geography, enabled the adaptive changes that led ultimately to modern humans.</p>
<p>What emerges is the realisation that this amazing evolutionary transformation could only have occurred in Africa. This recognition emphasises the deep cultural legacy formed by Africa’s large mammal heritage for all of humankind.</p>
<h2>Ape-men</h2>
<p>Starting during the late Miocene, around 10 million years ago, a plume of molten magma, hot liquid material from deep inside the Earth, pushed eastern parts of Africa upward. This led to rifting of the Earth’s crust, volcanic eruptions and soils enriched in mineral nutrients from the lava and ash. Grassy savannas spread and animals adapted increasingly to graze this vegetation component. Apes from that time were forced to spend less time up in trees and more time walking upright on two legs. </p>
<p>Progressive reductions in rainfall, restricting plant growth and worsening dry season aridity, forced the early ape-men, (<a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/australopithecus-and-kin-145077614/"><em>Australopithecines</em></a>), to change their diet. They went from eating mainly fruits from forest trees to consuming underground bulbs and tubers found between the widely spaced trees. These were tough to extract and chew. </p>
<p>This led to the emergence through evolution of the genus <a href="https://www.maropeng.co.za/content/page/paranthropus"><em>Paranthropus</em></a> (colloquially “nutcracker man”), characterised by huge jaws and teeth. By about a million years ago they were gone. Apparently, the effort of extracting and processing these well-defended plant parts became too formidable. </p>
<h2><em>Homo habilis</em></h2>
<p>Around 2.8 million years ago, another lineage split off from the australopithecines, reversing the trend towards robust dentition. This lineage used stones chipped to serve as tools. These were used to scrape flesh from carcasses of animals killed by carnivores, and crack open long bones for their marrow content. This transition in ecology was sufficiently momentous to warrant a new generic name: <em>Homo</em>, specifically <em>habilis</em> (“handy-man”). </p>
<p>These first humans thus became scavengers on animal left-overs. They most probably exploited a time window around midday when the killers – mainly sabre-tooth cats – were resting, before hyenas arrived nocturnally to devour the leftovers. Walking upright freed their arms to carry bones away to be processed in safe sites to augment the plant-based dietary staples. </p>
<p>To facilitate such midday movements, <em>Homo habilis</em> lost its body hair; this made it possible for them <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature03052">to be active</a> under conditions when fur-covered animals would soon over-heat. </p>
<h2><em>Homo erectus</em></h2>
<p>Several hundred thousand years of progressive advancements in upright walking and brain capacity led to the next major adaptive shift, exemplified by improvements in the design of stone tools. Stone cores became shaped on both sides to aid the processing of animal carcasses.</p>
<p>This led to the emergence of <a href="https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-erectus"><em>Homo erectus</em></a> around 1.8 million years ago. These early humans had become efficient hunters. Consequently, meat and bones became reliable food resources year-round. </p>
<p>A division of labour came about. Men hunted; women gathered plant parts. This required a home base and more elaborate forms of communication about planned excursions, laying the foundations for language. </p>
<h2><em>Homo sapiens</em></h2>
<p>After 800,000 years ago, fluctuations in heat and aridity became more extreme in Africa. Finely crafted stone tools defined the transition into the Middle Stone Age, coupled with the emergence of modern <em>Homo sapiens</em> in Africa around 300 thousand years ago.</p>
<p>But despite its hunting prowess <em>Homo sapiens</em> had declined to precarious numbers in Africa by around 130,000 years ago, following an especially severe ice age. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2945812/">Genetic evidence indicates</a> that the entire human population across the continent shrank to fewer than 40,000 individuals, spread thinly from Morocco in the north to the Cape in the far south. </p>
<p>One remnant survived by inhabiting caves along the southern Cape coast, exploiting marine resources. This reliable food source fostered further advances in tool technology, and even the earliest art. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africas-blombos-cave-is-home-to-the-earliest-drawing-by-a-human-103017">South Africa's Blombos cave is home to the earliest drawing by a human</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The use of bows and arrows as weapons, along with spears, probably contributed crucially to the expansion of humans beyond Africa around 60,000 years ago. They spread onward through Asia and into Europe, displacing the Neanderthals. </p>
<h2>Only in Africa</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A herd of large brown wildebeest is spread out across a grassy landscape, chewing the grass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505536/original/file-20230120-24-vwc5k1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505536/original/file-20230120-24-vwc5k1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505536/original/file-20230120-24-vwc5k1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505536/original/file-20230120-24-vwc5k1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505536/original/file-20230120-24-vwc5k1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505536/original/file-20230120-24-vwc5k1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505536/original/file-20230120-24-vwc5k1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wildebeest grazing on the Serengeti Plains in Tanzania.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Norman Owen-Smith</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As outlined in my book, it was the abundance specifically of medium and large grazers in fertile savannas, concentrated near water in the dry season, that enabled the evolutionary transformation of a relatively puny ape into a feared hunter in Africa.</p>
<p>Africa’s high-lying interior plateau generated the seasonal dryness that restricted plant growth through its eastern and southern regions. Widespread volcanically derived soils were sufficiently fertile to foster the spread of medium-large grazers adapted to digest dry grass efficiently.</p>
<p>These especially abundant herbivores crowded around remaining waterholes, providing sufficient remnants of flesh and marrow to make scavenging a reliable means to overcome shortages of edible plant parts during the dry season. The increased dependence on meat to supplement a plant-based diet led to social coordination between male hunters and female gatherers, which in turn promoted advances in communication and tool technology supported by expanding cranial capacity. </p>
<p>If Africa had remained largely low-lying and leached of nutrients like most of South America and Australia, this would not have been possible.</p>
<p>Africa’s mobile grazers, such as wildebeest, are currently <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aay3049">being squeezed out of their sanctuaries</a> by expanding human settlements. These animals represent a global cultural heritage, having being pivotal to our evolutionary origins. We must ensure that sufficient space remains in Africa to enable their persistence despite burgeoning human populations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196398/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Norman Owen-Smith previously received funding from Sough Africa's National Research Foundation</span></em></p>Africa’s large mammal heritage has formed a deep cultural legacy for all of humankind.Norman Owen-Smith, Emeritus Research Professor of African Ecology, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1927702022-10-26T15:08:22Z2022-10-26T15:08:22ZIn France, the tough debate about hunting and alcohol<p>Over the last <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/28/france-three-people-injured-over-weekend-in-latest-hunting-incidents">weekend of November alone</a>, a 26-year-old hiker was shot in the arm while walking in the Alpilles mountains in Provence and a 64-year-old man, in the stomach, in Dordogne. Lead pellets also hit a 58-year old man in Brittany.</p>
<p>The link between these gruesome incidents? They were all caused by careless hunters.</p>
<p>All the more timely, then, is the French Senate’s report released in September, which called for a <a href="http://www.senat.fr/notice-rapport/2021/r21-882-notice.html">ban on alcohol and narcotics while hunting</a> alongside for a spate of <a href="https://www.lefigaro.fr/actualite-france/le-senat-propose-un-taux-maximal-d-alcoolemie-pour-la-chasse-20220916">measures</a> similar to those applied to drink-driving. On 25 October, the government released a <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2022/10/25/delit-d-alcoolemie-demi-journees-sans-chasse-les-pistes-envisagees-par-le-gouvernement-pour-ameliorer-et-garantir-la-securite-a-la-chasse_6147294_3244.html">policy roadmap</a> comprising some of these suggestions, including restrictions on drinking. “Hunting involves an arm. Like driving, it is not compatible with a high blood-alcohol concentration,” the secretary of state for ecology, Bérangère Couillard, said. The Elysee is now awaiting to hear feedback from hunting federations with the view to formulating decrees by early 2023 at the latest.</p>
<p>The president of France’s National Hunters’ Federation (FNC), Willy Schraen, has retorted that <a href="https://www.marianne.net/societe/agriculture-et-ruralite/le-velo-bourre-cest-dangereux-aussi-nouvel-argument-du-patron-des-chasseurs-pour-esquiver-le-debat">“a drunk guy on a bike is dangerous, too”</a>, apparently forgetting French drink-driving laws <a href="https://www.securite-routiere.gouv.fr/chacun-son-mode-de-deplacement/dangers-de-la-route-velo/bien-circuler-velo">also apply to cyclists</a>.</p>
<p>The French hunting chief’s remark would not hold water in other countries, where representative organisations advise hunters to abstain from alcohol. Absent an EU-wide legislation on the matter, national legislation in states such as <a href="https://gestiberian.com/2017/01/27/sanciones-por-cazar-con-copas/">Spain</a>, <a href="https://www.rtbf.be/article/ouverture-de-la-chasse-quels-sont-les-droits-et-obligations-des-chasseurs-et-des-promeneurs-11076343">Belgium</a> and <a href="https://www.jagdverband.de/vor-und-waehrend-der-jagd-ist-alkohol-tabu">Germany</a> restrict drinking while in possession of a firearm. Or take, for example, the official website of <a href="https://www.hunter-ed.com/newyork/studyGuide/Alcohol-and-Drugs/20103502_138053/">a US agency for hunting education</a>, which states that</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“consuming alcohol before or during the hunt increases the risk of incidents because it impairs coordination, hearing, vision, communication, and judgement”.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This may seem like common-sense advice, but alcohol is still integral to the world of hunting, both in France and farther afield.</p>
<h2>Hunting while drunk</h2>
<p>In the United States, where the general population consumes <a href="https://donnees.banquemondiale.org/indicateur/SH.ALC.PCAP.LI?locations=US">20% less</a> alcohol than in France, a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01639625.2019.1631069">recent survey</a> carried out on a representative sample of 2,349 young adults found that 23% of male hunters had at some point hunted while inebriated.</p>
<p>And in France? Although there is an absence of hard data, the Senate report tentatively ventures that a “small minority” of people have hunted while under the influence of alcohol. However, the senators offer more precise statistics regarding deaths and serious accidents in hunting, 9% of which are attributable to a hunter’s state of inebriation.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, the report ignores most international data available on the topic, failing to mention that in the US, <a href="https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.78.12.158">drunkenness is involved in 15% of hunting accidents</a>. Also overlooked is an extensive Danish study of 1,800 hunters, which revealed the risk of firearm-related accidents <a href="https://journals.lww.com/jtrauma/Abstract/2009/12000/Firearm_Related_Hunting_Accidents_in_Denmark.21.aspx">was directly proportional to the hunters’ alcohol intake</a>.</p>
<p>Moreover, the recent Senate report does not clarify how alcohol significantly raises the risk of accidents. But we have managed to pinpoint three contributing effects of inebriation.</p>
<h2>Locomotion and motor coordination</h2>
<p>A study conducted at a Swiss A&E service showed a third of the hunting-related injuries there resulted from falls – for example, <a href="https://www.hindawi.com/journals/emi/2015/284908/">when shooters tumbled from tree-stands</a>. Alcohol is conducive to this type of incident, particularly by interfering with the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcohol.2008.04.004">inner ear and cerebellum</a>, which regulate balance. This has a negative impact on the hunter’s anticipation and motor coordination skills.</p>
<p>Other <a href="https://bmcresnotes.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1756-0500-3-243">research</a> demonstrated that when individuals were instructed to avoid obstacles while walking on a treadmill, their reaction times were significantly longer, even at low levels of alcohol intake.</p>
<h2>Visual and hearing impairment</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.thieme-connect.de/products/ejournals/abstract/10.1055/s-2008-1050922">Alcohol also impairs peripheral vision</a>, thus affecting judgement and accuracy in angles of fire. This is what causes double vision and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03207543">blurred vision</a>, by disturbing the action of muscles that control visual focus. It enhances <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/415330/">glaring</a>, by slowing down the muscles responsible for opening and closing the pupil in response to surrounding light levels.</p>
<p>Over the long term, <a href="https://theconversation.com/alcool-et-autres-substances-pourquoi-leur-dangerosite-est-elle-sous-estimee-par-les-usagers-159369">high alcohol intake</a> alters <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26465148/">colour perception</a> and promotes the emergence of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34055263/">chronic diseases</a>, such as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20443769/">cataracts</a>. It can lead to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02713683.2021.1942070">age-related macular degeneration</a> (AMD), a condition characterised by <a href="https://theconversation.com/la-degenerescence-maculaire-est-la-premiere-cause-de-cecite-au-pays-comment-la-prevenir-154683">damage to the central region of the retina</a>.</p>
<p>Alcohol even <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33341812/">deteriorates our hearing</a>. In one study, subjects who had consumed alcohol were found to have significantly poorer hearing abilities compared to those who had not.</p>
<h2>Errors of judgement</h2>
<p>Once the extent of alcohol’s effects on sight and hearing are better understood, the range of stories that pop up in local newspapers – such as the man who ended up <a href="https://www.lyonmag.com/article/90723/beaujolais-le-chasseur-ivre-vise-un-lievre-et-tire-sur-son-ami">riddled with buckshot</a> when his hunting companion mistook him for a hare – become less of a surprise.</p>
<p>According to France’s <a href="https://www.ofb.gouv.fr/la-securite-la-chasse">Biodiversity Agency</a> (OFB), hunting accidents are often the result of carelessness and bad judgement. The OFB reminds hunters that, once fired, the projectiles can reach a distance of up to five kilometres (three miles). When a target is far away or moving, how can a hunter guarantee – drunk or sober – that their bullet doesn’t <a href="https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/auvergne-rhone-alpes/haute-savoie/ouverture-du-proces-du-chasseur-accuse-avoir-tue-vetetiste-haute-savoie-1900586.html">hit a mountain biker</a>, a <a href="https://www.20minutes.fr/faits_divers/2338343-20180918-limoges-fillette-grievement-blessee-chasseur-tirait-faisan">ten-year-old girl playing by the river</a> or a <a href="https://www.lavoixdunord.fr/1143614/article/2022-02-22/femme-de-25-ans-tuee-lors-d-un-accident-de-chasse-ce-qu-sait-sur-ce-drame">young hiker</a> ?</p>
<h2>Drinking makes for riskier decision-making</h2>
<p>The choice of whether to pull the trigger or hold fire is dependent on another dimension. According to the Senate report:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“More than two thirds of accidents result from gross misconduct that contravenes basic safety rules. Moreover, some one hundred incidents per year lead to devastating consequences, whereby shots are fired at vehicles or homes.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Assessing risks and perceiving the consequences of our actions are two processes that are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33065446/">notoriously affected by inebriation</a>.</p>
<p>A 2015 study demonstrated this effect using a straightforward method, which involved presenting two jars filled with cards to bar patrons, aged 18 to 43. The subjects were told that they could earn a prize if they found a winning card. In the jar on the right, 50% of the cards were winners, whereas the probability of winning was not given for the jar on the left. The results showed that the drunk men (but not the women) <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25642202/">more often chose the riskier option</a>. Could this be likened to the scenario of taking a shot in the dark in the hopes of hitting a target?</p>
<h2>A major factor in human aggression</h2>
<p>By directly affecting the prefrontal cortex, alcohol disturbs <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hup.1194">executive cognitive functions</a>, which are involved in our ability to consider or maintain multiple options simultaneously in order to solve problems, as well as our attention skills, our action inhibition skills, and <a href="https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00051.x">our ability to control aggression</a>. In fact, alcohol is the psychoactive substance most often linked to <a href="https://www.dunod.com/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/drogues-alcool-et-agression-equation-chimique-et-sociale-violence">human aggression on a global scale</a>.</p>
<p>Of course, it’s not alcohol but hunters who have <a href="https://www.ledauphine.com/france-monde/2019/11/17/en-20-ans-les-chasseurs-ont-tue-plus-de-400-personn">shot 400 people dead</a> in the past two decades in France and injured thousands more. (And it should be noted that alcohol is responsible for <a href="https://www.inserm.fr/wp-content/uploads/2021-05/inserm-expertisecollective-alcool2021-synthese.pdf">almost a million deaths</a> in instances not related to hunting).</p>
<p>Given that alcohol has clearly been identified as an avoidable risk factor, however, it seems wise to ban its consumption for those using rifles and shotguns in woodland areas frequented by the public. When consuming alcohol, hunters threaten the lives of others, and their own as well.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Translated from the French by Enda Boorman for <a href="http://www.fastforword.fr/en">Fast ForWord</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192770/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurent Bègue-Shankland has received funding from the Inter-ministerial Mission for the Fight against Drugs and Addictive Behaviour (MILDECA).</span></em></p>A recent French Senate report calling on a ban on alcohol use while hunting has prompted the wrath of the country’s hunting lobby. Do its arguments hold water?Laurent Bègue-Shankland, Addictologue, Professeur de psychologie sociale, membre de l’Institut universitaire de France (IUF), directeur de la MSH Alpes (CNRS/UGA), Université Grenoble Alpes (UGA)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1911962022-10-26T14:07:24Z2022-10-26T14:07:24ZSouth Africa’s wildlife ranches can offer solutions to Africa’s growing conservation challenges<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/486099/original/file-20220922-8022-4hfpqz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Zebras stand in a ranch in South Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Francois Louw/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Designated protected areas for wildlife – such as national parks – are the world’s principal conservation strategy. But this model to conserve wildlife in Africa is increasingly coming under pressure. <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2022/04/wildlife-dont-recognize-borders-nor-does-climate-change-conservation-should-keep-up/">Changing climates</a>, <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/er-2015-0039">volatile economies and political systems</a>, conflicting sentiments around wildlife management practices (<a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-africas-conservation-and-trophy-hunting-dilemma-140029">like trophy hunting</a>) and unpredictable events, such as <a href="https://mg.co.za/environment/2021-03-16-covid-19-effects-undermine-nature-conservation-efforts/">pandemics</a>, are just some of the threats that undermine conservation efforts.</p>
<p>Many protected areas didn’t fare well during the pandemic, particularly across <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2021/09/after-coronavirus-conservation-needs-diversification-and-innovation-commentary/">Africa</a>. Ailing economies and restricted travel reduced the funding and tourism revenues on which many parks <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-covid-19-travel-bans-have-done-to-conservation-tourism-in-africa-169324">depend</a>. As a result, half of <a href="https://parksjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/COVID-survey-results-Africa.pdf">surveyed</a> parks across 19 African countries reported reductions in the protection of endangered species, field patrols and anti-poaching measures.</p>
<p>These impacts bring into question the resilience of protected areas where conservation is funded by donations, state budgets and, in some cases, ecotourism. Additional conservation models are <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02041-4">called for</a>.</p>
<p>One such model is wildlife ranching. We carried out a <a href="https://rdcu.be/cYbbH">study</a> which examined how wildlife ranches in South Africa responded to the impact of the pandemic. There are different types of <a href="https://pastoralismjournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/2041-7136-2-18">wildlife ranches</a>. They generate revenue from wildlife through a variety of activities including ecotourism, trophy and meat hunting, wildlife trade and meat sales. On some of these ranches, livestock shared space with wildlife.</p>
<p>Some specialised in one or two of these activities, others had a more diverse income portfolio. We found that, on average, wildlife ranches were more financially resilient and better able to adapt to the impact of the pandemic than protected areas. Importantly, ranches with mixed systems of wildlife and livestock coped the best. </p>
<p>We can learn from these wildlife ranches – and their adaptable business models – to build more resilient conservation systems in an increasingly volatile world.</p>
<h2>Wildlife ranches as a conservation model</h2>
<p>In several southern African countries – including South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Zambia – private landholders and communities are involved in conservation through <a href="https://luchoffmanninstitute.org/new-luc-hoffmann-institute-analysis-publication-surveys-over-130-incentives-for-community-based-conservation/">various models</a> which aim to benefit local people and wildlife. One of these is wildlife ranching. </p>
<p>In South Africa, privately owned wildlife ranches span an <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293958705_An_assessment_of_the_economic_social_and_conservation_value_of_the_wildlife_ranching_industry_and_its_potential_to_support_the_green_economy_in_South_Africa">estimated 17% of the land</a>, over double that of protected areas. They play a major role in conserving South Africa’s wildlife, including iconic species such as <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/conl.12741">white rhinos</a>. An estimated 5 to 7 million herbivores occur on ranches <a href="https://www.ewt.org.za/sp-oct-2021-role-of-south-african-private-wildlife-ranches-in-conservation/">nationally</a>. </p>
<p>On these ranches, wildlife is used to generate livelihoods. Conservation is an outcome rather than a primary objective. </p>
<p>The ranches provide <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/P-Lindsey/publication/293958705_An_assessment_of_the_economic_social_and_conservation_value_of_the_wildlife_ranching_industry_and_its_potential_to_support_the_green_economy_in_South_Africa/links/56bd14b408ae6cc737c6c54b/An-assessment-of-the-economic-social-and-conservation-value-of-the-wildlife-ranching-industry-and-its-potential-to-support-the-green-economy-in-South-Africa.pdf">65,000 jobs</a>, compared with <a href="https://www.sanparks.org/assets/docs/general/annual-report-2018.pdf">4,000 permanent jobs</a> in South African National Parks. Wildlife ranches contribute at least US$438 million annually to the <a href="https://bit.ly/SOWC_Research_SA-Case">economy</a>. Tourism in South Africa’s National Parks generates <a href="https://www.sanparks.org/assets/docs/general/annual-report-2018.pdf">US$120 million annually</a>.</p>
<p>The COVID pandemic presented an opportunity to understand how a major global shock affected the ranches. </p>
<h2>COVID and wildlife ranches</h2>
<p>To understand responses of wildlife ranches in South Africa to COVID, <a href="https://www.wildeconomy.org/">a cohort of graduates</a> interviewed owners and managers of 78 wildlife ranches. </p>
<p>They found that wildlife ranches that specialised in ecotourism, particularly international tourism, were the worst financially affected by the pandemic. Three in every four ranches lost more than 75% of their revenues. </p>
<p>Ranches that specialised in trophy hunting, similarly dependent on international clientele, also commonly lost more than 75% of their revenues. </p>
<p>By contrast, ranches that generated revenues from a more diverse portfolio of wildlife-based activities before the crisis fared better. Only one in every four ranches lost more than 75% of their revenues. Their activities included wildlife sales, meat sales or meat hunting, often alongside international hunting or ecotourism. </p>
<p>Notably, wildlife ranches that also practised livestock farming suffered the least impact. Some even increased their revenues during the pandemic.</p>
<h2>Coping during the pandemic</h2>
<p>Unsurprisingly, many wildlife ranch owners (28%) reported reducing their operational costs to cope with diminished revenues. For instance, they decreased staff numbers and anti-poaching measures. A report estimated 18,000 ranch employees were <a href="https://www.farmersweekly.co.za/agri-news/south-africa/game-industry-still-losing-jobs-and-revenue-due-to-covid-19/">affected</a> by salary cuts or lay offs. </p>
<p>What was surprising is that cost cutting wasn’t the most common response. Far more common (40% of ranchers) was to shift strategies towards attracting <a href="https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-07-29-steps-towards-a-smarter-lockdown-game-lodges/">local tourists</a> or meat hunters, often by offering discounted rates. </p>
<p>Ranchers also commonly shifted their revenue generation to other activities, beyond hunting and ecotourism. These included <a href="https://www.businessinsider.co.za/wild-life-reserve-sells-meat-to-survive-2020-8">packaging and selling wildlife meat</a>, or farming livestock.</p>
<p>This shows us that many wildlife ranching business models are adaptable in times of crisis, allowing all interviewed ranches to stay afloat. Some business models were, however, more adaptable than others.</p>
<h2>Scaling up activities</h2>
<p>All ecotourism-focused ranches reported cutting costs. None shifted to livestock and very few shifted to other wildlife-based activities. </p>
<p>By contrast, only a third of ranches undertaking more diverse wildlife activities cut costs. The majority scaled up live wildlife sales or meat packaging and processing. </p>
<p>This tells us that it is easier for a rancher to scale up an activity that they were already doing to compensate for the loss of another, than it is to start something new. </p>
<p>It also tells us that it is particularly challenging to start consumptive activities – like wildlife meat sales or hunting – if a ranch is focused on non-consumptive activities, like ecotourism.</p>
<h2>Lessons in a changing world</h2>
<p>Many wildlife ranches demonstrated the ability to adapt in the face of a major global shock. While the significant impact of the pandemic on their revenues must not be <a href="https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-05-11-south-african-game-farming-industry-on-the-brink-of-collapse/">overlooked</a>, lessons can be learned from the ways in which these enterprises coped with the crisis.</p>
<p>While conservation models based on international visitors (like ecotourism and trophy hunting) can be lucrative activities in normal times, building resilience requires diversifying revenue streams. </p>
<p>Diversification of revenue streams depends on policies that provide landholders with the right to use wildlife. These rights vary across African countries. In Namibia, for example, communities can benefit from both ecotourism and hunting on their land, while in Kenya trophy hunting is prohibited.</p>
<p>More conventional conservation models – such as national parks – are important for national identity, heritage and conservation. They can survive crises through an injection of state funds. However, they are often expensive for national treasuries. They’re also rigid, both institutionally and in <a href="https://www.cabi.org/leisuretourism/news/5651">what the public finds acceptable</a>. For example, it is usually expected that they are “wilderness places” where revenue-generation is at best a secondary objective to conservation, and often limited to ecotourism. With diminishing state budgets, many parks are nevertheless increasingly dependent on these revenues to fund their management. </p>
<p>South Africa’s national parks cover almost three-quarters of their operational costs through <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2021/06/covid-19-tourism-conservation-south-africa/619091/">tourism</a>, yet lost 90% of this revenue during the 2020 lockdown. This prompted the call for more diversified income streams going <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320721000379">forward</a>.</p>
<p>While we highlight the importance of the greater adaptive capacity seen on wildlife ranches, compared with that of parks, we also recognise that not all adaptations will be good for conservation. For example, reducing anti-poaching measures to cut costs is not ideal, and the longer-term conservation implications of scaling up livestock production should be monitored. It may enhance ecosystem functioning in some <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/fee.1501">contexts</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africa-struggles-to-manage-wildlife-ranching-why-its-a-problem-126439">South Africa struggles to manage wildlife ranching: why it's a problem</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Ultimately, we need both traditional conservation tools like national parks and more pluralistic and adaptable approaches like wildlife ranches to ensure resilience of our natural heritage in times of change. Importantly, wildlife ranches should not be seen as, or measured as, protected areas. They are <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aau6020">working lands</a> and require different policy instruments and incentives. </p>
<p>Governments could create enabling environments for more diverse land uses that include wildlife-based models to thrive, such as access to land and tenure security, avoiding over-regulation, and increasing skills development programmes for managing both wildlife and livestock simultaneously.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191196/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hayley Clements receives funding from Kone Foundation, a Jennifer Ward Oppenheimer Research Grant, and Agence
Française de Développement (AFD). She is affiliated with the Centre for Sustainability Transitions at Stellenbosch University and the Helsinki Lab of Interdisciplinary Conservation Science at University of Helsinki.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alta De Vos receives funding from the Rhodes University Research Council, the National Institute for Humanities and Social Sciences, a Google Faculty award, and Agence Française de Développement. She is affiliated with the Department of Environmental Science, Rhodes University. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Child is affiliated with the South African National Biodiversity Institute and the Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria</span></em></p>Africa’s designated protected areas don’t handle shocks well - South Africa’s wildlife ranches offer lessons in resilience.Hayley Clements, Researcher, Stellenbosch UniversityAlta De Vos, Senior Lecturer, Rhodes UniversityMatthew Child, PhD candidate, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1878402022-10-19T19:05:21Z2022-10-19T19:05:21ZDespite the myth, deer are not an ecological substitute for moa and should be part of NZ’s predator-free plan<p>The <a href="https://www.1news.co.nz/2022/10/02/wahine-picks-up-rifle-to-protect-forests-and-feed-community/">impact of deer</a> on Aotearoa New Zealand’s natural environment is never far from the headlines. Most recently, the Southland Conservation Board <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/te-manu-korihi/470112/mauri-of-rakiura-being-lost-to-growing-deer-population">highlighted the damage</a> the introduced species was doing to native forest on Rakiura Stewart Island.</p>
<p>And despite the government including <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/128696928/budget-2022-deer-and-goats-on-hitlist-as-predator-eradication-focus-of-conservation-funding">NZ$30 million for deer and goat control</a> in this year’s budget, the situation remains critical, with considerable disagreement about the best solutions.</p>
<p>The Department of Conservation (DOC) is key to managing deer numbers, but has been <a href="https://www.forestandbird.org.nz/resources/doc-plan-feral-deer-pigs-misses-mark-climate">strongly criticised</a> by the CEO of the independent Forest & Bird organisation over the climate implications of its wild game animal management framework:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>When DOC publishes plans that talk about ‘improving the quality of game animals’ it’s clear they’ve lost their way. Deer, pigs and goats are wrecking native habitats and their stored carbon from the ground up.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>On the other side, some hunters and <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/110155431/taranaki-man-admits-sending-threatening-letters-to-doc">anti-1080 pesticide activists</a> are vehemently opposed to large-scale deer culling. </p>
<p>And central to some of their arguments has been the idea that deer are actually ecological surrogates for extinct moa – large herbivores that control plant growth and keep forests “open”.</p>
<p>But this outdated and false argument ignores the latest evolutionary and ecological research, and misrepresents the current state of scientific evidence. Scientists have made significant progress and now know far more than they did even ten years ago.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488949/original/file-20221010-24-zr4sy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488949/original/file-20221010-24-zr4sy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488949/original/file-20221010-24-zr4sy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488949/original/file-20221010-24-zr4sy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488949/original/file-20221010-24-zr4sy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488949/original/file-20221010-24-zr4sy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488949/original/file-20221010-24-zr4sy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Red deer and other hoofed animals were introduced to make colonial New Zealand more like England – without considering the environmental impact.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Luc Viatour/Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Are deer doing what moa did?</h2>
<p>Deer were introduced to New Zealand from the mid-19th century as a way to make hunting for food accessible for all. Not long after that, however, <a href="https://ndhadeliver.natlib.govt.nz/webarchive/20220622093355/https://sciblogs.co.nz/lost-worlds/2019/02/08/are-deer-the-new-moa-ecosystem-re-wilding-or-a-flight-of-fancy/">conservationists became increasingly concerned</a> about the damage the species caused. </p>
<p>Hunters then became worried deer were going to be controlled or eradicated, and came up with the ecological surrogate theory to justify additional releases. Some have even <a href="https://www.radionz.co.nz/news/national/342460/illegal-deer-release-disgusting-and-selfish-doc">illegally introduced deer</a> into areas where they had previously been eradicated or where only one species existed. </p>
<p>Moa had a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ecog.04917">population density</a> of two to ten individuals per square kilometre (of about 0.5 to 2.5 million moa), broadly similar to deer (three to 15 individuals per km²). But this doesn’t mean the two had similar impacts simply because they were or are herbivores. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-did-ancient-moa-survive-the-ice-age-and-what-can-they-teach-us-about-modern-climate-change-183350">How did ancient moa survive the ice age – and what can they teach us about modern climate change?</a>
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<hr>
<p>The <a href="https://ndhadeliver.natlib.govt.nz/webarchive/20220622093355/https://sciblogs.co.nz/lost-worlds/2019/04/21/are-deer-the-new-moa-revisited-the-mythbusters-episode/">latest evidence</a> shows unequivocally deer are nothing like moa, with completely different ecological impacts. </p>
<p>Moa were more ecologically friendly and unique – the product of <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.1251981">58 million years of evolution</a>. While the ancestors of moa arrived in New Zealand just after the extinction of the dinosaurs, molecular dating suggests the latest evolutionary radiation of moa dates to the past <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0906660106">six to seven million years</a>. The nine moa species were <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/26872856.pdf">ecologically segregated</a> and in tune with their environment due to millions of years of co-evolution with plants. </p>
<p>Deer are not. They eat bare the forest “understorey” (plants beneath the canopy growing on or near the forest floor), including the insulating layer of leaf litter. Deer can eat to near extinction the plants moa browsed, which now only survive in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0040025">inaccessible areas</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488710/original/file-20221007-16-wszrpg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488710/original/file-20221007-16-wszrpg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488710/original/file-20221007-16-wszrpg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488710/original/file-20221007-16-wszrpg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488710/original/file-20221007-16-wszrpg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488710/original/file-20221007-16-wszrpg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488710/original/file-20221007-16-wszrpg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Unlike deer, moa had natural predators such as Haast’s eagle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Megahan/Wikimedia Commons</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Deer and climate change</h2>
<p>Deer browsing pressure also contributes to climate change through CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from trees they kill, which release carbon as they rot, and by preventing forest regeneration that locks in carbon.</p>
<p>Moa had <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2015.2043">uniquely shaped beaks</a> for cutting, minimising inter-species competition. Deer have teeth and a prehensile tongue to twist and pull plants into the mouth. </p>
<p>The moa digestive system was basic, whereas deer are ruminants and can extract energy from non-palatable foods like bark. Moa had a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/26872856.pdf">significantly more diverse diet</a> than deer, including plants that evolved anti-browsing defences that discouraged browsing by moa. Not enough evolutionary time has elasped for New Zealand plants to evolve defences against deer browsing.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nation-building-or-nature-destroying-why-its-time-nz-faced-up-to-the-environmental-damage-of-its-colonial-past-185693">Nation-building or nature-destroying? Why it’s time NZ faced up to the environmental damage of its colonial past</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This indicates that prehistoric forest understories were more diverse and lush – not the open, sparse ones with little regeneration that deer create. </p>
<p>Moa played a role in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1712337115">dispersal of brightly coloured fungi</a> and the spread of native forest. Deer disperse exotic fungi that help spread <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/pests-and-threats/weeds/common-weeds/wilding-conifers/">wildling pines</a>. Native fungi don’t survive passage through the deer gut.</p>
<p>Moa dissipated their weight through two large feet with splayed toes. Deer trample the forest floor through four small hoofed feet. </p>
<p>Deer have no natural predators, whereas moa had <a href="https://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/haasts-eagle">Haast’s eagle</a> and <a href="https://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/eyles-harrier">Eyles’ harrier</a>. </p>
<p>Moa bred slowly, whereas deer are <a href="https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/how-to-fix-the-raukumara/">boom and bust species</a>. Female red deer reach sexual maturity at two years. Moa took up to nine years to reach adult body size, and probably longer for sexual maturity. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488948/original/file-20221010-17-5addt1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488948/original/file-20221010-17-5addt1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488948/original/file-20221010-17-5addt1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488948/original/file-20221010-17-5addt1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488948/original/file-20221010-17-5addt1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488948/original/file-20221010-17-5addt1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488948/original/file-20221010-17-5addt1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Giant boulders in deer-infested forests provide safe havens for native plants, while deer strip the understorey bare.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jamie Wood/Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Solving the deer problem</h2>
<p>Despite the misinformation, deer are pests causing irreversible damage to remaining ecosystems. But there is not yet the social licence for deer to be included in the <a href="https://pf2050.co.nz/">Predator Free 2050</a> plan, which aims to eradicate rats, mustelids and possums.</p>
<p>We need to reframe the ecological damage deer are doing to taonga species and the food web those plants are part of. (This includes the danger of <a href="https://www.nrc.govt.nz/news/2020/june/report-feral-deer-sightings-nrc">farmed deer escaping</a>.)</p>
<p>If eradication isn’t palatable, consideration must be given to a compromise solution of confining deer to areas of least conservation concern, with drastically reduced populations. </p>
<p>Where those areas are, and whether hunters might pay to shoot deer there (with revenues going back into conservation), could be part of that discussion.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nz-is-home-to-species-found-nowhere-else-but-biodiversity-losses-match-global-crisis-106694">NZ is home to species found nowhere else but biodiversity losses match global crisis</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Alternatively, deer carcasses from hunting could be left to rot, returning nutrients to the soil, despite arguments this is a waste of food. Forests are already struggling with climate resilience, not helped by the human-induced decline and extinction of seabirds that once <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03014220709510537">brought nutrients in from the sea</a>. </p>
<p>And the use of deer repellents in 1080 drops to control pests needs to be revisited. The pesticide can be highly effective, with up to 90% of local deer populations <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/111589591/studies-showing-1080-causes-mass-deer-deaths-consistent-with-hunter-experiences">eradicated in some areas</a>. </p>
<p>Above all, we need to ask what native forests require to be healthy and remain carbon sinks, and how this is monitored. Deer control or eradication policy needs to be timely, evidence-based and not shrouded in misinformation.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/x60VSHajHuQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A Forest & Bird conservation manager explains the subtle differences between introduced browsers like deer and birds like the extinct moa.</span></figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187840/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nic Rawlence receives funding from the Royal Society of New Zealand. </span></em></p>Claims that introduced deer perform the same ecological function as ancient moa are outdated and wrong. Deer destroy forests, and large-scale culling is still the best solution.Nic Rawlence, Senior Lecturer in Ancient DNA, University of OtagoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1908982022-09-19T11:45:55Z2022-09-19T11:45:55ZTyphoon Merbok, fueled by unusually warm Pacific Ocean, pounded Alaska’s vulnerable coastal communities at a critical time<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485177/original/file-20220918-52219-igrjib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=28%2C7%2C1649%2C1058&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A satellite image shows how vast the remnants of Typhoon Merbok were as the storm hit the Alaska coast.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://twitter.com/NWSFairbanks/status/1571054643383533569">National Weather Service</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The powerful remnants of Typhoon Merbok pounded Alaska’s western coast on Sept. 17, 2022, pushing homes off their foundations and tearing apart protective berms as water flooded communities.</em> </p>
<p><em>Storms aren’t unusual here, but Merbok built up over unusually warm water. Its <a href="https://twitter.com/NWSOPC/status/1570883906794311682">waves reached 50 feet</a> over the Bering Sea, and its storm surge sent water levels into communities at <a href="https://twitter.com/AlaskaWx/status/1571266836771270659">near record highs</a> along with near hurricane-force winds.</em></p>
<p><em>Merbok also hit during the fall subsistence harvest season, when the region’s Indigenous communities are stocking up food for the winter. Rick Thoman, a <a href="https://news.uaf.edu/expertsguide/rick-thoman/">climate scientist at the University of Alaska Fairbanks</a>, explained why the storm was unusual and the impact it’s having on coastal Alaskans.</em></p>
<h2>What stands out the most about this storm?</h2>
<p>It <a href="https://www.weather.gov/media/arh/RN-05-0003.pdf">isn’t unusual</a> for typhoons to affect some portion of Alaska, typically in the fall, but Merbok was different. </p>
<p>It <a href="https://twitter.com/Climatologist49/status/1571218582293610496/photo/1">formed in a part of the Pacific</a>, far east of Japan, where historically few typhoons form. The water there is typically too cold to support a typhoon, but right now, we have extremely warm water in the north-central Pacific. Merbok traveled right over waters that are the warmest on record going back about 100 years.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485179/original/file-20220918-51705-mljo8r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map shows warm waters off Japan and Russia's Kamchatka region." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485179/original/file-20220918-51705-mljo8r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485179/original/file-20220918-51705-mljo8r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485179/original/file-20220918-51705-mljo8r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485179/original/file-20220918-51705-mljo8r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485179/original/file-20220918-51705-mljo8r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485179/original/file-20220918-51705-mljo8r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485179/original/file-20220918-51705-mljo8r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sea surface temperatures show unusually warm water over the eastern Pacific Ocean, where Typhoon Merbok passed through.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://uaf-accap.org/">Alaska Center for Climate Assessment</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Western Bering Sea, closer to Russia, has been running above normal sea surface temperature since last winter. The Eastern Bering Sea – the Alaska part – has been normal to slightly cooler than normal since spring. That temperature difference in the Bering Sea helped to feed the storm and was probably part of the reason the storm intensified to the level it did. </p>
<p>When Merbok moved in to the Bering Sea, it wound up being by far the strongest storm this early in the autumn. We’ve had stronger storms, but they typically occur in October and November.</p>
<h2>Did climate change have a bearing on the storm?</h2>
<p>There’s a strong likelihood that Merbok was able to form where it did because of the <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/cag/global/time-series/globe/ocean/12/12/1880-2022">warming ocean</a>.</p>
<p>With warm ocean water, there’s <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/ask-nasa-climate/3143/steamy-relationships-how-atmospheric-water-vapor-amplifies-earths-greenhouse-effect/">more evaporation going in the atmosphere</a>. Because all the atmospheric ingredients came together, Merbok was able to bring that very warm moist air along with it. Had the ocean been a <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/cag/global/time-series/globe/ocean/12/12/1880-2022">temperature more typical of 1960</a>, there wouldn’t have been as much moisture in the storm.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Bar chart showing temperatures rising" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485199/original/file-20220919-62263-2t01r9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485199/original/file-20220919-62263-2t01r9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485199/original/file-20220919-62263-2t01r9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485199/original/file-20220919-62263-2t01r9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485199/original/file-20220919-62263-2t01r9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485199/original/file-20220919-62263-2t01r9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485199/original/file-20220919-62263-2t01r9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Global ocean temperatures have been rising. The bars show how annual temperatures departed from the 20th century average.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/cag/global/time-series/globe/ocean/12/12/1880-2022">NOAA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How extreme was the flooding compared to past storms?</h2>
<p>The most outstanding feature as far as impact is the tremendous area that was damaged. All coastal regions north of Bristol Bay to just beyond the Bering Strait – hundreds of miles of coastline – had some impact. </p>
<p>At Nome – one of the very few places in western Alaska where we have long-term ocean level information – the ocean was <a href="https://twitter.com/AlaskaWx/status/1571266836771270659">10.5 feet</a> (3.2 meters) above the low-tide line on Sept. 17, 2022. That’s the highest there in nearly half a century, since the historic storm of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00431672.1975.9931740">November 1974</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1571514507041595392"}"></div></p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/17/us/alaska-storm.html">Golovin</a> and <a href="https://www.ktoo.org/2022/09/17/powerful-storm-slams-western-alaska/">Newtok</a>, multiple houses floated off their foundations and are no longer habitable.</p>
<p><a href="https://savingplaces.org/stories/fighting-the-rising-tide-in-shaktoolik-alaska#.Yyd7pHbML8A">Shaktoolik</a> lost its protective berm, which is very bad news. Prior to building the berm, the community’s freshwater supply was easily inundated with saltwater. The community is now at greater risk of flooding, and even a moderate storm could inundate their fresh water supply. They can rebuild it, but how fast is a matter of time and money and resources. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1571310275739156480"}"></div></p>
<p>Another important impact is to hunting and fishing camps along the coasts. Because of the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/gis/storymaps/cascade/v1/index.html?appid=42e0af0fd1ab485596a0475d186a0919">region’s subsistence economy</a>, those camps are crucial, and they are expensive to rebuild. </p>
<p>There are no roads into these coastal communities, and <a href="https://www.ktoo.org/2022/02/21/construction-supply-chain-woes-in-rural-alaska/">getting lumber for rebuilding</a> homes and these camps is difficult. And we’re moving into typically the stormiest time of year, which makes recovery harder and planes often can’t land.</p>
<p>Lots of places also lost power and cell phone communication. The power in these remote areas is generated in the community – if that goes out there is no alternative. People lose power to their freezers, which they’re stocking up for the winter. Towns might have one grocery store, and if that can’t open or loses power, there is no other option. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1571235158342373383"}"></div></p>
<p>Winter is coming, and the time when it’s feasible to make repairs is running short. This is also the middle of hunting season, which in western Alaska is not recreation – it’s how you feed your family. These are almost all predominantly or almost exclusively Indigenous communities. Repairs are going to take time away for subsistence hunters, so all of these things are coming together at once. </p>
<h2>Does the lack of sea ice as a buffer make a difference for erosion?</h2>
<p>Historically, with storms later in the season, even a small bit of sea ice can offer protection to dampen the waves. But there’s <a href="http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/2022/09/the-arctics-bald-spot/">no ice in the Bering Sea</a> at all this time of year. The full wave action pounds right to the beach. </p>
<p>As sea ice <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/arctic-sea-ice/">declines with warming global temperatures</a>, communities will see more damage from storms later in the year, too.</p>
<h2>Are there lessons from this storm for Alaska?</h2>
<p>As bad as this storm was, and it was very bad, others will be coming. This is a stormy part of the world, and state and federal governments need to do a better job of communicating risks and helping communities and tribes ahead of time. </p>
<p>That might mean evacuating vulnerable people. Because if you wait until it’s certain that there’s a problem, it’s too late. Almost all of these communities are isolated. </p>
<p>I would say this is a classic case of large-scale weather models showing a general idea of the risk far in advance, but it takes longer to respond for isolated communities like those in rural Alaska. By Sept. 12, <a href="https://twitter.com/Climatologist49/status/1571218582293610496">Merbok’s storm track was clear</a>, but if communities aren’t briefed until a day or two days before the storm, there isn’t enough time for them to fully prepare.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190898/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rick Thoman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Most of the flooded communities are Indigenous and rely on subsistence hunting that residents would normally be doing right now. Recovering from the damage will make that harder.Rick Thoman, Alaska Climate Specialist, University of Alaska FairbanksLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1882772022-08-17T17:17:45Z2022-08-17T17:17:45ZWhat the declining caribou populations — and total hunting ban — mean for Inuit communities in Labrador<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479701/original/file-20220817-13-ls4gr0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C2%2C1345%2C663&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">George River Caribou outside of Nain, Nunatsiavut, Labrador.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(David Borish)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/what-the-declining-caribou-populations-—-and-total-hunting-ban-—-mean-for-inuit-communities-in-labrador" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Inuit in the Nunatsiavut and NunatuKavut regions of Labrador have shared a deep and enduring connection with caribou for many generations. But more recently — in the wake of dramatic caribou population declines — the communities who depend on them are being faced with a variety of cultural, emotional and health challenges. </p>
<p>Between the 1950s and ‘90s, the population of the <a href="https://www.northerncaribou.ca/herds/eastern-migratory/george-river/">George River Caribou Herd</a> grew from about <a href="https://www.mqup.ca/return-of-caribou-to-ungava--the-products-9780773532335.php">15,000 to around 800,000</a>. However, between the 1990s and 2010s, this same herd declined by more than <a href="https://www.gov.nl.ca/releases/2018/flr/0921n03/">99 per cent</a>. </p>
<p>Like <a href="https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/arctic/article/view/74870">many communities</a> across the circumpolar North, Inuit have lived through previous caribou population cycles, but the exact causes for the recent declines in Labrador are not fully understood. </p>
<p>In response to these sharp declines, the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador enacted a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5OZ_KHfmeoo">total hunting ban</a> on caribou in 2013, which remains in place today. Indigenous communities in Labrador have not been legally allowed to hunt caribou for almost a decade.</p>
<p>In order to preserve the relationships between Inuit and caribou, a multi-year documentary film and research initiative began to gather the knowledge of people throughout Labrador. It’s called <a href="https://www.inuitvoicesherd.com/"><em>HERD: Inuit Voices on Caribou</em></a> (or the HERD project). </p>
<p>This Inuit-led project brings together <a href="https://www.inuitvoicesherd.com/about">representatives</a> from the Nunatsiavut Government, the NunatuKavut Community Council, the Torngat Wildlife Plants and Fisheries Secretariat, Inuit community members and university-based researchers across Canada.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/v9hPKZrHJIU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The trailer for <em>HERD: Inuit Voices on Caribou</em>.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The HERD project</h2>
<p>Between 2016 and 2022, we filmed over 80 Inuit from across 11 distinct communities in Labrador — hearing from a diversity of genders, identities, ages and connections to caribou. Through this work we produced several documentary films, one of which is available to view on <a href="https://gem.cbc.ca/media/absolutely-canadian/s22e22?cmp=sch-herd">CBC Gem</a>. </p>
<p>The film is a portrait of the interconnections that exist between Inuit and caribou, a glimpse of the loss felt by communities and a testament of cultural endurance in the context of ecological uncertainty. </p>
<p>As co-creation experts, health-researchers and filmmakers who have worked intimately on this initiative, we have been privileged to hear Inuit stories on caribou and want to ensure their experiences are recognized, and their voices HERD. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man on a skidoo" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477756/original/file-20220804-22-oy8wwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477756/original/file-20220804-22-oy8wwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477756/original/file-20220804-22-oy8wwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477756/original/file-20220804-22-oy8wwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477756/original/file-20220804-22-oy8wwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477756/original/file-20220804-22-oy8wwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477756/original/file-20220804-22-oy8wwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Torsten Jacque of Postville, Nunatsiavut.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(David Borish)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Caribou were a vital source of food, and were eaten by many people on a weekly or even daily basis. “The best meat in the world,” said Patrick Davis from Cartwright, NunatuKavut, a sentiment shared by many across Labrador.</p>
<p>But caribou are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102268">much more than just a food source</a>: “It’s almost like the caribou was the reason, and everything else happened after,” described Joey Angnatok from Nain, Nunatsiavut. These animals connect people to their communities, to the land, and to each other through collective experiences, where place-based knowledge and age-old practices are learned and shared. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477750/original/file-20220804-5530-qadce3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Caribou ranges in Labrador" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477750/original/file-20220804-5530-qadce3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477750/original/file-20220804-5530-qadce3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477750/original/file-20220804-5530-qadce3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477750/original/file-20220804-5530-qadce3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477750/original/file-20220804-5530-qadce3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477750/original/file-20220804-5530-qadce3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477750/original/file-20220804-5530-qadce3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Caribou ranges and communities that took part in the HERD project.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shawn Rivoire)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A hunting ban with unintended consequences</h2>
<p>The caribou population declines, in combination with the total hunting ban, are resulting in major challenges for Inuit across Labrador. </p>
<p>Inuit described how the lack of interactions with caribou have been affecting the ways they see themselves on a personal and community level. “We’re just going to lose who we are as a culture and as a people,” Ocean Lane from Makkovik, Nunatsiavut, explained. </p>
<p>These disruptions to culture and identity have led to complex <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/753060/figure/fig01">emotional responses</a>, including strong feelings of sadness, distress, anxiety, fear, frustration, pain and an overall lack of morale. “It just tears me down to think that we don’t even know how long we’re gonna have to wait to get to harvest another caribou,” said Woodrow Lethbridge from Cartwright, NunatuKavut. </p>
<p>And, crucially, Inuit expressed sadness that cultural knowledge and practices were not being passed down to younger generations. “We’re losing language. We’re losing traditional ways, and the loss of a food, a cultural food, is just as high of an importance as language, as craft and art,” said Judy Voisey from Happy Valley-Goose Bay. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477751/original/file-20220804-16-8y51b4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An Inuit woman with her daughter." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477751/original/file-20220804-16-8y51b4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477751/original/file-20220804-16-8y51b4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477751/original/file-20220804-16-8y51b4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477751/original/file-20220804-16-8y51b4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477751/original/file-20220804-16-8y51b4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477751/original/file-20220804-16-8y51b4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477751/original/file-20220804-16-8y51b4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Andrea Andersen and her daughter in Makkovik, Nunatsiavut.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(David Borish)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The future of Inuit-caribou relations</h2>
<p>The stories and experiences that were shared through the HERD project emphasize how caribou conservation is not only an ecological process, but is fundamentally connected to culture, mental health, food security and other dimensions of Inuit well-being. The lack of Inuit-caribou interactions poses a major challenge for preserving cultural knowledge and practices. </p>
<p>To support both the health of the herds and communities who rely on them, future caribou-related policies must respect Inuit connections and values. Inuit have already been leading innovative initiatives to maintain cultural skills and knowledge related to caribou, including the <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TorngatSecretariat/videos/646303146820741">Tuttusiugiannik</a> project that facilitates youth and Elders to going out on the land and learning about caribou together. </p>
<p>Additional support for Inuit and other <a href="https://nunatukavut.ca/site/uploads/2019/05/upcart-strategy-2017-11-07-eng-signed-sm.pdf">Indigenous-led strategies</a> for conservation and community well-being must be prioritized. </p>
<p>To learn more about Inuit experiences with caribou declines, visit the <a href="https://www.inuitvoicesherd.com/">HERD website</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188277/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Borish works for the Labrador Campus of Memorial University and the Torngat Wildlife Plants and Fisheries Secretariat. He received funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ashlee Cunsolo receives funding from CIHR, SSHRC, and ArcticNet.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Inez Shiwak receives funding from the Torngat Wildlife, Plants and Fisheries Secretariat. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jamie Snook receives funding from the Torngat Wildlife, Plants, and Fisheries Secretariat and ECCC.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sherilee Harper receives research grant funds from CIHR, SSHRC, and ArcticNet.</span></em></p>Support for Inuit and other Indigenous-led strategies for conservation and community well-being must be prioritized.David Borish, Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Arctic and Subarctic Studies, Memorial University of NewfoundlandAshlee Cunsolo, Founding Dean, School of Arctic and Subarctic Studies, Labrador Campus, Memorial University of NewfoundlandInez Shiwak, Community Research PartnerJamie Snook, Adjunct Marine Affairs Program, Dalhousie UniversitySherilee Harper, Canada Research Chair in Climate Change and Health, University of AlbertaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1868782022-07-22T07:02:42Z2022-07-22T07:02:42ZMoving the Maasai: Tanzania is repeating Kenya’s colonial past<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475584/original/file-20220722-14-n82idy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Protests in Nairobi as Maasai activists deliver a petition to the Tanzania High Commission, in Kenya, 17 June 2022. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA-EFE/Daniel Irungu</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Images of distressed members of the Maasai community being <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/jun/14/maasai-leaders-arrested-in-protests-over-tanzanian-game-reserve">forcibly moved</a> from their homes, beaten and harassed by police and the army in northern Tanzania in June set social media alight with <a href="https://www.iucn.org/news/secretariat/202206/iucn-statement-human-rights-violations-loliondo-tanzania">concern</a>. Activists <a href="https://www.forestpeoples.org/en/lands-forests-territories-rights-land-natural-resources/news-article/2022/statement-maasai">have since</a> voiced their anger over land and human rights, and they have good reason to do so.</p>
<p>The Maasai live in Kenya and Tanzania. Traditionally nomadic pastoralists, many have now settled and diversified their livelihoods. </p>
<p>But they have long been on a collision course with government.
This has been the case with both colonial and post-colonial governments. And it’s largely because they live in areas wanted by the administration for other uses. One of these is wildlife conservation – for it is (wrongly) believed that people cannot co-exist with wildlife. </p>
<p>In northern Tanzania, the government is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/jun/14/maasai-leaders-arrested-in-protests-over-tanzanian-game-reserve">trying to evict</a> thousands of Maasai from the Ngorongoro and Loliondo region to make way for tourists, wildlife and <a href="https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220622-tanzania-maasai-people-face-violence-eviction-amid-protests-over-uae-owned-game-reserve/">big game hunting</a>. These are lands in which people live alongside wildlife, and which border protected wildlife areas. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1536340120605020164"}"></div></p>
<p>It’s a situation that’s all too familiar. </p>
<p>Just over 100 years ago, in what was then the Protectorate of British East Africa (later Kenya), similar scenes were unfolding, as described in my book, <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9780230246638">Moving the Maasai: A Colonial Misadventure</a>. Two forced moves followed treaties, or “agreements”, signed in 1904 and 1911, between Maasai leaders and British administrators. </p>
<p>The Maasai were moved into reserves where they could be more easily taxed and controlled, and to make way for white settlement. Other ethnic groups, such as the Kikuyu, were also placed in reserves at a later date. </p>
<p>It is an opportune moment to remind people of this history because of the continuities and the implications for the community, who – being displaced from their ancestral lands – face an uncertain future.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/evicting-people-from-tanzanias-ngorongoro-conservation-area-is-a-bad-idea-there-are-alternatives-177547">Evicting people from Tanzania's Ngorongoro conservation area is a bad idea, there are alternatives</a>
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<h2>Maasai and British East Africa</h2>
<p>My book was based on Maasai oral testimony and information from archival sources. I found elders in their late 90s, some over 100, who were moved between 1912 and 1913 as children. Despite their age, they talked lucidly about these events and Maasai understanding of them, as if they had happened only yesterday. </p>
<p>Eye-witness Thomas Ole Mootian remembered it clearly: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>We were pushed by force, by a white man called Bilownee [British official E.D. Browne], accompanied by African soldiers. The <em>askaris</em> [soldiers] were holding guns, they were beating the people. When you stopped they hit you with the butt of a gun. And if women made a joke or became lazy, they were caned. And when sheep or cows became weak, they were killed.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In 1895 Britain <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/British-East-Africa">established</a> a protectorate over the territory that became the Kenya colony in 1920. The areas seasonally used by Maasai (there was no private land ownership in those days) were coveted by European and South African settlers for their rich pastures, fertile soils and plentiful water sources. That is why first the Rift Valley, then Laikipia in the highlands, became targeted for white settlement.</p>
<p>Seven years after the first move, despite having promised the Maasai that they could keep the northern reserve on Laikipia “for so long as the Masai as a race shall exist” (in the words of the <a href="http://www.geocities.ws/olmorijo/maasai_agreement_1911.htm">1911 Masai Agreement</a> with the British), they broke their pledge and moved them again, at gunpoint, into an extended southern reserve on the border with German East Africa. </p>
<p>The southern reserve was far inferior to Laikipia, in particular because stock and humans were killed by diseases to which they had no immunity. Today this area is known as Narok County, which includes the Maasai Mara National Reserve.</p>
<p>It is estimated that the Maasai lost up to 50% of their land, maybe as much as 70%. </p>
<h2>Legal action</h2>
<p>The forced moves were supposedly <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17531050701218890">sanctioned</a> by the treaties or “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24328688">Masai Agreements</a>” of 1904 and <a href="http://www.geocities.ws/olmorijo/maasai_agreement_1911.htm">1911</a>. Maasai leaders put their thumbprints to both documents, and may not have known what they were signing away.</p>
<p>Those leaders soon woke up to the reality of their loss. From information I found in archives, the Maasai began legal action. This was done with help from European sympathisers, including Norman Leys, a Scottish medical doctor who worked for the administration in British East Africa.</p>
<p>Leys sent a series of explosive letters to British MPs that blew the whistle on what was going on. This raised a storm in parliament and temporarily stopped the move from Laikipia. But Leys was later sacked for his disloyalty.</p>
<p>Supported by British lawyers based in the protectorate, the Maasai <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24328688">took their case</a> to the High Court of British East Africa in 1913 and <a href="https://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/citation.do?method=citation&forward=browseAuthorsFullContext&id=fl12-004">challenged</a> the legality of the 1911 Agreement. They lost on a <a href="https://primo-pmtca01.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/primo-explore/fulldisplay/01SFUL_ALMA51229173570003611/SFUL">technicality</a>.</p>
<p>But it was a landmark case for its time – the first time, to my knowledge, that an indigenous people in Africa had taken such legal action against a colonial power.</p>
<p>Afterwards, the Maasai were heavily controlled in the reserve. They faced high taxation, forced schooling, quarantine restrictions and other livestock controls, while the warriors were forced to build roads. This led to riots, in which a number of warriors were killed.</p>
<h2>Injustices</h2>
<p>Kenyan Maasai were forced to accept their lives in the new reserves. For a community that traditionally survived by seasonally moving their herds from one place to another, they were restricted, forced to compete for resources with other Maasai groups, and had to adapt to their new environment. On the plus side, the creation of the Maasai Mara National Reserve (in the area to which they moved) has long been a milk cow. This is because it’s <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/236173329.pdf">managed</a> by the Maasai-dominated Narok County Council and revenues are shared with the community. </p>
<p>Nonetheless, some Maasai activists <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/fight-for-the-forbidden-land-x97jdl23ph7">continue to seek</a> compensation or the return of the land from both the British and Kenyan governments.</p>
<p>In evicting the Maasai from the Rift Valley and Laikipia, the British clearly perpetrated a great injustice that has repercussions to this day. It is disgraceful that, more than 100 years after the colonisers forcibly moved Kenyan Maasai to make way for settlers, independent Tanzania is doing something very similar.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186878/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lotte Hughes does not currently receive funding. She previously received funding from the British Academy, ESRC and AHRC. </span></em></p>Just over 100 years ago, Maasai in Kenya were moved into reserves, where they could be more easily taxed and controlled, to make way for white settlement.Lotte Hughes, Honorary Associate, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1817532022-06-10T12:30:36Z2022-06-10T12:30:36ZWhat is chronic wasting disease? A wildlife scientist explains the fatal prion infection killing deer and elk across North America<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465390/original/file-20220525-11-rwnc2s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4486%2C3002&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Female white-tailed deer at sunrise.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/white-tailed-deer-does-moving-at-sunrise-royalty-free-image/695666692">Gary Gray/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2017/1138/ofr20171138.pdf">Chronic wasting disease</a>, a deadly neurological infectious disease that affects deer, elk and moose, is spreading across North America. Most recently detected in North Carolina in March 2022, CWD has been confirmed in 30 U.S. states and <a href="https://inspection.canada.ca/animal-health/terrestrial-animals/diseases/reportable/cwd/what-hunters-should-know/eng/1601393370403/1601393370841">four Canadian provinces</a>, as well as <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/prions/cwd/occurrence.html">Norway, Finland, Sweden and South Korea</a>. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Allan-Houston-2">Dr. Allan Houston</a>, a professor of forest and wildlife ecology at the University of Tennessee’s 18,400-acre <a href="https://ames.tennessee.edu/">Ames AgResearch and Education Center</a> in western Tennessee, explains what is known about CWD and what wildlife scientists are trying to learn.</em></p>
<h2>How does chronic wasting disease affect animals?</h2>
<p>Chronic wasting disease is contagious and relentless. There is no cure, no way to test living animals, and once infections are introduced into wild populations, there is no realistic way to stop them from spreading. </p>
<p>An infected deer typically will survive for 18 months to two years. There’s a long incubation period in which they don’t usually show symptoms, but as the disease progresses, the animals will <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2017/1138/ofr20171138.pdf">begin to appear listless and lose weight</a>. </p>
<p>In the final six weeks or so they can seem aimless and oblivious to danger, become emaciated and drool. They often stand with their legs spread like sawhorses, as if trying not to topple over. </p>
<p>These so-called “zombie deer” <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Health/zombie-deer-disease-spreading-us/story?id=61107970">often get media attention</a>, but as the disease progresses in the wild, deer become more susceptible to other diseases, less able to protect themselves, more prone to predation and more apt to be <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-41.3.503">hit by cars</a>. They rarely live long enough to become zombies.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464107/original/file-20220518-25-eibjnl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing where CWD has been detected in North America." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464107/original/file-20220518-25-eibjnl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464107/original/file-20220518-25-eibjnl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464107/original/file-20220518-25-eibjnl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464107/original/file-20220518-25-eibjnl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464107/original/file-20220518-25-eibjnl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464107/original/file-20220518-25-eibjnl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464107/original/file-20220518-25-eibjnl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chronic wasting disease has established itself in 30 states and four Canadian provinces.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/distribution-chronic-wasting-disease-north-america-0">United States Geological Survey</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How long have scientists known about CWD?</h2>
<p>Chronic wasting disease was first detected in the mid-1960s when penned deer in Colorado began to exhibit symptoms generally described as “wasting away.” Researchers attributed it to stress until the late 1970s, when wildlife veterinarian <a href="https://doi.org/10.1354%2Fvp.42-5-529">Beth Williams</a> performed necropsies on deer that had died of a similar syndrome. She found brain lesions consistent with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/ar050068p">transmissible spongiform encephalopathies</a> – diseases of the nervous system that afflict both animals and humans.</p>
<p>In 1978, Williams and neuropathologist Stuart Young co-wrote the first scientific paper that <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-16.1.89">described chronic wasting disease as a TSE</a>. But the underlying cause remained a mystery.</p>
<p>A year later, neurologist <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1997/prusiner/facts/">Dr. Stanley Prusiner</a> was studying TSE diseases and discovered that a very small protein could become misshapen and resistant to the body’s ability to take it apart. It entered cells, tricking them into replicating it, then moved into the lymph and nervous systems. Eventually it moved to the brain, where small clumps aggregated and caused TSE. Prusiner called that nonliving, infectious protein <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.23.13363">a “prion</a>.” </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465601/original/file-20220526-18-88qlor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465601/original/file-20220526-18-88qlor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465601/original/file-20220526-18-88qlor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465601/original/file-20220526-18-88qlor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465601/original/file-20220526-18-88qlor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465601/original/file-20220526-18-88qlor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465601/original/file-20220526-18-88qlor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465601/original/file-20220526-18-88qlor.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The natural social behaviors of deers help spread chronic wasting disease.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/deer-licking-fawn-on-snow-covered-field-royalty-free-image/1145795534?adppopup=true">Tamas Zsebok/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Does CWD threaten humans?</h2>
<p>Prion diseases <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/prions/index.html">are always fatal</a>, but they don’t all affect the same species. The CWD prion <a href="https://doi.org/10.4161/pri.2.4.7951">favors cervids, or deerlike animals</a>. Other prions cause human illnesses such as <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/prions/cjd/index.html">Creutzfeld-Jakob disease</a>, a malady that progresses similarly to accelerated Alzheimer’s.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.cdc.gov/prions/bse/index.html">Bovine spongiform encephalopathy</a>, popularly known as “mad cow disease,” is a prion disease that infects cattle. In a small number of cases, humans exposed to BSE have <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/prions/bse/bse-north-america.html">developed a version of Creutzfeld-Jakob disease</a>.</p>
<p>No human case of CWD has ever been recorded. However, several laboratory experiments have shown that the CWD prion could be <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2017/1138/ofr20171138.pdf">transferred to other mammals</a>. The <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/prions/cwd/index.html">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> warns against eating meat from infected animals. Some infectious disease experts contend that “while the CWD threat to humans is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.01091-19">low, it is not zero</a>” and that risk assessments must include the potential for the emergence of new strains.</p>
<p>For example, while no one knows how or where CWD originated, some scholars think a mutated prion jumped the species barrier to deer from sheep infected with another animal prion disease called <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/nvap/NVAP-Reference-Guide/Control-and-Eradication/Scrapie">scrapie</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/N0Y5IHRbtqU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Animals with chronic wasting disease don’t typically show symptoms in the early stages of infection.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why are prion diseases so hard to combat?</h2>
<p>Because of their structure and the fact that they don’t contain genetic material, prions like the one that causes CWD are <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/artful-amoeba/prions-are-forever/">nearly indestructible</a>. Breaking a prion apart, or denaturing it, would require a very high concentration of chlorine solution or heat exceeding 1,800 degrees F (980 C). </p>
<p>Once they are deposited on the landscape in urine or feces, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/pri.2.4.7951">CWD prions can persist for decades</a>. Years after deer infected with chronic wasting disease were removed from pens, other deer placed on the contaminated soil in those same pens also became infected.</p>
<p>In wild herds the prion is spread as deer, which are highly social animals, groom and lick one another. During the fall mating season, bucks search for mates, fight and breed. They also visit spots known as scrapes, where they lick the soil and overhead branches where other deer have left their own calling cards. Thanks to these behaviors, bucks usually have CWD at double the rate of does. </p>
<p>Because the disease does not kill quickly, infected animals are able to breed for a season or two, so there is no strong genetic selection pressure favoring the development of herdwide immunity. And recent research suggests infected does can occasionally <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071844">transmit the prion to their fawns before birth</a>.</p>
<p>In some places where CWD occurs, the infection rate may only be 1% to 5%, and the disease’s herdwide impact may not be apparent, even to hunters. Elsewhere, the infection rate can reach 50% and maybe even 100%. In those cases, population impacts will inevitably lead to a smaller and younger herd. </p>
<h2>What do hunters need to know?</h2>
<p>No one wants a disease named after them. With infected deer often appearing healthy, even at close range post-harvest, the only way to be sure an animal is disease-free is to have it tested, usually using lymph nodes.</p>
<p>As CWD spreads and more people are having deer tested, it can take weeks to receive the results. That makes meat processing a much more onerous affair.</p>
<p>It is critical to recognize that once a single deer is infected it acts like tinder to ignite a conflagration. Moving deer around, either alive or dead, can introduce and spread the disease. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://texasfarmbureau.org/cwd-discovered-at-two-texas-deer-breeding-facilities/;%20https://www.outdoorlife.com/conservation/cwd-outbreak-wisconsin-deer-farm/">transferring deer between breeding farms</a> has been associated with its introduction. Disregarding state wildlife regulations that explain the proper ways to transport and dispose of harvested deer, elk or moose <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/prions/cwd/prevention.html">can also spread CWD</a>. <a href="https://newschannel9.com/sports/outdoors/cwd-brings-new-variable-to-deer-baiting-debate">Feeding and baiting stations and salt licks</a> can increase infection rates by concentrating deer and creating a point-source buildup of prions. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1532528178153005063"}"></div></p>
<h2>What do you want to learn about CWD?</h2>
<p>CWD was detected in northern Mississippi and western Tennessee, where I work, in 2019. Based on what was then a relatively high infection rate, it had likely been on the landscape for a number of years and was spreading rapidly. Currently, about 40% of the Ames research station’s herd is infected. </p>
<p>Research on CWD has been ongoing for decades <a href="https://cwd-info.org">around the country</a>. But it is in the South now. At Ames, in cooperation with other scientists from around the country, we are analyzing soil and twig samples for prion concentrations and quantifying deer visits at scrape sites and salt stations. We are also investigating ways to destroy salt stations to avoid continued exposure. </p>
<p>Other studies include training dogs to detect metabolites associated with the disease, and developing an early warning system before the prion can metastasize across a landscape.</p>
<p>We are studying how hunters react when CWD is detected locally, and comparing hunting success before and after a herd has become infected. The perspectives of hunters are important because they love the outdoors and are the first stopgap in CWD’s spread. Hunting is the primary tool for deer management, especially control of overabundant deer populations <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2017/1138/ofr20171138.pdf">where CWD can run rampant</a>. </p>
<p>Our deer hunters participate in the research at every step and often collect samples from deer they harvest. As one hunter said, “We’ve brought in everything except the tracks.” </p>
<p>We hope we can scale up our efforts along with other scientists as we analyze an ailing herd to provide insights into chronic wasting disease for the benefit of animals and humans alike.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181753/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Research on chronic wasting disease at the Ames station is conducted in cooperation with the University of Tennessee, Mississippi State University, the University of Wisconsin and Colorado State University. </span></em></p>A deadly neurological infection, chronic wasting disease, has been detected in deer, elk and moose in 30 states and four Canadian provinces. Human risk is low, but hunters need to take precautions.Allan Houston, Professor of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1787452022-04-20T15:00:09Z2022-04-20T15:00:09ZAt the centre of controversies: Why do we love to hate and hate to love meat?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456625/original/file-20220406-16-hijbaz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C5168%2C3453&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Meat has been a marker of class and gender divides and has sparked scientific revolutions.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/at-the-centre-of-controversies--why-do-we-love-to-hate-and-hate-to-love-meat" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>When was the last time you ate meat? Today? This week? Ten years ago? Never? Have you ever had an <a href="https://www.insider.com/why-do-angry-vegans-meat-eaters-fight-so-much-2020-2">argument about meat consumption with someone</a>, whether it was over environmental impact or the ethics of eating animals? Are you confused when it comes to the conflicting information on meat’s health implications? Do you feel guilty eating meat but still continue to do so? </p>
<p>From the <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/carnivore-diet#what-it-is">controversial carnivore diet</a> to plant-based “<a href="https://thenextweb.com/news/plant-based-filet-mignon-gave-me-a-taste-of-meatless-future">meat</a>” and <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/cell-cultured-meat-58477">lab grown meat</a>, meat is everywhere. </p>
<p>Many of us consume, or used to consume meat — except those who were raised plant-based because of family or culture. Even those of us who follow a plant-based diet might still eat plant-based meat to enjoy the that familiar, meaty taste. </p>
<p>Science journalist Marta Zaraska refers to this centrality of meat in diets as “<a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2075985-meathooked-how-eating-meat-became-a-global-obsession/">meathooked</a>.” </p>
<p>Afterall, meat is one of the oldest items of consumption, with records of early humans butchering animals around <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/evidence-for-meat-eating-by-early-humans-103874273">2.6 million years ago</a>. And ever since, it has become part of family rituals, spiritual celebrations and social gatherings. Meat ties us together but not without objections and contradictions. </p>
<p>How did meat become so contested? Why do we hate to love it and love to hate it?</p>
<p>As marketing researchers, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10253866.2022.2037574">we recently</a> delved deeper into the root of these contradictions and found that meat has been at the centre of controversies around morality, ecology, gender, class and health since the 14th century in the Global North.</p>
<h2>Meat: At the centre of the gender divide</h2>
<p>Despite the <a href="https://theconversation.com/meat-is-masculine-how-food-advertising-perpetuates-harmful-gender-stereotypes-119004">stereotype</a> of <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2018.00559">meat being the domain of men</a>, a recent discovery of a female body found with hunting tools <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/in-the-early-americas-female-hunters-pursued-big-game-study-suggests/">at a 9,000-year-old burial site </a> suggests society might be wrong about its assumptions about who hunts for food. </p>
<p>Yet, meat is <a href="https://nationalpost.com/life/food/why-are-we-programmed-to-think-meat-is-for-men">culturally shaped as a gendered product</a>, and this is a division seen both in its production and consumption. </p>
<p>Gender stereotypes about hunting and butchering are prevalent to the extent that they shape professional aspirations for women, creating a lack of representation with only a <a href="https://thecounter.org/yes-i-am-a-female-butcher/">few women choosing meat-centric</a> professions. Men are also subject to gendered expectations about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023119831801">eating meat to uphold masculinity</a>. </p>
<p>Think about meat-focused shows like <a href="https://thesocietypages.org/cyborgology/2011/11/24/gender-culture-and-cooking-on-the-internet/"><em>Epic Meal Time</em></a> and how they perpetuate a hyper-masculine gender performance. This portrayal helps illuminate why plant-based diets are seen as less manly, and why <a href="https://theconversation.com/meat-and-masculinity-why-some-men-just-cant-stomach-plant-based-food-174785">some men resist plant-based food</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/URl4oYD__-w?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">YouTube account Epic Meal Time builds a ‘20 pound meat lovers sushi roll’</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Meat reflects who has power and money</h2>
<p>The consumption of meat, both in quantity and quality, has marked the symbolic divisions across social classes since Medieval times. As author Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat describes in her book <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444305135"><em>History of Food</em></a>, nobles and the elite consumed better cuts of meat, rarer meat that we no longer consider food <a href="https://theoutline.com/post/8164/why-dont-we-eat-swans">(like swans)</a>, and specific parts of the animal (like the eyes) — until the 16th century, they were considered gastronomical delicacies.</p>
<p>On the other hand the working class consumed lower quality meat with less variety and frequency. However <a href="https://stacker.com/stories/4402/history-americas-meat-processing-industry">slaughterhouses and factory farming</a> helped meat become more accessible to the masses. The quantity of meat consumed was no longer a reflection of social class, but rather its quality. </p>
<p>More recently, factory farming has <a href="https://thehumaneleague.org/article/what-is-factory-farming">sparked discussions around the ethics and sustainability</a> of meat production as well as its ecological impact. </p>
<p>Mass meat production destroys <a href="https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/22287498/meat-wildlife-biodiversity-species-plantbased">natural habitats and biodiversity</a>, it is exploitative and <a href="https://caroljadams.com/spom-the-book">objectifying</a> to both animals and <a href="https://calgaryherald.com/news/local-news/alberta-meat-plant-workers-vulnerable-to-dangerous-conditions-new-research">workers</a> and affects the <a href="https://theconversation.com/rural-americans-struggles-against-factory-farm-pollution-find-traction-in-court-98226">quality of rural life</a>. </p>
<p>A future that includes less meat is a sentiment shared by animal activists, <a href="https://montrealgazette.com/life/new-canadas-food-guide-not-about-portion-but-about-proportion">governments</a> and even the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02409-7">United Nations</a> as part of their strategy towards a more meatless society. But many might think this is not a realistic goal, because, after all, we are meathooked.</p>
<h2>Rethinking a world without meat</h2>
<p>Meat has been a marker of class and gender divides and has sparked scientific revolutions, but <a href="https://www.theworldcounts.com/challenges/consumption/foods-and-beverages/world-consumption-of-meat/story">data shows</a> people aren’t letting meat go. </p>
<p>While ideal meatless meat is expected to look, taste and feel like meat, scientists aren’t sure if it can replace meat and <a href="https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2019/2/22/18235189/lab-grown-meat-cultured-environment-climate-change">solve our problems</a>. And the deeply entrenched cultural contradictions and conflicts associated with meat will continue to shape our controversial relations with it, the symbols it represents and the moral discussions around it. </p>
<p>For these reasons, meat — and its substitutes — will continue to be loved and hated. We can imagine a meatless future, but we might not be able to escape the cultural baggage brought by meat’s past.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178745/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Meat has been a marker of class and gender divides, sparked scientific revolutions and has been at the centre of wars.Zeynep Arsel, Concordia University Chair in Consumption, Markets, and Society, Concordia UniversityAya Aboelenien, Assistant Professor of Marketing, HEC MontréalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1799722022-04-12T13:53:59Z2022-04-12T13:53:59ZAfrica’s large aquatic animals are being hunted and traded: we assessed the scale<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456105/original/file-20220404-17-r60f66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hawksbill turtle.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Jonas Gratzer/LightRocket via GettyImages</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Across most of the world, and particularly in the tropics and subtropics, large wild aquatic animals – such as manatees, turtles and dolphins – are being hunted and traded. This is not a new phenomenon. Aquatic animal meat has been eaten, and sometimes used as remedies or in traditional ceremonies, throughout history.</p>
<p>This type of consumption is widespread. In some places this wild meat is an important source of nutrition, income, and cultural identity. Yet opportunities to exploit wildlife for economic gain – often illegally – increase the number of animals hunted in some places. Coupled with growing human populations, this has led to the unsustainable exploitation of some species. </p>
<p>Understanding the scope and potential threat of aquatic wild meat exploitation is an important first step toward appropriate conservation actions and policies.</p>
<p>We’re part of a large international team of conservation researchers and practitioners that <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/837447/fmars-09-837447-HTML/image_m/fmars-09-837447-t001.jpg">recently published</a> a paper on this. We carried out a literature review on the use of large aquatic animals (excluding fish) – what we call “aquatic megafauna” – for wild meat in the global tropics and subtropics. This topic is hugely under-researched, so this review represents one of the most in-depth assessments of the topic to date.</p>
<p>We focused on 37 species of conservation concern that are <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/837447/fmars-09-837447-HTML/image_m/fmars-09-837447-t001.jpg">listed</a> on the Appendices of the Convention on the <a href="https://www.cms.int/">Conservation of Migratory Species</a> of Wild Animals. The list includes several species of whales, dolphins, and porpoises (cetaceans), manatees and dugongs (sirenians), marine turtles (chelonians), and crocodiles (crocodylians).</p>
<p>Twelve of these species inhabit oceans and rivers in West, Central and Eastern Africa. These are regions that were in the tropics and subtropics and are where there are concerns about hunting, consumption and trade.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2022.837447/full">We found that</a> the consumption of these aquatic animals is widespread in coastal regions, to varying degrees. Some species are likely to be at risk from over-exploitation, particularly species inhabiting rivers and freshwater areas. </p>
<p>For most of the species monitored, a major issue is that animals are unintentionally caught as bycatch during fishing. They’re then opportunistically killed and eaten or sold, instead of being released when alive.</p>
<h2>Dolphins, manatees and turtles</h2>
<p>We found evidence of the use of cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) in most countries in tropical Africa, particularly in West Africa. Their meat was used for a variety of purposes including food, shark bait, and traditional medicine. </p>
<p>One species considered to be particularly at risk is the Atlantic humpback dolphin (<em>Sousa teuszii</em>). Distributed solely along Africa’s Atlantic coast, it’s one of the least understood coastal dolphins in the world. Because it has such a <a href="https://journals.co.za/doi/epdf/10.10520/EJC18185">small population size</a> and lives close to shores – where it can get captured by small-scale fishers – it’s highly vulnerable. </p>
<p>African manatees (<em>Trichechus senegalensis</em>), distributed exclusively in West and Central Africa, and dugong (<em>Dugong dugon</em>), whose range spans into East Africa, are legally protected in nearly all countries in which they occur. However, the team found evidence that they were being used for various purposes including food and traditional medicine to some degree in all countries. Most manatee populations cannot withstand human-induced mortality because their populations are <a href="https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/19751/">highly sensitive</a> to changes in adult survival. In recent years, high losses to populations of African manatees have been reported.</p>
<p>Turtles face a similar threat. The capture and consumption of marine turtle adults, and harvest of their eggs, is ubiquitous across much of the species’ ranges. This includes mainland Africa and the African islands. However, as with the other aquatic megafauna, larger-scale monitoring is needed to assess impacts and sustainability.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454357/original/file-20220325-25-1qczted.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454357/original/file-20220325-25-1qczted.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454357/original/file-20220325-25-1qczted.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454357/original/file-20220325-25-1qczted.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454357/original/file-20220325-25-1qczted.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454357/original/file-20220325-25-1qczted.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454357/original/file-20220325-25-1qczted.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">(A) Atlantic humpback dolphin (Sousa teuszii), Conkouati-Douli National Park, Republic of the Congo; (B) African Manatee (Trichechus senegalensis), Lagos Lagoon, Nigeria; and (C) Green turtle (Chelonia mydas), Joal, Senegal. Photo credits: Tim Collins/Wildlife Conservation Society (A), Christogonus Uzoma Ejimadu (B), and Pearson McGovern, African Aquatic Conservation Fund (C). Author provided, no reuse.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>River animals</h2>
<p>Risks to riverine megafauna – those living in rivers – from harvest may be particularly high, even if opportunistic, because these species face multiple threats in the same restricted area. The threats include dams, intensive fishing, and pollution where human population density is high. In Africa, this is true of African manatees and freshwater turtles (which were not assessed in the study, but are widely hunted). </p>
<p>Riverine megafauna may suffer from a lack of management and research, and will require increased conservation efforts. This is because they’re neither seen as terrestrial species nor as fish, so it’s not often clear at the national level who is responsible for their conservation and management.</p>
<h2>Widespread</h2>
<p>Across the tropics and subtropics, there are clearly differences in local circumstances between areas. The drivers of hunting and consumption, hunting technologies used, human density and other threats to animals and their habitats, and how they change over time, will influence harvest sustainability.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, it’s clear that the use of aquatic megafauna for meat is likely to be far more widespread in terms of frequency and species than reported in the review. This is because monitoring and reporting is limited. Also because many of the species are protected by national laws, or are charismatic, so their use is secretive. </p>
<p>The trans-boundary nature of harvests and associated trade of these oceanic, coastal, and riverine species requires increased international attention and cooperation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179972/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel J Ingram was partially supported to complete this work by funding from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. He is affiliated with the African Aquatic Conservation Fund.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heidrun Frisch-Nwakanma does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many of Africa’s large aquatic animals, such as dolphins, manatees and turtles, are being killed for meat.Daniel J Ingram, Researcher in Conservation, University of StirlingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1804782022-04-11T12:14:43Z2022-04-11T12:14:43ZGreat white sharks occasionally hunt in pairs – new research sheds light on social behavior of these mysterious predators<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457187/original/file-20220408-20-xvfjtz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=38%2C240%2C3178%2C2484&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Great white sharks are not normally thought of as social creatures.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Yannis Papastamatiou</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sitting anchored to the rocky reef 70 feet (21 meters) below the surface of the ocean, hundreds of scalloped hammerhead sharks swam above me in unison, moving as if one. When most people think of sharks, they don’t think of them as social creatures. The schooling hammerhead sharks above my head were a striking example of shark social groups, a topic that has not been the subject of much exploration.</p>
<p>I am <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=qudaP1wAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">a marine biologist</a> and <a href="https://www.peclabfiu.com/">study the behavior of predators</a>. For the last 22 years, my research has focused on sharks.</p>
<p>Biologists have long known that some sharks – like hammerheads – are social creatures, but whether great white sharks interact with each other while hunting, and if so, how, is still a mystery. Since 2014, my colleagues and I have visited the beautiful Guadalupe Island off the coast of Mexico to try to find out. Using state of the art technology, we have been able to gain a better understanding of the secret social lives of these top predators.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/4BdjxYUdJS8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Some creatures, like ants, form highly complex social systems based around cooperation, but there are many levels of social behavior.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What makes a social animal?</h2>
<p>A social animal is one that interacts and spends time with other individuals of the same species. While nearly all animals show some degree of sociality – when they mate, for example – social behaviors can range from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802213-9.00002-X">solitary snow leopards</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1996.tb04492.x">highly social ant colonies</a>.</p>
<p>When people think of social predators, most probably picture a pack of wolves hunting in an organized, cooperative group. But social behavior can be much simpler than that. An animal may simply decide to stay in close proximity to another individual because it has learned that if its “colleague” locates some prey, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0245-0">its own chances of getting a meal increase</a>. </p>
<p>The sharing of information – the location of prey – in this example is inadvertent. The first predator wasn’t purposefully alerting the second predator to the presence of a meal. But under the right conditions, this type of basic social interaction can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005147">increase the success of both animals’ hunting</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457186/original/file-20220408-21-fnnh0j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=76%2C267%2C3435%2C2402&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A shark in the ocean." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457186/original/file-20220408-21-fnnh0j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=76%2C267%2C3435%2C2402&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457186/original/file-20220408-21-fnnh0j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457186/original/file-20220408-21-fnnh0j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457186/original/file-20220408-21-fnnh0j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457186/original/file-20220408-21-fnnh0j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457186/original/file-20220408-21-fnnh0j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457186/original/file-20220408-21-fnnh0j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Great white sharks were historically seen as individualistic hunters, but previous research hinted at social behaviors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Yannis Papastamatiou</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Hints of a social shark</h2>
<p>White sharks travel to seal colonies <a href="https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07628">during the seal’s breeding seasons</a> in the summer and fall. Sharks generally hunt by patrolling the waters adjacent to seal colonies and ambush seals at the surface. </p>
<p>In 2001, researchers in California published a paper describing how white sharks patrolling a seal colony at Año Nuevo Island would <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s002270000489">remain within “eavesdropping” distance of each other</a>. The biologists suggested that if one shark killed a marine mammal, other, nearby sharks would register this information and quickly approach the site of the kill, perhaps hoping to eat from the remains of the prey. While the sharks may not be cooperating, they can still potentially benefit by hanging out with each other.</p>
<p>Further studies on white shark behavior in Australia took this a step further. Researchers found that white sharks would often turn up at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-019-2745-1">cage diving sites with the same individuals</a> time and time again. The fact that white sharks not only stay close to each other but also have preferred buddies got me wondering if maybe these animals were more social than people thought.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457191/original/file-20220408-42486-1pet9o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of a large island from the sea with clouds spilling over." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457191/original/file-20220408-42486-1pet9o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457191/original/file-20220408-42486-1pet9o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457191/original/file-20220408-42486-1pet9o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457191/original/file-20220408-42486-1pet9o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457191/original/file-20220408-42486-1pet9o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457191/original/file-20220408-42486-1pet9o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457191/original/file-20220408-42486-1pet9o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Guadalupe Island off the northwestern coast of Mexico is home to a number of seal colonies, and great white sharks are regular visitors in fall and winter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Yannis Papastamatiou</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How to tag a great white shark</h2>
<p>Guadalupe Island is located about 150 miles (240 km) west of Mexico’s Baja Peninsula. Every fall, at least <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-74294-4">100 white sharks arrive at the island to feed</a> on Guadalupe fur seals, California sea lions, squid and tuna. In 2014, I reached out to my friend and colleague, <a href="https://www.pelagioskakunja.org/dr-mauricio-hoyos">Mauricio Hoyos-Padilla</a>, who has been tagging white sharks at Guadalupe for over 15 years, to see if he was interested in studying white shark social behavior. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457189/original/file-20220408-25011-u2csvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large, yellow rectangular piece of technology." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457189/original/file-20220408-25011-u2csvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457189/original/file-20220408-25011-u2csvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457189/original/file-20220408-25011-u2csvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457189/original/file-20220408-25011-u2csvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457189/original/file-20220408-25011-u2csvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457189/original/file-20220408-25011-u2csvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457189/original/file-20220408-25011-u2csvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The social tag can detect nearby sharks with transmitters, allowing researchers to see when sharks were near each other.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Yannis Papastamatiou</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To do this, we developed a new electronic tag that we call the “social tag.” It has sensors that can detect simple acoustic transmitters that we attached to other sharks, allowing us to see which sharks hang out with each other and for how long. The social tags also include a video camera and motion sensors that can track how fast the shark is swimming and how deep it is.</p>
<p>Starting in 2017, I would head to Guadalupe every year for about a week to try to tag sharks with Mauricio and his students from the nonprofit research organization <a href="https://www.pelagioskakunja.org">Pelagios-Kakunja</a>. Sometimes we would tag sharks from the safety of cages, but more often we would free dive with them. We would use bait to attract a shark to the boat and when one appeared, three or four taggers would jump into the crystal clear water. We would then wait for one of these large sharks to get curious and swim within a few feet of us. When that happened, we would use a long pole to clamp the tag onto the dorsal fin of the shark.</p>
<p>Over three years of successful tagging, we deployed our social tags on three male and three female sharks and tagged another 37 individuals with acoustic transmitters. The tags would stay on for one to five days before falling off and floating to the surface for the team to recover. In total, we collected over 312 hours of data from the six social tags.</p>
<h2>When sharks hang out</h2>
<p>Over the many hours of data that we collected, the sharks frequently came within 100 feet (30 meters) of other individuals. Many of these meetings were short and seemingly random – kind of like crossing paths with someone at a grocery store – but a few lasted longer and appeared to be true social interactions. We recorded five instances of these longer interactions, one of which lasted for over an hour. </p>
<p>We also found that individual sharks behaved quite differently from one another. Two of the tagged sharks were particularly social and associated with 12 and 16 other individuals, while two others appeared much less social, only crossing paths with only four and six other sharks respectively. The tags used on the final two sharks did not have working sensors on them, so we were not able to measure interactions.</p>
<p>Another interesting behavioral difference was that some sharks hunted in shallow waters and others hunted hundreds of meters deep.</p>
<p>Our new evidence suggests that white sharks are indeed social animals. Just as previous research suggested, our results fit with the idea that that the benefit of white shark sociality is that they can “eavesdrop” on other sharks. They can quickly acquire information such as a seal killed at depth by another shark, and this could end leading to an easy meal. However, there is so much more to learn. </p>
<p>Measuring sociality over months and over a year, as opposed to just days, would provide much deeper insights. When the sharks leave Guadalupe Island in the spring, they travel long distances across the open ocean – some swim as far as Hawaii. Do they travel together or by themselves? </p>
<p>The social lives of white sharks have been a secret hidden from researchers for decades. It took new technology and new research methods to see it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180478/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yannis Papastamatiou receives funding from Sharkproject International and Great White Mystery. </span></em></p>Researchers have discovered that great white sharks are more social than previously thought. Using specialized tags, they tracked six sharks and found that some stay close to each other when hunting.Yannis Papastamatiou, Professor of Biological Sciences, Florida International UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1782842022-03-23T19:53:49Z2022-03-23T19:53:49ZThe importance of Indigenous storytelling in tales of post-apocalyptic survival<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453754/original/file-20220323-23-14c2mc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C75%2C8441%2C5707&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In Blood Quantum, Indigenous survivors are immune to a plague that transforms others into zombies.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.elevationpictures.com/catalogue">(Elevation Pictures)</a></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/the-importance-of-indigenous-storytelling-in-tales-of-post-apocalyptic-survival" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>With many provinces across <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/coronavirus/the-time-is-absolutely-right-for-pandemic-measures-to-lift-experts-say-1.5785151">Canada lifting vaccine and mask mandates</a>, <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health-news/how-to-cope-with-no-mask-anxiety">anxieties are high</a>. If COVID-19 is <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/18/heres-how-covid-19-transitions-from-a-pandemic-to-endemic.html">becoming endemic</a>, we must search for what philosopher Jonathan Lear calls “<a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674027466">radical hope</a>.” </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/radical-hope-what-young-dreamers-in-literature-can-teach-us-about-covid-19-142528">Radical hope: What young dreamers in literature can teach us about COVID-19</a>
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<p>However, alongside trauma and <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/middle-ages/pandemics-timeline">particularly in times of pandemics throughout history</a>, hope can take the form of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QkDsIcAXETY">stories about resilience</a>. And for Indigenous people in particular, <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/corporate/publications/chief-public-health-officer-reports-state-public-health-canada/from-risk-resilience-equity-approach-covid-19/indigenous-peoples-covid-19-report.html">who have disproportionately experienced the effects of the pandemic</a>, what better way to find hope than to turn to Indigenous survivors in post-apocalyptic narratives?</p>
<h2>Survival stories</h2>
<p>Métis author Cherie Dimaline provides us the opportunity to do just this. Dimaline is best known for <em>The Marrow Thieves</em>, which won the <a href="https://ggbooks.ca/about">Governor General’s Literary Award</a> and the <a href="https://www.kirkusreviews.com/prize/">Kirkus Prize</a>. <em>The Marrow Thieves</em> is listed as one of <a href="https://time.com/collection/100-best-ya-books/6084702/the-marrow-thieves/"><em>TIME</em> magazine’s Best YA Books of All Time</a>. </p>
<p>The novel was written in response to the <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/5448390/first-nations-suicide-rate-statscan/">suicide epidemic</a> within Indigenous communities. During her work with Indigenous youth, Dimaline wanted to show them a viable future where they could be <a href="https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/books/2017/11/06/cherie-dimaline-hopes-and-dreams-in-the-apocalypse.html">the heroes</a>.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZWYrmrAi8ow?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Cherie Dimaline at The Walrus Talks in 2019.</span></figcaption>
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<p><em><a href="https://www.dcbyoungreaders.com/the-marrow-thieves">The Marrow Thieves</a></em> and its sequel, <em><a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.ca/books/651691/hunting-by-stars-by-cherie-dimaline/9780735269651">Hunting by Stars</a></em>, follow Métis protagonist Frenchie and his found family of other Indigenous survivors as they roam a post-apocalyptic wasteland ravaged by climate change. In this new world, everyone except Indigenous people have lost the ability to dream. <a href="https://herizons.ca/archives/cover/cherie-dimaline-the-importance-of-dreams">Without dreams, people go mad</a> — killing others and committing suicide. </p>
<p>Governments respond by establishing schools inspired by the residential school system, and characters called “recruiters” search for Indigenous survivors to bring back to the schools to be “harvested.” The marrow within the bones of Indigenous people contains dreams, and by harvesting and consuming the marrow, non-Indigenous survivors can finally dream. </p>
<p><em>Hunting by Stars</em> reflects contemporary concerns about residential schools as well as contagion:</p>
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<p>“…medical masks hanging from their ears like hand-me-down jewelry. They had the plague. Trash cans at the end of each driveway were heaped with syringes, so many vaccinations and cures thrown out because none would work. The people stumbled into one another, knocking over cans and crunching through needles. They had that look, the one that let you know they were dreamless.”</p>
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<h2>Story and hope</h2>
<p>In Dimaline’s novels, there is <em>the</em> Story: as Indigenous survivors tell their stories, the overarching Story changes slightly to include these new voices. Story, with a capital “s,” is comprised of a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/ail.2020.0023">shared oral history</a>,” produced by the various characters’ narratives.</p>
<p>Miigwans, the Elder figure in the novel is responsible for telling Story to ensure the younger Indigenous survivors in the novel remember their history. Therefore, his telling of Story ensures that it will never be forgotten. However, Story is not just the history of the Indigenous characters in the novel; <a href="https://quillandquire.com/review/the-marrow-thieves/">Story is the history</a> of everyone living in Canada, both Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples.</p>
<p>Story includes climate change, pipelines, colonialism, Treaties and the residential school system. </p>
<p>Dimaline admits that stories are how she <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/14/books/indigenous-native-american-sci-fi-horror.html">understands herself and her community</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453750/original/file-20220323-17-1taksgr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a book cover HUNTING BY STARS showing an illustration of a silhouetted forest beneath a starry night sky" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453750/original/file-20220323-17-1taksgr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453750/original/file-20220323-17-1taksgr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453750/original/file-20220323-17-1taksgr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453750/original/file-20220323-17-1taksgr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453750/original/file-20220323-17-1taksgr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453750/original/file-20220323-17-1taksgr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453750/original/file-20220323-17-1taksgr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The book cover for Cherie Dimaline’s 2021 novel, <em>Hunting by Stars</em>.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.ca/books/651691/hunting-by-stars-by-cherie-dimaline/9780735269651">(Penguin Random House)</a></span>
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<p>Given that Dimaline’s original inspiration was to <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/books/the-message-ya-novelist-cherie-dimaline-has-for-young-indigenous-readers-1.4195036">bring hope to Indigenous youth</a> amidst rising suicide rates, the relationship between Story and hope cannot be overlooked.</p>
<p>Dimaline’s novels resonate in today’s world. The re-introduction of residential schools in the world of Dimaline’s novels is timely, given recent confirmations of <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/1/canada-169-potential-graves-found-at-former-residential-school">unmarked burial sites</a> at former residential school locations throughout Canada.</p>
<h2>Plagues and zombies</h2>
<p>Story plays a similar role in Mi'kmaq director Jeff Barnaby’s 2019 zombie film, <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7394674/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0"><em>Blood Quantum</em></a>. In <em>Blood Quantum</em>, a zombie-producing plague has ravaged the world, but Indigenous people find themselves immune to the virus. They establish a safe zone on the fictional Red Crow Reservation and protect both Indigenous and non-Indigenous survivors. However, the inclusion of the latter is a point of contention for some characters.</p>
<p>In the film, there are a few animated scenes that represent Story. In the final animated scene, an elder named Gisigu appears to perish beneath a mass of zombies. However, the scene changes to animation, and Gisigu emerges victorious. Gisigu may have perished in the material world, but in Story, he lives on. When animated Gisigu emerges from beneath the mass, he vows never to let the zombies pass, protecting the future of his surviving Indigenous family.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453748/original/file-20220323-17-1qb0kio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a man stands over a pile of zombies in a room with blood-stained walls" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453748/original/file-20220323-17-1qb0kio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453748/original/file-20220323-17-1qb0kio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453748/original/file-20220323-17-1qb0kio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453748/original/file-20220323-17-1qb0kio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453748/original/file-20220323-17-1qb0kio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453748/original/file-20220323-17-1qb0kio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453748/original/file-20220323-17-1qb0kio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A still from the Indigenous zombie horror movie, <em>Blood Quantum</em> (2019).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Elevation Pictures)</span></span>
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<h2>Understanding through Story</h2>
<p>For many Indigenous people, storytelling is a form of reclamation — what Anishnaabe writer Gerald Vizenor would call “<a href="https://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/nebraska-paperback/9780803210837/">survivance</a>,” a portmanteau of survival and resistance. The concept relies on the use of stories to ensure the continued <a href="https://politicaltheology.com/survivance/">presence of Indigenous people</a>.</p>
<p>In response to the recent confirmations of unmarked burial sites at residential schools, <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2021/11/21/canadas-crying-shame-the-fields-full-of-childrens-bones">survivors are recounting stories about those who unfortunately did not survive</a>. Doing so is survivance — these stories bring lost Indigenous children into the present and give those who survived as well as those who unfortunately did not, <a href="https://theconversation.com/residential-school-literature-can-teach-the-colonial-present-and-imagine-better-futures-120383">voice and agency</a>.</p>
<p>As a third-generation residential school survivor, I cannot possibly understand what my grandmother experienced inside the schools. I can, however, <a href="https://epl.bibliocommons.com/list/share/69643431/675287927">read Story and begin to understand my own part in Story</a>. Therefore, we can all learn a little something about ourselves and our world from Indigenous survival stories.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178284/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Krista Collier-Jarvis does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Indigenous stories of survival in fictional post-apocalyptic landscapes draw from actual events and experiences. These stories preserve histories and the possibility of hope.Krista Collier-Jarvis, PhD Candidate in English, Dalhousie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.