tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/land-management-2010/articlesLand management – The Conversation2024-03-08T05:37:23Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243372024-03-08T05:37:23Z2024-03-08T05:37:23ZCultural burning is better for Australian soils than prescribed burning, or no burning at all<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580328/original/file-20240307-10578-g6monm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=28%2C5%2C3805%2C2149&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ulladulla Local Aboriginal Land Council and Mane Collective</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine a landscape shaped by fire, not as a destructive force but as a life-giving tool. That’s the reality in Australia, where Indigenous communities have long understood the intricate relationship between fire, soil and life. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/emr.12592?saml_referrer">Cultural burning</a>
has been used for millennia to care for landscapes and nurture biodiversity. In contrast, government agencies conduct “<a href="https://knowledge.aidr.org.au/media/4893/overview-of-prescribed-burning-in-australasia.pdf">prescribed burning</a>” mainly to reduce fuel loads.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2571-6255/7/3/75">our new research</a>, we compared cultural burning to agency-led prescribed burning or no burning. We studied the effects on soil properties such as moisture content, density and nutrient levels.</p>
<p>Both fire treatments increased soil moisture and organic matter, while reducing soil density. That means burning improved soil health overall. But cultural burning was the best way to boost soil carbon and nitrogen while also reducing soil density, which improves the soil’s ability to nurture plants.</p>
<p>Understanding the effects of different fire management techniques is crucial for developing more sustainable land management practices. By studying what happens to the soil, we can work out how best to promote healthy, resilient ecosystems while also reducing risks of uncontrolled bushfires. </p>
<figure>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/603712505" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Cultural Burning for Resilience (2021), a mini documentary featuring coauthors Vic Channell, Leanne Brook and Katharine Haynes.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/before-the-colonists-came-we-burned-small-and-burned-often-to-avoid-big-fires-its-time-to-relearn-cultural-burning-201475">Before the colonists came, we burned small and burned often to avoid big fires. It's time to relearn cultural burning</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The vital role of fire</h2>
<p>Fire has shaped Australian landscapes for millions of years, transforming ecosystems and influencing biodiversity.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People standing around a slow-burning patch of bracken" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Slow, cool burns are safe for onlookers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ulladulla Local Aboriginal Land Council</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For Indigenous Australians, fire is not just a tool but a way of life. Fire is used to care for Country, for cultural purposes including ceremonies, to promote new plant growth and food resources, and to facilitate hunting and gathering. </p>
<p>Cultural burning is only ever conducted when it will benefit the health of Country. It is a practice deeply rooted in Indigenous knowledge and traditions. Fires are small, slow and cool. Practitioners read signs in the environment in relation to the local flora and fauna that provide guidance on the right time to burn. </p>
<p>In comparison, prescribed burning, conducted by government agencies, is principally conducted to reduce fuel loads and minimise the risk of wildfires. Fires are often larger and burn hotter than cultural burning. </p>
<p>In recent times, bushfires have become <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0242484">more frequent and severe</a> in parts of Australia. So understanding and <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wf/pdf/WFv29n11_BR">supporting Indigenous-led fire management practices</a> is becoming increasingly important for sustainable land management. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-1970s-conservation-laws-turned-this-paradise-on-earth-into-a-tinderbox-192401">How 1970s conservation laws turned this ‘paradise on Earth’ into a tinderbox</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Unlocking the secrets of soil health</h2>
<p>Our new research sheds light on the impact of fire management techniques on soil properties. The study was conducted on the south coast of New South Wales, on land managed by the Ulladulla Local Aboriginal Land Council. At this plot, one area of land experienced no burn, another was burnt by NSW Rural Fire Service and another experienced a cultural burn. </p>
<p>While the area burnt was relatively small, about 5,000 square metres for each plot, it can still help shed a light on the effect of fire treatments on soil properties.</p>
<p>We found both agency-led prescribed burning and cultural burning increased soil moisture levels. There may be different reasons for this. For soils that experienced the cultural burn, the extra moisture could be explained by the reduction in soil density, which promotes water flow. For soils that experienced the agency-led prescribed burn, where density didn’t decrease much, it’s possible the hotter fire removed the water-repellant layer of soil that sometimes develops following a fire, allowing more moisture to soak in.</p>
<p>Cultural burning had a more pronounced effect on reducing soil density and increasing organic matter content. Having more organic matter in the soil means more nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen are available to plants. Lower density improves soil structure. Both improve the capacity of ecosystems to withstand environmental stress such as drought and wildfire. </p>
<p>These findings suggest cultural burning not only benefits soil health but also helps make ecosystems more resilient, by providing more water and nutrients that native plants need. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Research student Jessica Davis measuring carbon dioxide emissions from soil" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Carbon dioxide emissions from soil can be measured in the field.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jessica Davis</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Embracing Indigenous wisdom</h2>
<p>Indigenous communities use cultural land management practices, of which cultural burning is one tool, to care for Country as kin. They do not see themselves as separate to the environment. Instead their practices are guided by place-based knowledge that weaves human, spiritual and ecological needs together in a symbiotic relationship where one cannot thrive without the other. </p>
<p>Supporting Indigenous-led fire practices is not just about what it can do for the environment. It’s also a recognition of the deep cultural and spiritual connections Indigenous communities have with the land. </p>
<p>By learning from and working with Indigenous communities, we can foster a more harmonious relationship with Country, one that benefits both people and the environment.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A group of people standing in the bush during a controlled burn, with the sun in the background peeking through the smoke" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cultural burning is a team effort.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ulladulla Local Aboriginal Land Council</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rekindling our relationships</h2>
<p>Indigenous fire management practices offer invaluable wisdom and the potential to transform our approach to land stewardship. </p>
<p>By embracing these practices, we can nurture healthier soils, promote biodiversity, and foster more resilient ecosystems. </p>
<p>Practically, to make this possible, ongoing investment is required to build the capacity of Indigenous communities to fulfil their obligations to care for Country. Policies must be updated to allow greater access to Country and to reduce red tape and bureaucracy.</p>
<p>There is a danger here. Government agencies often want to incorporate or take on some of the principles of cool burns themselves, forgetting the cultural aspects and the need for this to be Indigenous-led. We must understand this is not just about managing fires, it’s about rekindling our relationship with the land and learning from those who have lived in harmony with it for thousands of years. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-research-in-arnhem-land-reveals-why-institutional-fire-management-is-inferior-to-cultural-burning-184562">New research in Arnhem Land reveals why institutional fire management is inferior to cultural burning</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224337/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony Dosseto receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katharine Haynes, Leanne Brook, and Victor Channell do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What does fire management do to soils? We compared prescribed burning to cultural burning and looked at how soil properties changed after fire. Cultural burning was better.Anthony Dosseto, Professor, University of WollongongKatharine Haynes, Honorary Senior Research Fellow, University of WollongongLeanne Brook, CEO, Ulladulla Local Aboriginal Land Council, Indigenous KnowledgeVictor Channell, Murramarang and Walbunga Elder, Indigenous KnowledgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2221072024-02-13T15:04:44Z2024-02-13T15:04:44Z17 million South Africans live on communal land – new study of a rural valley offers insights on how to manage it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572398/original/file-20240131-19-f7h2o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tyhume Valley in Eastern Cape, South Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wonga Masiza</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Tyhume River, flowing from the forested Amathole Mountains in South Africa’s Eastern Cape province, gives its name to a valley of 20 villages on communal land. Much of the land is being used to keep livestock, as crop production has declined over the years. This land is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264837712001998?via%3Dihub">under the custodianship of traditional leaders</a>.</p>
<p>The valley is typical of South Africa’s communal land: affected by <a href="https://doi.org/10.2989/10220119.2022.2138973">soil erosion</a>, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00207233.2021.1886557">bush encroachment</a> and <a href="http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0301-603X2022000200005">water scarcity</a>. </p>
<p>About one third (over 17 million) of <a href="https://www.parliament.gov.za/storage/app/media/Pages/2017/october/High_Level_Panel/Commissioned_Report_land/Commisioned_Report_on_Tenure_Reform_LARC.pdf">South Africa’s population lives on communal land</a>, which makes up around <a href="https://sarpn.org/documents/d0002695/index.php">13%</a> of all land in the country. The <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201707/40965gen510.pdf">Communal Land Tenure Bill, 2017</a> defines communal land as “owned, occupied or used by members of a community subject to shared rules or norms and customs”. It can also be owned by the state.</p>
<p>This land can benefit rural communities by providing ecosystem goods and services, such as shelter, water, fuelwood, food and cultural amenities. But natural processes and human activity can transform the land. </p>
<p>Unmonitored and poorly managed land changes can trigger soil erosion, overgrazing, loss of biodiversity and water scarcity. In South Africa, communal land is considered to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10260">more degraded than privately owned land</a>. This can negatively affect the livelihoods of people who derive ecosystem services from it.</p>
<p>Common indicators and causes of land degradation are generally understood. But less is known about how people living in communal lands interpret land changes and their impact. It’s unclear what they perceive as land degradation or which kinds of land changes matter most to them. This helps explain the lack of sound policies and practical strategies to rehabilitate land.</p>
<p>Our team of geoinformation scientists at South Africa’s Agricultural Research Council and the University of the Free State carried out <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2023.1205750/full">a study</a> which mapped land use and land cover change in the Tyhume Valley over 30 years. </p>
<p>To understand the extent, causes and impact of communal land change, we analysed a series of historical satellite images from 1989 to 2019 and conducted interviews with locals. Instead of interviewing experts and leaders, the study measured the most common perceptions among community members.</p>
<p>As far as we know, this study is one of the first in South Africa to combine satellite data and local perceptions. This offered a more complete view of communal land change, and valuable insights on its impacts. </p>
<p>We suggested some ways in which this land could be managed better to provide ecosystem services and livelihoods. </p>
<h2>Satellite imagery and community perceptions</h2>
<p>Our study set out to discover whether satellite-measured trends of land use and land cover corresponded with those perceived by the community. We also explored the causes, rate and impact of these trends.</p>
<p>Satellite imagery from 1989 to 2019 revealed increases of the sweet thorn tree (<em>Vachellia karroo</em>) by 25% and the residential area (2.5%). It showed declines of grazing land (18%), cropland (9.6%) and dams (1.1%). </p>
<p>Assisted by 102 long-standing residents, most above 50 years of age, we asked about the causes and impacts of the observed changes. </p>
<p>Most respondents (over 80%) noted the encroachment of the sweet thorn tree on grazing land and abandoned cropland. They said contributing factors were a decrease in fuelwood harvesting due to increased reliance on electricity, the abandonment of cropland (providing habitat for the sweet thorn) and seed dispersal caused by unrestricted movement of animals. Many saw the tree as beneficial because goats like to eat it and it makes good fuel. Others were concerned that this tree was invading productive agricultural land and causing a loss of biodiversity. They mentioned increased scarcity and disappearance of medicinal and culturally significant plants.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/smallholder-crop-farming-is-on-the-decline-in-south-africa-why-it-matters-119333">Smallholder crop farming is on the decline in South Africa. Why it matters</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Most respondents noted a decrease in grazing land, cropland and surface water. As reasons, they cited lack of access control (poor management, allowing bush encroachment), lack of farmer support and equipment, and poor rainfall.</p>
<p>New houses had been erected on grazing land. This was seen as a result of population increase and inward migration. Livestock farmers saw this as a problem because they had to buy fodder or trek their cattle long distances to graze. The population increase also put strain on water resources.</p>
<p>Every village in the area had at least one communal dam that had dried up. Despite 14 years of below-average rainfall and a negative rainfall trend between 1989 and 2019, the trend was not statistically significant. The community perceived that water resources had declined because of overuse and poor maintenance of dams. They said the government no longer desilted community dams, and that the community had abandoned traditional practices such as the maintenance of surface water channels and homestead ponds. </p>
<p>They gave water scarcity as one of the main reasons that croplands had been abandoned.</p>
<p>Most said the communal lands were healthier and offered more resources when areas were fenced off and people had to get permits to use land. Local residents had <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10745-006-9062-9">cut fences</a> to give their animals unlimited access to grazing and water.</p>
<p>Overall, the changes to the Tyhume Valley environment were not positive. The respondents said the decline in agricultural activity had resulted in increased unemployment and consumption of unhealthy food.</p>
<p>Similar changes have been reported on <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057070.2014.943525">many other communal lands</a>.</p>
<h2>Better land management</h2>
<p>The land can be better managed through interventions by village committees, tribal authorities and extension services, and by following spatial planning and land use guidelines.</p>
<p>The sweet thorn can be controlled by stocking more browsing animals. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2989/10220119.2016.1178172">Studies</a> have demonstrated that this plant has a high nutritive value.</p>
<p>The community, with help from the government, needs to reinstate water harvesting practices and the regular desilting of dams. Other communal <a href="https://www.drdar.gov.za/restoreddamsreducelivestockmortality/">dam restoration projects</a> in the Eastern Cape have succeeded by dredging and augmentation of stock dams.</p>
<p>This study shows that the combination of <a href="https://theconversation.com/technique-developed-in-kenya-offers-a-refined-way-to-map-tree-cover-76709">satellite imagery</a> and local perceptions provides valuable insights about the extent, causes and impacts of land change in communal areas.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222107/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wonga Masiza receives funding from Agricultural Research Council.</span></em></p>Satellite images and community perceptions combine to give a fuller picture of land use changes.Wonga Masiza, Researcher, Agricultural Research CouncilLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2198412024-02-05T20:18:02Z2024-02-05T20:18:02ZEcosystem restoration in the Scottish Highlands isn’t going to plan – here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565447/original/file-20231213-21-1pksp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4031%2C3024&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lydia Cole</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Peatlands store twice as much carbon as <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/peatlands-store-twice-much-carbon-all-worlds-forests">all the world’s forests</a>. Scotland is endowed with vast areas of these wetland ecosystems. An estimated 20% of the Scottish landscape is covered in peat soils, but <a href="https://www.nature.scot/professional-advice/land-and-sea-management/carbon-management/restoring-scotlands-peatlands">80% of these are degraded</a> and instead release stored carbon into the atmosphere.</p>
<p>The Scottish government estimates that the carbon stored in its peatlands is equivalent to 120 years’ worth of <a href="https://soils.environment.gov.scot/resources/peatland-restoration/">the country’s emissions</a>. Keeping it locked away is essential for moderating the climate crisis.</p>
<p>The Scottish government has <a href="https://www.gov.scot/news/funding-to-restore-scotlands-iconic-peatlands/">pledged to spend £250 million</a> between 2020 and 2030 to restore 25,000 hectares of peatland a year. This funding pays for Peatland Action, Scottish Water and other bodies to block drains, install small dams and other interventions that <a href="https://www.nature.scot/doc/peatland-action-technical-compendium">prevent</a> these wetlands from drying out.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570606/original/file-20240122-25-v4jgls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up image of sphagnum moss on a peatland in the Isle of Lewis, Outer Hebrides." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570606/original/file-20240122-25-v4jgls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570606/original/file-20240122-25-v4jgls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570606/original/file-20240122-25-v4jgls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570606/original/file-20240122-25-v4jgls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570606/original/file-20240122-25-v4jgls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570606/original/file-20240122-25-v4jgls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570606/original/file-20240122-25-v4jgls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sphagnum moss (‘the bog-builder’) stores and slows moving water, forming large blankets in peatland on the west coast of Scotland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lydia Cole</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But <a href="https://www.gov.scot/publications/gbp250-million-funding-package-spend-for-peatland-restoration-eir-release/">fewer than 6,000 hectares</a> of peatland were restored each year in 2021 and 2022 – far below the annual target. One manager at NatureScot, the government agency responsible for the environment, described the shortfall as a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/aug/19/reforesting-scotland-private-funding-land-reform">“national emergency”</a> caused primarily by a “funding gap”. This is despite the government’s pledged budget <a href="https://www.gov.scot/publications/gbp250-million-funding-package-spend-for-peatland-restoration-eir-release/">not yet</a> having been used up. </p>
<p>He argued that for Scotland to meet its net-zero commitments, there must be large injections of private finance into peatland restoration. Research we conducted with people who have managed peatlands for centuries tells a different story.</p>
<h2>Crofters and carbon markets</h2>
<p>The selling of carbon credits is supposed to direct private investment into peatland restoration. These are awarded based on the quantity of greenhouse gas emissions “avoided” as a result of restoring a peatland to health. With these credits, the buyer, whether a company or individual, can claim to have <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/voluntary-carbon-markets-and-offsetting/">offset</a> their own carbon footprint.</p>
<p>To verify that the process has actually avoided emissions, restoration projects can be accredited through the <a href="https://www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/peatland-code-0">Peatland Code</a>, a UK-backed scheme managed by the IUCN (the International Union for the Conservation of Nature).</p>
<p>Accreditation allows landowners to sell carbon credits on the <a href="https://mer.markit.com/br-reg/public/index.jsp?entity=project&sort=&dir=ASC&start=0&acronym=WCC&limit=15&additionalCertificationId=&categoryId=100000000000001&name=&standardId=100000000000042">UK land carbon registry</a>. While <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/05/05/headway/scotland-peatlands-climate-change.html">some Scottish landowners</a> have benefited from this peatland carbon market (recent reports show it has caused a <a href="https://www.landcommission.gov.scot/downloads/645cda7a2ba61_Rural%20Land%20Markets%20Insights%202023.pdf">spike in the price</a> of estates containing degraded peatlands), the people who have traditionally depended most on peatland have so far seen no benefit: crofters.</p>
<p>Nearly one-third of Scotland’s peatlands are <a href="https://pure.sruc.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/65168029/PS_Common_Grazings_February_2023_1_.pdf">held in crofting tenure</a>. Crofts, unique to the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, are tenancies that include a right to graze and extract peat (as fuel) on areas of common land which amount to <a href="https://www.gov.scot/publications/national-development-plan-crofting/pages/5/">550,000 hectares</a> nationwide. These rights are protected by laws dating from <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/49-50/29/contents">1886</a>, are administered by the <a href="http://www.scottish-land-court.org.uk">Scottish Land Court</a> and managed <a href="https://crofting.scotland.gov.uk">by elected committees</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570608/original/file-20240122-15-81cqdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Cut and drying peat on a peatland in the Isle of Lewis." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570608/original/file-20240122-15-81cqdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570608/original/file-20240122-15-81cqdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570608/original/file-20240122-15-81cqdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570608/original/file-20240122-15-81cqdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570608/original/file-20240122-15-81cqdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570608/original/file-20240122-15-81cqdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570608/original/file-20240122-15-81cqdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Crofters still cut bricks of peat by hand. Committees oversee the condition of peat banks in crofting townships.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lydia Cole</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our <a href="https://peatland-restoration-guide.wp.st-andrews.ac.uk/about/">research team</a> travelled to the Isle of Lewis in the Outer Hebrides (an island chain off the Scottish west coast) in early 2023 to interview crofters and landowners. We found that confusion over the rights, responsibilities and benefits of selling carbon credits is slowing down restoration, not a lack of funding.</p>
<h2>‘Pots of gold’</h2>
<p>The Outer Hebrides has the <a href="https://salford-repository.worktribe.com/output/1358036/reshaping-health-services-and-fuel-poverty-in-the-outer-hebrides">lowest average income</a> in the UK and the highest rate of fuel poverty in Scotland. For crofters here, the prospect of monetary compensation for restoring peatlands (where 70% of the land is <a href="https://www.nature.scot/doc/landscape-character-assessment-outer-hebrides-landscape-evolution-and-influences">classified as peatland soil</a>) is appealing. The cost-of-living crisis has led many back to cutting peat for fuel.</p>
<p>Some of the people we interviewed reported carbon brokers unaffiliated with the Peatland Code visiting crofting communities and promising “pots of gold” for crofters that agreed to restore peatlands and generate carbon credits. While these brokers made out the process was simple (“restore peatlands, sell the credits to us”) the reality is more complicated.</p>
<p>The financial benefits of restoration are largely overstated. There is a reason rural estates with the most degraded peatland attracted the <a href="https://www.landcommission.gov.scot/downloads/645cda7a2ba61_Rural%20Land%20Markets%20Insights%202023.pdf">highest prices in 2022 and 2023</a>: the more degraded the peatland is, the more carbon credits that can be generated from its restoration. </p>
<p>While this incentive structure targets the most degraded (and highest-emitting) areas of peatland first, it neglects many crofters who have maintained large areas of peatland in a relatively healthy condition for a long time. Where some crofters were told their peatlands were worth hundreds of thousands of pounds by carbon brokers, the reality for some areas was closer to £9,000 – and that paid over a 70-year contract period.</p>
<h2>Muddy legal waters</h2>
<p>These (smaller) “pots of gold” are difficult for crofters to access due to legal complications. Some of our interviewees worried that selling carbon credits was equivalent to “selling their rights” to access lands and resources held in common.</p>
<p>Part of the Peatland Code’s assurance when carbon credits reach the market is that the emission reduction is “permanent”. In other words, they guarantee to buyers that the peatland will remain in a restored state over the contracted timescale, which can last up to 100 years. </p>
<p>For crofters, this may entail limiting their rights to graze and cut peat over multiple generations. Areas of common land may need to be <a href="https://www.crofting.scotland.gov.uk/resumption">taken out of crofting tenure</a> to be eligible for Peatland Code accreditation. This would involve a long legal process, if it is even <a href="https://www.gillespiemacandrew.co.uk/news-insights/2022/natural-capital-and-existing-leases/%22%22">feasible</a>.</p>
<p>Our research with Lewisian crofters has shown that unresolved questions regarding profitability and legal complications have created a stalemate. Crofters are hesitant to commit to restoring peatlands through public funding, fearing they might miss out on financial returns if they do not engage with the carbon market. Yet doing so entails unique risks for crofting communities.</p>
<p>We’ve tried to fill the gap by publishing a <a href="https://peatland-restoration-guide.wp.st-andrews.ac.uk">peatland restoration guide</a> (available in Gàidhlig and English) for crofting communities. Further advice and legal guidance for crofters – from the Peatland Code, Scottish government and the Scottish Land Court – is urgently needed to break the deadlock.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 30,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219841/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ewan Gordon Jenkins received funding from STAIRS, the St Andrews Interdisciplinary Research Support fund.
This article was drafted in collaboration with Dr. Cornelia Helmcke (<a href="https://research-portal.st-andrews.ac.uk/en/persons/cornelia-helmcke">https://research-portal.st-andrews.ac.uk/en/persons/cornelia-helmcke</a>) and Dr. Lydia Cole (<a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/geography-sustainable-development/people/lesc1">https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/geography-sustainable-development/people/lesc1</a>) who were both co-leads on the research team.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cornelia Helmcke and Lydia Cole do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Crofters who have managed the land for centuries are being offered dubious rewards to risk their rights.Ewan Gordon Jenkins, PhD in Geography and Sustainable Development, University of St AndrewsCornelia Helmcke, Research Fellow, Political Ecology, University of St AndrewsLydia Cole, Lecturer, Geography and Sustainable Development, University of St AndrewsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2114822023-10-05T12:33:47Z2023-10-05T12:33:47ZClimate change is a fiscal disaster for local governments − our study shows how it’s testing communities in Florida<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551841/original/file-20231003-27-j5xxho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C4%2C2977%2C2079&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Crews clear lots of destroyed homes in Fort Myers Beach, Fla., in February 2022, four months after Hurricane Ian.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/in-this-aerial-view-construction-crews-clear-lots-of-homes-news-photo/1459509524">Joe Raedle/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Climate change is <a href="https://theconversation.com/looking-for-a-us-climate-haven-away-from-disaster-risks-good-luck-finding-one-211990">affecting communities nationwide</a>, but Florida often seems like ground zero. In September 2022, Hurricane Ian <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/29/us/hurricane-ian-florida-damage.html">devastated southwest Florida</a>, killing at least 156 people and causing <a href="https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL092022_Ian.pdf">an estimated US$113 billion</a> in damages. Then Hurricane Idalia <a href="https://apnews.com/article/florida-hurricane-idalia-2136985ceea53f5deb600c43aeea1138">shut down the Florida Panhandle</a> in September 2023, augmented by a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/29/science/blue-supermoon.html">blue supermoon</a> that also increased <a href="https://www.tallahassee.com/story/news/local/2023/08/31/hurricane-idalia-super-blue-moon-unusual-post-landfall-storm-surge-into-wakulla-county/70726049007/">tidal flooding</a> in southeast Florida. </p>
<p>Communities can adapt to some of these effects, or at least <a href="https://floridaclimateinstitute.org/docs/climatebook/Ch11-Bloetscher.pdf">buy time</a>, by taking steps such as upgrading stormwater systems and raising roads and sidewalks. But climate disasters and sea-level rise also harm local governments financially by increasing costs and undercutting their property tax bases. Local reliance on property taxes also can discourage cities from steering development out of flood zones, which is essential for reducing long-term risks.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2023.2249866">newly published study</a> and supporting <a href="https://cugis.maps.arcgis.com/apps/MapSeries/index.html?appid=754b615fa5db4bbea0ed393a2c730163">online StoryMap</a>, we present the first-ever municipal fiscal impact assessment of sea-level rise in Florida and combine it with a statewide survey of coastal planners and managers. We wanted to know how sea-level rise would affect municipal tax revenues and whether coastal planners and managers are accounting for these fiscal impacts.</p>
<p>Our study finds that over half of Florida’s 410 municipalities will be affected by 6.6 feet of sea-level rise. Almost 30% of all local revenues currently generated by these 211 municipalities come from buildings in areas that will become chronically flooded, potentially by the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/sealevelrise/sealevelrise-tech-report.html">end of the century</a>. Yet, planners and managers remain largely unaware of how much climate change will affect local fiscal health. Some communities with the most at risk are doing the least to prepare.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6vTW7SOWp2Q?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A year after Hurricane Ian, destruction is still widespread in Fort Myers Beach, Fla.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Property tax and climate change: A Catch-22</h2>
<p>Property taxes are critically important for municipal governments. Nationwide, they provide <a href="https://www.urban.org/policy-centers/cross-center-initiatives/state-and-local-finance-initiative/projects/state-and-local-backgrounders/property-taxes">30% of local revenues</a>. They are one of the few funding sources that local governments control, and climate change directly threatens them.</p>
<p>As climate change warms ocean waters, it <a href="https://theconversation.com/hurricane-ian-capped-2-weeks-of-extreme-storms-around-the-globe-heres-whats-known-about-how-climate-change-fuels-tropical-cyclones-191583">fuels hurricanes and increases their reach and intensity</a>. Climate change also is <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-global-sea-level#">raising sea levels</a>, which increases coastal flooding during both storms and high tides, often referred to as <a href="https://www.wusf.org/environment/2021-07-15/sunny-day-high-tide-flooding-may-soon-affect-much-of-floridas-coast">sunny-day flooding</a>. Unlike storms, sea-level rise doesn’t recede, so it threatens to permanently inundate coastal lands over time. </p>
<p>Property tax revenues may decline as <a href="https://sgp.fas.org/crs/homesec/R45999.pdf">insurance companies</a> and <a href="https://floodcoalition.org/2020/05/how-could-rising-floodwaters-impact-your-homes-value/">property markets</a> downgrade property values to reflect climate impacts, such as increasing flood risks and wildfires. Already, a growing number of insurance companies have decided to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2023/09/03/natural-disaster-climate-insurance/">stop covering some regions and types of weather events</a>, raise premiums and deductibles and drop existing policies as payouts rise in the wake of natural disasters. Growing costs of insuring or repairing homes may further hurt property values and increase home abandonment. </p>
<p>Climate change also makes it more expensive to provide municipal services like water, sewage and road maintenance. For example, high heat buckles roads, rising water tables wash out their substructure, and heavier rains stress stormwater systems. If cities don’t adapt, increasing damage from climate-driven disasters and sea-level rise will create a vicious fiscal cycle, eroding local tax bases and driving up services costs – which in turn leaves less money for adaptation. </p>
<p>However, if cities reduce development in vulnerable areas, their property taxes and other revenues will take a hit. And if they build more seawalls and homes fortified to withstand hurricanes and storms, they will induce more people to live in harm’s way. </p>
<p>In Florida, we found that these theoretical dynamics are already occurring.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/reel/CwA3vzEIlF6","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Florida’s local revenues at risk</h2>
<p>Our analysis shows that sea-level rise could flood properties that have a combined assessed value of $619 billion and currently generate $2.36 billion in annual property taxes. Five million Floridians live in towns where at least 10% of local revenues comes from properties at risk of chronic and permanent flooding. For 64 municipalities, 50% of their revenues come from these risk zones. </p>
<p>Actual fiscal effects would likely be worse after accounting for other lost revenues, rising expenditures and the impacts of multiple climate hazards, such as hotter weather and more intense hurricanes.</p>
<p>These impacts are not evenly distributed. Municipalities with the greatest fiscal risks are geographically and demographically smaller, denser, wealthier and whiter. Lower-risk municipalities tend to be more populous, more diverse, lower-income and have larger land areas. </p>
<p>For instance, the 6,800 residents of the city of Treasure Island in southwest Florida are 95% white and have a median household income of $75,000. The town occupies 3 square miles of land on a barrier island. In our model, its potential lost revenues due to sea-level rise equal its entire municipal revenue stream. </p>
<p>In contrast, St. Petersburg, the nearest big city, has a population of 246,000 residents that is 69% white and a median household income of $53,800. It covers 72 square miles, with only 12% of its property tax revenues at risk from flooding.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/reel/CwjuLrJt4Uz","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Heads in the sand</h2>
<p>We see our findings as a wake-up call for state and local governments. Without urgent action to adapt to climate change, dozens of municipalities could end up fiscally underwater. </p>
<p>Instead, many Florida cities are pursuing continued growth through infrastructure expansion. Even after devastating events like Hurricane Ian, administrative boundaries, service obligations and budgetary responsibilities make it hard for municipal leaders to make room for water or retreat onto higher ground. </p>
<p>Treasure Island, for instance, is <a href="https://www.tbnweekly.com/beach_beacon/article_348defb2-0934-11e9-a4a4-eb7ed7651e85.html">allocating property taxes</a> to upgrade the town’s causeway bridge. This protects against modest climate impacts in the short term but will eventually be overwhelmed by bigger storm surges, rising water tables and <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-global-sea-level#">accelerating sea-level rise</a>. </p>
<p>These dynamics can worsen <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/as-miami-keeps-building-rising-seas-deepen-its-social-divide">displacement and gentrification</a>. In Miami, developers are already buying and consolidating properties in longtime Black and lower-income neighborhoods like <a href="https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/33d28b4ae86840b5b27ea8ba4b4bcc4d">Little Haiti</a>, <a href="https://nextcity.org/features/miami-underdeck-overtown-black-community-gentrification-displacement">Overtown</a> and <a href="https://www.equaltimes.org/welcome-to-miami-speculation?lang=en">Liberty City</a> that are slightly more elevated than areas along the shore.</p>
<p>If this pattern continues, we expect that inland and upland areas of cities like St. Petersburg, Tampa and Miami will attract more resilient, high-end development, while displaced low-income and minority residents are forced to move either out of the region or to coastal zones with declining resources. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/PB_sVUXg4Lc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Wealthy people in Miami are moving inland to avoid flooding, displacing lower-income residents and people of color.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Charting a different future</h2>
<p>We don’t see this outcome as inevitable, in Florida or elsewhere. There are ways for municipalities to manage and govern land that promote fiscally sound, equitable and sustainable ways of adapting to climate change. The key is recognizing and addressing the property tax Catch-22. </p>
<p>As a first step, governments could assess how climate change will affect their fiscal health. Second, state governments could enact legislation that <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesrealestatecouncil/2018/09/14/the-case-against-property-taxes-and-two-alternative-taxes-that-work/">expands local revenue sources</a>, such as sales or consumption taxes, vacancy taxes, stormwater impact fees and resilience bonds or fees.</p>
<p>Regional sharing of land and taxes is another way for small, cash-strapped communities to reduce development in vulnerable places while maintaining services for their residents. For example, New Hampshire passed a bill in 2019 to <a href="https://legiscan.com/NH/text/SB285/2019">allow coastal municipalities to merge</a> in response to sea-level rise. </p>
<p>Finally, state governments could pass legislation to help low-income neighborhoods gain more control over land and housing. Tested tools include <a href="https://nextcity.org/urbanist-news/a-lifeline-for-preserving-limited-equity-co-ops-in-new-york">limited equity cooperatives</a>, where residents buy an affordable share in a development and later resell at below-market prices to maintain affordability; <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/08/realestate/community-land-trusts-gentrification.html">community land trusts</a>, where a nonprofit buys and holds land title to keep land costs down; and <a href="https://fortune.com/2023/04/08/residents-buying-mobile-home-parks-preserving-affordable-housing-option-low-income-americans/">resident-owned mobile home parks</a>, where residents jointly buy the land. All of these strategies help communities keep housing affordable and avoid displacement. </p>
<p>Shifting away from a business-as-usual development model won’t be easy. But our study shows that Florida, with its flat topography and thousands of miles of coastline, faces cascading fiscal impacts if it continues down its current path.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211482/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Linda Shi receives funding from the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tisha Joseph Holmes received funding from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and the Center for Disease Control and Provention. She is affiliated with REfire Culinary. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Butler received funding from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection in support of this research. </span></em></p>A new study of Florida’s fiscal vulnerability to climate change finds that flooding directly threatens many local tax bases.Linda Shi, Assistant Professor of City and Regional Planning, Cornell UniversityTisha Joseph Holmes, Associate Professor of Urban and Regional Planning, Florida State UniversityWilliam Butler, Associate Professor of Urban and Regional Planning, Florida State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2108802023-09-29T01:25:27Z2023-09-29T01:25:27ZHere’s how to fix Australia’s approach to soil carbon credits so they really count towards our climate goals<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550802/original/file-20230928-21-n9ydfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=199%2C0%2C9290%2C6331&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/female-farmer-hold-soil-hands-monitoring-2346686237">William Edge, Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s plan to achieve <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/climate-change/emissions-reduction/net-zero">net zero</a> greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 relies heavily on carbon credits. </p>
<p>These <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/About-the-Emissions-Reduction-Fund">credits are awarded to projects</a> that avoid the release of greenhouse gases or remove and “sequester” (store) carbon so it’s no longer warming the atmosphere. </p>
<p>Farmers can be awarded credits for <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/Choosing-a-project-type/Opportunities-for-the-land-sector/Agricultural-methods/estimating-soil-organic-carbon-sequestration-using-measurement-and-models-method">increasing soil carbon content</a>. The federal government or companies can then purchase these credits to offset their carbon emissions. </p>
<p>These credits must represent genuine carbon sequestration if they are to mitigate climate change. </p>
<p>As Australian agricultural and soil scientists, we have serious concerns about the way credits are awarded for soil carbon sequestration under the <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/OSR/ANREU/types-of-emissions-units/australian-carbon-credit-units">Australian carbon credit unit scheme</a>. There are four main issues with the method that must be addressed as a matter of urgency.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Ymy0IO7nizw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Soil organic carbon is the treasure beneath our feet (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/us-scheme-used-by-australian-farmers-reveals-the-dangers-of-trading-soil-carbon-to-tackle-climate-change-161358">US scheme used by Australian farmers reveals the dangers of trading soil carbon to tackle climate change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Understanding the carbon cycle</h2>
<p>Much like water, carbon cycles through the environment, moving between plants, the earth and the atmosphere. </p>
<p>Plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as they grow. The carbon is stored in the plant tissue. When plants die, or drop leaves, this carbon-rich organic matter enters the soil. Then it decomposes, releasing carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. </p>
<p>When carbon inputs from plants exceed losses from the decomposition of organic matter, the amount of soil carbon increases. That means soil organic carbon is more likely to increase during good seasons when there’s plenty of rainfall available to support plant growth – such as during the recent three-year period of consecutive La Niña events.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic illustrating how carbon cycles through agricultural systems" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550131/original/file-20230925-15-sf72i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The carbon cycle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Richard Eckard, University of Melbourne</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Increases need to be due to management</h2>
<p>The recent <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2023-06-24/aus-farmers-to-earn-money-from-soil-carbon-under-new-methods/102213244">tranche</a> of credits awarded to soil carbon projects raises similar concerns to those that have been raised by experts about <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-central-climate-policy-pays-people-to-grow-trees-that-already-existed-taxpayers-and-the-environment-deserve-better-186900">credits awarded to trees</a>. Namely, carbon credits are being awarded for changes associated with seasonal conditions (changes that would have happened anyway) rather than human actions.</p>
<p>The current soil carbon method awards credits when an increase in soil organic carbon is detected between two points in time. This is problematic because it can award credits to projects that report increases during relatively wet periods. </p>
<p>This is the case for <a href="https://carbonlink.com.au/wp-content/uploads/CarbonLink-ACCUs-Flow-Media-Release-June-2023-1.pdf">projects sampled in 2021</a>, directly after a period where conditions were unusually favourable for plant growth. That means credits were awarded for sequestration that had more to do with the weather than good management. </p>
<p>Where crediting occurs due to seasonal conditions, the scheme is not providing any true (<a href="https://law.anu.edu.au/sites/all/files/what_the_beare_and_chambers_report_really_found_and_a_critique_of_its_method_16_march_2022.pdf">additional</a>) climate change mitigation. </p>
<h2>Soil carbon can be lost</h2>
<p>Where soil carbon losses are greater than inputs, soil carbon stocks decline and sequestered carbon is released back to the atmosphere. The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479720301286">emissions can be rapid</a> and considerable. </p>
<p>Furthermore, modelling indicates it’s likely <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.09.041">soil carbon could be lost</a> under the warmer and drier conditions of future climates. </p>
<p>Where a project loses soil carbon, the legislation does not require excess credits to be returned. Rather, a scheme-wide <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/Choosing-a-project-type/Opportunities-for-the-land-sector/Risk-of-reversal-buffer">buffer</a> generated from all sequestration projects covers such losses. </p>
<p>This approach is inequitable because all projects share the same burden of maintaining the buffer, irrespective of the risk of reversal of individual projects. </p>
<h2>Overinflated sequestration rates</h2>
<p>Based on a <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/eap.1473?__cf_chl_tk=1zpwtYjrpjjoZAaRpgcOb5o7R5c_fLaqDx0tadA0kWA-1693540306-0-gaNycGzND1A">comprehensive global analysis</a>, the <a href="https://carbonlink.com.au/wp-content/uploads/CarbonLink-ACCUs-Flow-Media-Release-June-2023-1.pdf">number of carbon credits generated</a> by some Australian projects appears unrealistically high. The most likely reason for these large values is high rainfall, but the way the method works makes it impossible to know for sure because the impacts of management are not identified.</p>
<p>This is not the first time a soil carbon project has made <a href="https://theconversation.com/us-scheme-used-by-australian-farmers-reveals-the-dangers-of-trading-soil-carbon-to-tackle-climate-change-161358">unrealistic claims</a>. </p>
<p>In addition, <a href="https://carbonlink.com.au/wp-content/uploads/CarbonLink-ACCUs-Flow-Media-Release-June-2023-1.pdf">one project saw 44%</a> of the increase in soil carbon at depths below 30cm. This is an issue because published studies show soil carbon changes in deeper soil are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880923002785">relatively small</a> and happen slowly. We are concerned the reported changes may have more to do with the way they were calculated. </p>
<p>Currently, data used to calculate credits are not released by the scheme regulator so cannot be scientifically verified. The release of data under strict non-disclosure arrangements would allow scientists to assess the implementation of the method. This would provide confidence credits generated represent real climate change mitigation. </p>
<p>Increased transparency was a <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/independent-review-accu-exec-summary.pdf">key recommendation</a> of the <a href="https://oia.pmc.gov.au/published-impact-analyses-and-reports/chubb-review-australian-carbon-credit-units">Chubb Review</a> of Australian Carbon Credit Units in 2022. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chubb-review-of-australias-carbon-credit-scheme-falls-short-and-problems-will-continue-to-fester-197401">Chubb review of Australia's carbon credit scheme falls short – and problems will continue to fester</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1707172133288149265"}"></div></p>
<h2>Contributing to our emissions targets?</h2>
<p>Australia’s emissions are reported annually to the United Nations in the national <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/climate-change/publications/national-inventory-reports">greenhouse gas inventory</a>. These annual inventories show progress towards our declared emissions reduction targets. </p>
<p>The current inventory method used to account for changes in soil carbon uses coarse regional-level statistics. Changes to practices at farm level, such as grazing management, are not detected and will not be reflected in our national greenhouse gas accounts. Further, Australia reports changes in soil carbon for the top 30cm of the soil only whereas carbon credits are also awarded for changes that occur deeper in the soil. </p>
<p>This means some soil carbon credits the Australian government purchases do not count toward our emissions targets. It calls into question the effectiveness of using taxpayer funds to purchase soil carbon credits as a policy tool.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-relies-on-controversial-offsets-to-meet-climate-change-targets-we-might-not-get-away-with-it-in-egypt-193460">Australia relies on controversial offsets to meet climate change targets. We might not get away with it in Egypt</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Getting it right</h2>
<p>To address the issues we have identified, the measurement-based soil carbon <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/Choosing-a-project-type/Opportunities-for-the-land-sector/Agricultural-methods/estimating-soil-organic-carbon-sequestration-using-measurement-and-models-method">method</a> needs to be revised to only credit increases due to management. For instance, <a href="https://verra.org/methodologies/vm0042-methodology-for-improved-agricultural-land-management-v2-0/">the Verra scheme</a> in the international voluntary carbon market uses a method that minimises crediting for increases associated with rainfall. </p>
<p>To support revision of Australia’s scheme, scientists should be granted access to project data. Data could to be used to improve models in order to distinguish between climate and management effects. This would ensure the method is fit for purpose. </p>
<p>There also needs to be greater focus on monitoring changes in soil carbon. For a start, Australia’s <a href="https://www.tern.org.au/">Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network</a> should be extended to include agricultural land. This would provide data to increase transparency, independence and rigour of soil carbon estimates. </p>
<p>The revisions we propose would help ensure investment in carbon credits contributes to our national emissions reduction targets and addresses the urgent challenge of climate change.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-tonne-of-fossil-carbon-isnt-the-same-as-a-tonne-of-new-trees-why-offsets-cant-save-us-200901">A tonne of fossil carbon isn't the same as a tonne of new trees: why offsets can't save us</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210880/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aaron Simmons is a Senior Research Scientist with the NSW Department of Primary Industries. Aaron has received funding from the Commonwealth and NSW governments for soil carbon research and policy development. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Annette Cowie is a Senior Principal Research Scientist in the Climate Branch at the NSW Department of Primary Industries, and Adjunct Professor in the School of Environmental and Rural Science at the University of New England. She has received funding for soil carbon research from NSW and Commonwealth government programs. Annette is a member of Soil Science Australia, a not-for-profit, professional association for soil scientists, and on the Advisory Board of Australia New Zealand Biochar Industry Group. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Beverley Henry is an Adjunct Associate Professor at Queensland University of Technology. She has previously worked for, and received funding from, the Commonwealth and Queensland Governments, and has, or has previously held, science consulting and advisory roles with Australian and international government and agricultural organisations. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian Wilson is a Professor in Terrestrial Carbon Management at the University of New England. He has received funding from the Commonwealth and State Government and from the Cotton Research and Development Corporation for research relevant to soil carbon.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Pannell is a professor in environmental economics and agricultural economics at the University of Western Australia. He has received funding from the Commonwealth Government and from Grains Research and Development Corporation for research relevant to soil carbon. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Rowlings is a Professor in Sustainable Agriculture at Queensland University of Technology. He receives funding from Meat and Livestock Australia and Department Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries for soil carbon research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elaine Mitchell is a Research Fellow at the Queensland University of Technology. She has received funding from the Commonwealth Government for soil carbon research. She is also the founder of Ecometric, which provides advisory services in the natural capital space, including advice to carbon project developers on approaches to stratification, soil sampling and soil carbon modelling.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Tom Harrison is an Associate Professor at the University of Tasmania. He has been awarded funding from State and Commonwealth Governments, as well as Research Development Corporations to research practices, skills and technologies for improving soil organic carbon sequestration.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Grace is Professor Global Change at Queensland University of Technology. He currently receives funding from the Grains Research and Development Corporation, Meat and Livestock Australia, the Dept of Climate Change Energy Environment and Water, National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Scheme - Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network, AgriFutures, and AgriMix. He has previously received funding from the Clean Energy Regulator, the Dept of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry, and Cotton Research and Development Corporation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Raphael Viscarra Rossel is a Professor of Soil and Landscape Science at Curtin University. Previously, he was a Senior Principal Research Scientist at CSIRO, where he received funding from the Commonwealth Government for developing innovative soil carbon measurement methods that aided the formulation of the soil carbon methodology.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Eckard receives funding from Meat and Livestock Australia and the Commonwealth of Australia on greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and carbon farming. His science contributed to six Australian carbon credit methods. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Warwick Badgery is a Research Leader with the NSW Department of Primary Industries and is an Honorary Senior Fellow at Melbourne University. He receives funding from Meat and Livestock Australia, the NSW and Federal Governments for research on climate mitigation and soil carbon. </span></em></p>A group of agricultural and soil scientists has serious concerns about the way credits are awarded for soil carbon sequestration in Australia.Aaron Simmons, Adjunct Senior Research Fellow, University of New EnglandAnnette Cowie, Adjunct Professor, University of New EnglandBeverley Henry, Adjunct Associate Professor, Queensland University of TechnologyBrian Wilson, Professor, University of New EnglandDavid Pannell, Director, Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy, The University of Western AustraliaDavid Rowlings, Professor, Queensland University of TechnologyElaine Mitchell, Research Fellow, Queensland University of TechnologyMatthew Tom Harrison, Associate Professor of Sustainable Agriculture, University of TasmaniaPeter Grace, Professor of Global Change, Queensland University of TechnologyRaphael Viscarra Rossel, Professor of Soil & Landscape Science, Curtin UniversityRichard Eckard, Professor & Director, Primary Industries Climate Challenges Centre, The University of MelbourneWarwick Badgery, Research Leader Pastures an Rangelands, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1931032023-01-30T19:10:42Z2023-01-30T19:10:42ZHow culling Australia’s feral water buffalo could help tackle climate change<p>The world’s largest wild population of water buffalo now roam Australia. As does the largest <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-22522695">wild herd</a> of camels. We have millions of feral goats and deer. For these introduced species, Australia is a paradise. Plenty of vegetation, and not many predators, other than dingoes, crocodiles and humans. </p>
<p>The problem is, these <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruminant">ruminants</a> burp out the potent greenhouse gas methane from fermenting vegetation in their stomachs. While ferals only produce an estimated 5% of the methane produced by Australia’s 24 million cattle and 74 million sheep, feral ruminant numbers are soaring. </p>
<p>Buffalo, in particular, are high methane emitters, pumping out methane at <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8357158/">around the same rate</a> as cattle. Their numbers <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2020-12-23/nt-buffalo-numbers-rising-as-culling-is-replaced-by-mustering/12997984">have rebounded</a> after earlier culls to more than 200,000. Of the world’s <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8357158/">animal methane emissions</a>, cattle account for 77% and buffalo for 13%. </p>
<p>At present, culling is expensive. But <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/WR/WR22134">our new research</a> on feral water buffalo in Kakadu shows this could change. If landowners, land managers and governments could claim carbon credits for culling, it would go from an expense to a profit. At a stroke, we could reduce pressure on ecosystems, cut emissions and add another source of income for those doing the work. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506978/original/file-20230130-21-jtv92r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="water buffalo in kakadu" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506978/original/file-20230130-21-jtv92r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506978/original/file-20230130-21-jtv92r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506978/original/file-20230130-21-jtv92r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506978/original/file-20230130-21-jtv92r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506978/original/file-20230130-21-jtv92r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506978/original/file-20230130-21-jtv92r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506978/original/file-20230130-21-jtv92r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Water buffalo can destroy sensitive wetlands with hard hooves and a love of mud.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Are feral ruminants really a big problem?</h2>
<p>If you live in a big city, you’re unlikely to ever see the full scale of the issue. But that’s changing. Residents in Melbourne and Sydney have become <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jul/05/feral-deer-in-the-headlines-australias-slow-moving-plague-is-finally-being-noticed">more familiar</a> with feral deer, as they spread up and down the Great Dividing Range. </p>
<p>We’re more familiar with the damage done by other introduced species, including foxes, rabbits, rats and cats. Ruminants are a real problem – just usually not in the places where most people live. </p>
<p>These large herbivores are often much heavier than kangaroos and, unlike any native animal, have hard hooves which trample plants, compact soil and increase erosion. They can foul rivers and lakes, and carry diseases to farm animals. </p>
<p>Why is it hard to control these animals at present? The cost. Historically, keeping feral ruminant numbers down has been done by sending shooters up in helicopters. Since the 1960s, we have spent <a href="https://hal.science/hal-03333979/document">billions</a> controlling feral ruminants. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ecocheck-australias-vast-majestic-northern-savannas-need-more-care-59897">EcoCheck: Australia's vast, majestic northern savannas need more care</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Despite this, most of these species are more common than ever. How can that be? Once we stop culling, feral animal populations often bounce back very quickly because of their high breeding rates and through migration from neighbouring areas where culling hasn’t been undertaken. </p>
<p>For land managers, the scale of the task is often bigger than their budget, meaning feral ruminant control is often placed in the “too hard” basket, especially for remote areas. That’s where carbon credits could help. As the carbon economy grows, it has <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ERF/About-the-Emissions-Reduction-Fund">begun to change</a> the economics of land use and land management. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506985/original/file-20230130-24-ymks09.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="herd of buffalo australia" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506985/original/file-20230130-24-ymks09.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506985/original/file-20230130-24-ymks09.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506985/original/file-20230130-24-ymks09.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506985/original/file-20230130-24-ymks09.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506985/original/file-20230130-24-ymks09.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506985/original/file-20230130-24-ymks09.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506985/original/file-20230130-24-ymks09.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Buffalo populations have bounced back from earlier culling programs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Could carbon credits really improve feral ruminant control?</h2>
<p>Land managers now have incentives to take action to avoid emissions in a way which can be documented and to increase how much carbon their land can sequester in trees, wetlands or soils. </p>
<p>That’s because these actions can earn them carbon credits. Every tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂-e) kept out of the atmosphere is <a href="https://business.nab.com.au/nab-carbon-research-acce-prices-set-tp-57768/">currently worth</a> around A$30. Credits can be sold to third parties looking to offset their emissions. </p>
<p>How could land managers create credits by controlling buffalo? We could borrow from the success of farmers and managers across northern Australia’s vast and <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/120251">fire-prone savannas</a> who produce credits by using cool burns to reduce fuel loads and prevent devastating late-season fires which release large volumes of greenhouse gases. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506984/original/file-20230130-13-hktw9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Cool burn northern australia" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506984/original/file-20230130-13-hktw9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506984/original/file-20230130-13-hktw9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506984/original/file-20230130-13-hktw9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506984/original/file-20230130-13-hktw9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506984/original/file-20230130-13-hktw9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506984/original/file-20230130-13-hktw9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506984/original/file-20230130-13-hktw9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Early cool burns in northern Australia can create carbon credits.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At present, you cannot claim carbon credits for culling. What if you could? We put that to the test <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/WR/WR22134">in our research</a> to see if the income from carbon credits would make culling self-sustaining. </p>
<p>In short, it would make a major difference. The income from selling carbon credits could far outweigh the costs of culling. Rather than being a huge expense, keeping numbers down on your landholdings would become a substantial source of income. </p>
<p>A water buffalo belches an average of 76 kilograms of methane each year. That’s the equivalent of 2.1 tonnes of CO₂. Over a 25-year lifespan, that’s the equivalent of more than 50 tonnes of carbon dioxide. </p>
<h2>A rare win-win?</h2>
<p>We examined the feral buffalo population around the South Alligator River in Kakadu National Park, and simulated different culling scenarios. We found effective control would drastically reduce emissions, abating up to 913,000 tonnes of CO₂-e over 20 years. That would make aerial culling very profitable. The net income from these avoided emissions would be more than $26 million in credits – after taking out the cost of culling. </p>
<p>While more research is needed, we hope our research demonstrates the concept is viable. If culling high-emitting ruminants such as buffalo earned carbon credits, we believe it would open the door to far better feral animal control across the Top End. </p>
<p>We could reduce greenhouse gas emissions, open up new income streams for landowners and managers, and give regional ecosystems a health boost. </p>
<p>With buffalo pressure reduced, the wetlands and floodplains they churn into mudpits could recover. That, in turn, would help these natural systems hold their carbon better – and mean the value of buffalo removal would increase even more. At present, however, we haven’t quantified how much extra carbon could be stored. </p>
<p>It’s rare to find an approach in land management that benefits both landholders and the environment. Buffalo carbon credits might just be that rare win-win. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/unacceptable-costs-savanna-burning-under-australias-carbon-credit-scheme-is-harming-human-health-186778">'Unacceptable costs': savanna burning under Australia's carbon credit scheme is harming human health</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193103/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hugh Davies receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brett Murphy receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He received funding from the Australian Government's National Environmental Science Program through the Threatened Species Recovery Hub (which ended in Dec 2021). He is a member of the Australian Government's Threatened Species Scientific Committee.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clément Duvert receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Georgina Neave receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>Culling water buffalo is expensive. What if land managers could earn carbon credits for controlling the numbers of these methane-belching animals?Hugh Davies, Research Associate, Charles Darwin UniversityBrett Murphy, Professor, Charles Darwin UniversityClément Duvert, Senior Research Fellow, Charles Darwin UniversityGeorgina Neave, PhD candidate, Charles Darwin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1921952022-11-14T18:53:05Z2022-11-14T18:53:05ZRestoring Mayotte’s lagoon: when a newly born volcano meets human resilience<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494711/original/file-20221110-25-4vo9et.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C15%2C2048%2C1263&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mayotte's surrounding coral reef is made up of three different structures more than 350 kilometers long. The lagoon they form is threatened by climate change and erosion. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=77558219">Axelspace </a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of France’s five overseas departments, Mayotte is the southernmost island of the Comoros Archipelago, located Indian ocean between Madagascar and the African mainland. The island is the centrepiece of a coral-reef structure that was created over hundreds of thousands of years through volcanic episodes, subsidence and sea-level shifts. Made up of three different structures more than 350 kilometres long, the reef encloses a lagoon with a surface area of 1,100 square kilometres that shelters an opulent biodiversity that includes 2,300 known living species.</p>
<p>One of just ten such coral-reef systems on Earth, Mayotte lagoon was classified as a marine natural park in 2010, and the government has long hoped that it would be <a href="https://outremers360.com/planete/mayotte-vise-lunesco">added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage sites</a>.</p>
<h2>Birth of a giant</h2>
<p>On May 10, 2018, however, an event took place that no one could have predicted: 50 kilometres off Mayotte’s east coast, an underwater volcano was born. The natural phenomena that underlay the volcano’s birth and the chain of events that it has set off have forever altered the undersea landscape and the island itself, and will continue to do so for millennia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494698/original/file-20221110-23-8dqi79.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494698/original/file-20221110-23-8dqi79.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494698/original/file-20221110-23-8dqi79.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=171&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494698/original/file-20221110-23-8dqi79.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=171&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494698/original/file-20221110-23-8dqi79.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=171&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494698/original/file-20221110-23-8dqi79.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=215&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494698/original/file-20221110-23-8dqi79.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=215&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494698/original/file-20221110-23-8dqi79.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=215&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Left: 2014, before new volcano’s birth. Right: 2019, after its discovery.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">BGRM</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As the volcano’s growth continued, scientists recorded 800 micro-tremors that occurred several times a day over three weeks. From May 2018 to June 2019, a <a href="https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00632/74401/74104.pdf">series of 32 earthquakes</a> of 5 or more on the Richter scale struck the island. In its short life, the volcano has already ejected <a href="https://www.brgm.fr/en/news/press-release/mayotte-volcano-largest-underwater-eruption-ever-documented">more than 5 km³ of lava</a>, by far the most ever observed, transforming the underwater landscape.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494700/original/file-20221110-21-qh9jz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494700/original/file-20221110-21-qh9jz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494700/original/file-20221110-21-qh9jz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494700/original/file-20221110-21-qh9jz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494700/original/file-20221110-21-qh9jz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494700/original/file-20221110-21-qh9jz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494700/original/file-20221110-21-qh9jz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494700/original/file-20221110-21-qh9jz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In 2018 and 2019, a swarm of earthquakes took place 15 kilometres to the east of Mayotte.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">BGRM</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The volcano’s growth will continue for millennia, as it’s part of a natural cycle of island building, destruction and rebuilding. Indeed, just 12,000 years ago, Mayotte was <a href="https://www.mayottehebdo.com/actualite/dossier/il-y-a-12-000-ans-mayotte-etait-cinq-fois-plus-grande/">five times larger than it is today</a>.</p>
<p>While Mayotte’s subsidence is natural, since 2018 it has witnessed the equivalent of a sprint in geologic time – in just four years, the island has moved 20 centimetres to the east and dropped by 15 centimetres.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494701/original/file-20221110-24-k1393e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494701/original/file-20221110-24-k1393e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494701/original/file-20221110-24-k1393e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494701/original/file-20221110-24-k1393e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494701/original/file-20221110-24-k1393e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494701/original/file-20221110-24-k1393e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494701/original/file-20221110-24-k1393e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494701/original/file-20221110-24-k1393e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Subsidence of Mayotte in 2019, just a year after the volcano’s emergence.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">BGRM</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The volcano’s birth triggered a series of natural disasters that have been exacerbated by the island’s natural geography and ongoing climate change. Mahorans have long lived with the rainy season, known as <em>Kashkazi</em>, but a series of torrential storms have caused landslides, significant erosion and accelerated coastal retreat. All have tested Mahorans’ resilience and raised questions about how they can best adapt to the changing world around them.</p>
<p>The volcano also disrupted the island’s political, economic and social order. Mayotte has been a French department since 2011 and a special territory of the European Union since 2014, and until the volcano’s birth, its <a href="https://www.mayotte.gouv.fr/content/download/5164/43644/file/Mayotte%202025%20Une%20ambition%20pour%20la%20R%C3%A9publique%20-%20document%20strat%C3%A9gique.pdf">2025 roadmap</a> pointed toward the need for more effective institutions, improved education, development, health care and housing, and sustainable management of natural resources, in that order. After 2018, managing the environmental situation became top priority.</p>
<h2>Accelerating erosion</h2>
<p>During Mayotte’s monsoon season, rain naturally causes erosion, and the soil released is carried into the sea as silt. With the volcano’s eruption and associated swarm of earthquakes, intensifying rains and poor land management have caused erosion to rise. Forty years ago, 5,000 tons of sediment was released annually; by 2018, the rate was 20,000 tons per year, an eightfold increase. The end result is a vast flow of soil into the lagoon.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494702/original/file-20221110-18-5dt7kz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494702/original/file-20221110-18-5dt7kz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494702/original/file-20221110-18-5dt7kz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494702/original/file-20221110-18-5dt7kz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494702/original/file-20221110-18-5dt7kz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494702/original/file-20221110-18-5dt7kz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494702/original/file-20221110-18-5dt7kz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494702/original/file-20221110-18-5dt7kz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Increasing rains and poor land-management techniques have led to a dramatic increase in siltation of the lagoon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">BGRM</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For scientists, the volcano’s birth was <a href="https://leblob.fr/en/mayotte-birth-underwater-volcano">one of the first that could be witnessed first-hand</a>, with many more research missions set to enrich scientific databases in the coming decades. One of the most important is <a href="https://www.brgm.fr/en/reference-completed-project/leselam-action-against-soil-erosion-lagoon-siltation-mayotte">LESELAM</a>, which was launched by the BRGM in 2018. Its aim is to better understand the phenomenon of erosion and siltation of Mayotte lagoon, and so be able to better combat it.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494703/original/file-20221110-16-nqqly2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494703/original/file-20221110-16-nqqly2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494703/original/file-20221110-16-nqqly2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=848&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494703/original/file-20221110-16-nqqly2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=848&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494703/original/file-20221110-16-nqqly2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=848&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494703/original/file-20221110-16-nqqly2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494703/original/file-20221110-16-nqqly2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494703/original/file-20221110-16-nqqly2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Erosive basins and annual sedimentation flux (ton/year) in 2018.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.brgm.fr/en/reference-completed-project/leselam-action-against-soil-erosion-lagoon-siltation-mayotte">BGRM</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Mayotte is densely populated, and humans have long transformed its topography to facilitate agriculture and livestock ranching. The combination of the island’s volcanic soil, steep slopes, and “slash and burn” farming techniques have left behind many deforested areas known as <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padza"><em>padzas</em></a>. With the rise in the island’s population, the uncontrolled growth of shantytowns has contributed increasing amounts of urban runoff that pollutes the lagoon.</p>
<p>Today, scientists and associations are working to raise awareness on the importance of environmental conservation. <a href="https://enrd.ec.europa.eu/projects-practice/fighting-against-soil-erosion-mayotte-leselam_en">Stakeholder collaborations advance</a> but require continued effort. Given the immense challenges, initial enthusiasm can suffer when quick results aren’t obtained.</p>
<p>In 2021 France declared Mayotte to be suffering from a <a href="https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000044289624">natural disaster</a>, but such statements are no longer sufficient. What is needed is bringing international attention to the environmental crisis that is taking place on Mayotte. To revive the island’s economy, raise hope among the population, and preserve this magnificent island, the following actions were carried out:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Researching</strong>. On 27 January 2022, an international conference detailed the significant risks that Mayotte faces in the coming years due to global warming and emphasised the importance of nature conservation.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Campaigning</strong>. On 18 May 2022, an international campaign was launched protect and restore Mayotte lagoon and advocate for change and push for action, the lagoon desilting project is registered in this environmental protection campaign.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Economic planning</strong>. Restoring the lagoon isn’t just a matter of removing the silt, but also establishing a circular-economy model to reemploy it. On an island where the unemployment rate is 30%, creating green jobs is a high priority. Salt extracted from the silt could be marketed, while the salt-free earth could be transformed into building material, supporting an existing economic sector and reducing the importation of building materials. With the lagoon’s health restored, green tourism would serve as a channel for sustainable economic growth.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Educating</strong>. First, while the volcano’s birth of the coast of Mayotte upended the island’s plan to have the lagoon inscribed as an endangered <a href="https://documentation.outre-mer.gouv.fr/Record.htm?idlist=1&record=19142156124919603389">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a> in Danger list. Second, the desilting project should be registered on the 2022-2025 strategic plan of the <a href="https://icriforum.org/cordap-strategic-plan-2022-2025/">Coral Research and Development Platform</a>.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The 2018 eruption of the volcano off the coast of Mayotte and the chain of natural disasters that it set off have made it crystal clear that the island’s coral reefs, lagoon and mangroves aren’t just natural gifts to be enjoyed. It is urgent for them to be protected, and so safeguard for future generations the rich biodiversity, ecosystem services, coastline protection, and natural beauty that they provide.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485372/original/file-20220919-20-pguqfq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485372/original/file-20220919-20-pguqfq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485372/original/file-20220919-20-pguqfq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485372/original/file-20220919-20-pguqfq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485372/original/file-20220919-20-pguqfq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485372/original/file-20220919-20-pguqfq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485372/original/file-20220919-20-pguqfq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/next50/">50th anniversary of the World Heritage Convention</a> (16 November 2022): World Heritage as a source of resilience, humanity and innovation.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192195/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Noro Ravoavahy est membre de l'Alliance HQE-GBC France. </span></em></p>Mayotte is no exception to the adage “small islands, big problems”. A newly born volcano combined with poor land management and accelerating climate change has put its fabled lagoon at risk.Noro Ravoavahy, Architecte, Labex AE&CC, Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture de Grenoble, Conservatoire national des arts et métiers (CNAM)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1915452022-09-30T12:37:15Z2022-09-30T12:37:15ZLiz Truss’s ‘destructive’ plans have angered environmental groups – here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487318/original/file-20220929-14-ejhhxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The RSPB, National Trust and Wildlife Trust have a combined 8 million members.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bempton-uk-24-may-2022-people-2162172607">Chedko/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Several leading conservation charities including the RSPB, National Trust and Wildlife Trust have <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/our-work/rspb-news/rspb-news-stories/uk-government-attack-on-nature/">voiced anger</a> over the new government’s “destructive” approach to nature. The groups have urged their 8 million members to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/sep/27/green-charities-urge-millions-of-members-to-oppose-tories-attack-on-nature">write to MPs</a> demanding that key nature protections are not weakened and that environmental commitments made in the Conservative’s election manifesto are not abandoned. </p>
<p>The UK is already one of the most <a href="https://www.wwf.org.uk/future-of-UK-nature#:%7E:text=The%20UK%20is%20one%20of,nature%20that%20protects%20and%20restores.">nature-depleted countries</a> in the world and Liz Truss’s government threatens to worsen this. The new government has <a href="https://bills.parliament.uk/bills/3340/publications">given itself the power</a> to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/sep/23/uk-environment-laws-under-threat-in-deregulatory-free-for-all">revoke or amend</a> the 570 environmental laws inherited from the EU following Brexit. </p>
<p>This includes the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_en.htm">Habitats Directive</a>, which protects natural sites from damaging development, and which is now set to be weakened. At the same time, a plan to pay farmers subsidies based on their protection of nature instead of how much land they own is at risk of being delayed or scrapped altogether. </p>
<p>Under the Habitats Directive, development on a protected site will only be permitted if the proposed work will not damage its wildlife. In 2015, there were <a href="https://consult.defra.gov.uk/natural-england/crouch-roach-estuaries/supporting_documents/European%20leaflet%20Natura%202000.pdf">900 protected sites in the UK</a>, with 320 in England. Many are situated on privately owned land. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Pink heather looking over a hilly rural landscape against a deep cloudy sunset." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The North Yorkshire Moors are one of 900 protected areas in the UK under the Habitats Directive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sun-sets-roseberry-topping-786578980">Jez Campbell/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The protection of these sites can often be crucial. Two Welsh peatland areas have recently benefited from a <a href="https://naturalresources.wales/about-us/our-projects/nature-projects/new-life-for-welsh-raised-bogs/?lang=en">restoration project</a>. This has created over 12 miles of low mounds that retain water in peat bogs, which are a vital store of carbon.</p>
<p>To a government devoid of an appreciation for nature, these strict regulations may be considered a barrier to development. The recent renouncement of environmental laws has led to speculation that some of these protected areas may be situated within <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/investment-zones-in-england/investment-zones-in-england">investment zones</a>. Planning regulations within these zones are set to be relaxed to accelerate the construction of housing and infrastructure.</p>
<p>The Environment Act sets out rules that restrict how far environmental legislation can be amended. However, they will not come into force before <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2021/30/section/112/enacted">February 2023</a>, permitting unregulated urban sprawl until then. </p>
<p>Despite this, the initial guidance on investment zones does note that local consent will be a factor when identifying zones. Local activism may become a powerful tool for future habitat protection.</p>
<h2>The ‘Brexit bonus’ for farmers</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/environmental-land-management-schemes-overview">Environment Land Management Scheme (Elms)</a> was constructed to replace the farming subsidies of the controversial EU Common Agricultural Policy. While the current scheme pays farmers for maintaining land in “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/oct/10/brexit-leaving-eu-farming-agriculture">agricultural condition</a>”, the Elms instead plans to compensate farmers for efforts to protect nature. The scheme will encourage farming practices that enhance biodiversity, protect watercourses, support woodland creation and store carbon. </p>
<p>Although in their <a href="https://defrafarming.blog.gov.uk/2022/05/26/6-months-on-how-the-pilot-is-shaping-the-sustainable-farming-incentive/">infancy</a>, there are several promising pilot schemes. The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/case-studies/environmental-land-management-tests-and-trials-23-burns-farmer-group#:%7E:text=The%2023%20Burns%20Farmer%20Group%20is%20on%20the%20north%2Deast,they%20will%20provide%20under%20ELM%20.">23 Burns Farmer Group</a> involves the cooperation of farmers in Britain’s northeast to promote farmland conservation. This will see the development of wildlife corridors on agricultural land, which will provide crucial habitats in the process.</p>
<p>However, the future of the Elms has been thrown into doubt following <a href="https://deframedia.blog.gov.uk/2022/09/28/government-reiterates-commitment-to-environmental-protections/">confirmation</a> that the government was launching a review of its plans. The Welsh government has since maintained its <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-63028483">commitment</a> to plans similar to the Elms.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A field bordering a wilded area of forest against a blue sky." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Elms will encourage the adoption of farming practices that enhance biodiversity, protect watercourses, support woodland creation and store carbon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/native-trees-planted-around-waterways-along-2002834007">Cheryl Watson/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even delaying the scheme will have consequences. A <a href="https://green-alliance.org.uk/briefing/delaying-elm-would-halve-its-carbon-savings-by-2035/">Green Alliance</a> report shows pausing the Elms by two years will halve its carbon savings by 2035.</p>
<p>Yet a reversal of the scheme is strongly rumoured. The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) is instead considering an unconditional yearly payment made to farmers based on the area of land owned. Representing little more than a transfer of wealth, this will not do much to incentivise conservation.</p>
<p>Despite some internal opposition, the National Farmers’ Union has supported the continuation of an area-based payments scheme. It has long called for a <a href="https://www.nfuonline.com/updates-and-information/efra-elms-inquiry-nfu-response/">reconsideration of the timescale</a> of the Elms’ rollout as higher fertiliser, feed and energy prices, driven by the war in Ukraine, have <a href="https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/rising-cost-of-agricultural-fertiliser-and-feed-causes-impacts-and-government-policy/#:%7E:text=High%20energy%20costs%3A%20Rises%20in,energy%20source%20in%20fertiliser%20production.">increased farming costs</a>.</p>
<p>In response to the backlash, Defra <a href="https://twitter.com/ranil/status/1574781513106968579">cited</a> its Environment Act as evidence of a continued commitment to UK nature. <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2021/30/contents/enacted">The Environment Act</a>, which was established in 2021, holds the government to several environmental improvement and protection measures.</p>
<p>It demands the establishment of an <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2021/30/section/8/enacted">environmental improvement plan</a>, requiring all local authorities in England to create <a href="https://consult.defra.gov.uk/land-use/local-nature-recovery-strategies/">local nature recovery strategies</a>. It also states that a species abundance target must be set by 2030. While it commits the government to action, the Environment Act alone will not be sufficient to stimulate broader nature recovery.</p>
<p>Compensation schemes such as the Elms are an essential component in encouraging the participation of landowners in nature recovery. The Environment Act does not include a mechanism to deliver this. </p>
<p>This lack of incentive could be addressed by holding landowners accountable for failing to protect nature. Local authorities across England are now, for the first time, <a href="https://consult.defra.gov.uk/land-use/local-nature-recovery-strategies/">bound by law</a> to identify areas for habitat restoration. But the law does not yet hold landowners accountable for failing to implement restoration on the ground.</p>
<p>The early signs suggest that the new government poses a serious threat to UK nature and so urgent action must be taken to preserve it. Defra’s approach to conservation has been slowly moving in the right direction over the past decade, it would be a shame to reverse it now.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191545/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Caitlin Lewis receives funding from Scenario NERC Doctoral Training Partnership grant NE/S007261/1.</span></em></p>Environmental groups have criticised the government’s approach to nature – but what is this approach and why is it concerning?Caitlin Lewis, PhD Student in Ecology and Agri-Environmental Research, University of ReadingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1791652022-05-12T12:13:49Z2022-05-12T12:13:49ZWhy the world has a lot to learn about conservation – and trust – from Indigenous societies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462498/original/file-20220511-14-1heset.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=32%2C0%2C2104%2C1377&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A family in northern Siberia watches -- but decides not to hunt -- a musk ox that wandered into the area where they live.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Ziker</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Twenty-five years ago, when I was a young <a href="https://www.boisestate.edu/anthropology/about-us/directory/john-ziker/">anthropologist working in northern Siberia</a>, the <a href="https://www.waveland.com/browse.php?t=30">Indigenous hunters, fishers and trappers</a> I lived with would often stop and solemnly offer something to the tundra. It was usually small, such as coins, buttons or unlit matches. But it was considered essential. Before departing on a hunting or fishing trip, I’d be asked if I had some change in my outer coat. If I didn’t, someone would get me some so it was handy. We left other gifts, too, such as fat from wild reindeer to be fed <a href="https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/AndersonAbout">to the fire</a>.</p>
<p>I was intrigued. Why do these things? Their answers were usually along the lines of, “We are the children of the tundra,” or “we make these sacrifices so that tundra will give us more animals to hunt next year.”</p>
<p>These practices are part of what I and other anthropologists call “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-015-0293-9">traditional ecological knowledge</a>.” Beliefs and traditions about the natural world are central in many Indigenous cultures around the world, bringing together what industrialized cultures think of as science, medicine, philosophy and religion.</p>
<p>Many academic studies <a href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/2718/reviews/3296/tanner-krech-ecological-indian-myth-and-history">have debated</a> whether Indigenous economies and societies are more oriented than others toward conservation or ecology. Certainly the idealized stereotypes many people hold about Indigenous groups’ being “one with nature” are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123321">simplistic and potentially damaging to the groups themselves</a>.</p>
<p>However, recent studies have underscored that conservationists can learn a lot from TEK about successful <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.2297">resource management</a>. Some experts <a href="https://unu.edu/publications/articles/why-traditional-knowledge-holds-the-key-to-climate-change.html">argue</a> that traditional knowledge needs a role in global climate planning, because it fosters strategies that are “cost-effective, participatory and sustainable.”</p>
<p>Part of TEK’s success stems from how it fosters trust. This comes in many different forms: trust between community members, between people and nature, and between generations.</p>
<h2>Defining TEK</h2>
<p>Looking more closely at the components of TEK, the first, “tradition,” is something learned from ancestors. It’s handed down.</p>
<p>“Ecological” refers to relationships between living organisms and their environment. It comes from <a href="https://www.wordsense.eu/%CE%BF%E1%BC%B6%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82/">the ancient Greek word</a> for “house,” or “dwelling.”</p>
<p>Finally, the earliest uses <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=knowledge">of the term “knowledge”</a> in English refer to acknowledging or owning something, confessing something and sometimes recognizing a person’s position or title. These now-obsolete meanings emphasize relationships – an important aspect of knowledge that modern usage often overlooks but that is especially important in the context of tradition and ecology.</p>
<p>Combining these three definitions helps to generate a framework to understand Indigenous TEK: a strategy that encourages deference for ancestral ways of dwelling. It is not necessarily strict “laws” or “doctrine,” or simply observation of the environment.</p>
<p>TEK is a way of looking at the world that can help people connect the land they live on, their behavior and the behavior of the people they are connected to. Indigenous land practices are based on generations of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010%5B1251:ROTEKA%5D2.0.CO;2">careful and insightful observations about the environment</a> and help define and promote “virtuous” behavior in it.</p>
<p>As an American suburbanite living in a remote community in Siberia, <a href="https://www.waveland.com/browse.php?t=30">I was always learning</a> about what was “proper” or “improper.” Numerous times people would tell me that what I or someone else had just done was a “sin” in respect to TEK. When someone’s aunt died one year, for example, community members said it happened because their nephew had killed too many wolves the previous winter.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man in a hat kneels in front of a tent as he chops up small pieces of wood." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462503/original/file-20220511-14-gmleu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462503/original/file-20220511-14-gmleu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=934&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462503/original/file-20220511-14-gmleu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=934&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462503/original/file-20220511-14-gmleu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=934&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462503/original/file-20220511-14-gmleu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1173&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462503/original/file-20220511-14-gmleu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1173&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462503/original/file-20220511-14-gmleu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1173&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The author learning to cut up dwarf willow in the proper way for use in a summer chum, or tent, to smoke caribou meat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Ziker</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Similarly, after stopping to assess the freshness of some reindeer tracks on the tundra, one hunter told me, “We let these local wild reindeer roam in midwinter so they will return next year and for future generations.” Here, TEK spells out the potential environmental impacts of greed – which, in this case, would mean overhunting.</p>
<p>Concepts like these are not isolated to Siberia. Much work has been done examining the <a href="https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/BrightmanAnimism">parallels among ancestral systems of deference</a> in Siberia, Amazonia, North America and other regions.</p>
<h2>Trust and tradition</h2>
<p>These examples illustrate how TEK is a set of systems that promote trust through encouraging deference for ancestral ways of dwelling in the world.</p>
<p>Moderation of self-interested behaviors requires such trust. And confidence that the environment will provide – caribou to hunt, say, or ptarmigan birds to trap – depends on the idea that people will treat the environment in a respectful manner.</p>
<p>Previously, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RWfAAwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA337&dq=sharing+subsistence+and+social+norms+ziker&ots=z4p9E0xULk&sig=MszMm974mE7eBWdJxAZftJaGBE8#v=onepage&q=sharing%20subsistence%20and%20social%20norms%20ziker&f=false">I’ve studied prosociality</a> – behavior that benefits others – in northern Siberian practices of food-sharing, child care and use of hunting lands.</p>
<p>These aspects of life depend on the idea that the “real” owners of the natural resources are <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Supernatural-and-Natural-Selection-Religion-and-Evolutionary-Success/Steadman-Palmer/p/book/9781594515668">ancestors</a> and that they punish and reward the behaviors of the living. Such ideas are encouraged by elders and leaders, who commend virtuous and prosocial behavior while connecting negative outcomes with selfishness. </p>
<p>Trust is <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7758/9781610444347">an essential component of reciprocity</a> – exchange for mutual benefit – and prosociality. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-019-0530-9">Without trust</a>, it does not make sense to take risks in our dealings with other people. Without trust we cannot cooperate or behave in nonexploitative ways, such as protecting the environment. This is why it is advantageous for societies to monitor and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1127333">punish noncooperators</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A number of small objects are scattered around the top of a sleigh sitting in a field." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462505/original/file-20220511-7051-9dc37j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462505/original/file-20220511-7051-9dc37j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462505/original/file-20220511-7051-9dc37j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462505/original/file-20220511-7051-9dc37j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462505/original/file-20220511-7051-9dc37j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462505/original/file-20220511-7051-9dc37j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462505/original/file-20220511-7051-9dc37j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An abandoned reindeer sleigh, likely a grave, with several personal items. One is not allowed to disturb it, which would disrespect the dead, who are considered the true owners of the land.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Ziker</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Put another way, minimizing one’s resource use today to make tomorrow better requires trust and mechanisms to enforce it. This is also true in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1182238">larger social formations</a>, even between nations. Groups must trust that others <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-grand-philosopher-of-the-commons-in-memory-of-elinor-ostrom-7621">will not use the resources they themselves have protected</a> or overuse their own resources.</p>
<h2>Lessons from TEK</h2>
<p>Today, many environmental experts are interested in <a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr879.pdf">incorporating learnings from Indigenous societies into climate policies</a>. In part, this is because recent <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/25/indigenous-peoples-by-far-the-best-guardians-of-forests-un-report">studies</a> have shown that environmental outcomes, such as forest cover, for example, are better <a href="https://www.vox.com/22518592/indigenous-people-conserve-nature-icca">in Indigenous protected areas</a>.</p>
<p>It also stems from growing awareness of the need to <a href="http://doi.org/10.5334/dsj-2020-043">protect Indigenous peoples’ rights and sovereignty</a>. TEK cannot be “extracted.” Outsiders need to show deference to knowledge-holders and respectfully request their perspective.</p>
<p>One idea societies can adopt as they combat climate change is the importance of trust – which can feel hard to come by these days. Young activist Greta Thunberg’s “<a href="https://fridaysforfuture.org/">Fridays for Future</a>” initiative, for example, highlights the ethical issues of trust and responsibility between generations.</p>
<p>Many outdoor enthusiasts and sustainability organizations emphasize “leaving no trace.” In fact, people always leave traces, no matter how small – a fact recognized in Siberian TEK. Even footsteps compact the soil and affect plant and animal life, no matter how careful we are.</p>
<p>A more TEK-like – and accurate – maxim might say, “Be accountable to your descendants for the traces you leave behind.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179165/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Ziker receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Traditional ecological knowledge, or TEK, can encompass science, medicine, ecology, religion and culture – and help protect the environment.John Ziker, Professor of Anthropology, Boise State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1727602022-01-24T19:09:01Z2022-01-24T19:09:01ZAncient knowledge is lost when a species disappears. It’s time to let Indigenous people care for their country, their way<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434974/original/file-20211201-27-o03mep.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C0%2C1196%2C795&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nicolas Rakotopare/Karajarri Traditional Lands Association</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Indigenous people across Australia place tremendous cultural and customary value on many species and ecological communities. The very presence of a plant or animal species can trigger an Indigenous person to recall and share knowledge. This is crucial to maintaining culture and managing Country. </p>
<p>But as species disappear, ancient knowledge built up over thousands of years also fades away – and fragments of our culture are lost forever.</p>
<p>For years, Indigenous groups have pushed for the right to partner with government authorities to “co-manage” culturally significant species and communities. Such recognition of Indigenous rights would require amendments to environment and land management laws. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, changes to Australia’s federal environment laws currently underway fall short of what’s needed. To protect Australia’s imperilled species, the law must chart a new course that allows Indigenous groups to manage their Country, their way. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434938/original/file-20211201-25-189bdrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman welcomed to Country" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434938/original/file-20211201-25-189bdrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434938/original/file-20211201-25-189bdrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434938/original/file-20211201-25-189bdrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434938/original/file-20211201-25-189bdrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434938/original/file-20211201-25-189bdrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434938/original/file-20211201-25-189bdrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434938/original/file-20211201-25-189bdrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ngurrara Ranger Mary is welcomed to Paruku Country in the Great Sandy Desert. A meeting between many groups discussed threatened and culturally significant species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nicolas Rakotopare/Yanunijarra Aboriginal Corporation</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Managing the Indigenous estate</h2>
<p>Australia’s <a href="https://www.themandarin.com.au/68385-indigenous-estate-ilc-chairperson-eddie-fry-garma/">Indigenous estate</a> takes in about <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0173876">51% of the range</a> of the nation’s threatened vertebrate species.</p>
<p>The Indigenous estate refers to the assets held, or reasonably likely to be held, by or for the benefit of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander people. It includes land and sea held through such means as traditional ownership, native title and land rights organisations. It also includes intangible values such as cultural rights, practice and expression, as well as Indigenous knowledge and traditional management.</p>
<p>A range of state and federal programs involve Indigenous participation in land and sea management, offering invaluable protection to the Indigenous estate. These include Indigenous Protected Areas and the successful <a href="https://www.niaa.gov.au/indigenous-affairs/environment/indigenous-ranger-programs">Indigenous Ranger program</a>.</p>
<p>And many governments and other groups recognise that species and ecological communities can have significant cultural, spiritual and customary value to Indigenous Australians. But often, no legal mechanism exists to protect these entities.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-australian-government-must-listen-to-torres-strait-leaders-on-climate-change-171384">Why the Australian government must listen to Torres Strait leaders on climate change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Some species and other entities of significance to Indigenous Australians are listed as threatened under Australia’s federal environment law, known as the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act. But authorities are not required to engage Indigenous Australians in the listing, management or recovery of these species.</p>
<p>Indigenous Australians have successfully managed this continent’s landscapes and seascapes for tens of thousands of years. Their approach is holistic and integrated – considering the whole cultural landscape with a deep understanding of the interconnected relationships between species and Country.</p>
<p>In contrast, management actions under federal environment law focus on the outcomes of the listed species instead of the overall health of Country. </p>
<p>All this has left Indigenous groups underfunded and at the mercy of national-level management decisions, as opposed to place-based Indigenous-led action. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434940/original/file-20211201-25-b87h6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Men sitting around a map" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434940/original/file-20211201-25-b87h6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434940/original/file-20211201-25-b87h6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434940/original/file-20211201-25-b87h6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434940/original/file-20211201-25-b87h6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434940/original/file-20211201-25-b87h6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434940/original/file-20211201-25-b87h6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434940/original/file-20211201-25-b87h6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ngurrara Rangers map potential night parrot habitat. The meeting was hosted by Paruku Rangers and Traditional Owners in the Great Sandy Desert.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nicolas Rakotopare/Yanunijarra Aboriginal Corporation</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Surprising and disappointing’</h2>
<p>The EPBC Act was recently reviewed by Professor Graeme Samuel, who was commissioned by the federal government. His <a href="https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/resources/final-report">final report</a> in 2020 found the law was failing in many ways.</p>
<p>Samuel recommended a suite of reforms. Among other goals, they aimed to “respect and harness the knowledge of Indigenous Australians”. One year on and <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7591429/a-year-on-from-a-landmark-report-nature-and-law-reform-is-floundering/">progress</a> on implementing the 38 recommendations is slow.</p>
<p>Among the recommendations were that the EPBC Act adopt a set of legally enforceable “national environmental standards” – clear rules that protect the environment and enable sustainable development. The standards <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/jan/28/australia-urged-to-overhaul-environment-laws-and-reverse-decline-of-our-iconic-places">would cover</a> matters such as threatened species, compliance, environmental data and <a href="https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/resources/final-report/appendix-b2-indigenous">Indigenous engagement</a> and participation in decision-making.</p>
<p>It was both surprising and disappointing that Indigenous knowledge was not embedded across all proposed environmental standards. The omission means Indigenous perspectives will continue to be relegated to a stand-alone standard of “participation”.</p>
<p>In particular, the national standard pertaining to threatened species made no reference to Indigenous knowledge or the Indigenous estate.
And proposed <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/44b768d8-75ad-417d-84cc-dfb0e069e97e/files/national-environmental-standard-mnes-2021-draft.pdf">interim standards</a> completely omit Indigenous engagement, participation and values.</p>
<p>Without a mandate to include Indigenous people in threatened species planning and recovery, biodiversity will remain at risk. What’s more, significant gaps in the application of Indigenous Knowledge and protection of the Indigenous estate will continue. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fixing-australias-shocking-record-of-indigenous-heritage-destruction-juukan-inquiry-offers-a-way-forward-170212">Fixing Australia’s shocking record of Indigenous heritage destruction: Juukan inquiry offers a way forward</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434973/original/file-20211201-27-tg1guw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="hands with green turtle eggs" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434973/original/file-20211201-27-tg1guw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434973/original/file-20211201-27-tg1guw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434973/original/file-20211201-27-tg1guw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434973/original/file-20211201-27-tg1guw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434973/original/file-20211201-27-tg1guw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434973/original/file-20211201-27-tg1guw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434973/original/file-20211201-27-tg1guw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rangers collecting green turtle eggs on Yanyuwa Country in the Gulf of Carpentaria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nicolas Rakotopare</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A new kind of recognition</h2>
<p>During the submission process of the review, <a href="https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-06/ANON-QJCP-UGT1-F%20-%20Indigenous%20Working%20Group%20-%20Threatened%20Species%20Recovery%20Hub.pdf">many</a> Indigenous and <a href="https://www.ecolsoc.org.au/news/esa-response-to-epbc-interim-report/">non-Indigenous</a> organisations <a href="https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/submissions/anon-qjcp-ugt1-f">lobbied</a> for the recognition of “culturally significant entities”. These groups include the government’s own <a href="https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/submissions/bhlf-qjcp-ug3c-z">Indigenous Advisory Committee</a> and <a href="https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/submissions/anon-k57v-xf2u-j">Threatened Species Scientific Committee</a>.</p>
<p>“Culturally significant entities” are species and sites of great or exceptional cultural importance to Indigenous Australians. They might be a source of identity, a medicine, lore, an important traditional food or required for cultural practices. They usually feature prominently in Indigenous knowledge, language and ceremonies.</p>
<p>Submissions to the review called for these entities to be formally recognised under the EPBC Act and afforded a far higher level of protection. They also called for the mandatory participation of Indigenous Australians in threatened species nominations, listings, policy and management.</p>
<p>Many Indigenous Australians were disappointed this measure was not mentioned in Samuel’s final report. Without proper legal protection, culturally significant entities will not be assessed and can be damaged by threats such as climate change, inappropriate land management and poorly conceived development proposals. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-plants-and-animals-have-long-been-used-without-indigenous-consent-now-queensland-has-taken-a-stand-144813">Australia's plants and animals have long been used without Indigenous consent. Now Queensland has taken a stand</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man holds lizard" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434970/original/file-20211201-13-1b11i3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434970/original/file-20211201-13-1b11i3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434970/original/file-20211201-13-1b11i3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434970/original/file-20211201-13-1b11i3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434970/original/file-20211201-13-1b11i3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434970/original/file-20211201-13-1b11i3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434970/original/file-20211201-13-1b11i3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A yellow-spotted monitor – a culturally significant bush tucker species – on Karajarri Country.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sarah Legge</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>From engagement to empowerment</h2>
<p>It’s time for governments and conservation groups to recognise the enduring value of the Indigenous estate and knowledge in curbing Australia’s parlous record of biodiversity loss. </p>
<p>While many of Samuel’s recommendations attempted to address issues raised by Indigenous Australians, they fall short of true empowerment and global best practice.</p>
<p>As the size and scale of the Indigenous estate continues to <a href="https://minister.awe.gov.au/ley/media-releases/australia-signs-international-biodiversity-declaration">grow</a>, so to does the opportunity to arrest biodiversity decline. Rather than sitting in the back seat, Indigenous Australians must be up front in managing the recovery of Australia’s unique and precious environment.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The authors acknowledge and thank the following people for their contributions to this work and article: Oliver Costello, a Bundjalung man; and Cissy Gore-Birch, a Jaru, Nyikina and Balanggarra woman, and Executive Manager Aboriginal Engagement at Bush Heritage Australia.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172760/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Teagan Goolmeer receives funding from Agilent Australia PhD scholarship. She is affiliated with Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environmental Indigenous Advisory Committee and NESP Threatened Species Recovery Hub. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Assoc Prof Bradley J. Moggridge is affiliated with Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment's Committee on Aboriginal Water Interests (CAWI), a member of the Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists, a Governor with WWF Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen van Leeuwen receives funding from NESP Northern Australia Environmental Resources Hub, NESP Resilient Landscapes Hub and the Australian Research Council via the Healing Country Industry Transformation Training Centre.
Stephen is also a member of the Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environmental Indigenous Advisory Committee and the Threatened Species Scientific Committee.</span></em></p>Rather than sitting in the back seat, Indigenous Australians must be up front in managing the recovery of Australia’s unique and precious environment.Teagan Goolmeer, PhD Candidate, The University of MelbourneBradley J. Moggridge, Associate Professor in Indigenous Water Science, University of CanberraStephen van Leeuwen, BHP / Curtin Indigenous Chair of Biodiversity & Environmental Science, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1705392021-10-27T19:11:41Z2021-10-27T19:11:41ZScott Morrison’s deal with the Nationals must not ignore land stewardship – an attractive, low-hanging fruit<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428400/original/file-20211026-22-1m3oze1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C57%2C4200%2C2306&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Nationals this week finally agreed to a plan of net-zero emissions by 2050. Farmers say they’ve done much of the heavy lifting on Australia’s emissions reduction and had been calling for a deal that addressed purported inequities of the past.</p>
<p>The terms of the agreement between Morrison and the Nationals have not been formally released. We know it involves five-yearly reviews by the Productivity Commission to assess how regional Australia is faring throughout the transition, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/oct/26/scott-morrison-says-australia-2050-net-zero-emissions-plan-based-on-choices-not-mandates">cutting red tape</a> for farmers and a new cabinet position for the Nationals.</p>
<p>But so far, there’s no clear indication that the deal includes expanded measures to help farmers restore rural environments. This would be a huge missed opportunity. </p>
<p>Agriculture <a href="https://www.awe.gov.au/sites/default/files/abares/aclump/documents/Land%20use%20in%20Australia%20at%20a%20glance%202016.pdf">covers 58%</a> of Australia’s land mass, and restoring farmland is one of the best ways to tackle climate and environmental issues over the long-term. A recent <a href="https://landcarensw.org.au/funding-rural-stewardship-the-case-for-significant-reform/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=funding-rural-stewardship-the-case-for-significant-reform">study</a> I was involved in explored how farmers can best be supported to do this.</p>
<p>It found landholders are often forced to rely on unreliable and insufficient funding and support when restoring land. What’s more, no coordinated strategy exists to maximise the value land-stewardship programs might deliver. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428662/original/file-20211026-17-1khsek9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428662/original/file-20211026-17-1khsek9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428662/original/file-20211026-17-1khsek9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428662/original/file-20211026-17-1khsek9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428662/original/file-20211026-17-1khsek9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428662/original/file-20211026-17-1khsek9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428662/original/file-20211026-17-1khsek9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s unclear what concessions the Nationals secured from Scott Morrison.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mick Tsikas/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why farmer think they’re owed</h2>
<p>Sentiment from farmers that they’re owed compensation for their emissions reduction efforts stems back to the 1990s and early 2000s. It was then, <a href="https://nff.org.au/media-release/farmers-want-kyoto-ledger-squared/">according to the National Farmers Federation</a>, that Queensland and New South Wales farmers became “victims of land clearing legislation that removed their property rights, without compensation”.</p>
<p>The belief is linked to the unique concession Australia won in the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. Following an extraordinary 1990 spike in land clearing, Australia was allowed to count reduced land-clearing toward its emissions reductions commitments. </p>
<p>Restrictions on land clearing mean more vegetation is retained, leading to carbon dioxide being drawn down from the atmosphere and stored in plants and soil. This limit to land-clearing relieved pressure on other sectors of the economy to reduce carbon emissions. </p>
<p>So it’s understandable the National Party wanted compensation for farmers, and used the net-zero emissions target as a negotiation opportunity. Details of the final deal are expected in coming months.</p>
<p>It would be in everyone’s interest if the measures included ways to boost environmental stewardship of rural areas. This would not only help farmers reduce emissions over the long term, but help improve Australia’s very poor <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-major-scorecard-gives-the-health-of-australias-environment-less-than-1-out-of-10-133444">environmental record</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-nationals-finally-agree-to-a-2050-net-zero-target-but-the-real-decisions-on-australias-emissions-are-happening-elsewhere-170451">The Nationals finally agree to a 2050 net-zero target, but the real decisions on Australia's emissions are happening elsewhere</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Lone tree in field" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425361/original/file-20211007-23-1vdtqf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Native vegetation cover must be restored across vast tracts of Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Well designed, well funded programs</h2>
<p>Land stewardship <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/land-stewardship">involves</a> efforts to enable landowners and others to responsibly manage and protect land and environmental assets.</p>
<p>This year’s federal budget included A$32.1 million for “biodiversity stewardship”, in which farmers who adopt more sustainable practices can earn money on private markets. The funding includes programs to protect existing native vegetation, implement a certification scheme and set up a trading platform.</p>
<p>But as <a href="https://theconversation.com/nature-is-a-public-good-a-plan-to-save-it-using-private-markets-doesnt-pass-muster-161361">others have noted</a>, the experience of environmental markets and certification schemes to date suggests they won’t effectively encourage farmers to take part. </p>
<p>Farmers often have unreliable or weak cash-flows, due to seasonal conditions, natural disasters, and the nature of commodity markets.
More government funding and policy support is needed to promote responsible land management, as well as to enforce rules prohibiting environmentally damaging practices. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://landcarensw.org.au/funding-rural-stewardship-the-case-for-significant-reform/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=funding-rural-stewardship-the-case-for-significant-reform">study</a> I was recently involved in found current systems to achieve this are inadequate.</p>
<p>Well-designed, well-funded and long-term programs would create a significant win-win for the farming sector and for the environment, and shore up Australia’s credentials internationally. These measures should make it easy and affordable for farmers to:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>conserve water</p></li>
<li><p>protect soil</p></li>
<li><p>avoid manure and chemical runoff, which can contaminate soil and waterways</p></li>
<li><p>reduce land-clearing</p></li>
<li><p>support conservation of plants and animals</p></li>
<li><p>avoid disturbance to habitats</p></li>
<li><p>minimise chemical use.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nature-is-a-public-good-a-plan-to-save-it-using-private-markets-doesnt-pass-muster-161361">Nature is a public good. A plan to save it using private markets doesn't pass muster</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Make it appealing to farmers</h2>
<p>Any new climate deal for agriculture should focus on removing hurdles to practical land stewardship. Industry-led sustainability initiatives show what’s possible. </p>
<p>Examples include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="http://www.mybmp.com.au/">myBMP</a>, a best practice training management program helping the cotton industry manage land sustainably and reduce water use</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://sustainawool.com.au/">Sustainawool</a>, a similar example from the wool sector</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.freshcare.com.au/">Freshcare Environmental</a> which achieves similar outcomes in horticulture.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>But current incentives and support for farmers to participate in programs like these <a href="https://landcarensw.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/STEWARDSHIP-FUNDING-REPORT-July-26.pdf">are not strong enough</a> to ensure a large proportion of farmers take part.</p>
<p>We need a national stewardship investment strategy, developed in partnership with industry and involving sufficient long-term government funding. </p>
<h2>A new authority</h2>
<p>Payments for environmental services and good stewardship practices often promote good environmental stewardship, but require sufficient investment to work. The <a href="https://home.kpmg/au/en/home/insights/2019/12/ecosystem-services-market-for-agriculture.html">National Farmers Federation and KPMG</a> have proposed such a scheme for agriculture.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://landcarensw.org.au/funding-rural-stewardship-the-case-for-significant-reform/amp/">study</a> recommended the creation of an authority to lead the design and initial implementation of a national rural stewardship investment strategy.</p>
<p>It could be created via a successor to the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) or a special purpose national and state body. We proposed this new authority should be responsible for initiating a national stewardship funding program within a specified time frame, such as three years. </p>
<p>The authority should be supported by research from the Productivity Commission or a similar body. Crucially, it must consult widely with environmental and primary production stakeholders and First Nations people and ensure they’re involved in design and decision-making processes.</p>
<p>Well-designed stewardship work can create efficiencies. A recent <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-could-green-its-degraded-landscapes-for-just-6-of-what-we-spend-on-defence-168807?utm_source=linkedin&utm_medium=bylinelinkedinbutton">study</a>, for example, devised a feasible plan to restore 30% of native vegetation cover across almost all degraded ecosystems on Australia’s marginal farming land, by spending just A$2 billion a year for about 30 years. </p>
<p>The plan could restore 13 million hectares of degraded land without affecting food production or urban areas, the authors found.</p>
<p>A feasible rural stewardship investment strategy for Australia is essential, possible, and would deliver a much needed win-win for landholders and the planet. It would be a shame for Australian politicians not to harvest such attractive, low-hanging fruit.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-successful-cop26-is-essential-for-earths-future-heres-what-needs-to-go-right-169542">A successful COP26 is essential for Earth's future. Here's what needs to go right</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170539/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Martin has received funding from the ARC and various government and private agencies, which are listed in full at <a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0243-2654">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0243-2654</a>.</span></em></p>Restoring farmland is one of the best ways to tackle climate and environmental issues over the long-term. But this doesn’t appear to be part of the Nationals deal.Paul Martin, Director, Australian Centre for Agriculture and Law, University of New EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1651642021-10-01T03:07:53Z2021-10-01T03:07:53ZIndigenous knowledge and the persistence of the ‘wilderness’ myth<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413881/original/file-20210730-15-13xzjiz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">IMG</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo credit: Wolfram Dressler</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>According to the Oxford English dictionary, wilderness is defined as:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A wild or uncultivated region or tract of land, uninhabited, or inhabited only by wild animals; “a tract of solitude and savageness”.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Aboriginal people in Australia view wilderness, or what is called “wild country”, as sick land that’s been neglected and not cared for. This is the opposite of the romantic understanding of wilderness as pristine and healthy – a view which underpins much non-Indigenous conservation effort.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/118/40/e2022218118">recent paper</a> for the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, we demonstrate how many iconic “wilderness” landscapes – such as the Amazon, forests of Southeast Asia and the western deserts of Australia, are actually the product of long-term management and maintenance by Indigenous and local peoples.</p>
<p>But this fact is often overlooked - a problem which lies at the heart of many of the world’s pressing environmental problems. Indigenous and local people are now excluded from many areas deemed “wilderness”, leading to the neglect or erasure of these lands.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415359/original/file-20210810-13-1rmxcl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415359/original/file-20210810-13-1rmxcl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415359/original/file-20210810-13-1rmxcl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415359/original/file-20210810-13-1rmxcl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415359/original/file-20210810-13-1rmxcl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415359/original/file-20210810-13-1rmxcl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=610&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415359/original/file-20210810-13-1rmxcl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=610&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415359/original/file-20210810-13-1rmxcl7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=610&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<h2>The Anthropocene and Indigenous people</h2>
<p>“Anthropocene” is the term scientists use to refer to the time period we live in today, marked by the significant and widespread impact of people on Earth’s systems. Recognition of this impact has sparked efforts to preserve and conserve what are believed to be “intact” and “natural” ecosystems.</p>
<p>Yet, the Anthropocene concept has a problem: it is based on a European way of viewing the world. This worldview is blind to the ways Indigenous and local peoples modify and manage landscapes. It is based on the idea that all human activity in these conservation landscapes is negative. </p>
<p>The truth is, most of Earth’s ecosystems have been influenced and shaped by Indigenous peoples <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/118/17/e2023483118">for many thousands of years</a>.</p>
<p>The failure of European-based “western” land management and conservation efforts to acknowledge the role of Indigenous and local peoples is reflected in recent scientific attempts to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07183-6">define “wilderness”</a>. These attempts lay out a strict and narrow set of rules around what “human impact” is, and in so doing, act as gatekeepers for what it is to be human. </p>
<p>The result is a scientific justification for conservation approaches that exclude all human involvement under the pretence of “wilderness protection”. The disregard for the deep human legacy in landscape preservation results in inappropriate management approaches. </p>
<p>For example, fire suppression in landscapes that require burning can have catastrophic impacts, such as <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/112/15/4531">biodiversity loss</a> and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2571-6255/4/3/61">catastrophic bushfires</a>.</p>
<h2>Our case studies</h2>
<p>In the Amazon, forest management by Indigenous and local peoples has promoted biodiversity and maintained forest structure for thousands of years. Areas of the Amazon considered “wilderness” contain domestic plant species, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_preta">anthropogenic soils </a> and significant earthworks (such as terraces and <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/114/8/1868">geoglyphs</a>), revealing a deep human legacy in the Amazon landscape. </p>
<p>Despite playing a key role in maintaining a healthy and diverse Amazon forest system, Indigenous and local peoples struggle constantly against wilderness-inspired conservation agendas that seek to deny them access to their homelands and livelihoods in the forest.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423463/original/file-20210928-3333-pmkah2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423463/original/file-20210928-3333-pmkah2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423463/original/file-20210928-3333-pmkah2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1097&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423463/original/file-20210928-3333-pmkah2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1097&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423463/original/file-20210928-3333-pmkah2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1097&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423463/original/file-20210928-3333-pmkah2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1379&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423463/original/file-20210928-3333-pmkah2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423463/original/file-20210928-3333-pmkah2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1379&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2018.00111/full">Frontiers of Ecology and Environment</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>Similarly, the forests of Southeast Asia and the Pacific are some of the most biodiverse regions on Earth. These forests have been managed for thousands of years using rotational agriculture based on small-scale forest clearing, burning and fallowing. Scientific attempts to define the last remaining “wild places” falsely map these areas as wilderness. </p>
<p>Rather than being wild places, agriculture has actively promoted landscape biodiversity across the region, while supporting the lives and livelihoods of tens of millions of Indigenous and local peoples.</p>
<p>In the central deserts of Australia, areas mapped today as “wilderness” are the ancestral homes of many Aboriginal peoples who have actively managed the land for tens of thousands of years. </p>
<p>Removal of Traditional Owners in the 1960s had catastrophic effects on both the people and the land, such as uncontrolled wildfires and biodiversity loss. Unsurprisingly, a return of Aboriginal management to this region has seen a <a href="https://news.stanford.edu/news/2010/april/martu-burning-australia-042910.html">reduction in wildfires, a significant increase in biodiversity and healthier people</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-pigs-can-smell-man-how-decimation-of-borneos-ancient-rainforests-threatens-hunters-and-the-hunted-166895">'The pigs can smell man': how decimation of Borneo's ancient rainforests threatens hunters and the hunted</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A way forward</h2>
<p>By framing landscapes created and managed by Indigenous and local peoples as wilderness, we are denying the land the care it requires. The effects of this neglect are evident in the catastrophic wildfires and environmental degradation occurring in Australia, northwest America and the Amazon – all lands invaded and colonised by Europeans.</p>
<p>Climate change is now making these problems worse.</p>
<p>Science alone has failed to solve these problems. Imposing land management approaches developed in Europe have failed. The idea of wilderness is destructive, and must be abandoned. We need new ways of engaging with the world around us if we’re to live sustainably on this planet.</p>
<p>Indigenous and local peoples must be engaged in the full range of efforts that affect their lands. This includes developing and implementing environmental initiatives and policymaking, the production and execution of research, and environmental management.</p>
<p>There are models that can be followed, such as developing Indigenous and community-conserved areas, Indigenous-protected and -conserved areas, or similar rights-based initiatives that merge the science and technology with the power of Indigenous and local knowledge. </p>
<p>This is one way forward in effectively decolonising conservation and making the Earth healthy again. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-you-have-unfinished-business-its-time-to-let-our-fire-people-care-for-this-land-135196">Australia, you have unfinished business. It's time to let our 'fire people' care for this land</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165164/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael-Shawn Fletcher receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa Palmer receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wolfram Dressler receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Hamilton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Aboriginal people view so-called wilderness as sick, neglected land. This runs counter to the view of wilderness as pristine and healthy, which underpins non-Indigenous conservation efforts.Michael-Shawn Fletcher, Associate Professor in Biogeography, The University of MelbourneLisa Palmer, Associate Professor, School of Geography, The University of MelbourneRebecca Hamilton, Postdoctoral Fellow, Max Planck Institute of GeoanthropologyWolfram Dressler, Senior Fellow, Development Geography, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1589012021-04-14T14:03:49Z2021-04-14T14:03:49ZHow should the British countryside look post-Brexit? We asked the public<p>Whatever your stance on Brexit, the UK’s departure from the EU has given the country a once-in-a-generation opportunity to reimagine how it uses its land. When it was still part of the EU, the UK abided by <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/common-agricultural-policy">the Common Agricultural Policy</a> (CAP), which provided subsidies to landowners and farmers based primarily on how much land they managed.</p>
<p>Earlier versions of the CAP contributed to the destruction of large swaths of the EU’s <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837718315321?casa_token=fuwjB8GZ9hEAAAAA:M3bh6gIErjoIC4KeBRXRJekU2v0AhqOVtRRycbvhte2BOAcp-tjpNq998JU_K_nMBOHowk8dvSk">forest and wildlife habitat</a>. The CAP has since undergone various revisions to try to address the environmental degradation of food production, but without much <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01426397.2011.637619">success</a>.</p>
<p>Policy analysts in Whitehall are busy devising <a href="https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8702/">new agricultural policies</a> that will decide how the countryside looks and the services it provides post-Brexit. As taxpayers will fund these new schemes, the public should have a say in how the country’s farmland will be managed and the environmental benefits it offers.</p>
<p>We set out to find what the UK public wanted from their countryside. But we didn’t want to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01426397.2012.691469">constrain</a> their imagination and creativity with a simple questionnaire. Instead, we combined a nationwide survey of 2,050 adults with an exercise in which 80 people created collages to demonstrate their vision for the future of Britain’s farmed landscapes. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A herd of dairy cows stands on a grassy hill with a rolling field of hay behind." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395036/original/file-20210414-15-1dub9w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395036/original/file-20210414-15-1dub9w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395036/original/file-20210414-15-1dub9w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395036/original/file-20210414-15-1dub9w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395036/original/file-20210414-15-1dub9w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395036/original/file-20210414-15-1dub9w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395036/original/file-20210414-15-1dub9w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A common sight: cows and vast fields dedicated to single crops.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/view-south-downs-way-footpath-sussex-131015750">David Hughes/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Livestock: nice to look at, bad for the planet</h2>
<p><a href="https://methods.sagepub.com/book/qualitative-inquiry-thematic-narrative-and-arts-informed-perspectives/i504.xml">Collages</a> allow people to express their ideas and desires in ways that are hard to capture with surveys and verbal interviews. Despite the obvious freedom the medium affords, collages are rarely used in studies attempting to understand how people would like their environment to look.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S026483772100168X?dgcid=author#bib8">We asked</a> 80 participants to create two collages: one to show their ideal UK farm landscape, and one to show what they thought an environmentally friendly farm would look like. We then asked them to explain their design choices. We also asked 2,050 adults taking part in the wider nationwide survey to rate ten images of farming landscapes using similar images to those used in the collages.</p>
<p>What we found really surprised us. Both the surveys and collages revealed that most people in the study liked seeing livestock in their ideal landscape, but many thought that, for a farm to be environmentally friendly, it should have less livestock due to the greenhouse gas emissions they produce. Instead, most participants thought “green” farms should have lots of trees and renewable energy installations, though many admitted that they didn’t like the look of wind farms. Interestingly, there was no significant difference in the kind of landscapes preferred by farmers compared with the rest of the public we surveyed.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394980/original/file-20210414-17-9zxbq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An example of one of the collages made in the study." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394980/original/file-20210414-17-9zxbq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394980/original/file-20210414-17-9zxbq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394980/original/file-20210414-17-9zxbq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394980/original/file-20210414-17-9zxbq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394980/original/file-20210414-17-9zxbq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394980/original/file-20210414-17-9zxbq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394980/original/file-20210414-17-9zxbq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wind turbines compete for space with cows, wildflower meadows and birds of prey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Niki Rust</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most of the people involved in the study said they were keen for farms to produce a mixture of food and benefits for the environment – such as carbon storage, wildflowers for insects to pollinate and trees to improve air quality – rather than focusing on just food or environmental benefits. The majority of the people surveyed also wanted to increase food production in the UK rather than importing food from elsewhere.</p>
<p>These findings reveal the complexity involved in making green agricultural policy. There are numerous trade-offs in producing food while still protecting the environment. For instance, while most participants in our study stated that they were less interested in these landscapes producing cheap food, studies on buyer behaviour show that consumers, especially those on <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/consumer-food-choices-the-role-of-price-and-pricing-strategies/4B275C4E232BAEE39FE2539F1E99365C">lower incomes</a>, are <a href="https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR4300/RR4379/RAND_RR4379.pdf">mainly motivated by price</a> when it comes to their food choices.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395055/original/file-20210414-13-5ed004.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Another of the collages made in the study." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395055/original/file-20210414-13-5ed004.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395055/original/file-20210414-13-5ed004.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395055/original/file-20210414-13-5ed004.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395055/original/file-20210414-13-5ed004.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395055/original/file-20210414-13-5ed004.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395055/original/file-20210414-13-5ed004.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395055/original/file-20210414-13-5ed004.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Most people wanted the countryside to generate more green energy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Niki Rust</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our participants often said they wanted farm landscapes to protect nature, but food production that is environmentally friendly is usually <a href="http://www.fao.org/organicag/oa-faq/oa-faq5/en/">more expensive</a> and produces less food overall, meaning <a href="https://www.jhunewsletter.com/article/2019/11/organic-farming-uses-more-land-than-conventional">more land</a> is needed. One possible solution is intensifying food production on existing farmland. Or, using <a href="https://www.agricology.co.uk/field/blog/introduction-agroecology-part-1">agro-ecological</a> methods which integrate farming with the local ecology. One example is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/alley-cropping">growing nut trees</a> which offer habitat and store carbon alongside arable crops.</p>
<p>The UK government clearly has its work cut out devising policies that produce food in an environmentally friendly way at prices cheap enough to ensure retailers don’t source food from abroad and effectively <a href="https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/428606/adbi-wp848.pdf">offshore</a> the environmental consequences. While it’s certain there will be winners and losers from Brexit, let’s hope the environment and the UK’s food security don’t fall into the latter category.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158901/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Niki Rust works for the North Pennines AONB Partnership. This research was funded by Newcastle University's N8 grant.</span></em></p>A new survey serves up a tall order for UK agricultural policy outside the EU.Niki Rust, Environmental Social Scientist, Newcastle UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1523672020-12-23T13:40:34Z2020-12-23T13:40:34ZHow curators transferred Sequoia and King’s Canyon National Parks’ archives to escape wildfires<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376205/original/file-20201221-23-vwyyh6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5120%2C3403&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The sequoias that live on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada in California are the largest trees in the world by volume.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/rear-view-of-man-standing-by-giant-sequoia-trees-in-royalty-free-image/1124771695">Erin Donalson/EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Editor’s note: As wildfires came <a href="https://www.latimes.com/environment/story/2020-11-16/sierra-nevada-giant-sequoias-killed-castle-fire">dangerously</a> close to Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks in September 2020, the curator of the archives there worked with Emily Lin, librarian and head of digital curation at the University of California Merced, to evacuate the archives to keep them safe. In <a href="https://youtu.be/TIKGrAX2zUw">this</a> interview, Lin explains how they evacuated the records, what’s in them and why they’re worth preserving.</em></p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tas_speBEYw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Listen to Emily Lin of UC Merced talk about the archives and see the contents of the park archives and photos from the evacuation.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why were the archives of Sequoia and King’s Canyon National Parks evacuated?</h2>
<p><a href="http://sweetgum.nybg.org/science/ih/herbarium-details/?irn=125890">Ward Eldredge</a>, the curator of the archives of the Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks, and I had been talking about the potential partnership around digitization of collections that had been housed there for a couple of years now. There’s been a concern about the safety of these records because <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/article/why-does-california-have-wildfires.html">wildfires in the past few years</a> have been an annual threat. So the long-term safekeeping of the records was very much on Eldredge’s mind. And he pointed out that the UC Merced campus is located in one of the few areas in California that are outside of a high-risk fire zone and also outside of the risk of earthquakes. There was just no question that we would do whatever we could to bring them here for safekeeping.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The burnt canopy of a Sequoia tree." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376221/original/file-20201221-21-18ox0oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376221/original/file-20201221-21-18ox0oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376221/original/file-20201221-21-18ox0oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376221/original/file-20201221-21-18ox0oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376221/original/file-20201221-21-18ox0oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376221/original/file-20201221-21-18ox0oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376221/original/file-20201221-21-18ox0oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Castle Fire in October 2020 burned hundreds of Sequoias in the privately owned Alder Creek grove that NGO Save the Redwoods League purchased less than a year ago.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-broccoli-top-of-a-giant-sequoia-that-was-roasted-in-the-news-photo/1229642415">Al Seib/LA Times via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In September, when the fires got really close to the park, Eldredge was trying really hard to find a way to move the materials. He just couldn’t find a van or a truck because the residents in the area were also being called to evacuate, and there was a shortage. So in the course of a day, we managed to make arrangements to take our moving truck from campus, and he was able to secure a U-Haul truck. We were able to pack everything and move it out of the mountains to the UC Merced campus, which is two and a half hours away.</p>
<h2>What’s in these archives?</h2>
<p>There were hundreds of boxes of collections, about 600 linear feet, and also cabinets of plant specimens and artifacts.</p>
<p>It’s a complete record of the administrative history of the park. Sequoia was the second-oldest national park in the U.S., established in 1890. So there are records related to its founding and through to the 20th century. In letters written by the park directors to the U.S. president and the secretaries of the Department of the Interior, one can see how the thinking around managing public lands, conservation, fire and forest management changed over the last century. </p>
<p>Before the park was established, people would cut the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/cook/sec9.htm">sequoias down for timber</a>. The city of Los Angeles wanted to <a href="https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/dilsaver-tweed/chap7a.htm">build a dam</a> in Kings Canyon up until 1965. So you can see how the thinking changed and how we got from that way of thinking to really establishing the National Park Service and protecting these unique environments. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376216/original/file-20201221-57996-1bo4o1o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A landscape photo of Kings Canyon in California" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376216/original/file-20201221-57996-1bo4o1o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376216/original/file-20201221-57996-1bo4o1o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376216/original/file-20201221-57996-1bo4o1o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376216/original/file-20201221-57996-1bo4o1o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376216/original/file-20201221-57996-1bo4o1o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376216/original/file-20201221-57996-1bo4o1o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376216/original/file-20201221-57996-1bo4o1o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kings Canyon is a rugged glacier-carved valley more than a mile deep.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KingsCanyonNP.JPG">Crd637 via Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There’s an incredible photographic record – tens of thousands of photographs that cover pretty much every place within the park. There are maps of the sequoia groves, maps related to how trails and roads and other buildings were constructed. We take these trails for granted, but they were huge undertakings involving hundreds of workers breaking rocks, cutting trees and excavating for years. They worked through the winter sometimes to do it within schedule. These projects also provided jobs during <a href="https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/dilsaver-tweed/chap6a.htm">the Great Depression</a>.</p>
<h2>Who will find them useful?</h2>
<p>Anyone, from those within the parks who want to better understand the history of the park, to the rangers and the interpreters who want to provide and present that history to the general public. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CWrNMyR30GM">Ken Burns</a>, the acclaimed documentary filmmaker, accessed these records while he was making his television series about the national parks. </p>
<p>They’ll also be more widely available for students to use. There’s plenty of material in there for lots of Ph.D. students working on dissertations and for those who want to really investigate how best to manage public lands and determine what’s effective. That knowledge is going to benefit the broader public and help conserve these national parks for all of us. There’s a rich record that can help us understand what is unique about the environment that allows these trees to survive.</p>
<h2>What are the plans for keeping the archives at UC Merced?</h2>
<p>When the records were kept in the park, it was just one person, Ward Eldredge, maintaining the records. That’s a lot of work. You could make an appointment and he could provide access if you wanted to come to the park, but it’s in a very small space within the park headquarters, so the accessibility was definitely limited. Now that these collections are at the library at UC Merced, it will be easier for people to be able to access them. </p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Our vision is to be able to digitize much of this material. Once it’s online, it will be a lot easier for people to at least see and maybe answer some of their immediate questions. And if there’s a need for them to see the physical material, they can still make arrangements to do that.</p>
<p>There’s still a long way to go, because normally, we would have to make a plan with the National Park Service, raise funds, build the facilities to store them safely and so on. Because we had to evacuate them, we still have to work on formalizing an agreement, but our goal is eventually to make sure that these records will be safe.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152367/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Lin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The curator at UC Merced describes the evacuation and shows a selection of photographs from the 110-year history of the park.Emily Lin, Head of Digital Curation and Scholarship, UC Merced, University of California, MercedLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1294292020-01-20T16:01:07Z2020-01-20T16:01:07ZNative people did not use fire to shape New England’s landscape<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310034/original/file-20200114-93792-1vahvzb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C0%2C613%2C409&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Old-growth forests prevailed in New England for thousands of years.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">David Foster</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>An interpretive sign stands at the edge of the Montague Plains Wildlife Management Area, a 1,500-acre state conservation property in central Massachusetts. It explains the site’s open land vegetation has been shaped by “millennia of fire” – and that the recent exclusion of fire has led to declines in this habitat and the species that call it home. It goes on to explain that fire is being reintroduced to the site through controlled burns “to reinvigorate fire-adapted species.”</p>
<p>The prescribed burning at Montague Plains and dozens of other conservation areas across New England is based on the belief that, for thousands of years, Native Americans <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10549811.2014.973608">cleared forests and used fire</a> to improve habitat for the plants and animals they relied upon. The use of fire as a management tool is just one example of a broader shift in how ecologists and conservationists have come to think about the impacts of ancient humans. Increasingly, researchers believe <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/107178/1491-second-edition-by-charles-c-mann/">Native people controlled ecosystems across much of the globe</a>, from boreal regions to the Amazon, including many areas formerly deemed pristine.</p>
<p>Our new research, published in the journal Nature Sustainability, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0466-0">tests this human-centric view of the past</a> using interdisciplinary, retrospective science. The data we collected suggest, in New England, this assumption is erroneous.</p>
<h2>Sediment tells the story</h2>
<p>In the field of paleo-ecology, researchers take advantage of the fact that, over time, the bottoms of lakes and ponds fill up with mud. Using a hand-driven device, scientists can collect a cylindrical core of the sediment and then use <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-radiocarbon-dating-and-how-does-it-work-9690">radiocarbon dating</a> to determine the age of the mud at different depths. Over the last century, scientists have collected sediment cores from hundreds of lakes around the world, enabling them to reconstruct past environments and ecosystems. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310031/original/file-20200114-151867-p5gnl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310031/original/file-20200114-151867-p5gnl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310031/original/file-20200114-151867-p5gnl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310031/original/file-20200114-151867-p5gnl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310031/original/file-20200114-151867-p5gnl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310031/original/file-20200114-151867-p5gnl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310031/original/file-20200114-151867-p5gnl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310031/original/file-20200114-151867-p5gnl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Paleo-ecologist Bryan Shuman collecting a sediment core from Green Pond, central Massachusetts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wyatt Oswald</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our team of paleo-ecologists and archaeologists collected sediment cores from 23 ponds across southern New England. We analyzed ancient pollen grains, fragments of charcoal and clues about past water depth, all preserved in the mud, allowing us to create a record of vegetation, fire and climate over thousands of years. </p>
<p>We then compared this ecological and environmental history with data from more than 1,800 archaeological sites along the coast from Cape Cod to Long Island, including the islands of Martha’s Vineyard, Nantucket and the Elizabeth Islands. These areas historically <a href="https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/304891312.html?FMT=ABS">supported the greatest densities of Native people in New England</a> and today are home to the <a href="http://sandplaingrassland.net/management/management-overview/">highest concentrations of endangered species and rare open land habitats</a> in the region.</p>
<p>Our study contradicts the theory that people had significant ecological impacts in southern New England before European arrival. Instead, it reveals that old forests, shaped by climate change and natural processes, prevailed across the region for thousands of years.</p>
<p>Native populations in southern New England <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1005764107">peaked at two times during the last several millennia</a>: 5,000-3,000 years ago, during what archaeologists call the Late Archaic Period, and 1,500-500 years ago, a period known as the Middle-Late Woodland. During those times when Native populations were relatively high, we found no evidence for forest clearance, elevated use of fire, or widespread agriculture. Interestingly, fire activity was high only 10,000-8,000 years ago, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.03.009">a period that was substantially drier than today</a>, with low human populations.</p>
<p>Of course, the indigenous people of New England utilized and relied on a wide variety of natural resources: they hunted, fished, foraged, and cultivated some edible plants. <a href="https://uofupress.lib.utah.edu/ancient-complexities/">Pre-Colonial societies were complex, widespread and large</a>, with populations in the tens of thousands. But the evidence suggests they didn’t use fire to open large swaths of the landscape for agriculture. Rather, over more than 10,000 years, these highly adaptable people <a href="https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/304891312.html?FMT=ABS">shifted activities seasonally across the landscape</a>, taking advantage of a wide range of resources and exerting limited, and most likely very localized, ecological impacts overall. </p>
<h2>From dense forests to more open land</h2>
<p>So, if Native Americans didn’t clear forests and create open lands across southern New England, how and when did the grasslands, shrub lands and open forests in existence today originate?</p>
<p>When we analyzed the mud in our study ponds, we found the obvious signature of forest clearance by 17th-century European colonists. Pollen from forest species declined, while pollen from agricultural and weedy species, like ragweed, increased abruptly. This evidence clearly shows New England’s open land habitats owe their existence to Colonial European deforestation and agriculture, especially sheep and cattle grazing, hay production, and orchard and vegetable cultivation in the 18th and 19th centuries.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310055/original/file-20200114-151834-meewgo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310055/original/file-20200114-151834-meewgo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310055/original/file-20200114-151834-meewgo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=728&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310055/original/file-20200114-151834-meewgo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=728&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310055/original/file-20200114-151834-meewgo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=728&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310055/original/file-20200114-151834-meewgo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310055/original/file-20200114-151834-meewgo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310055/original/file-20200114-151834-meewgo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sheep grazing on Martha’s Vineyard.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">David Foster</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This retrospective research should cause some conservationists to reconsider both their rationale and tools for land management. If the goal is to emulate the conditions that existed prior to the arrival of Europeans, land managers should allow New England forests to mature with minimal human disturbance. If the goal is also to maintain biodiverse open land habitats, like Montague Plains, within the largely forested landscape, managers should apply the Colonial-era agricultural approaches that created them nearly 400 years ago. Those tools would include mowing, grazing and cutting woody vegetation – but not burning.</p>
<p>[ <em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklysmart">You can get our highlights each weekend</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/129429/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wyatt Oswald has received funding from the US National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>We previously received National Science Foundation support for the research discussed in this article. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David R. Foster does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Evidence shows Native Americans in New England lived lightly on the land for thousands of years. It wasn’t until Europeans arrived that the landscape experienced major human impacts.Wyatt Oswald, Professor of Environmental Science, Emerson CollegeDavid R. Foster, Director, Harvard Forest, Harvard UniversityElizabeth Chilton, Dean of the Harpur College of Arts and Sciences and Professor of Anthropology, Binghamton University, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1270102019-11-26T18:40:37Z2019-11-26T18:40:37Z‘New Bradfield’: rerouting rivers to recapture a pioneering spirit<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303353/original/file-20191125-74567-1lshtdu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C205%2C4031%2C2776&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Waters from the Herbert River, which runs toward one of northern Australia's richest agricultural districts, could be redirected under a Bradfield scheme.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Patrick White</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The “<a href="https://www.deb2020.com.au/newbradfield/">New Bradfield</a>” scheme is more than an attempt to transcend environmental reality. It seeks to revive a pioneering spirit and a nation-building ethos supposedly stifled by the <a href="https://www.townsvillebulletin.com.au/news/townsville/townsville-enterprise-to-receive-24m-for-hells-gates-dam-case-after-months-of-bureacratic-delay/news-story/492dba14afd4ce71ffd08f12d38c15a6">bureaucratic inertia</a> of modern Australia.</p>
<p>This is not a new lament. Frustrated by bureaucracy, politicians in North Queensland have long criticised the slow pace of northern development. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/you-cant-boost-australias-north-to-5-million-people-without-a-proper-plan-125063">You can't boost Australia's north to 5 million people without a proper plan</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In 1950, northern local governments blamed urban lethargy. <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/63184273?searchTerm=concern%20at%20drift%20in%20north%27s%20population&searchLimits=">One prominent mayor</a> complained:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… these young people lack the pioneering spirit of their forebears, preferring leisure and pleasure to hardships and hard work.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These sentiments were inspired by an agrarian nostalgia that extolled toil and toughness. Stoic responses to the challenges of life on the land are part of the <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/9284258">Australian legend</a>.</p>
<p>With drought devastating rural and urban communities and a state election looming in Queensland in 2020, <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/queensland/leaders-tout-bradfield-scheme-options-in-queensland-election-fight-20191101-p536o2.html">both sides of politics</a> have proposed a “New Bradfield” scheme.</p>
<h2>An idea with 19th-century origins</h2>
<p>Civil engineer John Bradfield devised the original scheme in 1938. His plan would <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/97050378?browse=ndp%3Abrowse%2Ftitle%2FQ%2Ftitle%2F379%2F1939%2F05%2F04%2Fpage%2F10280686%2Farticle%2F97050378">swamp inland Australia</a> by reversing the flow of North Queensland’s rivers. Similar proposals go back to at least 1887, when geographer <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/35590102?q&versionId=44284267+219718360+231090219">E.A. Leonard recommended</a> the Herbert, Tully, Johnstone and Barron rivers be turned around to irrigate Australia’s “<a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/13361128">dead heart</a>”.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302057/original/file-20191117-66921-mj64sz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302057/original/file-20191117-66921-mj64sz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302057/original/file-20191117-66921-mj64sz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302057/original/file-20191117-66921-mj64sz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302057/original/file-20191117-66921-mj64sz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302057/original/file-20191117-66921-mj64sz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302057/original/file-20191117-66921-mj64sz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302057/original/file-20191117-66921-mj64sz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Blencoe Falls, on a tributary of the Herbert River, North Queensland, during the dry season.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Patrick White</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As the “dead heart” became the “<a href="http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/finlayson-hedley-herbert-14881">Red Centre</a>” in the 1930s, <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/6707892?q&versionId=7723963">populist writers</a> revived the dreams of big irrigation schemes. </p>
<p>These schemes have always been contested on both <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-06-18/fact-file-bradfield-scheme-drought-relief/11216616">environmental and economic grounds</a>. A <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/20252029">compelling history of Bradfield’s</a> proposal reveals many errors and miscalculations. But what the scheme lacked in substance it made up for in grandiose vision.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.textpublishing.com.au/books/the-water-dreamers">Water dreaming</a> has been a powerful theme in Australian history. The desire to transform desert into farmland retains appeal and <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/97099323?searchTerm=bradfield%20AND%20%22Nimmo%22&searchLimits=exactPhrase=Nimmo%7C%7C%7CanyWords%7C%7C%7CnotWords%7C%7C%7CrequestHandler%7C%7C%7CdateFrom=1944-01-01%7C%7C%7CdateTo=1948-01-01%7C%7C%7Cl-advstate=National%7C%7C%7Cl-advstate=New+South+Wales%7C%7C%7Cl-advstate=Queensland%7C%7C%7Cl-advstate=Victoria%7C%7C%7Csortby">discredited</a> schemes like Bradfield keep reappearing.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-keys-to-unlock-northern-australia-have-already-been-cut-69713">The keys to unlock Northern Australia have already been cut</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Contempt for nature and country</h2>
<p>While less ambitious than the original plan, the “New Bradfield” scheme still engineers against the gradient of both history and nature. It would have irreversible consequences for Queensland’s <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/radio/programs/am/experts-dismiss-new-drought-proofing-bradfield-scheme/11666006">environment</a>, society and culture.</p>
<p>What’s more, the new scheme manifests much the same mindset as the old. </p>
<p>It’s an attitude that privileges the conquest of nature: in this case literally up-ending geography by turning east-flowing rivers westward. Its celebration of the human struggle against defiant nature reprises the pioneering ethos.</p>
<p>Like many pioneers, “New Bradfield” proposals disregard the interests and land-management practices of Indigenous people. The bushfires ravaging the eastern states show the folly of <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-14/traditional-owners-predicted-bushfire-disaster/11700320?sf223598160=1&fbclid=IwAR2UkvGj_wyO4s6tbRqyI5sI6UgEI6SvqkoMwxCFEkKEV6FO7ZGJfGMP3Kc">ignoring traditional ways of caring for country</a> . </p>
<p><a href="http://www.hcourt.gov.au/cases/case_d1-2018">Overlooking native title realities</a> can also cost governments and communities.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/remote-indigenous-australias-ecological-economies-give-us-something-to-build-on-123917">Remote Indigenous Australia's ecological economies give us something to build on</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Polarising debate neglects more viable projects</h2>
<p>“New Bradfield” is promoted as “<a href="https://www.deb2020.com.au/newbradfield/?utm_source=Digitaliyf&utm_medium=GSearch&utm_campaign=NBradfield&gclid=CjwKCAiA8K7uBRBBEiwACOm4d-0xBRkgojO1Wykl937_rMhWhPhAb2ZsKhcKHOqdM2OuG11V34XdHBoCxBMQAvD_BwE">an asset owned by all Queenslanders for all Queenslanders</a>”. But <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-darling-river-is-simply-not-supposed-to-dry-out-even-in-drought-109880">environmental destruction</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/drought-and-climate-change-are-driving-high-water-prices-in-the-murray-darling-basin-119993">disputes over water sales</a> in the Murray-Darling Basin sound a warning.</p>
<p>The Queensland Farmers Federation has <a href="https://www.qff.org.au/media-releases/qff-welcomes-lnp-commitment-new-bradfield-scheme/">cautiously welcomed</a> the new scheme. Others have dismissed it as a “<a href="https://www.queenslandcountrylife.com.au/story/6479100/cold-water-poured-on-bradfield-mark-ii/">pipe dream</a>”. </p>
<p>Thus, northern Australia again sits amid a polarised debate about its utility to the nation. Such polarising contests diminish the likelihood of more viable projects being implemented.</p>
<p>Extravagant expectations of “untapped” northern resources have been <a href="https://scholarly.info/book/northern-dreams/">proffered for nearly two centuries</a>. Distant governments have fantasised the Australian tropics as a land of near-limitless potential. Northern communities have many times been disappointed by the results.</p>
<p>Today’s promises to “<a href="https://www.townsvillebulletin.com.au/news/opinion/flow-of-jobs-water-vital-for-nq-says-lnp-leader-deb-frecklington/news-story/053bb635b9cb86461ead6eedd39756ca">drought-proof</a>” large areas of Queensland rely on similar images. “Drought-proofing” aims to keep people on the land but often defies economic and social reality.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-cant-drought-proof-australia-and-trying-is-a-fools-errand-124504">We can’t drought-proof Australia, and trying is a fool's errand</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Dam developments have an underwhelming record</h2>
<p>The “New Bradfield” rhetoric echoes the inflated expectations of myriad disappointing northern development plans in the past. The <a href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9781349905737">Ord River project</a> was touted as an agricultural wonder that would put hundreds of thousands of farmers into the Kimberley. Its success lies forever just over the horizon.</p>
<p>Much closer to the present proposal is the Burdekin Falls Dam. It sits in the lower reaches of the same river earmarked for the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-01/bradfield-scheme-is-moving-water-from-north-to-south-feasible/11662942">Hells Gates Dam that would feed</a> the “New Bradfield” scheme. Damming Hells Gates has been advocated since at least the 1930s and has <a href="https://www.townsvilleenterprise.com.au/news-media/news-centre/advocacy-alert-hells-gates-funding-agreement-signals-boots-on-the-ground/">new supporters</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302055/original/file-20191117-66921-zna3a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302055/original/file-20191117-66921-zna3a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302055/original/file-20191117-66921-zna3a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302055/original/file-20191117-66921-zna3a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302055/original/file-20191117-66921-zna3a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302055/original/file-20191117-66921-zna3a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302055/original/file-20191117-66921-zna3a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The proposed site for Hells Gates Dam is on Gugu Badhun country on the Burdekin River.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dr Theresa Petray</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Back in the 1950s, damming the Burdekin was expected to generate hydro-electric power and irrigate vast swathes of farmland. After decades of political squabbling, the dam was completed in 1988. It does not generate hydro power. Although it irrigates some land downstream, the anticipated huge agricultural expansion never happened.</p>
<p>The Burdekin Falls Dam has helped the regional economy and could help to overcome the water shortages of the nearby city of Townsville. But it has not met the inflated expectations widely proffered decades earlier. The benefits that would flow from another dam further upstream are likely to be even more meagre.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/damming-northern-australia-we-need-to-learn-hard-lessons-from-the-south-53885">Damming northern Australia: we need to learn hard lessons from the south</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Grandiose visions of northern development have a habit of <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/8505121?selectedversion=NBD660057">failing</a>. A “New Bradfield” scheme, animated by an old pioneering ethos, is unlikely to be different. </p>
<p>Drought-affected communities would derive more benefit from sober proposals that acknowledge the past, integrate Indigenous knowledge and incorporate agricultural innovation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/127010/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick White receives funding from an Australian Government Postgraduate Award.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Janine Gertz’s PhD Doctoral research was funded by a JCU Australian Postgraduate Award and a JCU Prestige Indigenous Research Award. Janine provides administrative support to the Gugu Badhun Aboriginal Corporation RNTBC. Gugu Badhun Aboriginal Nation is participating in a Nation-Building research project “Prerequisite conditions for Indigenous nation self-government” which is funded by an ARC Discovery Grant, led by the Jumbunna Institute for Indigenous Education and Research, University of Technology Sydney. Gugu Badhun is also a research partner on a native food project with the ARC Training Centre for Uniquely Australian Foods, University of Queensland. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Russell McGregor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The ‘New Bradfield’ scheme seeks to revive a nation-building ethos supposedly stifled by bureaucratic inertia. But there are good reasons the scheme never became a reality.Patrick White, PhD Candidate in History and Politics, James Cook UniversityRussell McGregor, Adjunct Professor of History, James Cook UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1207312019-10-29T14:21:37Z2019-10-29T14:21:37ZWhat western states can learn from Native American wildfire management strategies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297965/original/file-20191021-56220-1w4wtpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C944%2C536&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Aja Conrad, the Karuk Tribe's workforce and internships coordinator, lights a prescribed fire in Orleans, California.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jenny Staats</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For several months in 2019, it seemed wildfires wouldn’t rage across the West as they had in recent years. But then came the dry autumn and California’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-fierce-fall-and-winter-winds-help-fuel-california-fires-106985">Santa Ana and Diablo winds</a>, which can drive the spread of wildfires. Utilities are <a href="https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2019-10-23/california-braces-for-more-widespread-power-outages-as-dangerous-winds-pick-up">shutting off power across the state</a> to reduce the risk of damaged equipment or downed trees on wires causing fires.</p>
<p>There’s no lack of proposals for managing wildfires more effectively: California Gov. Gavin Newsom recently <a href="https://www.sfchronicle.com/california-wildfires/article/Newsom-signs-22-wildfire-related-laws-from-14487057.php">signed 22 wildfire-related bills in one day</a>. But what’s missing are perspectives from indigenous communities across North America, who have lived with fire for thousands of years.</p>
<p>In our research on <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=vp1B7REAAAAJ&hl=en">climate change</a> and <a href="https://envs.uoregon.edu/people/mastersstudents/#Worl">people’s reactions to it</a>, we have worked with the <a href="http://www.karuk.us/">Karuk Tribe</a> in northwestern California and southern Oregon on their plan to manage their land under these evolving conditions. American Indian tribes across the West are working with an increased sense of urgency to manage fire-adapted landscapes in the face of climate change. The Karuk Tribe’s <a href="https://karuktribeclimatechangeprojects.com/climate-adaptation-plan/">climate adaptation plan</a> directs their efforts to do just that.</p>
<p>This work has convinced us that this is an exciting political moment to restore western forests and protect the public from dangerous wildfires – and that tribes are uniquely positioned to <a href="https://www.ijpr.org/post/fighting-fire-fire-students-learn-burn-klamath-river-trex#stream/0">lead the way</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298777/original/file-20191025-173537-4keq6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298777/original/file-20191025-173537-4keq6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298777/original/file-20191025-173537-4keq6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298777/original/file-20191025-173537-4keq6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298777/original/file-20191025-173537-4keq6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298777/original/file-20191025-173537-4keq6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298777/original/file-20191025-173537-4keq6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298777/original/file-20191025-173537-4keq6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tanoak acorns (xuntápan) are a staple Native food for many indigenous people and are also vital for numerous wildlife species. Tanoak (xunyêep) is very susceptible to high-intensity fire, but benefits from cultural burning that decreases tree and acorn pests and reduces competitive vegetation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://toolkit.climate.gov/image/2109">Lisa Hillman, Karuk Tribe</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>From colonization to fire suppression</h2>
<p>News media coverage of wildfires commonly frames them as “natural disasters” – dangerous elements of the natural world over which humans have little control. The language of climate change, fear of fire and the sense that it has become inevitable can be overwhelming, leaving people with the view that little can be done to manage these events. </p>
<p>But in fact, people aren’t helpless. While fires can be dangerous, they are <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520286832/fire-in-californias-ecosystems">inevitable and necessary in many ecosystems</a>, and humans have long adapted to them. Across North America, indigenous peoples have actively managed forest ecosystems through the use of fire. </p>
<p>Euro-American settlers were struck by the rich biodiversity of California’s forests, woodlands and prairies, but they didn’t understand that indigenous people’s use of fire was responsible for them. Instead, they sought to suppress fires wherever possible. The <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300181364/american-genocide">outright violence</a> of the mission and gold rush periods toward indigenous peoples, followed by the U.S. Forest Service’s fire suppression policies, so thoroughly disrupted historic fire regimes that the effects are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1609775113">visible in tree ring data</a>.</p>
<p>While many view climate change as the major driver of today’s mega-fires, one 2016 study demonstrates how Euro-American colonization caused the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1609775113">largest shifts in fire behaviors</a> in California over the past 400 years. In other words, the genocide of indigenous peoples directly relates to today’s catastrophic burning. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297968/original/file-20191021-56194-1wq92jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297968/original/file-20191021-56194-1wq92jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297968/original/file-20191021-56194-1wq92jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297968/original/file-20191021-56194-1wq92jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297968/original/file-20191021-56194-1wq92jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297968/original/file-20191021-56194-1wq92jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297968/original/file-20191021-56194-1wq92jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A wildfire burns in Sylmar, Calif., Oct. 11, 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/California-Wildfires-Power-Shutoff/5afda60cce5948b6b3af9380f107a183/36/0">AP Photo/David Swanson</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The interplay between humans, fire, plants and animals</h2>
<p>The Karuk people have developed complex systems of <a href="https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/15/">indigenous knowledge</a> over at least the last 10,000 years through direct interaction with their environment. Indigenous sciences include traditional ecological knowledge of the interplay among <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-015-0296-6">humans, plants, animals and natural phenomena</a>.</p>
<p>Indigenous peoples have long set low-intensity fires to manage eco-cultural resources and <a href="https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/graduate_thesis_or_dissertations/1z40kw515?locale=en">reduce the buildup of fuels</a> – flammable trees, grasses and brush – that cause larger, hotter and more dangerous fires, like the ones that have burned across the West in recent years. Before fire suppression, forests in the West experienced a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.05.004">mix of low- to high-severity fires</a> for millenia. Large, high-severity fires played an important ecological role, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.05.004">yet their spread was limited</a> by low-severity fires set by indigenous peoples, much like the “prescribed burns” land management agencies use today. </p>
<p>Karuk use of fire has been central to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.117517">evolution of flora and fauna</a> of the mid-Klamath region of Northern California. Sophisticated Karuk fire practices include using frequent, low-intensity fires to restore grasslands for elk and maintain <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/all/51080">tanoak and black oak acorns</a>. Fires also maintain grasslands that provide quality basketry materials, and provide smoke that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2018WR022964">shades the Klamath River</a>, cooling water temperatures and benefiting fish during the hot late summer months. </p>
<p>As Dr. Frank K. Lake, a Karuk descendant and U.S. Forest Service research ecologist, <a href="https://fireadaptednetwork.org/fire-as-medicine-fire-dependent-cultures/">explains</a>, “the Karuk Tribe, among others, sees fire as medicine, and as such views traditional burning as a human service for ecosystems.” Places where fire has been excluded, he said, “are sick, as are the people who live there, from a tribal perspective. Eventually, those places then get too much fire (i.e., catastrophic wildfire), like an overdose.” </p>
<h2>Fire suppression as colonial violence</h2>
<p><a href="https://nature.berkeley.edu/karuk-collaborative/">Research in partnership</a> with the Karuk Tribe demonstrates how fire suppression and the outlawing of Karuk fire management changes forests <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00925-y">from food pantries to food deserts</a>. We understand this exclusion of Karuk management practices as a form of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/23251042.2018.1474725">colonial ecological violence</a>. </p>
<p>“Without fire the landscape changes dramatically,” Ron Reed, a Karuk dip net fisherman, told us. “The traditional foods we need for a sustainable lifestyle become unavailable. The spiritual connection to the landscape is altered significantly.”</p>
<p>As federal forest researchers Jonathan W. Long and Frank K. Lake have <a href="https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol23/iss2/art10/">found</a>,
colonization and the suppression of indigenous management caused incredible <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/humjsocrel.36.77">harm to Native peoples</a> and created a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-016-0396-y">social-ecological trap</a>, in which the very practices that enhance ecosystems become more difficult to achieve within present legal and political constraints. The recommendations presented in the Karuk Climate Adaptation Plan understand that socio-ecological solutions are needed to address these traps.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jbNy52Ed-3k?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Karuk Department of Natural Resources Director Leaf Hillman explains his belief that fire suppression has failed.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Combining indigenous and western science</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://karuktribeclimatechangeprojects.com/climate-adaptation-plan/">Karuk Climate Adaptation Plan</a> calls for using indigenous burning methods as an adaptation for emergency conditions, such as cooling off streams that have become lethally hot for fish. It includes an entire chapter on using prescribed fire to protect critical electrical infrastructure, as an alternative to power shutoffs. </p>
<p>The plan centers around revitalizing Karuk management and fire science, including use of 23 Karuk cultural indicators across seven habitat management zones. Some of these species, such as salmon and black oak, are commonly referenced in nontribal climate plans. Others, such Pacific giant salamander, Indian potatoes and multiple honeybee species, have received far less attention. </p>
<p>“These species have stories to tell – lessons of how to get back to traditional management,” Bill Tripp, Deputy Director of Eco-Cultural Revitalization, Karuk Tribe, and Lead Coordinating Author of the climate plan, told us. </p>
<p>Much of the plan centers on specific strategies for returning fire to areas that have not burned due to fire suppression. It emphasizes the need for collaboration with the community and land management agencies, increasing public awareness, and policy advocacy to get Karuk traditional management and fire back onto the land.</p>
<h2>Burning as restoration</h2>
<p>Federal, state and local government agencies are <a href="https://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/strategy/documents/reports/phase3/WesternRegionalRiskAnalysisReportNov2012.pdf">increasingly recognizing indigenous burning</a> as an ecosystem component and restoration technique. We believe the crisis of climate change offers land managers an opportunity to remedy inappropriate socio-ecological actions and <a href="https://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/strategy/documents/reports/2_ReportToCongress03172011.pdf">create successful collaborations</a> to promote collective survival. </p>
<p>We agree with Karuk Natural Resources Director Leaf Hillman’s statement that “We have to reestablish a positive relationship with fire. Fear of fire has gotten us to the place where we need to be afraid of fire today.”</p>
<p><em>Bill Tripp, Deputy Director of Eco-Cultural Revitalization at the Karuk Tribe, and a Karuk tribal member, contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120731/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kari Marie Norgaard has been a consultant for the Karuk Tribe and has received funding from the Karuk Tribe for her role as coordinating author for the Karuk Climate Adaptation Plan. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sara Worl has been a research assistant for the Karuk Tribe and has received funding from the Karuk Tribe for her role as research assistant for the Karuk Climate Adaptation Plan.</span></em></p>Instead of suppressing wildfire, the Karuk Tribe in the Pacific Northwest is using it as an integral part of its climate change management plan. Federal, state and local agencies are taking note.Kari Marie Norgaard, Professor of Sociology and Environmental Studies, University of OregonSara Worl, Master's Degree Candidate in Environmental Studies, University of OregonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1240632019-10-25T16:04:52Z2019-10-25T16:04:52Z3 global conditions – and a map – for saving nature and using it wisely<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297577/original/file-20191017-98657-sfw3fi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Snake River in Idaho is an area of 'critical environmental concern.' </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mypubliclands/15665553301">U.S. Bureau of Land Management</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Nature urgently needs our help. Wild creatures, from songbirds to butterflies and from primates to tortoises, <a href="https://www.ipbes.net/news/Media-Release-Global-Assessment">are disappearing so rapidly that they could be lost forever</a> together with the wild forests, grasslands and other habitats that long sustained them. We humans already use nearly half of all Earth’s land to sustain ourselves, and the <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/land-use#breakdown-of-global-land-use-today">most productive parts at that</a>. Meanwhile, the habitats remaining for the rest of life are shrinking to levels <a href="https://www.ipbes.net/news/Media-Release-Global-Assessment">too low to sustain themselves</a>. </p>
<p>To ensure a future in which humanity thrives together with the rest of nature, people around the world will need to work together like never before.</p>
<p>To help make this happen, our <a href="https://naturebeyond2020.com/3conditions/">team of scientists and conservation experts</a> have developed a <a href="http://three-global-conditions.appspot.com/">new world map</a> highlighting <a href="http://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwz136">three conditions of landscapes across the planet</a> that will need to be approached differently if we are to succeed in conserving biodiversity globally. <a href="https://naturebeyond2020.com/#three_conditions">These conditions</a> are cities and farms, large wild areas and shared lands.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295701/original/file-20191006-118205-1qvg6aq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295701/original/file-20191006-118205-1qvg6aq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295701/original/file-20191006-118205-1qvg6aq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295701/original/file-20191006-118205-1qvg6aq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295701/original/file-20191006-118205-1qvg6aq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295701/original/file-20191006-118205-1qvg6aq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295701/original/file-20191006-118205-1qvg6aq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295701/original/file-20191006-118205-1qvg6aq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"><strong>Cities and Farms</strong> are more than half covered by intensive agriculture and cities, <strong>Large Wild Areas</strong> are scarcely altered, and <strong>Shared Lands</strong> have a level of use somewhere in between. Each landscape condition requires a different conservation strategy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://naturebeyond2020.com/3conditions/">Harvey Locke et al. (2019)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2019.10.009">commentary accompanying our map</a>, we argue that for too long, efforts to conserve nature globally have acted as if this entire planet is equally influenced by the human world. Yet different landscapes differ profoundly in how they are used and influenced by people, demanding different strategies to conserve biodiversity. Our <a href="http://three-global-conditions.appspot.com/">map</a> aims to clarify these conditions to enable people to work together to conserve biodiversity more fairly and equitably. </p>
<h2>Biodiversity is our natural heritage</h2>
<p>The extraordinary richness of life we’ve inherited is an irreplaceable treasure that makes the world an immeasurably better place for people. Biodiversity underpins many of the ecological functions that sustain us, from <a href="https://www.esa.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/issue4.pdf">healthy soils to a stable climate</a>, and provides a wide variety of benefits to human health – <a href="https://www.cbd.int/doc/health/cohab-policy-brief1-en.pdf">mental and physical</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296923/original/file-20191014-135487-1tcomom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296923/original/file-20191014-135487-1tcomom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296923/original/file-20191014-135487-1tcomom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296923/original/file-20191014-135487-1tcomom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296923/original/file-20191014-135487-1tcomom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296923/original/file-20191014-135487-1tcomom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296923/original/file-20191014-135487-1tcomom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296923/original/file-20191014-135487-1tcomom.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An endangered Bell’s vireo.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usfwsendsp/5039503750/in/photolist-8FjLTG">Steve Maslowski/US Fish & Wildlife Service</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yet the <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6373/270">ultimate value of our biodiverse natural heritage is beyond any economic measure</a>. Wild nature is our lifeblood and our heritage, connecting us with each other and the rest of life on this planet.</p>
<p>The good news is that people have already begun to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/09/poll-extinction-public-slow-extinction">rise to the challenge</a>. For example, <a href="https://www.cbd.int/doc/strategic-plan/targets/T11-quick-guide-en.pdf">international commitments now aim to protect 17% of Earth’s land</a>. But it is widely agreed that these and other existing conservation efforts are not nearly strong enough to <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/361/6407/1051">halt nature’s decline</a>. </p>
<p>In October 2020, nations working together through the global Convention on Biological Diversity will meet in Kunming, China to negotiate more ambitious international targets for <a href="http://sdg.iisd.org/commentary/policy-briefs/on-the-road-to-the-2020-un-biodiversity-conference-imagining-the-post-2020-global-biodiversity-framework/">conserving nature across the planet</a>. One of the bolder proposals is to develop international commitments to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/01/conservation-groups-call-for-protecting-30-percent-earth-2030/">officially protect 30% of Earth’s land area by 2030, and 50% by 2050</a>. </p>
<p>But for any bold conservation agenda to succeed, an <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-conserve-half-the-planet-without-going-hungry-100642">unprecedented level of international commitment will be needed</a>. Perhaps the greatest obstacle is the many profound differences in social, economic and natural conditions that persist around the world. Some nations remain rich in unprotected biodiversity and wild habitats but are much less developed economically. Some are the opposite. </p>
<p>So how can such different nations and regions join together to make shared commitments and investments to save nature across this entire planet? </p>
<h2>Three conditions for conserving nature</h2>
<p>The first step is to build a basic consensus that conserving biodiversity can benefit all people, as long we share the efforts fairly at every level, from <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/364/6447/1226">backyards to biosphere reserves</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2019.10.009">across every social, economic and natural context, from the densest of cities to the most remote wild areas</a>. To succeed, strategies need to be suited to the many different types of landscapes to conserve. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297576/original/file-20191017-98661-17hi4vd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297576/original/file-20191017-98661-17hi4vd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297576/original/file-20191017-98661-17hi4vd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297576/original/file-20191017-98661-17hi4vd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297576/original/file-20191017-98661-17hi4vd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297576/original/file-20191017-98661-17hi4vd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297576/original/file-20191017-98661-17hi4vd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Buffalo grazing near Denver, Colorado, in Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/markbyzewski/38977328775/">Mark Byzewski</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Let’s start with the parts of the world where most of us live and most of our food comes from – the cities and farmlands that take up 18% of Earth’s land surface. These are not just full of people, crops and livestock, but also include some of the densest concentrations of vertebrate diversity on Earth, including many imperiled species of mammals and birds.</p>
<p>In these parts of the world, there needs to be widespread adoption of wildlife-friendly farming practices. Remnant and recovering habitats must be conserved within farmlands and agrichemical production reduced, even while increasing agricultural production. And even in the densest of cities, interconnecting small areas of protected habitat, such as parks and nature reserve networks, can successfully sustain some populations of highly endangered species. In the Indian city of Mumbai, for example, a national park conserves <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_asia/article/wjmdnb/sanjay-ghandi-national-park-leopards-urban-jungle">leopards</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296917/original/file-20191014-135495-c0pvhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296917/original/file-20191014-135495-c0pvhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296917/original/file-20191014-135495-c0pvhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296917/original/file-20191014-135495-c0pvhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296917/original/file-20191014-135495-c0pvhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296917/original/file-20191014-135495-c0pvhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296917/original/file-20191014-135495-c0pvhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296917/original/file-20191014-135495-c0pvhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A bridge for wildlife in Banff National Park in Canada, one way to enhance biodiversity in protect lands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/daveynin/36680740071/in/photolist-dyqLm3-ETbt5E-231R2xT-XSS3SK-79SrUp-79W85S-XEiYxN-fuCRoc-Yrp3H7-79W73A-79W913-79VYHW-79WaKU-79Wb83-79Shzn-79W9jS-7ina7v-7in9w2-JAqqRe-fuCT82-8xszEd-UJ1vhn-Y6cuev-XTmo5X-pM3i1c-pxqdAy-W7iCZb-81aSQm-79W6ES-NDznn-ND75j-5inQNR-pMHCiS-2asjh5G-2askmVb-2gbqKW2-pxpSKm-2aagAbF-2bxMVZK-pPTKPY-pPPf8K-MMX2qn-oSXCad-XSS3W2-uDTiTq-oSXohy-pPNX5r-pxkcwZ-cTk963-cTjkeW">David Fulmer</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Large wild areas, where human influences are lowest, including large parts of Amazonia and Canadian boreal forests, still cover <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(16)30993-9">about a quarter of Earth’s land.</a> Here, an emphasis on large-scale protection, such as the <a href="https://www.theplanetarypress.com/2019/09/new-initiative-launched-to-protect-central-americas-five-great-forests/">Five Great Forests Initiative in Central America</a>, will be the most effective strategy. To avoid damaging the last of Earth’s unaltered ecosystems, new infrastructure and land uses, including mining, should be limited as much as possible. Recognizing indigenous people’s rights to land, so they can conserve their own lands, can also be highly effective; <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-018-0100-6">a large proportion of large wild areas are indigenous-owned and managed lands</a>. </p>
<p>Perhaps the greatest conservation opportunities of all may reside within the most common condition of Earth’s land today – shared landscapes. Though parts of these working landscapes are still used intensively for agriculture and settlements, most of their area is composed of remnant and recovering habitats and areas lightly used for extensive grazing and forestry. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296919/original/file-20191014-135513-u0ed15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296919/original/file-20191014-135513-u0ed15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296919/original/file-20191014-135513-u0ed15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296919/original/file-20191014-135513-u0ed15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296919/original/file-20191014-135513-u0ed15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296919/original/file-20191014-135513-u0ed15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296919/original/file-20191014-135513-u0ed15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296919/original/file-20191014-135513-u0ed15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Maasai in Tanzania work on shared lands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jjmusgrove/11970154725/in/photolist-iQCiT3-iQBFYB-iQBEtH-iQAog6-iQCpuo-iQEdB9-iQAv7v-jeQDjY-jeNtNA-iQAqon-jeLvoV-iQEh8h-jeQDfj-jeQoXm-jeL952-jeLaqi-jeLaY2-jeLpEF-jeMTeV-jeLaiK-iQArJt-jeMJcB-jeNtZY-jeQ49v-jeQFbm">jjmusgrove</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Conservation in shared lands can include regional protected area networks, such as the Yellowstone to <a href="https://y2y.net/">Yukon Conservation Initiative</a>, community conservation reserves, and conservation-friendly farms and cities that prioritize the needs of local people. For example, the <a href="https://www.lewa.org/impact/communities/agriculture/">Lewa community conservancy in Kenya</a>, which protects habitat for endangered black rhinos, includes programs to assist local farmers to maximize their production while minimizing any negative impacts to protected habitats. </p>
<p>Shared lands are also home to almost half of Earth’s indigenous sovereign lands, another reason why <a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-peoples-are-crucial-for-conservation-a-quarter-of-all-land-is-in-their-hands-99742">expanding and empowering indigenous land sovereignty is considered essential to global efforts to expand conservation</a>.</p>
<h2>Doing your part to save nature</h2>
<p>Distant wildlands are critical habitat for so many species, but effective conservation also depends on efforts in our own neighborhoods and the regions where our food comes from. </p>
<p>Think of nature when making new friends, caring for family, shopping, working, casting your vote, or donating your time or money to make the world a better place. The challenges ahead are not small, but <a href="https://eowilsonfoundation.org/guest-blog-by-erle-ellis-nature-for-the-people-toward-a-democratic-vision-for-the-biosphere/">working together</a> across our farms and cities, shared landscapes, and large wild areas, we can make the nature of our planet whole and healthy again. </p>
<p><em>Contributors to the creation of the Three Conditions map include Harvey Locke of the International Union for Conservation of Nature World Commission on Protected Areas, Oscar Venter of University of Northern British Columbia, Richard Schuster of Carleton University, Keping Ma of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiaoli Shen of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Stephen Woodley, IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas, Naomi Kingston and Nina Bhola of the UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Bernardo B. N. Strassburg of the Pontifícia Universidade Católica and International Institute for Sustainability in Brazil, Axel Paulsch of the Institute for Biodiversity in Regensburg, Germany and Brooke Williams, University of Queensland.</em></p>
<p>
<section class="inline-content">
<img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265344/original/file-20190322-36244-jav5vf.png?w=128&h=128">
<div>
<header></header>
<p><a href="http://www.aag.org">Erle Ellis is a member of the American Association of Geographers</a></p>
<footer>The association is a funding partner of The Conversation US.</footer>
</div>
</section>
</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124063/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erle C. Ellis is a fellow of the Global Land Program, a member of the Anthropocene Working Group of the International Commission on Stratigraphy, a senior fellow of the Breakthrough Institute, and an advisor to the Nature Needs Half movement. He is a member of the American Association of Geographers and the Ecological Society of America.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Watson receives funding from the Australian Research Council and Australia's National Environmental Science Program. He is also the Director of Science at the Wildlife Conservation Society, a National Geographic Society Fellow and a Research Fellow at UNEP-WCMC.</span></em></p>To save what’s left of nature on this increasingly human planet, conservation needs to become a top priority around the world, from the wildest of wildlands to the densest of cities.Erle C. Ellis, Professor of Geography and Environmental Systems, University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyJames Watson, Professor, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1242852019-10-03T20:06:20Z2019-10-03T20:06:20ZNew research turns Tasmanian Aboriginal history on its head. The results will help care for the land<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295384/original/file-20191003-82531-3ocxzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C28%2C982%2C607&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Aborigines Using Fire to Hunt Kangaroos, by Joseph Lycett. New research suggests the assumption Aboriginal people lived in open vegetation sustained by fire is misplaced.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-138501179">National Library of Australia</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>American farmer and poet <a href="https://www.counterpointpress.com/dd-product/the-unsettling-of-america/">Wendell Berry</a> said of the first Europeans in North America that they came with vision, but not with sight. They came with vision of former places but not the sight to see what was before them. Instead of adapting their vision to suit the place, they changed the landscape to fit their vision. </p>
<p>The same can be said of the first Europeans in Australia. They modified the landscape to suit their domesticated plants and animals. They sowed seeds to create pasture for sheep and cattle and opened up areas to cultivate crops brought from the northern hemisphere.</p>
<p>This eye for the open parts of the Australian landscapes likely contributed to a view that Aboriginal people, too, almost exclusively preferred open vegetation types such as woodland and grasslands.</p>
<p>But findings from <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jbi.13684">our recently published study</a> of archaeological records challenge this notion. They show that Aboriginal people also inhabited Tasmania’s forests, in particular wet sclerophyll forests.</p>
<p>It’s important to understand how people used, affected and related to the natural environment. The way Tasmanian Aboriginal people hunted, gathered and used fire had a major influence on the structure, function and distribution of today’s plant and animal communities. This has big implications for conservation today.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295353/original/file-20191003-49397-1vsdfer.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295353/original/file-20191003-49397-1vsdfer.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295353/original/file-20191003-49397-1vsdfer.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295353/original/file-20191003-49397-1vsdfer.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295353/original/file-20191003-49397-1vsdfer.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295353/original/file-20191003-49397-1vsdfer.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295353/original/file-20191003-49397-1vsdfer.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The painting Group of Natives of Tasmania, 1859, by Robert Dowling.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aboriginal_Tasmanians#/media/File:Dowling_Natives_of_Tasmania.jpg">Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-the-evidence-for-the-tasmanian-genocide-86828">Explainer: the evidence for the Tasmanian genocide</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A renaissance in understanding</h2>
<p>In recent years, a series of books have examined Aboriginal land management over at least 50,000 years. Bill Gammage’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-biggest-estate-on-earth-how-aborigines-made-australia-3787">Biggest Estate on Earth</a>, Billy Griffiths’ <a href="https://www.blackincbooks.com.au/books/deep-time-dreaming">Deep Time Dreaming: Uncovering Ancient Australia</a>, and Bruce Pascoe’s <a href="https://www.magabala.com/culture-and-history/dark-emu.html">Dark Emu</a> have all helped us read the country as a cultural landscape that Aboriginal people managed intensively - shaping it intelligently over tens of thousands of years through fire, law and seasonal use. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295357/original/file-20191003-49373-1u3jlq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295357/original/file-20191003-49373-1u3jlq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295357/original/file-20191003-49373-1u3jlq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=870&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295357/original/file-20191003-49373-1u3jlq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=870&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295357/original/file-20191003-49373-1u3jlq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=870&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295357/original/file-20191003-49373-1u3jlq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1094&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295357/original/file-20191003-49373-1u3jlq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1094&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295357/original/file-20191003-49373-1u3jlq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1094&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A valley near Hobart in Tasmania. From the book The Last of the Tasmanians’ (1870), by James Bonwick.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Gammage in particular emphasised Aboriginal people’s unvarying dependence on open vegetation sustained by frequent burning. Our findings question this dogma, which has prevailed for centuries.</p>
<p>Our research suggests imposed visions of former places - and the <a href="https://nga.gov.au/collections/australia/gallery.cfm?displaygal=3C&mnuid=">nostalgic license of colonial artists</a> - had previously skewed our perception of preferred Aboriginal landscapes towards those that match a northern hemisphere ideal of human habitat, rooted in the theory of prospect and refuge.</p>
<p>Prospect refers to a view over open ground affording sight of game and forewarning of danger. Refuge refers to features offering safety such as easy-to-climb trees. The ideal combination of prospect and refuge is a view of water over closely cropped grass, framed by the horizontal branches of a mature tree. This ideal dominates real estate advertising to this day. </p>
<h2>What we found will surprise you</h2>
<p>Our study used archaeological data in an ecological model to identify habitats most likely occupied by Aboriginal people in Tasmania during the Holocene - the last 10,000 years of the Earth’s history following the end of the last ice age. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-dark-emu-and-the-blindness-of-australian-agriculture-97444">Friday essay: Dark Emu and the blindness of Australian agriculture</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The model identified the environmental characteristics of 8,000 artefact sites in the Tasmanian Aboriginal Heritage Register, including features such as altitude, slope, aspect, soil type, pre-1750 vegetation, distance to the coast and distance to fresh water. We then mapped all parts of the island that shared the environmental characteristics associated with artefact sites. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295365/original/file-20191003-49373-o1qui3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295365/original/file-20191003-49373-o1qui3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295365/original/file-20191003-49373-o1qui3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=975&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295365/original/file-20191003-49373-o1qui3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=975&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295365/original/file-20191003-49373-o1qui3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=975&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295365/original/file-20191003-49373-o1qui3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1225&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295365/original/file-20191003-49373-o1qui3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1225&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295365/original/file-20191003-49373-o1qui3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1225&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Where Tasmanian Aboriginal people probably spent most of their time over the last 10,000 years based on environmental features associated with over 8,000 artefact sites.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jbi.13684</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The spread of artefacts showed us that while Tasmanian Aboriginal people occupied every type of habitat, they targeted coastal areas around the whole island, and drier, less steep, environments of the central lowlands. </p>
<p>Few archaeological materials from the last 10,000 years of the Holocene have been found in the wet, rugged western interior. However archaeological materials from the preceding Pleistocene period indicates the western interior was more intensively occupied during the last ice age. </p>
<p>The most important finding of our analysis, however, is that physical aspects of landscape proved to be stronger predictors of Tasmanian Aboriginal occupation than vegetation type. The strongest predictors proved to be flat ground, clay soil as an indicator of fertility, low altitude, proximity to the coast and proximity to inland waters. In particular, our results indicate Holocene Tasmanian Aboriginal people exploited wet eucalypt forests as much as open vegetation types. </p>
<h2>Why these findings matter</h2>
<p>This result points to a more complex and interesting relationship between Tasmanian Aboriginal people and forests, such as if and how frequently fire was used in these environments.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295352/original/file-20191003-49350-1ahe4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295352/original/file-20191003-49350-1ahe4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295352/original/file-20191003-49350-1ahe4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295352/original/file-20191003-49350-1ahe4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295352/original/file-20191003-49350-1ahe4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295352/original/file-20191003-49350-1ahe4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295352/original/file-20191003-49350-1ahe4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fishery of the Wild People of Van Diemen’s Land, probably by artist Friedrich Wilhelm Goedsche (1785-1863)</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/aboriginal-fire-management-part-of-the-solution-to-destructive-bushfires-55032">Aboriginal fire management – part of the solution to destructive bushfires</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>More archaeological surveys, particularly in the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area, are needed to test whether our analysis is a true reflection of Aboriginal resource use. An upside to the <a href="https://theconversation.com/fires-in-tasmanias-ancient-forests-are-a-warning-for-all-of-us-53806">recent bushfires in Tasmania</a> is that such surveys are more easily carried out in burnt environments. So we have a perfect opportunity to discover more about how Aboriginal people shaped their island home.</p>
<p>Our research contributes to restoring Tasmania’s cultural heritage, reclaiming the history of the island and dispelling the myth of the nomad. All of this supports Tasmanian Aboriginal and non‐Aboriginal people in working towards culturally sensitive conservation and land management.</p>
<p><em>Data used in this research was accessed with the permission of the Tasmanian Aboriginal Heritage Council.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124285/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ted Lefroy has previously received funding from the Australian Government's National Environmental Research Program.
This research was funded by a University of Tasmania Cross-Disciplinary Incentive Grant and carried out in collaboration with Aboriginal Heritage Tasmania </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Bowman receives funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC) enabling collaborative studies of Tasmanian Aboriginal community on restoration of traditional fire management, the NSW Bushfire Risk Management Research Hub, Bushfire and Natural Hazard CRC, and the Tasmanian Government Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and the Environment, and has previously received funding from the Australian Government's National Environmental Research Program and the ARC. This research was funded by a University of Tasmania Cross-Disciplinary Incentive Grant and carried out in collaboration with Aboriginal Heritage Tasmania.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Grant Williamson has previously received funding from the Australian Government's National Environmental Research Program and Australian Research Council,and currently receives funding from the NSW Bushfire Risk Management Research Hub . This research was funded by a University of Tasmania Cross-Disciplinary Incentive Grant and carried out in collaboration with Aboriginal Heritage Tasmania</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Penny Jones receives funding from the Department of Health, Tasmania and the Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania.
This research was funded by a University of Tasmania Cross-Disciplinary Incentive Grant and carried out in collaboration with Aboriginal Heritage Tasmania</span></em></p>History has told us Aboriginal people in Tasmania almost exclusively occupied open plains. Revelations to the contrary could transform modern conservation.Ted Lefroy, Associate Head Research, Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of TasmaniaDavid Bowman, Professor of Pyrogeography and Fire Science, University of TasmaniaGrant Williamson, Research Fellow in Environmental Science, University of TasmaniaPenelope Jones, Research Fellow in Environmental Health, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1217332019-08-13T11:16:42Z2019-08-13T11:16:42ZRestoring soil can help address climate change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287718/original/file-20190812-71940-vgx9eq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">No-till farming conserves soil by greatly reducing erosion.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/n8ZQsk">USDA NRCS South Dakota/Eric Barsness</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s time to take soil seriously. As the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> states with <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/08/2e.-Chapter-4_FINAL.pdf">very high confidence</a> in its latest report, land degradation represents “one of the biggest and most urgent challenges” that humanity faces.</p>
<p>The report assesses potential impacts of climate change on food production and concludes that rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels will <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-affecting-crop-yields-and-reducing-global-food-supplies-118897">reduce crop yields</a> and degrade the <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-will-make-rice-less-nutritious-putting-millions-of-the-worlds-poor-at-risk-97914">nutritional quality of food</a>. </p>
<p>To avert climate catastrophe, the report warns, people need to make changes in agriculture and land use. In other words, it’s no longer enough to wean society off of fossil fuels. Stabilizing the climate will also require removing carbon from the sky. Rethinking humanity’s relationship to the soil can help on both scores.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ykgEwEOA25w?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The world’s soils are rapidly deteriorating due to soil erosion, nutrient depletion and other threats. But sustainable practices and technologies can reverse this trend.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Soils under stress</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287742/original/file-20190812-71909-1c70dhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287742/original/file-20190812-71909-1c70dhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287742/original/file-20190812-71909-1c70dhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287742/original/file-20190812-71909-1c70dhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287742/original/file-20190812-71909-1c70dhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287742/original/file-20190812-71909-1c70dhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=664&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287742/original/file-20190812-71909-1c70dhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=664&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287742/original/file-20190812-71909-1c70dhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=664&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Soil organic matter is carbon-based substances in soil, including leaves, roots and living organisms such as earthworms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MEDIA/nrcs142p2_049823.jpg">USDA NRCS</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Healthy, fertile soils are rich in organic matter built of carbon that living plants pulled out of the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Carbon-rich organic matter helps fuel the soil organisms that recycle and release mineral elements that plants take back up as nutrients. </p>
<p>But soils release carbon too. And the frequent tillage and heavy fertilizer use that underpin modern conventional agriculture have accelerated degradation of soil organic matter, sending more carbon skyward – a lot, it turns out. </p>
<p>The new IPCC report concludes that globally, cropland soils have <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/08/2e.-Chapter-4_FINAL.pdf">lost 20-60%</a> of their original organic carbon content. North American farmland has lost <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/3/2936">about half</a> of its natural endowment of soil carbon. On top of those losses, modern agriculture consumes a lot of fossil fuels to pull plows and manufacture the synthetic nitrogen fertilizers that farmers rely on to coax large harvests from degraded soils.</p>
<p>Land management choices also affect the amount of carbon stored in trees, plants and soil. The new IPCC report estimates that serious changes in forestry and agriculture to curtail deforestation and improve soil management could reduce global emissions by <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/08/2e.-Chapter-4_FINAL.pdf">5% to 20%</a>. While this won’t solve the climate problem, it would represent a significant down payment on a global solution.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287721/original/file-20190812-71921-yg82sw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287721/original/file-20190812-71921-yg82sw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287721/original/file-20190812-71921-yg82sw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287721/original/file-20190812-71921-yg82sw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287721/original/file-20190812-71921-yg82sw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287721/original/file-20190812-71921-yg82sw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287721/original/file-20190812-71921-yg82sw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287721/original/file-20190812-71921-yg82sw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How plants sequester carbon A) as they grow and B) after they die.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://cropwatch.unl.edu/2019/cover-crops-and-carbon-sequestration-benefits-producer-and-planet">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Farming for carbon</h2>
<p>Investing in soil regeneration would also deliver other benefits. One key takeaway from the IPCC report is that conventionally tilled soils erode more than 100 times faster than they form. This troubling conclusion echoes and amplifies what I found a decade ago, after <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0611508104">compiling global data</a> on rates of soil formation and loss. My book “<a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520272903/dirt">Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations</a>” tells how soil degradation undermined societies around the world, from the ancient Greeks and Romans to the U.S. Dust Bowl of the 1930s.</p>
<p>Today humans have degraded roughly one-third of the world’s topsoil, and about 3.2 billion people – more than a third of humanity – <a href="https://www.ipbes.net/deliverables/3bi-land-degradation">already suffer</a> from the effects of degraded land. Continuing down this path does not bode well for feeding a growing world population.</p>
<p>But what if it was possible to reverse course, regenerate soil organic matter and reduce farmers’ need for diesel fuel and chemical fertilizers made with fossil fuels? This would make it feasible to stash more carbon in the soil and reduce the amount that’s sent skyward in the process of growing food.</p>
<p>I saw the potential for regenerative agriculture to restore soil organic matter in both developed and developing countries when I researched “<a href="https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393356090">Growing a Revolution: Bringing Our Soil Back to Life</a>,” my book about how regenerative farming practices allow farmers to reduce their use of costly fertilizers and pesticides. </p>
<p>All of the farmers I interviewed shared three things in common. They had switched from plowing to <a href="https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2017/11/30/saving-money-time-and-soil-economics-no-till-farming">no-till</a> methods that minimized soil disturbance, planted cover crops, and grew a diverse mix of cash and cover crops. Some had even adopted regenerative grazing practices that put livestock to work rebuilding carbon-rich soil. Their results showed me that when farming and ranching practices build soil health, they can reverse soil degradation rapidly <a href="https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4428">and profitably</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1156266947203543048"}"></div></p>
<h2>Worth the transition</h2>
<p>Barriers to adopting regenerative farming systems include force of habit, lack of knowledge about new practices and real and perceived economic risk during the transition. But the benefits of rebuilding healthy, fertile soil are clear. </p>
<p>According to a 2018 <a href="https://www.ipbes.net/deliverables/3bi-land-degradation">U.N. report</a> that reviewed global land degradation, the economic benefits of land restoration average 10 times the costs. Rebuilding fertile soil is also one of the most promising ways to address <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)17834-9">hunger and malnutrition</a> in Africa, where the costs of failing to combat land degradation are typically <a href="https://www.ipbes.net/deliverables/3bi-land-degradation">three times</a> the cost of addressing the problem.</p>
<p>Restoring soil health would help mitigate the effects of climate change. Increasing the amount of organic matter in soil enhances its ability to hold water. And improving soil structure would let more rainfall sink into the ground, where it can better sustain crops – especially during drought-stressed years – and help reduce flooding downstream. In addition to benefiting the climate, less fertilizer use will reduce off-farm <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/can-the-world-find-solutions-to-the-nitrogen-pollution-crisis">water pollution</a>. </p>
<p>Regenerative practices that focus on soil building bring other benefits too. For example, one 2006 study surveyed low-input, resource-conserving agricultural practices in 286 development projects across Latin America, Africa and Asia that employed cover crops for nitrogen fixation and erosion control and integrated livestock back into farming systems. It found that for a wide variety of systems and crops, yields increased an average of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/es051670d">almost 80%</a>. Results like these indicate that investing in soil-building practices would help feed a warming world.</p>
<p>When President John F. Kennedy called for a national effort to go to the Moon, the U.S. managed to do the unthinkable in under a decade. I believe it’s time now for a global “soilshot” to heal the land. Rebuilding healthy fertile soil on the world’s agricultural lands would require fundamental changes to agriculture, and a <a href="https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393356090">new agricultural philosophy</a>. But consider who stands to lose from such a shift: corporate interests that profit from modern agrochemical-intensive farming and factory-farm livestock production. Who stands to gain? Everyone else.</p>
<p>[ <em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121733/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David R. Montgomery does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More than one-fifth of global warming emissions come from land use. Sustainable farming can make soil healthier and better able to soak up carbon, while saving energy and boosting food production.David R. Montgomery, Professor of Earth and Space Sciences, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1054852018-10-23T19:14:46Z2018-10-23T19:14:46ZWe must look past short-term drought solutions and improve the land itself<p>With drought ravaging Australia’s eastern states, much attention has been given to the need to provide short-term solutions through drought relief. But long-term resilience is a <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2007GL031524">vital issue</a>, particularly as climate change adds further pressure to farmers and farmland. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7844/">research</a> has found that helping farmers improve the rivers, dams, native vegetation and trees on their land increases productivity, the resilience of the land to drought, and through this the health and well-being of farmers.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/helping-farmers-in-drought-distress-doesnt-help-them-be-the-best-105281">Helping farmers in drought distress doesn't help them be the best</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Now is the time to invest more heavily than ever in vital networks in regional Australia, such as Landcare and natural resource management groups like Local Land Services and Catchment Management Authorities.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241772/original/file-20181023-169819-sonaiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241772/original/file-20181023-169819-sonaiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241772/original/file-20181023-169819-sonaiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241772/original/file-20181023-169819-sonaiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241772/original/file-20181023-169819-sonaiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241772/original/file-20181023-169819-sonaiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241772/original/file-20181023-169819-sonaiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241772/original/file-20181023-169819-sonaiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Research shows that trees, dams and native vegetation are essential to increase agricultural productivity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/panoramic-landscape-countryside-south-australia-1048967765">Shutterstock/Olga Kashubin</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Growing pressures on agricultural land</h2>
<p>Some <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0143622814002793">researchers</a> suggest that up to 370 million hectares of land in Australia and the Pacific is degraded. This diminished productivity across such a large area has significant implications for the long-term sustainability of agricultural production. </p>
<p>Australia also has one of the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/112/15/4531">worst records</a> for wildlife diversity loss, including <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230817486_Impacts_of_red_meat_production_on_biodiversity_in_Australia_A_review_and_comparison_with_alternative_protein_production_industries">extensive loss</a> of biodiversity across much of our agricultural land. The problems of degradation and biodiversity loss are often <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2007GL031524">magnified</a> under the pressure of drought.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-australias-current-drought-caused-by-climate-change-its-complicated-97867">Is Australia's current drought caused by climate change? It's complicated</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The good news is that there are ways to strengthen the resilience of the farmland. One key approach is to invest in improving the condition of key natural assets on farms, like shelter belts, patches of remnant vegetation, farm dams, and watercourses. </p>
<p>When done well, active land management can help slow down or even reverse land <a href="https://www.water.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/52702/Benefits-to-landholders-of-riparian-works-Evidentiary-Final-version-October-2016.pdf">degradation</a>, improve <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/31727010?q&sort=holdings+desc&_=1540253638970&versionId=209856779">biodiversity</a>, <em>and</em> increase <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7844/">profitability</a>.</p>
<h2>Better lands make more money</h2>
<p>Many <a href="http://fmnrhub.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Francis-Weston-Birch-2015-FMNR-Study.pdf">studies</a> have shown improving the natural assets on an farm can boost production, as well as avoid the costs of erosion and flood control. For example, restored riverbank vegetation can <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/pc/PC990028">improve</a> dry matter production in nearby paddocks, leading to greater milk production in diary herds and up to a <a href="https://www.water.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/52702/Benefits-to-landholders-of-riparian-works-Evidentiary-Final-version-October-2016.pdf">5%</a> boost in farm income. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241755/original/file-20181023-169828-frwf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241755/original/file-20181023-169828-frwf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241755/original/file-20181023-169828-frwf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241755/original/file-20181023-169828-frwf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241755/original/file-20181023-169828-frwf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241755/original/file-20181023-169828-frwf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241755/original/file-20181023-169828-frwf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241755/original/file-20181023-169828-frwf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lines of trees, called windbreaks or shelterbelts, can protect and improve the fields next to them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/peterfenda/11883603303/in/photolist-j77zf8-gs5twp-2yarvi-97rS4x-gctVvc-2zbPGZ-eZjZC9-n5u36E-qpbapj-i8u5i1-n5s6QM-pDrU3q-5YciLn-hvmtkA-23ZR5wr-dhZQg8-6WZjZQ-ayJwHt-25tYPnE-YFrUGJ-atxPZS-ppRWYA-RLZsrv-pDFgh2-hvnV3n-bWYiTp-Rpm12q-qArxKx-ntUjWJ-4zs3xh-nzZyew-5VyEeu-a5P87s-oaarB1-hvmW1N-hoPvL4-pLUKsC-5ZdRKT-Ek7o5-gmWNST-4AfTnR-iT6rNY-gqwGJr-gUM9Xb-MRXgiQ-5Zur7c-hvm2Pz-LymskZ-vaCtm-d4YfSh">Peter Fenda/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Similarly, shelter belts (tree lanes planted alongside paddocks) can lower wind speeds and wind chill, and boost pasture production for livestock by up to <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Trees_for_Shelter.html?id=to0FxKcZ-8AC&redir_esc=y">8%</a>, at the same time as providing habitat for <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7844/">biodiversity</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/recent-australian-droughts-may-be-the-worst-in-800-years-94292">Recent Australian droughts may be the worst in 800 years</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our own <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7844/">long-term work</a> with farmers who invested in their natural assets prior to, or during, the Millennium Drought in New South Wales suggests these farmers are currently faring better in the current drought.</p>
<h2>Investing in resilience for the long-haul</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241771/original/file-20181023-169807-136doqr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241771/original/file-20181023-169807-136doqr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241771/original/file-20181023-169807-136doqr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241771/original/file-20181023-169807-136doqr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241771/original/file-20181023-169807-136doqr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241771/original/file-20181023-169807-136doqr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241771/original/file-20181023-169807-136doqr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241771/original/file-20181023-169807-136doqr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Groups like Landcare bring their expertise to land management.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/farmer-checking-how-close-crop-harvesting-209460511">Shutterstock/Darryl Smith</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Well-supported and resourced organisations like Landcare groups are pivotal to supporting effective land management, which improves degraded land and helps farmland (and farmer) through tough times.</p>
<p>However, Landcare and other natural resource management agencies have been subject to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/dec/13/environment-funding-slashed-by-third-since-coalition-took-office">major budget cuts</a> over the past decade. </p>
<p>They are also a key part of the <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/11139291?q&versionId=45483041">social fabric</a> of rural communities, bringing together landowners to exchange ideas and support each other. Indeed, the Australian Landcare model is so well regarded globally it has been adopted in 22 other countries.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-moves-to-el-nino-alert-and-the-drought-is-likely-to-continue-104636">Australia moves to El Niño alert and the drought is likely to continue</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This drought is a critical decision point. The need to invest in maintaining and improving our vegetation, water and soil has never been more apparent than it is now. We have a chance to determine the long-term future of much of Australia’s agricultural land.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/105485/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Lindenmayer receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Australian Government. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors are key members of Sustainable Farms a major new initiative at the ANU funded by the Ian Potter Foundation, The Vincent Fairfax Foundation, and The Calvert Jones Foundation. Sustainable Farms is a multidisciplinary research and extension program founded on 20 years of ecological research undertaken on farms through the south-eastern wheat-sheep belt of Australia.</span></em></p>Beyond trucking in hay and water, drought-stricken farmers need money and advice on improving the natural features of their land.David Lindenmayer, Professor, The Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National UniversityMichelle Young, Director, Sustainable Farms, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1039062018-10-11T19:13:13Z2018-10-11T19:13:13ZFarmers’ climate denial begins to wane as reality bites<p>Australia has been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378010000130">described</a> as the “front line of the battle for climate change adaptation”, and our farmers are the ones who have to lead the charge. Farmers will have to cope, among other pressures, with <a href="http://www.garnautreview.org.au/">longer droughts, more erratic rainfall, higher temperatures, and changes to the timing of seasons</a>. </p>
<p>Yet, puzzlingly enough to many commentators, climate denial has been widespread among farmers and in the <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/the-biggest-mistake-we-ve-made-on-climate-change-20180529-p4zi3h.html">ranks of the National Party</a>, which purports to represent their interests.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-nationals-have-changed-their-leader-but-kept-the-same-climate-story-92348">The Nationals have changed their leader but kept the same climate story</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Back in 2008, <a href="https://agrifutures.infoservices.com.au/items/10-208">only one-third of farmers</a> accepted the science of climate change. Our 2010-11 survey of 946 irrigators in the southern Murray-Darling Basin (<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378012001392">published in 2013</a>) found similar results: 32% accepted that climate change posed a risk to their region; half disagreed; and 18% did not know. </p>
<p>These numbers have consistently trailed behind the wider public, a clear majority of whom have <a href="https://chrisriedy.me/public-opinion-on-climate-change-in-australia-2d3a4047c4b1">consistently accepted the science</a>. More Australians in 2018 <a href="http://www.tai.org.au/content/climate-nation-2018">accepted the reality of climate change</a> than at almost any time, with 76% accepting climate change is occurring, 11% not believing in it and 13% being unsure. </p>
<p>Yet there are signs we may be on the brink of a wholesale shift in farmers’ attitudes towards climate change. For example, we have seen the creation of <a href="https://www.futurefarmers.com.au/young-carbon-farmers/the-changing-climate">Young Carbon Farmers</a>, <a href="https://www.farmersforclimateaction.org.au/">Farmers for Climate Action</a>, the first ever <a href="https://www.weeklytimesnow.com.au/news/politics/farmers-march-on-parliament-house-to-demand-action-on-climate-change/news-story/5cdfeac5e5a40703406eee594bd42d02">rally on climate change by farmers</a> in Canberra, and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/16/drought-stricken-farmers-challenge-coalitions-climate-change-stance-in-tv-ad">national adverts</a> by farmers on the need for climate action. Since 2016 the National Farmers Federation has <a href="https://www.afr.com/news/politics/farmers-need-to-do-more-to-tackle-climate-change-says-nff-20180828-h14nme">strengthened its calls</a> for action to reduce greenhouse emissions. </p>
<p>Our latest preliminary research results have also revealed evidence of this change. We surveyed 1,000 irrigators in 2015-16 in the southern Murray-Darling Basin, and found attitudes have shifted significantly since the 2010 survey.</p>
<p>Now, 43% of farmers accept climate change poses a risk to their region, compared with just 32% five years earlier. Those not accepting correspondingly fell to 36%, while the percentage who did not know slightly increased to 21%.</p>
<h2>Why would farmers deny the science?</h2>
<p>There are many factors that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092180091631552X">influence a person’s denial of climate change</a>, with gender, race, education and age all playing a part. While this partly explains the attitudes that persist among farmers (who tend to be predominantly male, older, Caucasian, and have less formal education), it is not the full story. </p>
<p>The very fact that farmers are on the front line of climate change also drives their climate change denial. For a farmer, accepting the science means facing up to the prospect of a harsher, more uncertain future. </p>
<p>Yet as these changes move from future prospect to current reality, they can also have a galvanising effect. Our survey results suggest farmers who have seen their farm’s productivity decrease over time are more likely to accept the science of climate change.</p>
<p>Many farmers who have turned to <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/the-deal-magazine/charles-massy-call-of-the-reed-warbler/news-story/f6ad6388aad1bba522341b569b6500a0">regenerative, organic or biodynamic agriculture</a> talk about the change of mindset they went through as they realised they could no longer manage a drying landscape without major changes to their farming practices.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/farmers-experiencing-drought-related-stress-need-targeted-support-98239">Farmers experiencing drought-related stress need targeted support</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In addition, we have found another characteristic that is associated with climate change denial is whether farmers have identified a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378012001392">successor</a> for their farm. Many farmers desire to turn their farm over to the next generation, hopefully in a better state than how they received the farm. This is where the psychological aspect of increased future uncertainty plays an <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000484">important role</a> – farmers don’t want to believe their children will face a worse future on the farm. </p>
<p>We all want our children to have better lives than our own, and for farmers in particular, accepting climate change makes that very challenging. But it can also prompt stronger advocacy for doing something about it before it’s too late.</p>
<h2>What can we do?</h2>
<p>Whether farmers do or do not accept climate change, they all have to deal with the uncertainty of weather – and indeed they have been doing so for a very long time. The question is, can we help them to do it better? Given the term “climate change” can be polarising, explicit climate information campaigns will not necessarily deliver the desired results. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-help-drought-affected-farmers-we-need-to-support-them-in-good-times-as-well-as-bad-101184">To help drought-affected farmers, we need to support them in good times as well as bad</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>What farmers need are policies to help them <a href="https://theconversation.com/drought-is-inevitable-mr-joyce-101444">manage risk and improve their decision-making</a>. This can be done by focusing on how adaptation to weather variability can increase profitability and strengthen the farm’s long-term viability. </p>
<p>Farming policy should be more strategic and forward-thinking; subsidies should be removed for unsustainable practices; and farmers should be rewarded for good land management – both before and during droughts. The quest remains to minimise the pain suffered by all in times of drought.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/103906/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Ann Wheeler currently receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, SA Department of Environment and Water, and Department of Agriculture and Water Resources. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Céline Gauges has received funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>A decade ago, only a third of farmers accepted the science of climate change. But surveys show attitudes have shifted in recent years as the farming community begins to confront what the future holds.Sarah Ann Wheeler, Professor in Water Economics, University of AdelaideCéline Nauges, Research Director, InraeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/997422018-07-17T20:05:10Z2018-07-17T20:05:10ZIndigenous peoples are crucial for conservation – a quarter of all land is in their hands<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227670/original/file-20180715-27039-1gx7t0e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Maasai women on a conservation project in Kenya.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Joan de la Malla</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Indigenous peoples have a deep and unique connection to the lands they inhabit. This connection has persisted throughout the world, despite centuries of colonisation, displacement and suppression of their cultural identities.</p>
<p>What has never been appreciated is the contemporary spatial extent of Indigenous influence – just how much of Earth’s surface do Indigenous peoples still own or manage? </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/remote-indigenous-communities-are-vital-for-our-fragile-ecosystems-38700">Remote Indigenous communities are vital for our fragile ecosystems</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Given that Indigenous peoples now make up less than 5% of the global population, you might imagine the answer to be “very little”. But you would be wrong. </p>
<p>In our new research, <a href="https://rdcu.be/232D">published in Nature Sustainability</a>, we mapped Indigenous lands throughout the world, country by country. We found that these covered 38 million square kilometres – about a quarter of all land outside Antarctica. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227955/original/file-20180717-44070-fk6kxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227955/original/file-20180717-44070-fk6kxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227955/original/file-20180717-44070-fk6kxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=324&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227955/original/file-20180717-44070-fk6kxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=324&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227955/original/file-20180717-44070-fk6kxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=324&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227955/original/file-20180717-44070-fk6kxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227955/original/file-20180717-44070-fk6kxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227955/original/file-20180717-44070-fk6kxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Purple shading shows the percentage of each square degree mapped that is under indigenous management.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://rdcu.be/232D">Garnett et al. 2018</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some 87 countries around the world, on every inhabited continent, have people who identify as Indigenous and contain land that is still owned, managed or influenced by Indigenous people.</p>
<p>These areas are very valuable for conservation. About 65% of Indigenous lands have not been intensively developed, compared with 44% of other lands. Similarly, just 10% of the world’s urban areas, villages and non-remote croplands are on Indigenous peoples’ lands. </p>
<p>By contrast, Indigenous lands encompass nearly two-thirds of the world’s most remote and least-inhabited regions. These are the places with the lowest levels of built environments, crop land, pasture land, human population density, night-time lights, railways, roads and navigable waterways.</p>
<p>An incredible 40% of lands listed by national governments around the world as being managed for conservation are Indigenous lands. Some of this has official recognition. For instance, Australia would never meet its promises under the Convention on Biological Diversity if its Indigenous peoples had not been prepared to <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0173876">allocate more than 27 million hectares of their land to conservation</a>.</p>
<h2>A great contribution</h2>
<p>This highlights the great contribution that Indigenous peoples are making to conservation. Many groups have instituted land-management regimes that are already <a href="https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTBIODIVERSITY/Resources/RoleofIndigenousPeoplesinBiodiversityConservation.pdf">delivering significant conservation benefits</a>.</p>
<p>Yet there is danger in making assumptions about the aspirations of Indigenous peoples for managing their lands. Without proper consultation, conservation projects based on Indigenous stewardship may be unsuccessful at best and risk perpetuating colonial legacies at worst.</p>
<p>Conservation partnerships will only be successful if the rights, knowledge systems and practices of Indigenous peoples are fully acknowledged. Many Indigenous peoples have acknowledged this fact, by calling for partnerships that <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/conl.12398">respect, understand and follow local processes</a>. There is no one size that fits all – Indigenous peoples are hugely diverse. </p>
<p>Indeed, so important are local perspectives to Indigenous relationships with land that we pondered for a year on the ethics of creating a global map. However, we also felt that the story of enduring Indigenous influence needs to be told. Our final map shows that broad swathes of Asia, Africa, the Americas, Australia and the far north of Europe are Indigenous lands.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227672/original/file-20180715-27042-1kdojmy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227672/original/file-20180715-27042-1kdojmy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227672/original/file-20180715-27042-1kdojmy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227672/original/file-20180715-27042-1kdojmy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227672/original/file-20180715-27042-1kdojmy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227672/original/file-20180715-27042-1kdojmy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227672/original/file-20180715-27042-1kdojmy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227672/original/file-20180715-27042-1kdojmy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adapted from Garnett et al. 2018.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">On every inhabited continent there is a significant overlap between Indigenous management and natural lands.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our results are particularly important at this time when goals for sustainable development after 2020 are being developed. The results also feed into assessments by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), the international body that assesses the health of the world’s wildlife diversity and ecosystems. It is much more than biodiversity that relies on Indigenous management of land. So too do many of the ecosystem services that allow humans to thrive.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-caring-for-country-and-telling-its-stories-75844">Friday essay: caring for country and telling its stories</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Finally, we should note that, for many countries, the areas we have mapped are the minimum – further work will almost certainly discover that Indigenous influence extends far further than is currently acknowledged. </p>
<p>Yet our crucial message remains the same: that Indigenous peoples hold the future of much of the world’s wilderness in their hands. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>The authors acknowledge the contributions of Beau Austin, Benjamin McGowan, Eduardo S. Brondizio and Neil Burgess to this article and the research that underpins it.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/99742/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Watson receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He is the Director of Science and Knowledge at the Wildlife Conservation Society. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kerstin Zander receives funding from the Humboldt Foundation. She is affiliated with the German Development Institute. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span><a href="mailto:molnar.zsolt@okologia.mta.hu">molnar.zsolt@okologia.mta.hu</a> works for Hungarian Academy of Sciences</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Robinson, Erle C. Ellis, Hayley Geyle, Ian Leiper, Julia E. Fa, Micha Victoria Jackson, Pernilla Malmer, Stephen Garnett, Tom Duncan, and Álvaro Fernández-Llamazares do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new map shows that more than 25% of all land outside Antarctica is held and managed by Indigenous peoples. This makes these communities vital allies in the global conservation effort.Stephen Garnett, Professor of Conservation and Sustainable Livelihoods, Charles Darwin UniversityÁlvaro Fernández-Llamazares, Researcher, University of HelsinkiCatherine Robinson, Principal Research Scientist, CSIROErle C. Ellis, Professor of Geography and Environmental Systems, University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyHayley Geyle, Research Assistant, Charles Darwin UniversityIan Leiper, Geospatial Scientist, Charles Darwin UniversityJames Watson, Professor, The University of QueenslandJulia E. Fa, Professor of Biodiversity and Human Development, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityKerstin Zander, Senior Research Fellow, Charles Darwin UniversityMicha Victoria Jackson, PhD candidate, The University of QueenslandPernilla Malmer, Senior Advisor, Stockholm UniversityTom Duncan, Charles Darwin UniversityZsolt Molnár, Scientific Advisor, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, BudapestLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/873692017-11-26T10:06:48Z2017-11-26T10:06:48ZDrones are taking to the skies above Africa to map land ownership<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195451/original/file-20171120-18574-1h19dpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An aerial view, using drones, could make a big difference to mapping land across Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Adriane Ohanesian</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Mapping land boundaries is an important way to boost a country’s economic growth and development. It contributes towards better security of land ownership, allows land owners to get bank loans and helps governments to tax owners correctly. </p>
<p>Unfortunately in most African countries <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837712001743">only about 30%</a> of the land boundaries have been mapped. Mapping is done to capture the land’s boundaries with a view to registering ownership. Once mapping is completed, <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0217/5891c1f2a75ea9b6ced79cc432de84577d96.pdf">usually using</a> techniques like Global Positioning Systems (GPS), authorities can issue a title deed or certificate of occupancy. This shows who holds rights to which pieces of land.</p>
<p>In Kenya during the 1960s photographs taken from airplanes were used to develop property maps. Kenyans were agitating for <a href="https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19681800083">their land rights</a> after the colonial British government had been unseated. The title deeds that were handed out as a result of those airplane photographs have formed <a href="https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=532788">the basis</a> of Kenya’s property system for decades.</p>
<p>Today, aerial photographs from drones can be used for mapping property boundaries. In most parts of Africa, people demarcate their land using hedges. Ground land surveying techniques can be slow if the aim is to record all the parcels of land within a district or province.</p>
<p>But drones can be used to photograph hedges from the air. The maps developed from those photos are then linked to land ownership records to create formal land registers. This is an important way to record and keep track of land ownership in any given country.</p>
<p>I am involved in a project funded by the European Commission, <a href="https://its4land.com/">its4land</a>, that is testing the use of drones – or, as they’re properly called, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) – for land mapping and registration. The research is being carried out in three African countries; Kenya, Rwanda and Ethiopia. Our hope is that if the research yields positive results, the project can be rolled out elsewhere on the continent. As far as we’re aware, this is among the first internationally to test the use of drones for land registration. </p>
<h2>Putting the drones to work</h2>
<p>Different types of UAVs can be used for mapping. The two main types are the fixed wing UAVs and the quad-copter UAVs. In general, the fixed wing drones look like a normal airplane with two wings. </p>
<p>We’re testing a fixed wing drone, DT18; it is produced by Delairtech, a French company. This type of drone is suitable for covering long distances – which is necessary when you’re mapping large areas’ property boundaries.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Delairtech DT18 Fixed Wing Drone.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Two pilots per country were trained at Delairtech’s offices in Toulouse, France. I’m one of the Kenyan pilots; the other is a Master’s student also from my university. All of the pilots were drawn from the partner universities in Africa. We’ve learned how to control the drone; how to develop a flight path; how to fly safely and how to process the data that’s collected. </p>
<p>Flight paths are set up using waypoints or digital markers. The drone follows these from start to finish. The DT18 can map a distance of up to 20km at a time. It can be redirected or recalled mid-flight if the pilot detects a risk. The drone is fitted with a camera, when takes pictures as directed by the pilot – who is following the flight on a laptop screen from the ground. The pictures are sent back to the laptop and stored on the drone’s own on board memory card.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 2: Drone flight lines and way points as seen in laptop.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>No flying has happened yet: all the project teams are awaiting permission from the relevant authorities in their countries to send the drones skyward.</p>
<p>We have also brought residents into the project to get their support. In Kenya, our research is being carried out among the Maasai tribe in Kajiado county and among the Luo tribe in Kisumu county. We’ve visited a few sites in these counties and explained our research. These groups will receive feedback throughout the process.</p>
<h2>Challenges and opportunities</h2>
<p>Drones are not without their problems. They can be dangerous if flown without proper guidelines or permission, or by untrained people. Many countries in Africa have not passed any laws about the use of UAVs. Kenya is ahead in this regard; the civil aviation authority has developed and passed <a href="http://www.kcaa.or.ke/index.php/statutes-and-regulations/regulations/762-rpas-draft-regulations-2017">guidelines</a> about drones.</p>
<p>The process of obtaining permission to fly is very rigorous, which is important because drones can be a threat to normal airplanes and could even cause a collision. If this technology is rolled out for land mapping elsewhere in Africa, countries will need to first develop and adopt strict guidelines for flying.</p>
<p>Our hope is that this project will help countries across Africa to increase the number of land parcels that are mapped. It can also clarify the figures for different types of land ownership – private, public or community. This is an important driver for economic growth and development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87369/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Wayumba does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Creating a reliable, up to date land register is important for African countries. Drones can help collect and record the necessary data.Robert Wayumba, Lecturer , Technical University of KenyaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/794192017-06-20T05:31:46Z2017-06-20T05:31:46ZLand clearing on the rise as legal ‘thinning’ proves far from clear-cut<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174592/original/file-20170619-770-h5c4tb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A 'thinned' landscape, which provides far from ideal habitat for many species.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="http://scboceania.org/policystatements/landclearing/">Land clearing is accelerating across eastern Australia</a>, despite our <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/PC/PC17001">new research</a> providing a clear warning of its impacts on the Great Barrier Reef, regional and global climate, and threatened native wildlife. </p>
<p>Policies in place to control land clearing have been <a href="https://theconversation.com/queensland-moves-to-control-land-clearing-other-states-need-to-follow-58291">wound back across all Australian states</a>, with major consequences for our natural environment. </p>
<p>One of the recent policy changes made in <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/vegetation/codes/">Queensland</a> and <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/vegetation/selfassess.htm">New South Wales</a> has been the introduction of self-assessable codes that allow landholders to clear native vegetation without a permit. These codes are meant to allow small amounts of “low-risk” clearing, so that landholders save time and money and government can focus on regulating activities that have bigger potential impacts on the environment. </p>
<p>However, <a href="http://www.wwf.org.au/ArticleDocuments/360/pub-accelerating-bushland-destruction-in-queensland-21mar17.pdf.aspx?Embed=Y">substantial areas of native forest are set to be cleared in Queensland under the guise of vegetation “thinning”</a>, which is allowed by these self-assessable codes. How did this happen?</p>
<h2>Thin on the ground</h2>
<p>Thinning involves the selective removal of native trees and shrubs, and is widely used in the grazing industry to improve pasture quality. It has been argued that thinning returns the environment back to its “<a href="https://publications.qld.gov.au/storage/f/2014-09-26T07%3A13%3A24.191Z/code-thickened-vegetation-in-the-brigalow-belt.pdf">natural state</a>” and <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2015/s4462241.htm">provides better habitat for native wildlife</a>. However, the <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/bt/bt14137">science</a> supporting this practice is not as clear-cut as it seems.</p>
<p>Vegetation “thickening” is part of a natural, dynamic ecological cycle. Australia’s climate is highly variable, so vegetation tends to grow more in wetter years and then <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2005.00998.x/full">dies off during drought years</a>. These natural cycles of thickening and thinning can span 50 years or more. In most areas of inland eastern Australia, there is <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320712005009">little evidence</a> for ongoing vegetation thickening since pastoral settlement.</p>
<p>Thinning of vegetation using tractors, blades and other machinery interrupts this natural cycle, which can make post-drought recovery of native vegetation more difficult. Loss of tree and shrub cover puts native wildlife <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0133915">at much greater risk from introduced predators like cats</a>, and aggressive, “<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ddi.12294/full">despotic</a>” native birds. Thinning reduces the diversity of wildlife by favouring a few highly dominant species that prefer <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/rj/rj05029">open vegetation</a>, and reduces the availability of old trees with hollows. </p>
<p>Many native birds and animals can only survive in vegetation that hasn’t been cleared for at least 30 years. So although vegetation of course grows back after clearing, for native wildlife it’s a matter of quality, not just quantity. </p>
<h2>Land clearing by stealth?</h2>
<p>Thinning codes in Queensland and New South Wales allow landholders to clear vegetation that has thickened beyond its “<a href="https://publications.qld.gov.au/storage/f/2014-09-26T07%3A13%3A24.191Z/code-thickened-vegetation-in-the-brigalow-belt.pdf">natural state</a>”. Yet there is little agreement on what the “natural state” is for many native vegetation communities.</p>
<p>Under the Queensland codes, <a href="https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/342092/independent-review-sac-cardno.pdf">up to 75% of vegetation in an area can be removed without a permit</a>, and in New South Wales thinning can reduce tree density to a level that is <a href="https://biodiversity-ss.s3.amazonaws.com/Uploads/1494305298/LLS-Land-Management-Codes-exhibition-draft.pdf">too low to support natural ecosystems</a>.</p>
<p>All of this thinning adds up. Since August 2016, the Queensland government has <a href="https://data.qld.gov.au/dataset/vegetation-management-register-of-self-assessable-code-notifications">received self-assessable vegetation clearing code notifications</a> totalling more than 260,000 hectares. These areas include habitat for threatened species, and ecosystems that have already been extensively <a href="http://www.wwf.org.au/ArticleDocuments/360/pub-accelerating-bushland-destruction-in-queensland-21mar17.pdf.aspx?Embed=Y.">cleared</a>.</p>
<iframe src="https://www.google.com/maps/d/embed?mid=1L3revYC3nAXTLDCTlobq-0nbQ6c" width="100%" height="480"></iframe>
<p>It may be that the actual amount of vegetation cleared under thinning codes is less than the notifications suggest. But we will only know for sure when <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/vegetation/mapping/slats-reports/#slats-most-recent-reports">the next report on land clearing</a> is released, and by then it will be too late. </p>
<h2>Getting the balance right</h2>
<p>Vegetation policy needs to strike a balance between protecting the environment and enabling landholders to manage their businesses efficiently and sustainably. While self-regulation makes sense for some small-scale activities, the current thinning codes allow large areas of vegetation to be removed from high-risk areas without government oversight. </p>
<p>Thinning codes should only allow vegetation to be cleared in areas that are not mapped as habitat for threatened species or ecosystems, and not to an extent where only scattered trees are left standing in a landscape. <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-needs-better-policy-to-end-the-alarming-increase-in-land-clearing-63507?sa=pg1&sq=land+clearing&sr=2">Stronger regulation is still needed</a> to reduce the rate of land clearing, which in Queensland is now <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-06-19/land-clearing-rates-qld-need-to-be-lowered-new-study/8628524">the highest in a decade</a>. </p>
<p>Protecting native vegetation on private land reduces soil erosion and soil salinity, improves water quality, regulates climate, and allows Australia’s unique plants and animals to survive. Landholders who preserve native vegetation alongside farming provide essential services to the Australian community, and should be rewarded. <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-needs-better-policy-to-end-the-alarming-increase-in-land-clearing-63507?sa=pg1&sq=land+clearing&sr=2">We need long-term incentives</a> to allow landholders to profit from protecting vegetation instead of clearing it.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/PC/PC17001">Our research has shown</a> that Australian governments spend billions of dollars trying to achieve the benefits already provided by native vegetation, through programs such as the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2016/feb/29/exclusive-land-clearing-surge-in-qld-set-to-wipe-out-direct-action-gains-report">Emissions Reduction Fund</a>, the <a href="http://www.nrm.gov.au/national/20-million-trees">20 Million Trees program</a> and <a href="http://www.nrm.gov.au/national/continuing-investment/reef-programme">Reef Rescue</a>. Yet far more damage is inflicted by under-regulated clearing than is “fixed” by these programs.</p>
<p>Imagine what could be achieved if we spent that money more effectively.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79419/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>April Reside receives funding from NESP Threatened Species Recovery Hub. She sits on the Black-throated Finch Recovery Team and Birdlife Australia's Research and Conservation Committee. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anita J Cosgrove receives funding from the Australian Research Council. She is a member of the Black-throated Finch Recovery Team, BirdLife Australia and the Australian Conservation Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Lesley Silcock receives funding from the NESP Threatened Species Hub at the University of Queensland.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leonie Seabrook receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Megan C Evans receives funding from the National Environmental Research Programme Threatened Species Recovery Hub.</span></em></p>Legal vegetation ‘thinning’ is contributing to high rates of land clearing, potentially causing problems for threatened species and ecosystems.April Reside, Researcher, Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Science, The University of QueenslandAnita J Cosgrove, Research Assistant in the Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Science, The University of QueenslandJennifer Silcock, Post-doctoral research fellow, The University of QueenslandLeonie Seabrook, Landscape Ecologist, The University of QueenslandMegan C Evans, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Environmental Policy, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.