tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/manager-32810/articlesManager – The Conversation2022-10-11T14:55:57Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1913072022-10-11T14:55:57Z2022-10-11T14:55:57ZHorrible bosses: how algorithm managers are taking over the office<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487819/original/file-20221003-22-fk9gea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C34%2C5674%2C3666&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/human-resource-management-recruitment-business-concept-690475807">Monster Ztudio/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The 1999 cult classic film Office Space depicts Peter’s dreary life as a cubicle-dwelling software engineer. Every Friday, Peter tries to avoid his boss and the dreaded words: “I’m going to need you to go ahead and come in tomorrow.” </p>
<p>This <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYFO5qPpM_I">scene</a> is still popular on the internet nearly 25 years later because it captures troubling aspects of the employment relationship – the helplessness Peter feels, the fake sympathy his boss intones when issuing this directive, the never-ending demand for greater productivity. </p>
<p>There is no shortage of pop culture depictions of horrible bosses. There is even a film <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1499658/">with that title</a>. But things could be about to get worse. What is to be made of the new bosses settling into workplaces across all sectors: the algorithm managers? </p>
<h2>The rise of algorithm management</h2>
<p>The prospect of robots replacing workers is <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9039689/automated-work-coffee-barista-future-jobs/">frequently covered</a> in the media. But, it is not only labour that is being automated. Managers are too. Increasingly we see software algorithms <a href="https://hai.ischool.utexas.edu/Publication/Paper%20PDFs/2015-CHI_algorithmic_management.pdf">assume managerial</a> functions, such as screening job applications, delegating work, evaluating worker performance – and even deciding when employees should be fired. </p>
<p>The offloading of tasks from human managers to machines is only set to increase as surveillance and monitoring <a href="https://hai.ischool.utexas.edu/Publication/Paper%20PDFs/2015-CHI_algorithmic_management.pdf">devices</a> become increasingly sophisticated. In particular, <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-61949-1_30">wearable technology</a> that can track employee movements.</p>
<p>From an employer’s point of view, there is much to be gained from transferring managers’ duties to algorithms. Algorithms lower business costs by <a href="https://medium.com/swlh/algorithmic-management-what-is-it-and-whats-next-33ad3429330b">automating tasks</a> that take longer for humans to complete. Uber, with its <a href="https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/UBER/uber-technologies/number-of-employees#:%7E:text=Uber%20Technologies%3A%20Number%20of%20Employees%202017%2D2022%20%7C%20UBER,-Prices&text=Uber%20Technologies%20total%20number%20of%20employees%20in%202020%20was%2022%2C800,a%2020.83%25%20increase%20from%202018.">22,800 employees</a>, can supervise <a href="https://backlinko.com/uber-users">3.5 million drivers</a> according to the latest yearly figures. </p>
<p>Artificial intelligence systems can also discover ways to optimise business organisations. Uber’s surge pricing model (temporarily raising prices to attract drivers during busy times) is only possible because an algorithm can process <a href="https://datasociety.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/DS_Algorithmic_Management_Explainer.pdf">real-time changes</a> in passenger demand.</p>
<h2>The risks</h2>
<p>Some problems associated with algorithm management receive more attention than others. Perhaps the risk most discussed by journalists, researchers, and policymakers is <a href="https://hbr.org/2019/10/what-do-we-do-about-the-biases-in-ai">algorithmic bias</a>. </p>
<p>Amazon’s defunct CV ranking system is an infamous example. This program, which was used to rate applicant CVs on a one-to-five scale, was <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-amazon-com-jobs-automation-insight-idUSKCN1MK08G">discontinued</a> because it consistently rated CVs with male characteristics higher than comparable ones deemed more feminine.</p>
<p>But several other issues surround the growth of algorithm management. </p>
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<img alt="Man in suit extends palm, digital people icons hover above his open palm" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487823/original/file-20221003-18-1vg7oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487823/original/file-20221003-18-1vg7oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=313&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487823/original/file-20221003-18-1vg7oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=313&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487823/original/file-20221003-18-1vg7oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=313&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487823/original/file-20221003-18-1vg7oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487823/original/file-20221003-18-1vg7oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487823/original/file-20221003-18-1vg7oz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The thought of putting highly personal decisions in the hands of computer managers is sinister.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/human-resources-crm-recruitment-business-concept-637073704">Monster Ztudio/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>One is the problem of transparency. Classic algorithms are programmed to make decisions based on step-by-step instructions and only give programmed outputs. </p>
<p>Machine-learning algorithms, on the other hand, learn to make decisions on their own after exposure to lots of training data. This means they become more complex as they develop, making their operations <a href="https://knowledgehub.transparency.org/assets/uploads/kproducts/Algorithmic-Transparency_2021.pdf">opaque</a> even to programmers. </p>
<p>When the reasoning behind a decision like whether to sack an employee is not transparent, a morally dubious arrangement is afoot. Was the algorithm’s decision to fire the employee biased, corrupt or arbitrary? </p>
<p>If so, its output would be considered <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/14748851221082078">morally illegitimate</a>, if not <a href="https://www.gov.uk/dismiss-staff/unfair-dismissals">illegal</a> in most cases. But how would an employee demonstrate that their dismissal was the result of unlawful motivations? </p>
<p>Algorithm management exacerbates the <a href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Unaccountable/xuGbjwEACAAJ?hl=en">power imbalance</a> between employers and employees by shielding abuses of power from redress. And algorithms cut a critical human function from the employment relationship. It’s what late philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau called our “natural sense of pity” and “<a href="https://www.thoughtgymnasium.com/articles/rousseaus-state-of-nature-in-the-second-discourse">innate repugnance</a> to seeing one’s fellow human suffer”.</p>
<p>Even though not all human managers are compassionate, there is zero per cent chance that algorithm managers will be. In our <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/events/annual-ipr-doctoral-public-policy-research-seminar-2019/">case study</a> of Amazon Flex couriers, we observed the exasperation that platform workers feel about the algorithm’s inability to accept human appeals. Algorithms designed to maximise efficiency are indifferent to childcare emergencies. They have no tolerance for workers moving slowly because they are still learning the job. They do not negotiate to find a solution that helps a worker struggling with illness or disability. </p>
<h2>What can we do</h2>
<p>The risks faced by workers under the management of algorithms are already a central focus of <a href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Algorithmic_Management_Consequences_for/zgB6zgEACAAJ?hl=en">researchers</a>, trade unions and software developers who are trying to promote <a href="https://www.ifow.org/publications/impacts-technology-adoption-work">good</a> working conditions. US politicians are <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/ostp/news-updates/2021/11/10/join-the-effort-to-create-a-bill-of-rights-for-an-automated-society/">discussing</a> an extension of <a href="https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5f57d40eb1c2ef22d8a8ca7e/61960345ea22bb1df8fe904a_IFOW%20%E2%80%93%20The%20Amazonian%20Era.pdf">digital rights</a> for workers. Other solutions include regular impact assessments of how algorithms affect workers and giving employees a say in how these technologies are used. </p>
<p>While businesses may find management algorithms to be highly lucrative, the need to make a profit is no reason to tolerate employee suffering.</p>
<p>Peter eventually learned how to manage his boss and make work enjoyable. He did this by showcasing his value in highly personable encounters with top levels of management. The question is, how would he have fared if his boss had been an algorithm?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191307/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tiago Vieira is a grant recipient of a scholarship attributed by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Donoghue does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Uber, Amazon and airlines are already using AI for classic managers’ tasks like hiring and firing staff.Robert Donoghue, PhD Candidate, Social and Policy Sciences, University of BathTiago Vieira, PhD Candidate, Political and Social Sciences, European University InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/827442017-08-27T20:07:09Z2017-08-27T20:07:09ZPersonal boundaries can be lost in translation for Chinese professionals in Australia<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183409/original/file-20170825-28045-x1d8k0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cultural misunderstandings can leave immigrant professionals feeling overwhelmed and burned out.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Chinese proverb – “the fish does not know the existence of water until it is taken out of it” – will resonate with some Chinese immigrants in the Australian workplace. Significant cultural differences often make their working lives (and those of their colleagues) more difficult. </p>
<p>We interviewed a pool of 70 Chinese professionals working in Australia and China, across different industries. Our research found that Chinese professionals are accustomed to their work and personal lives being intertwined.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/four-cultural-clashes-that-are-holding-east-asian-employees-back-72661">Four cultural clashes that are holding East Asian employees back</a>
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<p>These employees are used to having diverse duties in the workplace and agreeing with whatever managers set out for them. This can leave them unprepared for Australian workplaces where boundaries are more defined, duties are more specific, and tasks are subject to negotiation. </p>
<p>Cultural misunderstandings can leave immigrant professionals feeling overwhelmed and burned out, it also opens them up to ridicule and chastisement. It can also confuse and frustrate their Australian colleagues. </p>
<h2>Always say “yes” to your manager</h2>
<p>Chinese professionals are influenced by the Confucian values of <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13678860500143285">respect for authority and confrontation aversion</a>. This means they are uncomfortable with refusing tasks or questioning directions, unlike their Australian counterparts. We found their other colleagues were comparatively accustomed to being involved in making decisions and resisting excessive demands. </p>
<p>One of our interviewees found herself constantly acquiescing to requests from leadership despite being overloaded. When one of her other colleagues took holiday leave at her expense, she imploded. </p>
<p>Yet her manager was unaware of her predicament until they approached her, wanting to know why she had noticeably changed her behaviour. However, even when encouraged to raise her concerns, she still found it hard in practice. </p>
<h2>Identity and conflict</h2>
<p>Chinese professionals’ personal and workplace identities are often strongly interdependent. <a href="https://theconversation.com/four-cultural-clashes-that-are-holding-east-asian-employees-back-72661">Echoing previous research</a> results, we found both leaders and followers tend to take disagreements over professional work personally, and so generally avoid confrontation.</p>
<p>Conversely Australian leaders and followers tend to detach the two, so disagreement over work need not affect personal relationships. As one interviewee noted, managers and employees can have heated discussions but, soon afterwards, converse amicably on other matters – this is rare in China. </p>
<p>Further blurring identity and task, Chinese professionals tended to view and handle negative events in a more interconnected, continuous manner rather than as an isolated incident. As one interviewee noted:</p>
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<p>Bygones will not remain bygones in China, the big boss usually talks about your new oversights in the context of your past mistakes whilst you just knew it would not happen in Australia. </p>
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<h2>At the managers’ beck and call</h2>
<p>Chinese managers frequently ask their followers to run personal errands – getting lunch, buying contact lenses, making tea – and require work and client entertainment beyond office hours. Employees feel obligated to remain at work later than the manager, whether or not they have work to do. </p>
<p>Reciprocally, Chinese employees often use work time for personal activities like social media and online shopping. In contrast most Australian workplaces have an understanding that personal life outside working hours shouldn’t be disturbed by professional demands. </p>
<p>Beyond the workplace, typical Australian manager-employee relationships often becomes less formal and more social. While gestures for the leader – holding elevator doors, calling taxis – are appreciated, they are not required. However, during working hours most Australian workplaces expect professional resources not be abused in any form. </p>
<p>Because Chinese professionals are less familiar with these dynamics, they may find it difficult to separate workplace and personal disagreements. We found they also find it difficult to treat leaders on a more equal footing and to assert themselves when their boundaries are infringed upon. This can lead to escalating conflicts, the disruption of workplace relationships, undue work demands and exhaustion. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/six-effective-ways-to-have-that-difficult-conversation-at-work-39559">Six effective ways to have that difficult conversation at work</a>
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<p>Given our results, cross cultural training is a must for any business. This starts with both immigrant professionals and Australian managers learning about each others’ relevant cultural differences. For their part, Australian managers can prevent difficulties by creating a safe and encouraging environment. </p>
<p>We found that genuine and repeated requests for honest opinions can be effective, as emphasised by one interviewee: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Gradually, my supervisor would encourage me to share what I truly think. “Please tell me, we can discuss. You are allowed to tell me you cannot do it, or need extra support or resources”, she would keep encouraging me to speak my mind…Yes, I will speak my true thoughts now, something I could not do in the past.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Conversely, many we spoke with recommend immigrant professionals gain clarity over their needs and acquire and practice assertive communication skills. These professionals appreciate they need to separate their work and personal lives and push for reasonable limits on workplace demands. </p>
<p>Mutual understanding can enhance the productivity of the multicultural workplace, capitalising on – rather than conflicting with – diversity. It can help to better unlock value that might otherwise be lost in translation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82744/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Chinese professionals are influenced by the Confucian values. This means they are uncomfortable with refusing tasks or questioning directions, unlike their Australian counterparts.Xiaoyan Liang, Sessional Lecturer/Teaching Associate, PhD student, Department of Management, Monash University, Monash UniversityJeremy St John, Lecturer in Business Ethics and CSR, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/824362017-08-22T19:24:52Z2017-08-22T19:24:52ZMore of us could work in part-time roles if they were designed better<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/182879/original/file-20170822-4964-vnqyv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Part-time roles become difficult if that employee is the only source of knowledge, contact or sign-off.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Lisa was a young accountant with plenty of experience, solid references and was looking for work. She approached a large accounting firm she had previously worked for in another city in the hope of working with them again.</p>
<p>They were interested, except one thing stood in her way - she could only work part-time. Despite having award winning flexible work policies, this accounting firm wouldn’t employ her, citing the role could not be done on a part-time basis. </p>
<p>Lisa (not her real name) is typical of the 24 people I <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-management-and-organization/article/facilitating-sustainable-professional-part-time-work-a-question-of-design/01CCD63207028BB519184BF7F5C3E849">interviewed as part of my research</a>. These men and women had requested to move to part-time roles in legal, information technology, accounting and consulting firms, having previously worked full-time. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-charts-on-how-part-time-work-is-growing-more-slowly-but-more-men-are-doing-it-79352">Three charts on: how part-time work is growing more slowly, but more men are doing it</a>
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<p>The roles for nearly half the participants I studied, and across all industries, had not been changed at all when moving to part-time. Performance targets and workload remained the same; only the pay had changed.</p>
<p>The employees had reduced their hours by getting rid of non-urgent tasks such as networking and meetings, and delegating work to team members.<br>
In one case, a female employee had been told by her employer that she wasn’t meeting the same high performance ratings she had in her full-time role, despite achieving the same performance targets for less pay. </p>
<p>My research finds there are actually effective ways to change a full-time role into one that’s part-time. The size of an organisation, the industry, gender of employees or complexity of work have little bearing on this. </p>
<p>However businesses are not considering that these roles need to be redesigned in the first place and this causes problems in managing employees’ workloads and interacting with other employees. </p>
<h2>The problems in redesigning roles as part-time</h2>
<p>Even though it is possible to design a full-time role into a part-time role that works, there is little guidance on how to redesign. One of the places to start is reducing the number of people the employee interacts with, for example, the number of clients they look after, or the number of people who directly report to them. </p>
<p>Part-time roles become difficult if that employee is the only source of knowledge, contact or sign-off. For example if the employee is an IT manager who needs to be on call for clients for 37.5 hours a week, when typical part-time hours are less then 30 a week. </p>
<p>To redesign these roles, businesses can assign work to a team rather than individual, or team senior employees with junior employees. Employers can also provide systems to share knowledge rather than having one single point of expertise. I found that hospital pharmacists had a lot more flexibility in their roles because they use systems that allow them to share information effectively and quickly between colleagues. </p>
<p>Contrary to findings from other <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/job.229/full">studies</a>, deadlines are not necessarily problematic for part-time work. What is problematic is when tasks are both unpredictable and urgent. </p>
<p>One manager I interviewed said that urgent deadlines were often arbitrary and could be rescheduled. If there is urgent work to be done, employees can work in teams or the employer can renegotiate when part-time hours occur to suit the project deadlines.</p>
<p>The other challenge is that there is little incentive for organisations to reduce implicit work for part-time employees as it is often not measured and is done as unpaid overtime. Implicit work is work that is integral to a role, but not dealing directly with customers. It includes training, business development, travel, administration, staff management and team meetings. </p>
<p>While arguably an issue for all employees, implicit work becomes more problematic when working part-time. For example, an employee can’t do a fraction of a training course or only go away for a few hours of an interstate trip. To make all roles more manageable, particularly those working part-time, organisations should monitor and reduce implicit workloads.</p>
<p>Some of the businesses I studied also relied on the employees to make their part-time roles work, which resulted in minimal redesign of the role. Whereas other organisations weighed up what the employee wanted with the minimum requirements of the role. </p>
<p>This approach, where the employee and manager negotiated, meant the part-time arrangement worked better for both. Being clear on the “job absolutes” gave the part-time worker autonomy to adapt their work around other commitments. </p>
<p>Understanding how to redesign full-time roles to part-time helps debunk some of the myths that existed in some organisations. These myths included that program director and partnership roles could not be done part-time. My study found that part-time can be easier at more senior levels, because of the higher autonomy and less urgent, unpredictable work. </p>
<p>Having part-time roles available means more people can participate in the workforce. Given the economic benefits of this, and <a href="http://www.pc.gov.au/research/supporting/part-time-employment/part-time-employment.pdf">the increasing demand from</a> younger and older workers for these sorts of roles, organisations will be left behind if they don’t accommodate well designed part-time arrangements.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82436/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>I received a university scholarship to conduct this research.</span></em></p>Businesses are not considering that roles need to be redesigned to be part-time and this causes problems in managing employees’ workloads and interacting with other employees.Natalie Smith, PhD Student, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/803222017-07-04T03:26:59Z2017-07-04T03:26:59ZDoing away with the annual performance review? More feedback isn’t necessarily better<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176565/original/file-20170703-32591-sh20gc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Businesses are considering making the change from a formal review to regular feedback. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cogdog/19410710528/in/photolist-vzfXYU-Tkp5HK-inNwmk-4ajt81-nHqLWZ-4BYB7z-2ZXhym-pCbEDE-6UTpWn-kUnmpK-iFYHo-GwLiE-r7YVTj-9q9qRG-Pj8hgo-7XLS4C-9o5Knq-9o5G9j-9o2EKZ-4srdeK-deDuYd-R6EiVL-UMP2SY-6zTybH-9PTQgQ-R6Ej65-4sk2s2-dQfQog-bpSodX-aud5Kh-2iRqPw-nKip3r-gSPac-9NZyt-8kmdBF-6E3E9-rqesnq-pbqEuo-5ysykT-rba4dj-71AWN8-4DxFqM-qKqH8Q-2oWuJ-iCmVKN-6bVyCs-3pHVNv-aPWRR-auaDG6-atJvUu">www.shutterstock.com</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For many employees the end of the financial year signals performance review time. The dreaded time of the year when they sit down with their supervisor and receive feedback on their performance over the previous 12 months.</p>
<p>In Australia and the US, <a href="https://hbr.org/2016/10/the-performance-management-revolution">businesses are reconsidering</a> this traditional approach to managing employee performance. Managers are worried the traditional approach is resource intensive, emphasises employee evaluation over development and tends to be retrospective. Feedback delivered after an event, can leave employees with an inaccurate assessment of their <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2670698">performance</a>.</p>
<p>Employees vary in their views on the frequency of feedback. One <a href="https://www.tinypulse.com/blog/difference-in-perception-between-generations">survey</a> found that baby boomers prefer less frequent feedback while millennials prefer more. Experienced workers know the job so see no value in feedback. Younger workers feel <a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/3052988/heres-what-millennials-want-from-their-performance-reviews">blindsided</a> by feedback that comes but once a year.</p>
<p>An alternative would be to <a href="https://hbr.org/2016/10/the-performance-management-revolution">drop traditional performance reviews</a> and implement regular feedback sessions with employees - maybe twice yearly, quarterly, monthly or even weekly.</p>
<p>One <a href="http://mrbartonmaths.com/resourcesnew/8.%20Research/Marking%20and%20Feedback/The%20effects%20of%20feedback%20interventions.pdf">study</a> found that feedback interventions (both positive and negative feedback) resulted in lower performance in over one third of cases examined. Another <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1987-02683-001">study</a> suggests that feedback without any consequences won’t be effective. This study reported that when feedback was used alone, it produced consistent improvements in performance in only 28% of the cases examined.</p>
<h2>Feedback, maybe just not constantly</h2>
<p>The argument for increasing the frequency of feedback is that it will provide more timely information that employees can use to learn and be more effective. This is particularly the case when it’s tied to events in the workplace. One <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/59f3/a052b4b5187a91cb9b8d0813e23f3dffbc03.pdf">study</a>
found that more frequent feedback improves employee learning and task performance. </p>
<p>A subsequent <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749597811000513">study</a> also found that increasing the frequency of feedback had a positive effect on learning and performance but only up to a point.</p>
<p>It gets to a point where feedback can be overwhelming for employees, where its too much to process and respond to. This can actually reduce employee learning and performance. The challenge is to find the sweet spot between too much and too little feedback.</p>
<h2>The sweet spot</h2>
<p>The impact of more frequent feedback will depend partly on its content. Feedback can be positive or negative. Positive feedback makes employees feel <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11596809">pleasant and proud</a> as it is consistent with an employee’s <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1980.tb02351.x/full">self-image</a>. </p>
<p>Some managers prefer to point out things that need to change in the way their employees work - that’s negative feedback. And it’s pretty risky for managers: <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2731691">researchers report</a> that 98% of managers experienced some form of aggression by employees as a result of providing negative feedback. </p>
<p>So what’s also important in giving feedback is the way it’s delivered. Feedback needs to be clear and relevant. Both supervisors and subordinates need to feel comfortable asking for and giving feedback as part of a relationship of trust between <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1754-9434.2011.01315.x/abstract">them</a>. </p>
<p>Feedback runs both ways! The quality of the feedback sessions also <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0013164403258440">reflects a manager’s effectiveness</a>. When managers give feedback in a considerate manner, employees are more likely to feel that they are treated fairly by their <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25546265">supervisor</a>.</p>
<h2>The delivery</h2>
<p>To avoid the unpleasantness of the awkward annual chat, managers could try facilitating feedback <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0893318914524060">electronically</a>. This allows supervisors and employees to compose, edit, and process messages carefully, thereby improving the quality of the communication process. In fact, managers prefer sending negative feedback electronically, as it avoids the discomfort of communicating bad news <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2000.tb00763.x/abstract">face to face</a>.</p>
<p>A new market has developed for apps and software that facilitate instant feedback from workplace <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/joshbersin/2015/08/26/employee-feedback-is-the-killer-app-a-new-market-emerges/#56bbc2d85edf">colleagues</a>. For example, American multinational General Electric is piloting <a href="http://qz.com/428813/ge-performance-review-strategy-shift/">an app called PD@GE</a> to let people post notes of encouragement, advice or criticism under categories like “insight,” “consider” and “continue.”</p>
<p>Making the change to an informal performance management system based on regular feedback is going to be a challenge for Australian organisations. Currently <a href="http://www.afr.com/leadership/the-six-steps-to-getting-more-from-feedback-20140212-kbh6i#ixzz4lMSVPvpl">only 36%</a> of managers complete appraisals thoroughly and on time. Companies that have increased the frequency of feedback, do so after upping the training of their <a href="https://hbr.org/2016/10/the-performance-management-revolution">managers.</a> </p>
<p>Managers need to develop skills in identifying the causes of performance, distinguishing between systematic versus isolated performance issues, collecting and evaluating data and communicating with employees. It’s a big step up from the traditional ticking of a box agreeing to a statement about an employees’ performance.</p>
<p>Increasing the frequency of performance feedback is not a quick fix to the problems that are associated with performance reviews. Organisations need to think through the implications for training of managers and preferences of employees in order to make a successful change in their approach to performance management.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80322/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle Brown receives funding from the ARC. </span></em></p>Finding the feedback balance is hard. Millennials are seeking more feedback while baby boomers tend to want to get on with the job.Michelle Brown, Professor, Human Resource Management, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/745432017-03-21T03:55:24Z2017-03-21T03:55:24ZPutting a dollar value on how much employees are willing to put their own interests first<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161490/original/image-20170320-6139-a7hszk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Employees in the study were willing to put their own interests before their employers for money.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Up to 95% of employees in our study put their own interests before those of their employer. This was even true even if the employee stood to gain just a small fraction of what the company could have – some workers would forgo A$1 million for their employer to gain as little as A$500 personally. But there are some simple steps that employers can take to align their interests with those of their employees, to stop this playing out in their workplaces.</p>
<p>During our study we conducted decision experiments with 159 managers studying postgraduate business. They had to choose between an activity that would benefit their employer but not themselves, or one that would lead to a gain for themselves but nothing for their employer. </p>
<p>Our scenario was based on tradeoffs that occur regularly – in banking and finance, board directorship activities, consulting firms and universities, and even on factory floors. </p>
<p>For example, in consulting firms and universities, partners and academics can sometimes choose to do a piece of work inside and through their employer, or independently. Another example is in a bank, where employees can make decisions on doing deals or pricing that might be good for the bank and risky for their personal reputation, or vice versa. </p>
<p>We sought to see what choices are made when the interests of employer and employee are not perfectly aligned.</p>
<h2>Tradeoffs</h2>
<p>There is great variation in the minimum amount required for workers to foresake their employer’s interest. Understandably, some people are very selfless and loyal to their employer, while others are exactly the opposite. </p>
<p>Approximately 60% of our test subjects weighed up how much in money terms they would gain, in deciding the tradeoff between their employers and their own personal gains. The amount varied widely, as these managers said they would foresake their employers gaining a significant amount of money, if they could personally gain anywhere between one fifth and one twentieth of that amount. </p>
<p>The tradeoff also depended on the monetary quantities involved. For example, most employees would choose an action that resulted in their employer forgoing A$10 million if they personally gained at least A$15,000. But there were a few outliers – some employees would forsake their employer making A$10 million if they could personally gain just a few thousand dollars, and in one case, A$500. </p>
<p>We also found that about half of those surveyed would be prepared to take decisions where the employer experienced a monetary loss if they could achieve a relatively small personal gain. One manager said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>There is no sincere loyalty here: we do what is good for ourselves, which is only sometimes what’s best for the business.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Only 8% of respondents were purely selfless, being prepared to always make decisions purely in the best interests of their employer. For example, another manager said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I wouldn’t dream of doing anything other than what is best for the firm, in exchange for my salary: its a given with me!</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>What can employers do about it?</h2>
<p>Employers should try to avoid putting their employees in a situation where they have to choose between doing what benefits themselves personally, and what benefits the organisation. This is best done by fully aligning the benefits for employees at all levels with the very things that helps the organisation to achieve its goals. </p>
<p>Our research shows that remuneration systems should be designed with great care, expecting a good proportion of employees to apply the “what’s in it for me?” approach to making decisions with organisational resources.</p>
<p>This phenomenon should be assumed to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313388447_Multi-Stakeholder_Decision_Theory">apply to people at all levels</a>. Directors and managers should also find the right balance between trusting employees and verifying/ measuring actions and outcomes. </p>
<p>In our experiments, we told participants that there would be no ramifications from their decisions beyond the immediate outcomes. <a href="https://cengage.com.au/product/title/management-asia-pacific-edition-with-student/isbn/9780170259798">Many other studies have shown</a> that a combination of trust, managerial oversight, measurement and verification of actions and outcomes does impact on how most people work. </p>
<p>It’s also important that employers know their employees as individuals. Some employees have a strong moral streak while at work and will not “dud” their employer for a few dollars, while others have no such compulsion. Our ongoing research has shown that some elements of personality such as conscientiousness is related to how such decisions are made. </p>
<p>Employers can also try to select and recruit people who have a strong internal sense of integrity, and remunerate them sufficiently so as they don’t want or need to “do the wrong thing” by the firm. This can be prioritised when reference checking and <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/%7Eota/disk2/1990/9042/9042.PDF">with other tests</a> that ask prospective employees how they would deal with ethical dilemmas.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/74543/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Danny Samson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Employees in this study would forgo A$1 million for their employer, to gain as little as A$500 personally.Danny Samson, Professor of Management (Operations Management), The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/665412016-11-08T13:59:25Z2016-11-08T13:59:25ZEverything you need to know about workplace bullying<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144096/original/image-20161101-6277-fg3egf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Whether it happens in the playground or in the workplace, bullying can be enormously distressing and disturbing for anyone on the receiving end. Stories crop up in many places including allegations made during employment tribunals, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/nov/27/elliott-johnson-young-tory-destroyed-by-party-he-loved-mark-clarke">political parties</a> of <a href="http://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/718323/Steven-Woolfe-serious-condition-punched-UKIP-Nigel-Farage-Christine-Neil-Hamilton">all sizes</a> and by company whistleblowers. </p>
<p>Workplace bullying occurs when a worker is subject to mistreatment by another worker that is persistent, regular and causes harm – and it can take many forms. And through <a href="http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/26445/">my research</a> on the subject I have discovered there are generally five different types. </p>
<p>These can include “overt acts” – such as threats or actual violence, demands for resignation, verbal assault or “subtle acts” like teasing, gossip or banter. Then there are “work related acts” such as micro managing, limiting options for annual leave, giving too much or too little work, and “person related acts”, which include insults or jokes of a personal nature or withholding information needed to do your job. Then there are also “organisational factors” which can include cultures that are extremely competitive, target driven or chauvinistic – where there are often no clear policies, codes of conduct or grievance resolution procedures.</p>
<p>But one of the problems with bullying is that while “overt acts” – particularly where aggression is a feature – can be clearly identified and investigated, bullying behaviours of a more subtle nature are harder to prove. And these subtle acts of bullying can be just as distressing for a worker to experience. They can include being “sent to Coventry” – or frozen out by coworkers – along with teasing and so-called “banter”. </p>
<h2>Type of workplace</h2>
<p>It stands to reason then that when it comes to workplace bullying, the type of organisation a person works in can play a large part in whether bullying is accepted or frowned upon. </p>
<p>Research shows that bullying is often seen in a workplace where the culture allows or encourages “<a href="http://hum.sagepub.com/content/56/10/1213.short">positional game playing</a>”. Or in an organisation where there is a real or perceived lack of fairness and conflict within teams, along with competitive environments where workloads are continually high and unevenly spread.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144097/original/image-20161101-18435-tkblii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144097/original/image-20161101-18435-tkblii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144097/original/image-20161101-18435-tkblii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144097/original/image-20161101-18435-tkblii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144097/original/image-20161101-18435-tkblii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144097/original/image-20161101-18435-tkblii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144097/original/image-20161101-18435-tkblii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many organisations are not prepared for the interpersonal and softer skills required to manage people effectively.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And it is these workplace cultures that can foster an environment where bullying is allowed to happen – and a lack of awareness, acknowledgement and involvement by senior managers can be a big part of the problem.</p>
<p>My <a href="http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/25057/">research</a> also shows that organisational changes and restructuring can often lead to bullying. Here it seems the uncertainty around job security, hours, status, pay, position and work overload can often lead to workers lashing out at each other and a rise in bullying incidents can occur.</p>
<h2>Bully or victim?</h2>
<p>Targets of workplace bullying were traditionally thought to be introverts – submissive, shy, and quite reserved. The type of person you might describe as “delicate” and who would find stressful situations difficult to cope with. But more <a href="https://www.homeworkmarket.com/sites/default/files/q5/22/10/article1_0.pdf">recent research</a> has shown that targets are often not shy, sensitive or silent. Rather, they are often someone who is outgoing, popular, successful and a high achiever, which can then cause envy among colleagues and makes them a target.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02678370903257578">Research</a> also shows that workplace bullies are more likely to be men. Although that said, the behaviours of women can often play out more subtly. So while men might shout and criticise in public, women are more likely to withhold information needed to successfully complete work tasks or spread rumours – which can make identification and investigation of an incident more difficult. </p>
<p>Bullies also often hold posts where there is an element of formal power which comes from <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/07/07/former-france-telecom-should-stand-trial-for-harassment-of-worke/">their managerial or supervisory post</a>. But managers themselves are not immune to being bullied either. And there is an increase in <a href="http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=385547162297705;res=IELBus">research showing</a> that bullying can happen to managers when they are simply carrying out the will of the company. <a href="http://www.acas.org.uk/media/pdf/m/a/workplace_bullying_and_harassment.pdf">A recent paper on the topic</a> even suggested that legitimate actions undertaken by managers act as “fertile ground for false claims of bullying”.</p>
<p>That said, care does need to be taken in <a href="http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/trouble-at-work-9781849664653/">applying labels</a> to the type of person a “victim” or a “bully” is. And <a href="http://www.gowerpublishing.com/isbn/9781472455178">in my experience</a> both parties may well have engaged in negative acts towards each other.</p>
<h2>Tackling the bullies</h2>
<p>When it comes to dealing with bullies in workplaces, it seems there is still quite some way to go – given that a recent survey of 1,500 UK workers showed that <a href="http://www.cipd.co.uk/pm/peoplemanagement/b/weblog/archive/2015/01/13/employers-fail-to-deal-with-bullying-at-work-adequately-finds-survey.aspx">91% of respondents did not believe their organisations</a> dealt well with bullying at work.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144098/original/image-20161101-14771-11ptdt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144098/original/image-20161101-14771-11ptdt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144098/original/image-20161101-14771-11ptdt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144098/original/image-20161101-14771-11ptdt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144098/original/image-20161101-14771-11ptdt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144098/original/image-20161101-14771-11ptdt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144098/original/image-20161101-14771-11ptdt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bullying characteristics include uncivil behaviour, unfriendliness, unkindness, spitefulness and a lack of sympathy, empathy and regard.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These figures are concerning, as workplace bullying affects everyone involved. From the targets to the perpetrators, the bystanders, and the witnesses. Even clients, customers and the organisation itself are adversely affected. This is because motivation of workers begins to drop and loyalty is lost. Care over the end product or work can also decline because essentially workers do not want to be at work and remove themselves either mentally or physically. </p>
<p>Given this, it is important that we take the opportunity to have conversations on this topic at every level in our organisations. Time to dust down and review HR policies, time to consider the culture, structure and anti-bullying strategies. These are essential in developing workplaces that offer better work and working lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/66541/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frances McGregor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>How to spot a bully at work. It’s not as easy as you might think.Frances McGregor, Senior Lecturer in Human Resource Management, University of HuddersfieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.