tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/neuroplasticity-3546/articlesNeuroplasticity – The Conversation2023-11-28T17:55:45Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2180032023-11-28T17:55:45Z2023-11-28T17:55:45ZLifestyle changes can reduce dementia risk by maintaining brain plasticity — but the time to act is now<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561624/original/file-20231125-24-4dpbbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C704%2C5714%2C3742&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lifestyle changes may be our best hope of delaying dementia or not developing dementia at all.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/lifestyle-changes-can-reduce-dementia-risk-by-maintaining-brain-plasticity-but-the-time-to-act-is-now" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Walk 10,000 steps a day, cut back alcohol, get better sleep at night, stay socially active — we’re told that changes like these can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30367-6">prevent up to 40 per cent of dementia cases worldwide</a>. </p>
<p>Given that dementia is still one of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12889-023-15772-y">the most feared diseases</a>, why aren’t we pushing our doctors and governments to support these lifestyle changes through new programs and policy initiatives?</p>
<p>The truth, however, is more complex. We know that <a href="https://theconversation.com/got-health-goals-research-based-tips-for-adopting-and-sticking-to-new-healthy-lifestyle-behaviours-173740">making lifestyle changes is hard</a>. Ask anyone who has tried to keep their New Year’s resolution to visit the gym three times a week. It can be doubly difficult when the changes we need to make now won’t show results for years, or even decades, and we don’t really understand why they work.</p>
<h2>Taking control of your health</h2>
<p>Anyone who has watched a loved one <a href="https://alzheimer.ca/en/about-dementia/what-dementia/common-questions-about-dementia">living with dementia</a>, facing the small and large indignities and declines that leave them eventually unable to eat, communicate or remember, knows it is a devastating disease. </p>
<p>There are <a href="https://alzheimer.ca/en/whats-happening/events/new-dementia-drugs-therapies-what-canadians-should-know">several new drugs</a> making their way to the market for Alzheimer’s disease (one of the most common forms of dementia). However, they are still far from a cure and are currently only effective for early-stage Alzheimer’s patients.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lecanemab-experimental-drug-is-a-ray-of-hope-for-alzheimers-disease-196719">Lecanemab: Experimental drug is a ray of hope for Alzheimer's disease</a>
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<p>So lifestyle changes may be our best hope of delaying dementia or not developing dementia at all. Actor <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2022/11/chris-hemsworth-exclusive-interview-alzheimers-limitless">Chris Hemsworth</a> knows it. He watched his grandfather live with Alzheimer’s and is making lifestyle changes after learning he has two copies of the APOE4 gene. This <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/what-is-apoe4-how-does-it-relate-alzheimers-disease-2023-04-21/">gene</a> is a risk factor for Alzheimer’s, and having two copies significantly increases his risk of developing the same condition. </p>
<p>Research has identified <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30367-6">modifiable risk factors</a> that contribute to increasing the risk of dementia:</p>
<ul>
<li>physical inactivity</li>
<li>excessive use of alcohol</li>
<li>less sleep</li>
<li>social isolation</li>
<li>hearing loss</li>
<li>less cognitive engagement</li>
<li>poor diet</li>
<li>hypertension</li>
<li>obesity</li>
<li>diabetes</li>
<li>traumatic brain injury</li>
<li>smoking</li>
<li>depression</li>
<li>air pollution</li>
</ul>
<p>Our understanding of the biological mechanisms for these risk factors is varied, with some more clearly understood than others. </p>
<p>But there is a lot we do know — and here’s what you need to know as well.</p>
<h2>Cognitive reserve and neuroplasticity</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two older men on a park bench, on of whom is straining to hear the other speaking" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561625/original/file-20231125-21-n964o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561625/original/file-20231125-21-n964o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561625/original/file-20231125-21-n964o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561625/original/file-20231125-21-n964o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561625/original/file-20231125-21-n964o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561625/original/file-20231125-21-n964o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561625/original/file-20231125-21-n964o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">As a person‘s hearing decreases, it can make it difficult to socially engage with others, resulting in a loss of sensory input. The brain has to work harder to compensate for this.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.03.022">Cognitive reserve</a> is the brain’s ability to withstand damage or neurodegenerative disease. If there is tissue or functional loss in one part of the brain, other brain cells (neurons) work harder to compensate. In theory, this means lifelong experiences and activities create a dam against the damages of disease and aging in the brain.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20100302-01">Neuroplasticity</a> is the brain’s amazing ability to adapt, learn and reorganize, create new pathways or rewire existing ones to recover from damage. The key takeaway is that neuroplasticity can happen at any time and any age, which means learning and activities should be lifelong.</p>
<p>Many of the risk factors linked to dementia likely work in combination, which is why an overall lifestyle approach is crucial. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-016-0721-2">studies have shown</a> that exercise, cognitive and social engagement stimulate your brain and maintain its plasticity by growing new neural connections and building cognitive reserve.</p>
<p>The mechanism behind this is a combination of factors: increased oxygen and blood flow to the brain, stimulating growth factors that keep neurons healthy and reduced inflammation.</p>
<p>The opposite is also true. Poor sleep, diet, social isolation and untreated depression are linked to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20100302-01">decreased cognitive reserve</a>. </p>
<p>The same rationale applies to hearing loss, a key emerging risk factor for dementia. As a person‘s hearing decreases, it can make it difficult to socially engage with others, resulting in a loss of sensory input. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FWAD.0000000000000325">brain has to work harder</a> to compensate for this, potentially drawing down its cognitive reserve and leaving it less able to withstand dementia.</p>
<h2>The role of stress and inflammation</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Illustration of hand drawing a brain with multicoloured chalk on blackboard" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561626/original/file-20231125-17-6hps66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561626/original/file-20231125-17-6hps66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561626/original/file-20231125-17-6hps66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561626/original/file-20231125-17-6hps66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561626/original/file-20231125-17-6hps66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561626/original/file-20231125-17-6hps66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561626/original/file-20231125-17-6hps66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chronic or prolonged inflammation disrupts normal function and causes damage to the brain’s cells.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Stress responses and inflammation are the body’s complex answer to injury. Inflammation is an important component of the body’s immune system, helping defend against threats and repair tissue damage. While short-term inflammation is a natural and good response, chronic or prolonged inflammation disrupts normal function and causes damage to the brain’s cells.</p>
<p>For example, one of the commonalities between dementia and untreated depression is the <a href="https://doi.org/10.17219/acem/149897%22%22">inflammatory process</a>. Prolonged exposure to stress hormones can lead to chronic inflammation. Hypertension, physical inactivity, smoking and air pollution are also associated with chronic inflammation and stress, which can damage blood vessels and neurons in the brain.</p>
<p>In a newer area of research still being explored, <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/10095898/loneliness-global-public-health-concern-who/">social isolation</a> has also been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2023.101061">linked to inflammation</a>. As we learned during the COVID-19 pandemic, the brain is wired to respond to social engagement as a means of bonding and emotional support, especially in times of distress. </p>
<p>With surveys showing more than <a href="https://www.thestar.com/opinion/contributors/we-have-a-loneliness-crisis-it-s-time-to-act/article_30e6c996-a9e2-588b-a776-58addc503762.html">one in three Canadians</a> feel isolated, the lack of social connection and loneliness can trigger the body’s stress response and neuroendocrine changes, and prolonged exposure to this inflammatory process can damage the brain.</p>
<h2>Similar pathways across multiple diseases</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three women walking in exercise clothes" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561627/original/file-20231125-27-f0h7c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561627/original/file-20231125-27-f0h7c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561627/original/file-20231125-27-f0h7c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561627/original/file-20231125-27-f0h7c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561627/original/file-20231125-27-f0h7c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561627/original/file-20231125-27-f0h7c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561627/original/file-20231125-27-f0h7c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">While there are benefits to being physically and socially active at any age, some research shows the payoff from those gains can be higher after age 40 when the body’s metabolism slows, risk factors increase and cognitive reserve becomes even more essential to help protect against cognitive decline.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Several of these risk factors, and their biological pathways, cut across multiple chronic diseases. Accumulating evidence of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30087-0">decades of research</a> supports the concept of “what’s good for your heart is good for your head.” </p>
<p>This means that making these lifestyle changes not only reduces your risk of dementia, but also your risk of diabetes, hypertension and heart concerns. This highlights the complex nature of dementia but also offers a united strategy to deal with multiple health concerns that may arise as people age.</p>
<h2>It’s never too late</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man asleep in bed" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561628/original/file-20231125-27-dyme8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561628/original/file-20231125-27-dyme8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561628/original/file-20231125-27-dyme8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561628/original/file-20231125-27-dyme8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561628/original/file-20231125-27-dyme8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561628/original/file-20231125-27-dyme8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561628/original/file-20231125-27-dyme8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Factors like not sleeping enough, having a poor diet and lacking social and cognitive engagement can increase the risk of developing dementia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s never really too late to change. The human brain and body have a remarkable capacity for adaptation and resilience throughout life. </p>
<p>While there are benefits to being physically and socially active at any age, some research shows the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smhs.2019.08.006">payoff from those gains can be higher</a> after age 40 when the body’s metabolism slows, risk factors increase and cognitive reserve becomes even more essential to help protect against <a href="https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000007003">cognitive decline</a>.</p>
<p>If making lifestyle changes means you can watch your child navigate adulthood, stroll 20 blocks to your favourite café every day and continue to live in your own home, perhaps walking the daily 10,000 steps, changing diets and keeping your friendship network strong is worthwhile. At worst, you’ll be healthier and more independent with or without dementia. At best, you might completely avoid dementia and other major diseases and keep living your best possible life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218003/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laura Middleton receives funding from the Public Health Agency of Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Saskia Sivananthan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Lifestyle-related dementia risks are complex, with factors like sleep, exercise, diet and social contact interacting with things like cognitive reserve, neuroplasticity and inflammation in the body.Saskia Sivananthan, Affiliate Professor, Department of Family Medicine, McGill UniversityLaura Middleton, Assistant Professor, Department of Kinesiology, University of WaterlooLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2092002023-08-28T12:01:17Z2023-08-28T12:01:17ZMedication can help you make the most of therapy − a psychologist and neuroscientist explains how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544648/original/file-20230824-2975-7ib62y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1917%2C1564&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Medications can open a biological window of opportunity for psychotherapy to take advantage of.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/metaphor-bipolar-disorder-mind-mental-double-royalty-free-illustration/1294477039">melitas/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is mounting recognition in the scientific community that combining different treatment approaches for mental health conditions can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.09.004">create a benefit</a> greater than the sum of its parts.</p>
<p>As a <a href="http://www.canlab.pitt.edu/home/people/">clinical psychologist</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=7wB91zsAAAAJ&hl=en">neuroscience researcher</a>, I have been working to integrate insights from both fields to expand treatment options for those suffering from depression, anxiety and related conditions. Designing a treatment plan that pays careful attention to the sequence and dose of both biological and behavioral therapies might benefit people in new ways that neither approach can achieve on its own.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyu038">Anxiety and depression</a> are the most prevalent mental health conditions around the world. Globally, <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression">about 280 million people</a> experience depression, and <a href="https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/any-anxiety-disorder">as many as 1 in 3</a> will meet the diagnostic criteria for an anxiety disorder at some point in their lives. There are <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/depression-in-adults/treatment/">numerous effective</a> <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/anxiety/types-of-anxiety/">treatment options</a> for both conditions, including medications, psychotherapy, lifestyle changes and neurostimulation. </p>
<p>Doctors and therapists recommend many patients seeking mental health care try <a href="https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/combined-drug-and-psychological-therapies-may-be-most-effective-for-depression/">more than one approach simultaneously</a>, such as medication and therapy. This is based on the idea that if they were to respond well to any of the prescribed treatments, they would experience a net benefit more quickly or more strongly than if they were to try each sequentially. However, researchers have historically studied each approach in isolation. Most research has focused on comparing individual treatments <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20701">one at a time</a> to a control, such as a pill placebo or a psychotherapy waitlist.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/z-IR48Mb3W0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Depression is a leading cause of disability around the world.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Neuroplasticity and treatment</h2>
<p>Recent advances in scientific understanding of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.05.008">depression</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2147/IJGM.S413176">anxiety</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2005.05.007">other stress-related conditions</a> suggest that changes and impairments in neuroplasticity are critical contributors.</p>
<p>Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s capacity to flexibly adjust in response to an ever-changing environment – it’s a <a href="https://theconversation.com/cognitive-flexibility-is-essential-to-navigating-a-changing-world-new-research-in-mice-shows-how-your-brain-learns-new-rules-204259">critical component of learning</a>. In animal studies, deficits in neuroplasticity are seen as changes to molecular and neural pathways, such as a decreased number of synapses, or points of contact between neurons, following chronic stress. These changes might be related to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-019-0615-x">mental patterns and symptoms</a> of depression and anxiety in people, such as when patients report a reduced capacity to think, feel and act flexibly. They may also be linked to thinking about, remembering and interpreting information in a way that tends to be biased toward the negative.</p>
<p>Research has shown that many effective biological treatments, including medications and neurostimulation, can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2013.30">enhance or</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.05.008">alter neuroplasticity</a>. Certain lifestyle changes such as regular exercise can have similar effects. Scientists consider this key to how they reduce symptoms. Unfortunately, symptoms often return when these treatments are discontinued. Relapse is particularly apparent for medications. For both <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-022-01824-z">older</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.1189">newer</a> antidepressant and anti-anxiety medications, relapse rates begin climbing shortly after patients stop treatment.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544652/original/file-20230824-27-homnj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up of hand holding pill beside a glass of water on a table" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544652/original/file-20230824-27-homnj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544652/original/file-20230824-27-homnj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544652/original/file-20230824-27-homnj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544652/original/file-20230824-27-homnj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544652/original/file-20230824-27-homnj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544652/original/file-20230824-27-homnj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544652/original/file-20230824-27-homnj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Patients can experience a relapse of symptoms after they stop taking antidepressants or anti-anxiety medications.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/unrecognizable-man-holding-a-pill-in-front-of-a-royalty-free-image/1297835134">Vasil Dimitrov/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In contrast, behavioral treatments such as psychotherapy introduce new skills and and habits that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190044">may be more long-lasting</a>. Benefits continue even after the most intense phase of treatment ends. Regular meetings <a href="https://theconversation.com/cbt-dbt-psychodynamic-what-type-of-therapy-is-right-for-me-171101">with a therapist</a> over the course of several months can help many patients learn to cope with negative symptoms and life circumstances in new ways. But such learning depends on neuroplasticity to forge and retain these new, helpful pathways in the brain.</p>
<p>Researchers hypothesize that enhancing or modulating plasticity with a biological intervention like medication may not only reduce symptoms but may also provide a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.09.004">window of opportunity</a> for behavioral interventions like psychotherapy to be more effective. Learning-based interventions like cognitive-behavioral or exposure therapy, if properly timed, could harness the enhanced neuroplasticity that biological interventions induce and improve long-term outcomes.</p>
<p>Think of pathways in the brain as roads. Biological treatments transform a sparsely connected set of roads – consisting only of a few well-trodden pathways that represent unhelpful thoughts, fears and habits – into a denser network of interconnected, freshly paved roadways. Behavioral treatments can be likened to repeatedly driving over a specific subset of new roads that lead to more balanced perspectives on yourself and the world around you, learning them until you can drive down them effortlessly, no GPS required. This ensures that those now familiar roadways will be readily available to you in the future and protect you against the return of anxiety and depression.</p>
<h2>Synergies in combined treatment</h2>
<p>Designing combined treatments to explicitly promote synergy is relatively new, and there is increasing evidence supporting it. A few specific examples are noteworthy.</p>
<p>First, some studies have shown that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FHRP.0000000000000183">D-cycloserine</a>, an antibiotic used to treat tuberculosis, may make <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.3955">exposure therapy for anxiety conditions</a> more effective by helping patients learn to quell their fears. D-cycloserine may also enhance the antidepressant effects of a type of neurostimulation called <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.3255">transcranial magnetic stimulation</a>, which stimulates nerve cells using magnetic fields.</p>
<p>Several studies suggest that pairing neurostimulation with cognitive-behavioral approaches like cognitive-behavioral therapy or cognitive control training may yield <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.09.004">longer-term reductions in depression and anxiety</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly, low doses of ketamine, a drug used in general anesthesia, with rapid antidepressant effects, can be used to “<a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.20220216">prime the pump</a>” <a href="https://theconversation.com/ketamine-paired-with-looking-at-smiling-faces-to-build-positive-associations-holds-promise-for-helping-people-with-treatment-resistant-depression-190950">for new, helpful learning</a>. A study my team and I conducted found that daily computer-based exercises of 30 to 40 minutes over four days following a single ketamine dose led to a ninefold increase in the duration of antidepressant effects – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.12434">90 days of reduced symptoms</a> – compared with ketamine alone, which led to 10 days of reduced symptoms.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Researchers are exploring the potential of psychedelics to treat many mental health conditions.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Finally, there is increasing interest in using other medications with psychedelic properties to assist in psychotherapy. The therapeutic benefits of taking these <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-022-01363-y">psychedelic-assisted therapies</a> under medical supervision are attributed to the rapid <a href="https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1121-22.2022">neuroplasticity-enhancing</a> and consciousness-altering effects of drugs like psilocybin and MDMA. Researchers think these short-term effects foster new insights and perspectives that psychotherapists can help patients integrate into their permanent worldview.</p>
<p>There is great potential in neuroscience-guided ways to combine treatments. However, it’s important to note that different treatment approaches can occasionally work against each other, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(97)00084-6">lessening the long-term benefits of psychotherapy alone</a>. For example, one study on panic disorder found that patients who learned psychotherapy techniques while taking anti-anxiety medication had a <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/192707">greater chance of relapse</a> after discontinuing their use compared with those given psychotherapy alone.</p>
<p>Carefully designed clinical trials and long-term follow-ups are needed to fully understand how to combine the biological and the behavioral to develop treatments that are efficient, accessible, safe and enduring.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209200/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Price receives funding from the National Institute of Mental Health and the Laurel E. Zaks Memorial Research Fund and is named as the inventor on a University of Pittsburgh-owned patent filing relevant to synergistic bio-behavioral treatments for anxiety and depression.</span></em></p>Combining psychotherapy with medication can lead to more immediate and enduring results by boosting the brain’s neuroplasticity.Rebecca Price, Associate Professor of Psychiatry and Psychology, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2009812023-05-09T12:24:22Z2023-05-09T12:24:22ZMemories may be stored in the membranes of your neurons<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524523/original/file-20230504-21-f51zke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2130%2C1406&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Changes in the synapses between neurons is responsible for learning and memory.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/nerve-cells-and-electrical-pulses-royalty-free-illustration/758308889">KTSDESIGN/Science Photo Library via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Your brain is responsible for controlling most of your body’s activities. Its information processing capabilities are what allow you to learn, and it is the central repository of your memories. But how is memory formed, and where is it located in the brain? </p>
<p>Although neuroscientists have identified <a href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/chapter/parts-of-the-brain-involved-with-memory/">different regions of the brain</a> where memories are stored, such as the hippocampus in the middle of the brain, the neocortex in the top layer of the brain and the cerebellum at the base of the skull, they have yet to identify the specific molecular structures within those areas involved in memory and learning.</p>
<p>Research from our team of <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=o_qJUYIAAAAJ&hl=en">biophysicists</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=lFqiBd4AAAAJ&hl=en">physical chemists</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=2mXI8mUAAAAJ&hl=en">materials scientists</a> suggests that memory might be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2212195119">located in the membranes of neurons</a>.</p>
<p>Neurons are the fundamental working units of the brain. They are designed to transmit information to other cells, enabling the body to function. The junction between two neurons, called a synapse, and the chemistry that takes place between synapses, in the space called the synaptic cleft, are <a href="https://theconversation.com/where-are-memories-stored-in-the-brain-new-research-suggests-they-may-be-in-the-connections-between-your-brain-cells-174578">responsible for learning and memory</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524518/original/file-20230504-1253-pu06u5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram of neuronal synapse" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524518/original/file-20230504-1253-pu06u5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524518/original/file-20230504-1253-pu06u5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524518/original/file-20230504-1253-pu06u5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524518/original/file-20230504-1253-pu06u5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524518/original/file-20230504-1253-pu06u5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=698&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524518/original/file-20230504-1253-pu06u5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=698&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524518/original/file-20230504-1253-pu06u5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=698&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The space between two neurons is called a synapse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-introduction">OpenStax</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>At a more fundamental level, the synapse is made of two membranes: one associated with the presynaptic neuron that transmits information, and one associated with the postsynaptic neuron that receives information. Each membrane is made up of a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2017.10.017">lipid bilayer</a> containing proteins and other biomolecules. </p>
<p>The changes taking place between these two membranes, commonly known as <a href="https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/brain/brain-physiology/what-synaptic-plasticity#">synaptic plasticity</a>, are the primary mechanism for learning and memory. These include changes to the amounts of different proteins in the membranes, as well as the structure of the membranes themselves.</p>
<p>Synaptic plasticity can be classified as either being short term, lasting from milliseconds to a few minutes, or long term, lasting from minutes to hours or longer. The chemical processes occurring between the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes in short-term plasticity eventually lead to long-term synaptic plasticity.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Long-term potentiation is thought to be the physiological mechanism behind learning.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Since scientists think the main way the brain processes and stores information is through these <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-019-0048-y">long-term changes to the synapses</a>, we wondered if memory might be stored in the membrane’s lipid bilayer.</p>
<p>We found that exposing a model of a simple lipid bilayer to electrical stimulation – not unlike the stimulation used in studies of the brain – can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2212195119">trigger long-term changes</a>. What made this result unique was that we were able to generate changes in our simple membrane model without the neuronal proteins typically associated with it. Furthermore, long-term plasticity persisted in our model for almost 24 hours without any further electrical stimulation. This suggests that the neuronal membrane may be responsible for memory storage.</p>
<p>Our findings support the use of the lipid bilayer as a model for understanding the molecular basis of biological memory. It may also serve as a platform for <a href="https://theconversation.com/neuronlike-circuits-bring-brainlike-computers-a-step-closer-146659">neuromorphic computing</a>, in which the memory components of a computer are modeled after the structure and function of the human brain.</p>
<p>Finally, the lipid bilayer may also be a potential therapeutic target to treat different neurological conditions. Pinpointing where and how memory is stored in the brain will not only revolutionize how we understand learning and memory, it can also guide the development of new therapies for diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200981/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charles Patrick Collier receives funding from the Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and the Center for Nanophase Sciences (CNMS).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dima Bolmatov receives funding from the National Science Foundation, Division of Molecular and Cellular Biosciences (MCB).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Katsaras does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Pinpointing where memories are stored in the brain and how they are transmitted could provide new targets to treat neurological diseases and serve as models for neuromorphic computing.John Katsaras, Senior Scientist in Biological Systems at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Joint Faculty Professor in Physics and Astronomy, University of TennesseeCharles Patrick Collier, Research Scientist in Nanophase Materials Sciences, University of TennesseeDima Bolmatov, Ph.D., Research Assistant Professor in Physics, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2028502023-04-16T20:04:13Z2023-04-16T20:04:13ZTurning down the volume of pain – how to retrain your brain when you get sensitised<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519223/original/file-20230404-22-zg86ma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C7%2C5152%2C2902&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/close-up-photo-of-a-man-having-a-neck-pain-7298867/">Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For every feeling we experience, there is a lot of complex biology going on underneath our skin. </p>
<p>Pain involves our whole body. When faced with possible threats, the feeling of pain develops in a split second and can help us to “detect and protect”. But over time, our nerve cells can become over-sensitised. This means they can react more strongly and easily to something that normally wouldn’t hurt or would hurt less. This is called “<a href="https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2022/sensitization-why-everything-might-hurt/#:%7E:text=When%20neurons%20responsible%20for%20sensing,subset%20of%20chronic%20pain%20patients.">sensitisation</a>”.</p>
<p>Sensitisation can affect anyone, but some people may be more prone to it than others due to possible <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jabr.12137">genetic factors, environmental factors or previous experiences</a>. Sensitisation can contribute to chronic pain conditions like fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, migraine or low back pain.</p>
<p>But it might be possible to retrain our brains to manage or even reduce pain.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-in-three-people-with-chronic-pain-have-difficulty-accessing-ongoing-prescriptions-for-opioids-182678">One in three people with chronic pain have difficulty accessing ongoing prescriptions for opioids</a>
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<h2>‘Danger!’</h2>
<p>Our body senses possible threats via nerve endings called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/nociceptor">nociceptors</a>. We can think of these like a microphones transmitting the word “danger” through wires (nerves and the spinal cord) up to a speaker (the brain). If you sprain your ankle, a range of tiny chemical reactions start there. </p>
<p>When sensitisation happens in a sore body part, it’s like more microphones join in over a period of weeks or months. Now the messages can be transmitted up the wire more efficiently. The volume of the danger message gets turned way up. </p>
<p>Then, in the spinal cord, chemical reactions and the number of receptors there also adapt to this new demand. The more messages coming up, the more reactions triggered and the louder the messages sent on to the brain.</p>
<p>And sensitisation doesn’t always stop there. The brain can also crank the volume up by making use of more wires in the spinal cord that reach the speaker. This is one of the proposed mechanisms of central sensitisation. As time ticks on, a sensitised nervous system will create more and more feelings of pain, seemingly regardless of the amount of bodily damage at the initial site of pain. </p>
<p>When we are sensitised, we may experience pain that is out of proportion to the actual damage (<a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/hyperalgesia">hyperalgesia</a>), pain that spreads to other areas of the body (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4327510/">referred pain</a>), pain that lasts a long time (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5573040/">chronic or persistent pain</a>), or pain triggered by harmless things like touch, pressure or temperature (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537129/#:%7E:text=Allodynia%20is%20defined%20as%20%22pain,produce%20sensation%2C%20causing%20pain.">allodynia</a>). </p>
<p>Because pain is a biopsychosocial experience (biological and psychological and social), we may also feel other symptoms like fatigue, mood changes, sleep problems or difficulty concentrating.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519224/original/file-20230404-22-i5kx7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="little girl clutches tummy in pain" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519224/original/file-20230404-22-i5kx7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519224/original/file-20230404-22-i5kx7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519224/original/file-20230404-22-i5kx7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519224/original/file-20230404-22-i5kx7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519224/original/file-20230404-22-i5kx7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519224/original/file-20230404-22-i5kx7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519224/original/file-20230404-22-i5kx7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Community education about pain might teach good habits from an early age.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/little-asian-girl-have-stomach-ache-2192335661">Shutterstock</a></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/for-people-with-chronic-pain-flexibility-and-persistence-can-protect-wellbeing-199008">For people with chronic pain, flexibility and persistence can protect wellbeing</a>
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<h2>Neuroplasticity</h2>
<p>Around the clock, our bodies and brain are constantly changing and adapting. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557811/">Neuroplasticity</a> is when the brain changes in response to experiences, good or bad. </p>
<p>Pain science research suggests we may be able to <a href="https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/retraining-brain-treat-chronic-pain">retrain</a> ourselves to improve wellbeing and take advantage of neuroplasticity. There are some promising approaches that target the mechanisms behind sensitisation and aim to reverse them.</p>
<p>One example is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21306870/">graded motor imagery</a>. This technique uses mental and physical exercises like identifying left and right limbs, imagery and <a href="https://www.physio-pedia.com/Mirror_Therapy">mirror box therapy</a>. It has been <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/24740527.2023.2188899">tested</a> for conditions like <a href="https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/complex-regional-pain-syndrome">complex regional pain syndrome</a> (a condition that causes severe pain and swelling in a limb after an injury or surgery) and in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448188/#:%7E:text=Phantom%20limb%20pain%20is%20the,underlying%20pathophysiology%20remains%20poorly%20understood.">phantom limb pain</a> after amputation. Very gradual exposure to increasing stimuli may be behind these positive effects on a sensitised nervous system. While results are promising, more research is needed to confirm its benefits and better understand how it works. The same possible mechanisms of graded exposure underpin some recently developed <a href="https://mhealth.jmir.org/2019/2/e13080/">apps</a> for sufferers.</p>
<p>Exercise can also retrain the nervous system. Regular physical activity can <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.01317.2012">decrease the sensitivity</a> of our nervous system by changing processes at a cellular level, seemingly re-calibrating danger message transmission. Importantly, exercise doesn’t have to be high intensity or involve going to the gym. Low-impact activities such as walking, swimming, or yoga can be effective in reducing nervous system sensitivity, possibly by providing new evidence of perceived <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002244">safety</a>.</p>
<p>Researchers are exploring whether learning about the science of pain and changing the way we think about it may foster self-management skills, like pacing activities and graded exposure to things that have been painful in the past. Understanding how pain is felt and why we feel it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1756-185X.14293">can help</a> improve function, reduce fear and lower anxiety. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-what-causes-headaches-42254">Health Check: what causes headaches?</a>
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<h2>But don’t go it alone</h2>
<p>If you have chronic or severe pain that interferes with your daily life, you should consult a health professional like a doctor and/or a pain specialist who can diagnose your condition and prescribe appropriate active treatments. </p>
<p>In Australia, a range of <a href="https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/212772/ACI-chronic-pain-services.pdf">multidisciplinary pain clinics</a> offer physical therapies like exercise, psychological therapies like mindfulness and cognitive behavioural therapy. Experts can also help you make lifestyle changes to improve <a href="https://painhealth.csse.uwa.edu.au/pain-module/sleep-and-pain/">sleep</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8584994/">diet</a> to manage and reduce pain. A multi-pronged approach makes the most sense given the complexity of the underlying biology.</p>
<p>Education could help develop <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0738399121006467">pain literacy and healthy habits</a> to prevent sensitisation, even from a young age. Resources, such as children’s books, videos, and board games, are being developed and tested to improve <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2022.07.008">consumer and community understanding</a>.</p>
<p>Pain is not a feeling anyone should have to suffer in silence or endure alone. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-tips-for-building-kids-resilience-after-bumps-scrapes-and-other-minor-injuries-187022">5 tips for building kids' resilience after bumps, scrapes and other minor injuries</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202850/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joshua Pate is the author of the pain science children's book series titled Zoe and Zak's Pain Hacks.</span></em></p>‘Sensitisation’ can affect anyone, but some people may be more prone to it than others due to genetic factors, environmental factors or previous experiences.Joshua Pate, Senior Lecturer in Physiotherapy, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1944172022-12-05T13:28:18Z2022-12-05T13:28:18ZShorter days affect the mood of millions of Americans – a nutritional neuroscientist offers tips on how to avoid the winter blues<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496594/original/file-20221121-18490-5tf8u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C5742%2C3837&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">For those prone to seasonal affective disorder, a shift in the sleep cycle can impact energy levels.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/girl-alone-royalty-free-image/1129211268?phrase=seasonal%20affective%20disorder&adppopup=true">Ben Akiba/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The annual pattern of winter depression and melancholy – better known as <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seasonal-affective-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20364651">seasonal affective disorder, or SAD</a> – suggests a strong link between your mood and the amount of light you get during the day. </p>
<p>To put it simply: The less light exposure one has, the more one’s mood may decline.</p>
<p>Wintertime blues are common, but about 10 million Americans are affected every year by a longer lasting depression called <a href="https://www.bu.edu/articles/2019/seasonal-affective-disorder/">seasonal affective disorder</a>. Along with low mood, symptoms include anxious feelings, low self-esteem, longer sleep duration, constant craving for carbohydrates and low physical activity levels.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/decker/health-wellness-studies/profile.html?id=lina">I am a nutritional neuroscientist</a>, and my research focuses on the effects of diet and lifestyle factors on <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=sOMbzQ0AAAAJ&hl=en">mood and brain functions</a> such as mental distress, resilience and motivation. </p>
<p>Through my research, I have learned that seasonal affective disorder can strike anyone. However, people with a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0447.2000.101003176.x">history of mood disorders are at a higher risk</a>. In particular, young adults and women of all ages <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100157">have an increased susceptibility</a>. </p>
<h2>Why seasonal depression happens</h2>
<p>When daylight saving time ends each fall, the one-hour shift backward reduces the amount of light exposure most people receive in a 24-hour cycle. As the days get shorter, people can experience general moodiness or a longer-term depression that is tied to a shorter exposure to daylight.</p>
<p>This happens due to a misalignment between the sleep-wake cycle, eating schedules and other daily tasks. Research shows that this mismatch may be associated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-0694-0">with poor mental health outcomes</a>, such as anxiety and depression. </p>
<p>Our sleep-wake cycle is controlled by the <a href="https://nigms.nih.gov/education/fact-sheets/Pages/circadian-rhythms.aspx">circadian rhythm</a>, an internal clock regulated by light and darkness. Like a regular clock, it <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-night-shift-increase-the-risk-of-cancer-diabetes-and-heart-disease-heres-what-we-know-so-far-190652">resets nearly every 24 hours </a> and controls metabolism, growth and hormone release. </p>
<p>When our brain receives signals of limited daylight, it <a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/melatonin-what-you-need-to-know">releases the hormone melatonin to support sleep</a> – even though we still have hours left before the typical bedtime. This can then affect how much energy we have, and when and how much we eat. It can also alter the brain’s ability to adapt to changes in environment. This process, called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/neuronal-plasticity">neuronal plasticity</a>, involves the growth and organization of neural networks. This is crucial for brain repair, maintenance and overall function.</p>
<p>It is possible to <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seasonal-affective-disorder/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20364722">readjust the circadian rhythm</a> to better align with the new light and dark schedule. This means getting daylight exposure as soon as possible upon waking up, as well as maintaining sleep, exercise and eating routines that are more in sync with your routine prior to the time change. Eventually, people can gradually transition into the new schedule. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Sleeping too much or too little, bingeing on junk food and withdrawing from others are three symptoms of seasonal affective disorder.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The intimate connection between serotonin and melatonin</h2>
<p>Serotonin is a chemical messenger in the brain that is a key player in regulating several functions such as <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22572-serotonin#">mood, appetite and the circadian rhythm</a>. Serotonin also converts to melatonin with lower light intensity. As mentioned above, melatonin is a hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and signals the brain that it’s time to sleep.</p>
<p>Less daylight exposure during winter months leads to the conversion of serotonin into melatonin <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7434030">earlier in the evening</a>, since it gets dark earlier. As a result, this untimely melatonin release causes a disruption in the sleep-wake cycle. For some people this can cause moodiness, daytime sleepiness and loss of appetite regulation, typically leading to unhealthy snacking. People with seasonal affective disorder often <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7634(02)00004-0">crave foods rich in simple sugars, such as sweets</a>, because there is an intimate connection between <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/cdn/nzab049_009">carbohydrate consumption, appetite regulation and sleep</a>. </p>
<h2>Strategies to combat the winter blues</h2>
<p>In winter, most people leave work when it’s turning dark. For this reason, <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seasonal-affective-disorder/in-depth/seasonal-affective-disorder-treatment/art-20048298">light therapy is typically recommended</a> for those who experience seasonal affective disorder, or even shorter periods of seasonal funk. </p>
<p>This can be as simple as getting some light shortly after awakening. Try to get at least one hour of natural light during the early morning hours, preferably about <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/emres/longhourstraining/light.html#:%7E:">one hour after your usual morning wake-up time</a> when the circadian clock is most sensitive to light. This is true no matter what your wake-up time is, as long as it’s morning. For people living at northern latitudes where there’s very little sun in winter, light therapy boxes – <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seasonal-affective-disorder/in-depth/seasonal-affective-disorder-treatment/art-20048298">which replicate outdoor light</a> – can be effective. </p>
<p>You can also improve your sleep quality by avoiding stimulants like coffee, tea or heavy meals close to bedtime. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1113/JP276943">Exercising during the day is also good</a> – it increases serotonin production and supports circadian regulation. A balanced diet of complex carbs and healthy proteins <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2022.01.007">supports steady serotonin and melatonin production</a>, and practicing downtime before bed can reduce stress. </p>
<p>Taking these small steps may help the circadian rhythm adjust faster. For the millions with mood disorders, that could mean happier times during what are literally the darkest days.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194417/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lina Begdache does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research shows that young adults and women are particularly susceptible to seasonal affective disorder.Lina Begdache, Associate Professor of Health and Wellness Studies, Binghamton University, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1919992022-11-30T13:35:24Z2022-11-30T13:35:24ZFatherhood changes men’s brains, according to before-and-after MRI scans<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497703/original/file-20221128-25-czgjjr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=233%2C363%2C990%2C527&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fathers' brains adjust their structure and function to parenthood</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">María Paternina-Die</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The time fathers devote to child care every week has <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/12/fathers-day-facts/">tripled over the past 50 years</a> in the United States. The increase in fathers’ involvement in child rearing is even steeper in countries that have expanded paid paternity leave or created incentives for fathers to take leave, such as <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3273712">Germany</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00016993211008517">Spain</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279419000230">Sweden</a> and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26727040">Iceland</a>. And a growing body of research finds that children with engaged fathers do better on a range of outcomes, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2018.03.011">physical health</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12532">cognitive performance</a>. </p>
<p>Despite dads’ rising participation in child care and their importance in the lives of their kids, there is surprisingly little research about how fatherhood affects men. Even fewer studies focus on the brain and biological changes that might support fathering. </p>
<p>It is no surprise that the transition to parenthood can be transformative for anyone with a new baby. For women who become biological mothers, pregnancy-related hormonal changes help to explain why a new mother’s brain might change. But does fatherhood reshape the brains and bodies of men – who don’t experience pregnancy directly – in ways that motivate their parenting? We set out to investigate this question in our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhac333">recent study of first-time fathers</a> in two countries.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498065/original/file-20221129-18-6991vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="pregnant woman looks at strollers in a store" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498065/original/file-20221129-18-6991vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498065/original/file-20221129-18-6991vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498065/original/file-20221129-18-6991vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498065/original/file-20221129-18-6991vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498065/original/file-20221129-18-6991vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498065/original/file-20221129-18-6991vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498065/original/file-20221129-18-6991vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">While the baby grows inside the mother-to-be, biological changes prepare the woman for motherhood.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/pregnant-woman-looking-at-strollers-royalty-free-image/498116621">Orbon Alija/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Pregnancy’s effect on a new mom’s brain</h2>
<p>Recent research has found compelling evidence that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-33884-8">pregnancy can enhance neuroplasticity</a>, or remodeling, in the structures of a woman’s brain. Using <a href="https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/magnetic-resonance-imaging-mri">magnetic resonance imaging</a>, researchers have identified large-scale changes in the anatomy of women’s brains from before to after pregnancy.</p>
<p>In one study, researchers in Spain scanned first-time mothers before conceiving, and again at two months after they gave birth. Compared with childless women, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4458">new mothers’ brain volume was smaller</a>, suggesting that key brain structures actually shrank in size across pregnancy and the early postpartum period. The brain changes were so pronounced that an algorithm could easily differentiate the brain of a woman who had gone through a pregnancy from that of a woman with no children. </p>
<p>All across the brain, these changes are visible in gray matter, the layer of tissue in the brain that is rich with neurons. Pregnancy appears to affect structures in the cortex – the most recently evolved, outer surface of the brain – including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000303">regions linked with thinking about others’ minds</a>, a process that researchers call “theory of mind.” Mothers also show brain changes in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2016.163">subcortex</a> – the more ancient structures nestled deeper within the brain that are linked with more primitive functions, including emotion and motivation. </p>
<p>Why do these structural brain changes happen after pregnancy?</p>
<p>Researchers believe these brain changes may facilitate mothers’ sensitive caregiving of newborns, who demand constant attention and cannot verbalize their needs. Indeed, when mothers see photos or videos of their own infants, it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2015.04.004">activates many of the same brain regions</a> that changed the most across pregnancy. It seems plausible that new mothers’ brains change in ways that help them to respond to and care for their newborns. </p>
<p>But what about fathers? They do not experience pregnancy directly, but may take care of the new baby, too.</p>
<h2>Dads’ brains change, too</h2>
<p>As with practicing any new skill, the experience of caring for an infant might leave a mark on the brains of new parents. This is what neuroscientists call experience-induced brain plasticity – like the brain changes that occur when you learn a new language or master a new musical instrument. </p>
<p>A sparse but growing body of research is observing this type of plasticity in fathers who experience the cognitive, physical and emotional demands of caring for a newborn without going through pregnancy. In terms of brain function, for instance, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1402569111">gay male fathers who are primary caregivers</a> show stronger connections between parenting brain regions when viewing their infants, compared with secondary male caregivers.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498067/original/file-20221129-14-l5ze9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="view from above of the shaved head of a man holding a newborn" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498067/original/file-20221129-14-l5ze9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498067/original/file-20221129-14-l5ze9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498067/original/file-20221129-14-l5ze9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498067/original/file-20221129-14-l5ze9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498067/original/file-20221129-14-l5ze9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498067/original/file-20221129-14-l5ze9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498067/original/file-20221129-14-l5ze9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scientists are interested in what spending more time with a newborn means for a father’s brain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/newborn-baby-sleeping-in-fathers-arms-royalty-free-image/1263047151">Cavan Images via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To learn more about plasticity in new dads’ brains, our research groups <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/nestlab">at the University of Southern California</a> in Los Angeles and the <a href="https://neuromaternal.github.io">Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón</a> in Madrid, associated with the <a href="https://bemother.eu/">BeMother project</a>, collaborated on a new study. We recruited 40 men – 20 in Spain and 20 in California – and put each into an MRI scanner twice: first during their partner’s pregnancy, and again after their baby was 6 months old. We also included a control group of 17 childless men.</p>
<p>We found several <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhac333">significant changes in the brains of fathers</a> from prenatal to postpartum that did not emerge within the childless men we followed across the same time period. In both the Spanish and Californian samples, fathers’ brain changes appeared in regions of the cortex that contribute to visual processing, attention and empathy toward the baby. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498070/original/file-20221129-12-qkthmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="baby and man peeking into a cardboard box" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498070/original/file-20221129-12-qkthmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498070/original/file-20221129-12-qkthmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498070/original/file-20221129-12-qkthmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498070/original/file-20221129-12-qkthmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498070/original/file-20221129-12-qkthmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498070/original/file-20221129-12-qkthmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498070/original/file-20221129-12-qkthmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s not clear yet whether simply spending more time parenting changes fathers’ brains or the changes occur in men who are more motivated to spend time parenting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/found-a-secret-hideout-spot-royalty-free-image/1163767427">AJ_Watt/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What remolds a new father’s brain?</h2>
<p>The degree of brain plasticity in fathers may be linked with how much they interact with their baby. Although fathers in many parts of the world are increasingly taking part in child care, paternal involvement varies widely across different men. This range of involvement may explain why we found more subtle brain changes in these fathers compared with those observed in first-time mothers. In fact, brain changes in fathers were almost half the magnitude of the changes observed in the mothers.</p>
<p>Social, cultural and psychological factors that determine how much fathers engage with their children may, in turn, influence changes to the fathering brain. Indeed, Spanish fathers, who, on average, have <a href="https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=6635241">more generous paternity leaves</a> than fathers have in the U.S., displayed more pronounced changes in brain regions that support goal-directed attention, which may help fathers attune to their infants’ cues, compared with Californian fathers.</p>
<p>This finding raises the question of whether family policies that boost how much time dads spend on infant care during the early postpartum period may help support the development of the fathering brain. On the flip side, perhaps men who show more remodeling of the brain and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.07.005">hormones</a> are also more motivated to participate in hands-on care.</p>
<p>Much more research is needed to tease out these questions and to figure out how best to intervene with fathers who may be at risk of having trouble adjusting to the parenting role. Despite the importance of fathers to child development, funding agencies have not tended to prioritize research on men becoming dads, but this may start to change as more findings like these emerge. Future studies with more detailed measures of postpartum caregiving can reveal more about parental brain plasticity in both men and women.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191999/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Darby Saxbe receives funding from the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Magdalena Martínez García received funding from Instituto de Salud Carlos III and the Fulbright Commission. </span></em></p>Neuroscientists know that pregnant mothers’ brains change in ways that appear to help with caring for a baby. Now researchers have identified changes in new fathers’ brains, too.Darby Saxbe, Associate Professor of Psychology, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and SciencesMagdalena Martínez García, Doctoral Student of Neuroimaging, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón IiSGM Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1909502022-09-22T18:08:48Z2022-09-22T18:08:48ZKetamine paired with looking at smiling faces to build positive associations holds promise for helping people with treatment-resistant depression<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485716/original/file-20220920-14233-xe0rz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C0%2C6699%2C4476&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some of the positive photos used in the study were similar to this one -- a group of smiling strangers.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/successful-business-team-taking-selfie-royalty-free-image/1132119295?adppopup=true">Luis Alvarez/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Simple computer exercises using positive words and images designed to boost self-worth can prolong the antidepressant effects of ketamine in people with depression. That’s what my research team and I found <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.20220216">in our new study</a>.</p>
<p>Over two decades ago, researchers serendipitously discovered that intravenous ketamine, a widely used anesthetic medication that has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2044.2007.05298.x">shown to be safe</a> when administered under medical supervision, had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(99)00230-9">rapid-acting antidepressant effects</a> when given at lower doses than is used for anesthesia. </p>
<p>Our study included 154 adult patients with depression. One-third received a single infusion of ketamine and returned a day later to begin four consecutive days – about 30 to 40 minutes total each day – of our novel digital exercises. That is, we showed them repeated pairings of self-related words and images – such as the letter “I” and photos of the patient – paired up repeatedly with positive cues. These include positive words like “good,” “sweet” and “lovable” as well as photos of strangers smiling.</p>
<p>We targeted this period of time within five days of ketamine because we expected ketamine would quickly help restore the brain’s healthy capacity to adjust and learn in response to the environment. The specific exercises we used were designed based on our prior work showing that, shortly after a ketamine infusion, thought patterns related to oneself <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22253">may become less “stuck”</a> and be more malleable, creating a window of opportunity to improve a person’s sense of self-worth.</p>
<p>The other two-thirds of patients went into one of our two control groups: those who received ketamine followed by a neutral, or placebo, version of computer training, and those who received a saline infusion followed by the real training exercises. </p>
<p>We found that after just a single intravenous infusion of ketamine, patients experienced relief from depression symptoms for at least one month as long as they were assigned to the group that completed the digital exercises within the first five days. Compared with those in the control saline group, both of the groups that received a ketamine infusion experienced substantial relief from depression on the first day, prior to any computer training. </p>
<p>However, whereas the control group who went on to receive the “sham” computer training began to experience the return of depression symptoms in the subsequent 1.5 weeks or so, the group that received ketamine followed by exposure to positive conditioning continued to report decreased depression severity all the way out to the last follow-up interview, one month after ketamine. </p>
<p>The people who got digital training in the absence of ketamine had very little relief from their depression.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/a1Y1ocyudjs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">More than 20 million U.S. adults and 4 million adolescents have had at least one major depressive episode, according to the National Institute of Mental Health.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Depression is a highly prevalent and disabling condition that exacts a staggering burden on patients, families and communities. </p>
<p>Globally, <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression">an estimated 280 million people</a> experience depression. There are <a href="https://doi.org/10.7326/AITC202105180">numerous effective treatments</a> for depression, including <a href="https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng222">antidepressant medications and psychotherapy</a>. </p>
<p>However, unfortunately, not all patients <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.11.1905">are helped by such treatments</a>. And accessing them initially, as well as maintaining them over the long haul can be challenging for many patients.</p>
<p>The discovery of ketamine’s rapid-acting antidepressant effects opened up a brand new possibility within psychiatry to begin relieving symptoms within a day. Conventional treatments typically take six to eight weeks to reach a therapeutic effect.</p>
<p>However, a key question is how to keep that relief going without relying solely on repeated ketamine infusions. These can be burdensome and costly for patients and health care systems, and it is important to consider <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13101434">possible risks</a>, such as the potential for drug misuse. </p>
<p>Our study is the first to demonstrate that the rapid effects of ketamine can be made more enduring with simple, portable and automated techniques that would be relatively easy to provide to patients in a wide range of settings. </p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>Our initial findings suggest the positive conditioning exercises tripled – at a minimum – the duration of ketamine’s effects. But we don’t yet know how much longer the relief from depressive symptoms may have continued. </p>
<p>Patients in our trial will continue to complete questionnaires about their depression symptoms for an entire year following the infusion, enabling us to gain an initial understanding of just how long this benefit may endure.</p>
<p>Ongoing research is exploring whether <a href="https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04578938">similar techniques might help ease suicidality</a>, in the hopes of providing relief in the midst of a suicidal crisis that is both immediate and enduring. Other future research may expand these techniques to additional common forms of psychological suffering, such as anxiety, disordered eating and more.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190950/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Price receives funding from the National Institute of Mental Health.
Dr. Price is the named inventor on a University of Pittsburgh–owned provisional patent filing related to the combination intervention described in this report.</span></em></p>In a new study, a single infusion of the antidepressant – along with repeated exposure to positive imagery – significantly reduced symptoms in depressed patients in a clinical trial.Rebecca Price, Associate Professor of Psychiatry and Psychology, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1872852022-07-20T03:05:52Z2022-07-20T03:05:52ZGame of Thrones star Emilia Clarke is missing ‘quite a bit’ of her brain. How can people survive and thrive after brain injury?<p>In a recent <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m0019f3z/sunday-morning-17072022">interview</a>, Game of Thrones star Emilia Clarke spoke about being able to live “completely normally” after two aneurysms – one in <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/culture/personal-history/emilia-clarke-a-battle-for-my-life-brain-aneurysm-surgery-game-of-thrones">2011 and one in 2013</a> – that caused brain injury. She went on to have two brain surgeries.</p>
<p>An aneurysm is a bulge or ballooning in the wall of a blood vessel, often accompanied by severe headache or pain. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1548671018499194883"}"></div></p>
<p>So how can people survive and thrive despite having, as Clarke <a href="https://www.marieclaire.com.au/emilia-clarke-aneurysm">put</a> it, “quite a bit missing” from their brain?</p>
<p>The key to understanding how brains can recover from trauma is that they are fantastically plastic – meaning our body’s supercomputer can reshape and remodel itself.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/growing-up-in-a-disadvantaged-neighbourhood-can-change-kids-brains-and-their-reactions-184145">Growing up in a disadvantaged neighbourhood can change kids' brains – and their reactions</a>
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</em>
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<hr>
<h2>Our fantastically plastic brains</h2>
<p>Brains can adapt and change in incredible ways. Yours is doing it right now as you form new memories. </p>
<p>It’s not that the brain has evolved to deal with brain trauma or stroke or aneurysms; our ancestors normally died when that happened and may not have gone on to reproduce. In fact, we evolved very thick skulls to try to prevent brain trauma happening at all.</p>
<p>No, this <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncel.2019.00066/full">neural plasticity</a> is a result of our brains evolving to be learning machines. They allow us to adapt to changing environments, to facilitate learning, memory and flexibility. This functionality also means the brain can adapt after certain injuries, finding new pathways to function.</p>
<p>A lot of organs wouldn’t recover at all after serious damage. But the brain keeps developing through life. At a microscopic level, you’re changing the brain to make new memories every day.</p>
<p>This extraordinary kilogram and a half of soft tissue sitting in your skull – with more power and capacity than even the most powerful supercomputer – has an incredible ability to adapt.</p>
<h2>What does it mean to say parts of the brain are ‘missing’?</h2>
<p>The brain needs a constant and steady <a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/news/story/study-reveals-brains-finely-tuned-system-of-energy-supply#:%7E:text=In%20fact%2C%20the%20brain's%20oxygen,brain%20activity%20and%20blood%20flow.">supply</a> of oxygenated blood. When it is injured – for example by an aneurysm, sudden impact against the inside of the skull, stroke or surgery – oxygen supply can be interrupted. </p>
<p>Sometimes, a piece is surgically <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/she-was-missing-a-chunk-of-her-brain-it-didnt-matter/">removed</a> or a region dies off due to lack of oxygen.</p>
<p>For example, sometimes a person with epilepsy doesn’t respond to drugs. Thanks to extraordinary brain imaging techniques, we can potentially work out the exact place in the brain the seizure is starting and remove part of the brain. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="CT brain scans" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">CT scans can reveal ‘missing’ sections of brain due to injury or shrinkage.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://image.shutterstock.com/image-photo/closeup-ct-scan-brain-600w-298101074.jpg">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/brain-stimulation-can-rewire-and-heal-damaged-neural-connections-but-it-isnt-clear-how-research-suggests-personalization-may-be-key-to-more-effective-therapies-182491">Brain stimulation can rewire and heal damaged neural connections, but it isn't clear how – research suggests personalization may be key to more effective therapies</a>
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</em>
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<hr>
<h2>So how does the brain adapt after injury?</h2>
<p>Your brain has about 100 billion neurons and over a trillion synapses (a junction between two neurons, across which an electrical impulse is transmitted). They are constantly rewiring themselves in response to new experiences, to store and retrieve information.</p>
<p>With brain injury, the changes can be bigger; you get certain rewiring around the injury. These synapses can rearrange themselves to work around the damaged part.</p>
<p>Axons (long, threadlike parts of a nerve cell that can conduct electrical impulses) form nerve fibres that get sent out to new spots in response to signals they are getting from the damaged area. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram of components of brain tissue." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Your brain has about 100 billion neurons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But there’s another form of plasticity called <a href="https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/brain-physiology/what-neurogenesis#:%7E:text=Neurogenesis%20is%20the%20process%20by,birth%20and%20throughout%20our%20lifespan.">neurogenesis</a>. This involves little pockets in the brain where new neurons continue to be born throughout life. And there’s <a href="https://florey.edu.au/science-research/research-teams/stem-cells-and-neural-development-laboratory">evidence</a> that after brain injury these neural stem cells can be stimulated and migrate to the area of injury and make new neurons. </p>
<p>Neurorehabilitation might include physical rehabilitation and speech rehabilitation. And there is also <a href="https://florey.edu.au/science-research/research-teams/epigenetics-and-neural-plasticity-laboratory">research</a> into using drugs to enhance neuroplasticity. That might also apply to slower forms of degeneration such as in Parkinson’s or Huntington’s disease.</p>
<p>As Clarke notes, not everyone has a significant recovery after traumatic brain injury; a lot of people experience ongoing disability. </p>
<p>Many factors affect the way the brain responds to rehabilitation, including the extent and position of the brain injury, genetics, lifestyle and life history.</p>
<p>Some people also experience personality change after a traumatic brain injury.</p>
<p>The textbook case was <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/phineas-gage-2795244">Phineas Gage</a>, who was involved in an accident in the 1840s that saw a metal rod thrust through his head, destroying a large part of his frontal lobe. He was able to survive and recover but his personality changed. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/post-covid-psychosis-occurs-in-people-with-no-prior-history-the-risk-is-low-but-episodes-are-frightening-179193">Post-COVID psychosis occurs in people with no prior history. The risk is low but episodes are frightening</a>
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</p>
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<h2>What can you do to give your brain its best chance in life?</h2>
<p>I want to end with a message about the five factors of brain health: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>diet: emerging <a href="https://florey.edu.au/events/diet-evolution-gut-health-and-brain-function">evidence</a> shows a relationship between brain health and body health, including your gut microbiome, so ensuring your diet is broadly healthy is good for your brain, as well as the rest of your body</p></li>
<li><p>stress: high levels of chronic stress can be <a href="https://florey.edu.au/science-research/research-projects/defining-the-effects-of-stress-versus-hyperarousal-on-tauopathy-in-alzheime">bad for the brain</a></p></li>
<li><p>sleep: we know good <a href="https://florey.edu.au/science-research/research-teams/sleep-and-cognition">sleep hygiene</a> is very important for a healthy brain</p></li>
<li><p>cognitive or mental <a href="https://florey.edu.au/events/nature-nurture-and-neuroscience-brain-plasticity-in-health-and-disease">exercise</a>: this is uniquely beneficial for the brain and can potentially slow brain ageing</p></li>
<li><p>physical exercise: <a href="https://florey.edu.au/about/news-media/latest-florey-public-lecture-nature-nurture-and-neuroplasticity-now-availab">physical activity</a> is as good for your brain as it is for your body.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>Even though you can’t do anything about your genetics, you can change your lifestyle to give your brain its best chance and potentially slow down brain ageing.</p>
<p>The healthier your brain is, the more likely it will be able to rewire itself and heal if injured, and be resilient to the negative aspects of brain ageing, such as Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia, so these can be delayed or prevented.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-it-about-the-human-brain-that-makes-us-smarter-than-other-animals-new-research-gives-intriguing-answer-183848">What is it about the human brain that makes us smarter than other animals? New research gives intriguing answer</a>
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</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187285/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony Hannan receives funding from the NHMRC and the ARC and some philanthropic funding for medical research.
</span></em></p>The key to understanding how brains can recover from trauma is that they are fantastically plastic – meaning our body’s supercomputer can reshape and remodel itself.Anthony Hannan, Professor and Head of Epigenetics and Neural Plasticity, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental HealthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1653422021-08-19T10:43:09Z2021-08-19T10:43:09ZThe biological switch that could turn neuroplasticity on and off in the brain – podcast<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416766/original/file-20210818-27-1r7iutw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=161%2C224%2C5757%2C3592&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Astrocytes: these cells could be part of the key to unlocking the mystery of how brains change their structure. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/astrocytes-brain-glial-cells-3d-illustration-1412136197">Kateryna Kon/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/the-conversation-weekly-98901">The Conversation Weekly</a> podcast is taking a short break in August. For the next few weeks we’re bringing you extended versions of some our favourite interviews from the past few months.</em></p>
<p>This week, how researchers discovered a biological switch that could turn neuroplasticity on and off in the brain. What might that mean?</p>
<iframe src="https://embed.acast.com/60087127b9687759d637bade/611e21c02e233c0012a94ae4" frameborder="0" width="100%" height="190px"></iframe>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-561" class="tc-infographic" height="100" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/561/4fbbd099d631750693d02bac632430b71b37cd5f/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Neuroplasticity is the ability of neurons in the brain to change their structure. It’s what allows the brains of young animals to change more easily than brains of old animals – and it’s one of the reasons why it’s easier for children to learn languages than adults. </p>
<p>There’s still a lot researchers don’t know about this critical function of the brain. But we do know that many diseases are caused by too little or too much neuroplasticity, and so being able to dial it up or down could have some really important medical benefits. </p>
<p>Sarah Ackerman, a postdoctoral fellow at the Institute of Neuroscience and Howard Hughes Medical Institute at the University of Oregon, studies fruit flies and the mechanisms that turn neuroplasticity on and off in their brains. She talked to us about her team’s <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03441-2">new research findings</a> into how these changes are controlled by a type of brain cell called astrocytes. The goal is to help fight diseases, but this work could also potentially unlock the superpowered learning that comes with a malleable brain. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/astrocyte-cells-in-the-fruit-fly-brain-are-an-on-off-switch-that-controls-when-neurons-can-change-and-grow-158601">Astrocyte cells in the fruit fly brain are an on-off switch that controls when neurons can change and grow</a>
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<p>This episode of The Conversation Weekly features an extended version of an interview <a href="https://theconversation.com/scotland-why-may-election-is-crucial-for-independence-movement-and-the-uk-podcast-159883">first published on April 29</a>. The episode was produced by Mend Mariwany and Gemma Ware, with sound design by Eloise Stevens. Our theme music is by Neeta Sarl. You can find us on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/TC_Audio">@TC_Audio</a>, on Instagram at <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/?hl=en">theconversationdotcom</a>. or via email on podcast@theconversation.com. You can also sign up to <a href="https://theconversation.com/newsletter?utm_campaign=PodcastTCWeekly&utm_content=newsletter&utm_source=podcast">The Conversation’s free daily email here</a>.</p>
<p><em>You can listen to The Conversation Weekly via any of the apps listed above, download it directly via our <a href="https://feeds.acast.com/public/shows/60087127b9687759d637bade">RSS feed</a>, or find out how else to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-listen-to-the-conversations-podcasts-154131">listen here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165342/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
From the archive: new research helps unpick clues about the brain’s ability to change its structure. Listen to The Conversation Weekly podcast.Gemma Ware, Head of AudioDaniel Merino, Associate Breaking News Editor and Co-Host of The Conversation Weekly PodcastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1642972021-07-27T12:02:58Z2021-07-27T12:02:58ZSwimming gives your brain a boost – but scientists don’t know yet why it’s better than other aerobic activities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412486/original/file-20210721-15-ncfqn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C232%2C5143%2C2923&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Swimming offers a host of beneficial effects on the brain.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/man-swimming-crawl-leaving-streaks-of-light-royalty-free-image/537601927?adppopup=true">Stanislaw Pytel/Stone via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s no secret that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.03.018">aerobic exercise can help</a> stave off <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.00667">some of the ravages</a> of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/japa.2016-0362">aging</a>. But a <a href="https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.14851">growing body of research</a> suggests that swimming might provide a unique boost to brain health.</p>
<p>Regular swimming has been shown to improve <a href="https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.14851">memory</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.14247">cognitive function</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2018.10.005">immune response</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.12965/jer.2040216.108">mood</a>. Swimming may also help repair damage from stress and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/hipo.20679">forge new neural connections</a> in the brain. </p>
<p>But scientists are still trying to unravel how and why swimming, in particular, produces these brain-enhancing effects. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Seena+S.+Mathew+">neurobiologist trained in brain physiology</a>, a fitness enthusiast and a mom, I spend hours at the local pool during the summer. It’s not unusual to see children gleefully splashing and swimming while their parents sunbathe at a distance – and I’ve been one of those parents observing from the poolside plenty of times. But if more adults recognized the cognitive and mental health benefits of swimming, they might be more inclined to jump in the pool alongside their kids.</p>
<h2>New and improved brain cells and connections</h2>
<p>Until the 1960s, scientists believed that the number of neurons and synaptic connections in the human brain <a href="https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Life-and-Death-Neuron">were finite</a> and that, once damaged, these brain cells could not be replaced. But that idea was debunked as researchers began to see ample evidence for the birth of neurons, or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.135.3509.1127">neurogenesis</a>, in adult brains of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00319">humans and other animals</a>.</p>
<p>Now, there is clear evidence that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1113/JP272761">aerobic exercise</a> can contribute to neurogenesis and play a key role in helping to reverse or repair <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.191640">damage to neurons and their connections</a> in both mammals and fish. </p>
<p>Research shows that one of the key ways these changes occur in response to exercise is through increased levels of a protein called <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00363">brain-derived neurotrophic factor</a>. The neural plasticity, or ability of the brain to change, that this protein stimulates has been shown to boost <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.03.018">cognitive function</a>, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.12965/jer.2040216.108">learning and memory</a>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412503/original/file-20210721-23-lw2rmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Smiling child in swimming pool" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412503/original/file-20210721-23-lw2rmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412503/original/file-20210721-23-lw2rmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412503/original/file-20210721-23-lw2rmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412503/original/file-20210721-23-lw2rmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412503/original/file-20210721-23-lw2rmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412503/original/file-20210721-23-lw2rmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412503/original/file-20210721-23-lw2rmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s tempting for adults to watch kids splash from the poolside, but research shows it’s worth jumping in alongside them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/happy-beautiful-little-smiling-girl-in-goggles-and-royalty-free-image/1263550322?adppopup=true">Povozniuk/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<p>Studies in people have found a strong relationship between <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00363">concentrations of brain-derived neurotrophic factor</a> circulating in the brain and an increase in the size of the hippocampus, the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn2335">brain region responsible for learning and memory</a>. Increased levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor have also been shown to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2014.11.001">sharpen cognitive performance</a> and to help <a href="https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92341">reduce anxiety</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/aps.2010.184">depression</a>. In contrast, researchers have observed mood disorders in patients with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1803645115">lower concentrations of brain-derived neurotrophic factor</a>. </p>
<p>Aerobic exercise also promotes the release of <a href="https://doi.org/10.26402/jpp.2018.1.01">specific chemical messengers called neurotransmitters</a>. One of these is serotonin, which – when present at increased levels – is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20229">known to reduce</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.12965/jer.2040216.108">depression and anxiety</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.12965/jer.2040216.108">improve mood</a>. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.191640">studies in fish</a>, scientists have observed changes in genes responsible for increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels as well as enhanced development of the dendritic spines – protrusions on the dendrites, or elongated portions of nerve cells – after eight weeks of exercise compared with controls. This complements studies in mammals <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00363">where brain-derived neurotrophic factor</a> is known to increase neuronal spine density. These changes have been shown to contribute to <a href="https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.14851">improved memory</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00093">mood</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139739">enhanced cognition</a> in mammals. The greater spine density helps neurons build new connections and send more signals to other nerve cells. With the repetition of signals, connections can become stronger. </p>
<h2>But what’s special about swimming?</h2>
<p>Researchers don’t yet know what swimming’s secret sauce might be. But they’re getting closer to understanding it.</p>
<p>Swimming has long been recognized for its <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.03.063">cardiovascular benefits</a>. Because swimming involves all of the major muscle groups, the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1642724/">heart has to work hard</a>, which <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01905549">increases blood flow</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-923776">throughout the body</a>. This leads to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.03.018">creation of new blood vessels</a>, a process called angiogenesis. The greater blood flow can also lead to a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2010.03.015">large release of endorphins</a> – hormones that act as a natural pain reducer throughout the body. This surge brings about the sense of euphoria that often follows exercise.</p>
<p>Most of the research to understand how swimming affects the brain has been done in rats. Rats are a good lab model because of their <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3987984/">genetic and anatomic similarity to humans</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412710/original/file-20210722-21-1h6zfb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="White rat in water maze" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412710/original/file-20210722-21-1h6zfb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412710/original/file-20210722-21-1h6zfb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412710/original/file-20210722-21-1h6zfb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412710/original/file-20210722-21-1h6zfb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412710/original/file-20210722-21-1h6zfb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412710/original/file-20210722-21-1h6zfb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412710/original/file-20210722-21-1h6zfb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Rats serve as a useful laboratory model for understanding the effects of swimming on memory formation and brain health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/laboratory-white-rat-in-the-water-radial-maze-royalty-free-image/502297101?adppopup=true">irin717/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<p>In one study in rats, swimming was shown to <a href="https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.103046">stimulate brain pathways</a> that suppress inflammation in the hippocampus and inhibit apoptosis, or cell death. The study also showed that swimming can help support neuron survival and reduce the cognitive impacts of aging. Although researchers do not yet have a way to visualize apoptosis and neuronal survival in people, they do observe similar cognitive outcomes. </p>
<p>One of the more enticing questions is how, specifically, swimming enhances short- and long-term memory. To pinpoint how long the beneficial effects may last, <a href="https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.14851">researchers trained rats</a> to swim for 60 minutes daily for five days per week. The team then tested the rats’ memory by having them swim through a radial arm water maze containing six arms, including one with a hidden platform. </p>
<p>Rats got six attempts to swim freely and find the hidden platform. After just seven days of swim training, researchers saw improvements in both short- and long-term memories, based on a reduction in the errors rats made each day. The researchers suggested that this boost in cognitive function could provide a basis for using swimming as a way to repair learning and memory damage caused by neuropsychiatric diseases in humans. </p>
<p>Although the leap from studies in rats to humans is substantial, research in people is producing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/273185">similar results</a> that suggest a <a href="https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.14247">clear cognitive benefit</a> from swimming across all ages. For instance, in one study looking at the impact of swimming on mental acuity in the elderly, researchers concluded that swimmers had <a href="https://doi.org/10.5530/ijcep.2018.5.4.22">improved mental speed and attention</a> compared with nonswimmers. However, this study is limited in its research design, since participants were not randomized and thus those who were swimmers prior to the study may have had an unfair edge. </p>
<p>Another study compared cognition between land-based athletes and swimmers in the young adult age range. While water immersion itself did not make a difference, the researchers found that 20 minutes of moderate-intensity breaststroke swimming <a href="https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.14247">improved cognitive function</a> in both groups.</p>
<h2>Kids get a boost from swimming too</h2>
<p>The brain-enhancing benefits from swimming appear to also boost learning in children.</p>
<p>Another research group recently looked at the link between physical activity and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1044/2021_JSLHR-20-00359">how children learn new vocabulary words</a>. Researchers taught children age 6-12 the names of unfamiliar objects. Then they tested their accuracy at recognizing those words after doing three activities: coloring (resting activity), swimming (aerobic activity) and a CrossFit-like exercise (anaerobic activity) for three minutes. </p>
<p>[<em>The Conversation’s science, health and technology editors pick their favorite stories.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-favorite">Weekly on Wednesdays</a>.]</p>
<p>They found that children’s accuracy was much higher for words learned following swimming compared with coloring and CrossFit, which resulted in the same level of recall. This shows a clear cognitive benefit from swimming versus anaerobic exercise, though the study does not compare swimming with other aerobic exercises. These findings imply that swimming for even short periods of time is highly beneficial to young, developing brains. </p>
<p>The details of the time or laps required, the style of swim and what cognitive adaptations and pathways are activated by swimming are still being worked out. But neuroscientists are getting much closer to putting all the clues together.</p>
<p>For centuries, people have been in search of a <a href="https://www.history.com/news/the-myth-of-ponce-de-leon-and-the-fountain-of-youth">fountain of youth</a>. Swimming just might be the closest we can get.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164297/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Seena Mathew does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Mounting research shows that going for a swim can preserve memories, reduce mood disorders and increase mental acuity in all age groups.Seena Mathew, Assistant Professor of Biology, University of Mary Hardin-BaylorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1600422021-04-30T12:02:25Z2021-04-30T12:02:25ZScottish independence: what’s at stake in May elections<p><em>This is a transcript of episode 13 of The Conversation Weekly podcast “<a href="https://theconversation.com/scotland-why-may-election-is-crucial-for-independence-movement-and-the-uk-podcast-159883">Scotland: why May election is crucial for independence movement, and the UK</a>”. In this episode, as Scotland prepares to vote in landmark parliamentary elections on May 6, we explore why the question of independence from the UK is dominating the debate. And a team of researchers working with fruit flies, has discovered a biological switch that can turn neuroplasticity on and off in the brain. What might that mean?</em></p>
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<p>Dan Merino: Hello and welcome to The Conversation Weekly.</p>
<p>Gemma Ware: This week, as Scotland prepares to vote in parliamentary elections on May 6, why the question of independence is dominating the debate. </p>
<p>Kezia Dugdale: If there’s a majority for independence you will see the SNP demand the right to hold a referendum and you’ll see Boris Johnson say no to it very quickly.</p>
<p>Dan: And – a team of researchers working in fruit flies, have discovered a biological switch that can turn neuroplasticity on and off in the brain. </p>
<p>Sarah Ackerman: Plasticity is really important for us to form and maintain connections in the brain. </p>
<p>Gemma: I’m Gemma Ware in London.</p>
<p>Dan: And I’m Dan Merino in San Francisco. You’re listening to The Conversation Weekly, the world explained by experts. </p>
<p>Gemma: People in countries around the world are clamouring for independence – or to secede from the nations that govern them. From Kurdistan in the Middle East, to Kashmir in India, or the Anglophone Ambazonia region of Cameroon. </p>
<p>Dan: Yep, there’s even a secessionist movement here in California, though it’s relatively tame in the grand scheme of things.</p>
<p>Gemma: In recent decades, some parts of the world have voted in referendums for independence. South Sudan became an independent country in 2011 after a brutal conflict, as did East Timor in 2002. </p>
<p>Dan: Elsewhere, independence movements have led to constitutional and political crises. In 2017, Catalonia in Spain held an independence referendum which was ruled illegal by the country’s constitutional court. </p>
<p>But the Catalan parliament went ahead and unilaterally declared independence anyways. This was accompanied by a brutal crackdown by the Spanish police and the eventual arrest of Catalan pro-independence leaders.</p>
<p>Gemma: And that brings us to Scotland, where there is loud and growing support for independence from the United Kingdom. Now Scots are heading to the polls on May 6 in elections for the Scottish parliament. </p>
<p>Dan: Scotland held an independence referendum seven years ago in 2014, and voted to remain in the UK. But a lot’s happened since then.</p>
<p>Gemma: Yes, and the Scottish National Party – known as the SNP – led by Scotland’s first minister, Nicola Sturgeon – is arguing that the circumstances have changed so significantly that they warrant a second referendum, or indyref2. </p>
<p>Gemma: If pro-independence parties win a majority in the Scottish parliament – Sturgeon will ask the UK government in Westminster, led by Prime Minister Boris Johnson, for a second referendum on Scottish independence. To find out more about what’s at stake in these upcoming elections, I’ve spoken to three experts, including one high-profile politician turned academic, to explain the situation. </p>
<p>Kezia Dugdale: Hello, I’m Kezia Dugdale. I’m the director of the John Smith Centre at the University of Glasgow, where I also teach public policy. </p>
<p>Gemma: Before that, Kezia was a politician. She served as leader of the Scottish Labour Party between 2015 and 2017 and represented Edinburgh and the Lothians in the Scottish parliament, for nearly a decade. I asked Kezia why questions about the constitutional arrangements between Scotland and the rest of the United Kingdom are dominating the debate ahead of the Scottish parliamentary elections on May 6. </p>
<p>Kezia: So we’ve had a Scottish parliament since 1999. So this is the 21st year or so of devolution. The parliament’s very much coming of age and it’s matured and it has substantially more powers than it did when it first opened its doors in 1999. So it’s largely responsible for health, education, housing policy, justice and communities. It’s increasingly got more powers around welfare, certain powers to do with, for example, disability benefits, and also increasing tax powers. But the vast majority of the social security system, foreign policy, defence are all still reserved to the UK parliament. So is the constitution, but that doesn’t mean that it doesn’t completely dominate Scottish politics. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/brexit-has-changed-peoples-minds-on-independence-qanda-with-kezia-dugdale-former-scottish-labour-leader-159858">'Brexit has changed people's minds on independence': Q&A with Kezia Dugdale, former Scottish Labour leader</a>
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<p>So after the 2011 Scottish parliament elections, the SNP had a majority, and they used that majority to call for an independence referendum. There was a two and a half year campaign with the referendum taking place in September 2014. The no side won that with 55% of the vote to the yes side’s 45%. And we thought that that would be the end of the constitutional question, but I’m afraid that’s not been the case. Because it was a relatively close margin, questions around the settlement that the Scottish parliament has and it’s continued place in the United Kingdom have continued to dominate. And they’re dominating this election campaign. </p>
<p>So whether you are yes or no, what you were in 2014, what you are today, is still the biggest dominating factor over how you will vote in party political terms. So if you’re a Yes voter, very likely SNP, perhaps Green, if you’re a No voter, the vote splits three ways between Labour, the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats.</p>
<p>Gemma: Over the past few years, calls for a second independence referendum have been growing louder. To understand where the support for this indyref2 is coming from, we need to go back to what’s happened since Scotland voted to remain part of the UK in 2014.</p>
<p>Darryn Nyatanga: My name is Darren Nyatanga and I’m a final year PhD candidate at the University of Liverpool, where I’m researching the constitutional impacts of Brexit on the UK’s unionship.</p>
<p>Gemma: Darren explains that in the immediate aftermath of the independence referendum, the UK government in Westminster moved to devolve more powers to Scotland.</p>
<p>Darryn: So during the campaign for that referendum on independence, the three main parties in Westminster – so at the time that was the Conservatives and the Lib Dems who were in coalition together, and the Labour party – made a pledge to devote more powers to Scotland if they voted to remain within the UK. So they honoured this vow, it was known as “the vow”, by passing a law, known as the Scotland Act of 2016, which devolved extensive powers, including fiscal powers to Scotland, and it also insured the permanency of the Scottish parliament and the Scottish government within the UK’s constitutional order, something which meant a lot to nationalists, because the debate really was about Scottish institutions making Scottish decisions. </p>
<p>Gemma: But then, a few months later, the UK held another referendum, on whether to leave the European Union. The UK as a whole voted 52% to leave, 48% to remain, and the path to Brexit was set in motion. But in Scotland, 62% of the population voted to remain as part of the EU. </p>
<p>Darryn: So this meant that Scotland was taken out of the EU against its democratic will. So this is the point that the Scottish government have been hammering on in relation to their need to have a second vote on independence because for them there’s a significant change in circumstances prevailing from the 2014 vote. </p>
<p>Gemma: Economically, Scotland’s situation has also changed significantly since 2014. To find out more about the state of its economy, I called up economist Graeme Roy, a colleague of Kezia Dugdale’s at the University of Glasgow, where he’s dean of external engagement at the School of Social Sciences.</p>
<p>Graeme: The UK is one of the most unequal economies on a regional basis in Europe. But within that Scotland, outside of London and the southeast, the really strong parts of the UK economy, Scotland comes in pretty much next on most indicators. And it has core strengths in areas that you’d expect in things like energy with the North Sea, but also in other areas such as financial services, and that’s propelled it to be a relatively strong economy within the UK. There are challenges though as well, like many other parts of Europe: de-industrialisation, issues around social inequality et cetera. So it’s very much a mixed bag, it’s got its core strengths but its also got its challenges. </p>
<p>Gemma: You mentioned there the North Sea so you’re talking oil there but the oil economy has has actually shifted dramatically even in the last few years, hasn’t it?</p>
<p>Graeme: Very much so. So North Sea oil is fairly much in its twilight years. There’s still potential there for the next couple of decades but it’s on a much smaller scale than it has been in the past. The opportunity, and where policy makers are focusing their attention both at a Scottish and a UK level is the ability to shift into new forms of energy.</p>
<p>Gemma: As you’ve written in a <a href="https://theconversation.com/scottish-independence-referendum-why-the-economic-issues-are-quite-different-to-2014-154119">piece for The Conversation</a>, the economic questions were kind of a big part of the of the independence referendum that Scotland had in in 2014, but what’s changed since then?</p>
<p>Graeme: So quite a lot has changed actually. So firstly, there’s been quite a number of changes to the economic context. The changes in the oil and gas industry has removed a significant potential source of revenue for any future independent Scotland. Oil prices are lower and the tax system is now much more generous in terms of taxing less than it had in the past. And that really matters in a Scottish context because it’s got higher public expenditure than the rest of the UK so oil revenues would have been one way to help it support that. I think the other change is obviously COVID and Scotland like every other country in the world has gone through a tremendous economic upheaval. </p>
<p>I think the second thing is about the politics of all of this, and the politics have clearly also changed since 2014. Brexit being the obvious example of that, where in 2014 the argument was that voting to stay part of the UK was a way to guarantee and be, retain membership of the European Union. But obviously then the subsequent referendum in 2016, and the UK now leaving, has changed that. And that has a number of implications, in particular for issues around borders, issues around potential currency choices. The whole dynamics of that debate has changed. </p>
<p>Gemma: After a prolonged Brexit negotiation period with many twists and turns, the UK finally left the EU on January 31 2020. But the full effects of Brexit weren’t felt until January 1 this year, when a transition period ended and the new rules governing the relationship between the UK and the rest of the EU came into effect. </p>
<p>Graeme: The immediate challenges have been concentrated largely in a relatively small number of sectors so things like fishing and the ability to get products, fresh products to market quickly have been impacted negatively impacted by some of the challenges at borders during the switchover to the new Brexit arrangements. </p>
<p>I think the biggest challenge, though, I think for the Scottish economy, as for the UK economy, is less about the immediate impact of Brexit but more about the longer-term challenges. So about nearly half of all Scottish international exports go into the EU. We have an ageing population so we rely on migrants coming in to Scotland to help support our economy, and Scotland’s done well through universities and businesses with that collaboration with Europe. So it’s those things that will gradually be eroded over time that I think are the greatest concern for the Scottish economy.</p>
<p>Gemma: All this has increasingly boosted support for an independent Scotland. Here’s Kezia Dugdale again.</p>
<p>Kezia: Since January 2020 there have been 25 opinion polls on the constitutional question. Twenty-two of them have shown yes ahead of no which is very new. I think there were only two polls ever in the run up to 2014 that had yes ahead of no. So now you’re looking at for the past nearly 18 months yes being consistently ahead. </p>
<p>Gemma: There have been some recent exceptions, with a few polls showing no just back in front, which some analysts suggest may be down to the success of the UK’s coronavirus vaccine rollout. But in general, Kezia says the reason people have moved from no to yes, in favour of independence in the past few years, has to do with Brexit. </p>
<p>Kezia: What’s changed since 2014? Again you need to look at who they are. They are people age 25 to 45, tend to live in urban centres like Edinburgh or Glasgow or along the central belt, where at least two thirds of Scotland’s population can be found. They are educated to a university degree level, mostly. They are socially centre-left but economically centre ground or to the centre-right. So by that I mean there are supporters of gay marriage but they don’t want high taxes, right. So they’re that type of voter. They are passionately proudly pro-European in their identity and almost all of them voted Remain and they’re very angry about it.</p>
<p>So if presented with a binary choice and that binary choice is an independent Scotland in Europe with a progressive leader or staying in the United Kingdom led by, by Boris with a sort of “Little Britain Brexit” mindset they’re choosing the progressive independent Scotland in Europe. They might not like it. They certainly don’t love it but it’s better than what they’ve got.</p>
<p>Gemma: All these issues are now swirling around as Scotland goes to the polls on May 6, in an election campaign taking place in the shadow of the pandemic. Scotland relaxed some of its coronavirus restrictions on April 26, but still, this has been an election campaign like no other. I asked Graeme Roy what the pro-independence movement’s economic case for independence is now going into these elections.</p>
<p>Graeme: The case for the economics of independence is very much built around gaining powers of an independent country like many other small independent countries in Europe and using them in a way that is explicitly targeted to the challenges and opportunities within the Scottish economy. And they often point to other countries that they would like to be comparable to, so Denmark, Norway, places like that that they can say well look these countries are successful and arguably more successful in the UK in many ways, have better outcomes. If Scotland was to be independent then we could seek to follow their lead and have the same quality of life and same strong economy as they do. Of course that’s easy to say. The ability to actually do that is much harder. </p>
<p>Gemma: And let’s look at the flip side there. So the unionist parties, the main one being the Conservative party but also Labour is also a unionist party, is against independence – what is their argument, I guess for economically remaining part of the United Kingdom?</p>
<p>Graeme: One is their argument that Scotland actually does well within the UK. They would also argue that Scotland receives higher public spending per head than most other parts of the UK and therefore again that’s an advantage that Scotland gets by being part of the UK that would be removed if it tried to go on its own and pay for everything on its own. And I think the other strand then is just to, to highlight the point that any transition from the status quo to a new model would be challenging and there’d be uncertainty and particularly in a post-COVID world or when we’re trying to recover from one of the greatest economic shocks we’ve ever had, this challenge of trying to do that at that point in their view wouldn’t make sense.</p>
<p>Gemma: The SNP’s election manifesto says that the party will seek to hold a second referendum “after the COVID crisis is over” – a timeframe widely interpreted as being within the five year term of the next parliament, so before 2026. But under UK law, the Scottish government cannot agree to unilaterally hold an independence referendum. It must seek the permission of the government in Westminster to do so – via something called a Section 30 order. Here’s Darryn Nyatanga again. </p>
<p>Darryn: So the UK government has thus far continued to refuse to grant this order in council, with the prime minister, Boris Johnson, stating that the vote in 2014 was a once-in-a-generation vote. </p>
<p>Gemma: And if Scotland should choose to have a referendum on its own that might spell further kind of questions down the line?</p>
<p>Darryn: Yes, I think this would turn more from a political question into a legal question because the Supreme Court will probably be tasked with looking into the competencies of the Scottish government on, basically unilaterally, holding a referendum.</p>
<p>Gemma: If Scotland did decide to hold a referendum without Westminster’s approval, and then unilaterally declare independence, like Catalonia did in 2017, this could lead to serious questions about the legitimacy of the outcome. And damage any future SNP bid for Scotland to rejoin the EU. </p>
<p>Darryn: International recognition of a newly independent state is much more likely to be forthcoming if the independence process is perceived to have been legitimate. So for Scottish independence, then, it needs to be done in a legitimate manner. And the decision must be accepted by the UK, the EU and the rest of the international community. This is key because the Scottish government want independence, but with EU membership. So if the EU does not recognise the legitimacy of the independence, then they most likely wouldn’t be forthcoming in terms of accepting them as a member state. </p>
<p>Gemma: So the way it’s held really matters?</p>
<p>Darryn: Really does matter, yes.</p>
<p>Gemma: Nicola Sturgeon has ruled out making a unilateral declaration of independence. But this makes the results of the upcoming elections – and the size of the majority – all the more important. Here’s Kezia Dugdale again.</p>
<p>Kezia: So we have 129 members of the Scottish parliament, you’ve got 73 constituency seats. The remaining 56 seats are made up of eight regions which each elect seven MSPs proportionately, using a formula called the De Hond’t system. And this combination of first past the post and PR means that we’ve had a more colourful parliament than you would expect in the UK system. But this system of PR, where it’s called the additional member system overall, is designed to produce coalitions. In fact it’s supposed to stop outright majorities.</p>
<p>Gemma: And that is what happened, until 2011, when the SNP won a majority in the Scottish Parliament for the first time. It was this majority that then led the Conservative prime minister at the time, David Cameron, to agree to the Scottish independence referendum. At the 2016 Scottish parliamentary elections, in the wake of the defeat for the yes campaign in that referendum, the SNP narrowly lost its overall majority, falling short by two seats. But Nicola Sturgeon still remained as first minister of a minority government.</p>
<p>Ahead of May 6, the polls have the SNP well in the lead, but it’s unclear whether they have enough support to get an overall majority. Kezia Dugdale thinks this will be difficult.</p>
<p>Kezia: We’re now back in the strange situation where because it happened once people think it can be recreated, which is quite unfair actually on the SNP because they found the sweet spot in 2011, this imaginary sweet spot where they broke the system. It will be very difficult for them to replicate that. </p>
<p>Gemma: But the Green Party is also running on a pro-independence ticket, as is a new party, called Alba, lead by Alex Salmond, the former leader of the SNP who split from the party in bitter and controversial circumstances after allegations of sexual assault. He was acquitted of all charges in 2020, but the affair led to a flurry of other legal challenges and government inquiries that at one point earlier this year appeared to threaten Sturgeon’s own position as first minister. </p>
<p>Even if the SNP doesn’t win an outright majority in May, if more than half of the seats in the Scottish parliament go to parties running on a pro-indepenence platform, the pressure will mount on Boris Johnson to grant Scotland a second referendum. I asked Kezia what options Nicola Sturgeon has available. </p>
<p>Kezia: She has zero options because she’s ruled out what’s commonly referred to as UDI, a universal declaration of independence. I think she’s right to rule that out. So this all boils down to mandates and morality really, right? So if there’s a majority for independence you will see the SNP demand the right to hold a referendum and you’ll see Boris Johnson, I think, say no to it very quickly. The question is how long that no will hold for and what the argument that underpins it is.</p>
<p>So the first thing they’ll say is not during a pandemic. They might say not now, not ever, you said once in a generation. That’s a much riskier strategy for the UK government to take. And there’s a growing school of thought that says if the majority is big, if independence or a second independence referendum feels somehow inevitable, it’s in the UK government’s interest to go now rather than delay for a long period of time.</p>
<p>Gemma: She says that’s because of the current state of pandemic in the UK. </p>
<p>Kezia: As the health element of the pandemic crisis comes to a close. The economic element of the crisis just begins. There are serious concerns now about what happens to business, when the furlough payments end, the system that was supporting so many jobs. Huge number of lost opportunities for young people. A suggestion we could have seriously high rates of youth unemployment come Christmas. Knowing all that, the government are currently spending a lot. We’ve got one of the most right-wing chancellors we’ve seen in my lifetime and he’s spending like a left-wing socialist.</p>
<p>So there’s lots of money swishing around and there’s lots of money coming to Scotland just now and there’s lots of means by which you can demonstrate the value of the United Kingdom to Scotland just now, because of the receipts that are coming in to Scottish bank accounts, whether that be in government or elsewhere. In 18 months time that spending has to stop. It’s going to run out and the UK government will then have to decide what taxes have to go up and what public sector saving decisions or cuts have to be made in order to balance the books. So the longer you wait to hold a second independence referendum, the less advantageous the
circumstances are for the UK government to make the arguments they want to make.</p>
<p>Gemma: Your prediction is that she will ask for one. Westminster will say no. Do you then see there being kind of this, this big standoff or will there just be continual asks? How will it, how will it play out?</p>
<p>Kezia: Yes there’ll be a lot of Punch and Judy-style back and forth politics and every time the UK government says no, it will work in the SNP’s favour to be quite honest, because it reaffirms everything they tell the electorate about the UK government not observing the will of the people of Scotland. </p>
<p>Gemma: For Darryn Nyatanga, the UK is heading towards a constitutional crisis, where it’s quite possible that a majority of people in Scotland don’t want to be part of the UK, but haven’t got a way to leave. </p>
<p>Darryn: For the Conservative party, they are more than happy to continue with the current arrangements of centralisation, but with devolution. Longer-term, if Scotland is to remain within the UK’s union, then its constitutional settlement definitely needs to be reformed. So the best way to do so in my opinion is to radically alter the constitutional status of the United Kingdom as a whole. So moving from a unitary state where power is centred within London, so within the capital, to a federal state. So Canada, for instance, has proven that nationalism can be contained within a federal system. So the largest secessionist party in Quebec, despite spells in government, has so far been unsuccessful in leading the province to succession from Canada. So this is mostly owed to the fact that Quebec under federalism enjoys high levels of autonomy and central representation, something which Scotland lacks at the moment.</p>
<p>Gemma: I asked Graeme Roy what options might be put on the table, to alleviate the inevitable anger of the SNP and its electorate if Westminster continues to refuse Scotland a second referendum even if there is a pro-independence majority. </p>
<p>Graeme: So it’ll be really interesting to see whether part of any response from the UK parties and the UK government is to open up a conversation about what more powers could be given with the hope of trying to satisfy the people who might be on the borderline between wanting Scotland to have more autonomy and the decisions in Edinburgh to be taken at a much more local level and bespoke level for Scotland, but they maybe would be happy with that rather than going to full independence. </p>
<p>Dan: What always interests me about these kind of secessionist movements is that the people can vote and do whatever they need to do, but at the end of the day, the ruling government really has all the cards and that creates interesting scenarios.</p>
<p>Gemma: Yeah and whatever the outcome on May 6, politicians in Edinburgh and in London are gonna have to weigh up their options very carefully. </p>
<p>Gemma: If you want to hear more from Graeme Roy and Kezia Dugdale, you can listen to their podcast <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/0YQoD0wLwjz1T1ahaWOKnb">Spotlight, from the University of Glasgow</a>, discussing public policy and the political process through a Scottish lens. Search for Spotlight on Spotify to listen. </p>
<p>You can also follow The Conversation’s ongoing coverage of the Scottish elections by clicking the links in the show notes, where you can also find a link to a recent article by Graeme Roy on <a href="https://theconversation.com/scottish-independence-referendum-why-the-economic-issues-are-quite-different-to-2014-154119">how Scotland’s economic circumstances have changed since 2014</a>. </p>
<p>Dan: For our next story this week we’re going to join a researcher named Sarah Ackerman to talk about her <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03441-2">new paper on neuroplasticity</a> – and that is the ability of the brain to basically change its structure. Her team was running experiments in fruit flies to try and study why brains in young animals can change so much more easily than the brains in old animals. </p>
<p>Gemma: This heightened neuroplasticity when we’re younger is why kids can learn languages much more easily than adults.</p>
<p>Dan: And there’s still a lot researchers don’t know about this vital ability of the brain. Many diseases are caused by too little or too much neuroplasticity, so being able to turn it or or turn it off has some obvious medical benefits. Sarah and her team wanted to learn what controls these changes to help fight diseases, yes, but this work could also potentially unlock the super-powered learning that comes with a malleable brain.</p>
<p>Sarah: My name is Sarah Ackerman, and I am a post-doctoral fellow in the <a href="https://www.doelab.org/people">Doe Lab</a> at the University of Oregon. I’m really broadly interested in how the body makes and maintains a functioning brain. And specifically what I have been focusing on in my research really for the last ten years since I was a graduate student, is on this special group of cells called glia.</p>
<p>So the human brain is made up of billions of neurons that talk to one another, and this communication is what allows us to do what we need to do. But 50% of the human brain is actually not made of neurons, but made up of these other cell types called glia. And the fact that there are so many of them means that they must be doing something important, but they’ve been largely ignored by the neuroscience community for a long time because we just didn’t know what they did.</p>
<p>So I’m interested in how these glial cells are instructing the neurons to form these connections that allow us, for example, to move through our environment.</p>
<p>Dan: OK. So we’ve got the brain, 50% neurons, 50% glia. What are they doing? </p>
<p>Sarah: We know that there are lots of different types of glial cells. They’re present both in the brain, the spinal cord, out on our nerves, in our limbs.
And in general, we can say that they are necessary for the long-term health of neurons. And they’ve become really a focus of neuroscience research because there’s a lot of evidence that in different neurological disorders or neurodegenerative disorders that these glia are becoming sick and dying. So I think one of the most studied cases of this is in multiple sclerosis where you get loss of the glial cells that wrap around neurons in the brain. And when you lose those glia, the neurons die and then you end up with multiple sclerosis. And so we know there’s a lot of variety. They do a lot of things, but if we were to sum it up into one word, they’re there to allow neurons to survive for a long time. </p>
<p>Cause if you think about it, the neurons that are present in our adult brains, they’re the same neurons that were born when you were in the womb and so they have to make it a long time. And these glia are what are there to help them. </p>
<p>Dan: The importance of the cells that keep neurons alive – that has got to be huge. But your research was looking at something a little more specific than just the, like, maintenance, so to speak. What was it that you were looking at?</p>
<p>Sarah: Yeah, so there’s this one type of glia called an astrocyte and they’re called astrocytes cause they have this really beautiful star shaped structure in the brain. So if you, if you strain to look at them, you see these little stars kind of all throughout the nervous system and these are these astrocytes.
And specifically what I was looking at is the role of these astrocytes in neuro-plasticity. OK, so neuroplasticity is this big word, but all it really means is the ability of neurons to change their shape and to change their signalling strength in response to, for example, experiences. And so what I was studying is how these glial cells are shaping or instructing the level of plasticity that occurs in the brain at different periods in well, in this case, the fruit fly’s life, but hopefully this will extend into how this works in humans as well. </p>
<p>Dan: OK, so we’ve got neuroplasticity allows basically neurons to change. Why is that important? What does that mean for me?</p>
<p>Sarah: Neuroplasticity allows for you to learn and embrace new tasks. So you have probably heard the phrase “practice makes perfect”. So when we practice a certain task, for example, playing a piano or learning a new sport, this engages or turns on plasticity in the brain, and this allows those neurons to start changing and strengthening their connections so that you become a better player over time. And so plasticity is really important for us to form and maintain those connections in the brain that enable us to do different tasks.</p>
<p>Dan: Your work was looking at how astrocytes – those star-shaped cells – can turn off plasticity. So what do you mean turn that off? It sounds like I’d always want my plasticity on full crank, 100%, right?</p>
<p>Sarah: Yeah, that’s a great question. So we know that neuroplasticity is really, really strong in a child’s brain. So for example, I’m sure many of your listeners like me have tried to learn a new language at some point in their adult life and found it to be like just impossible, where children can pick up multiple languages really quickly. So what is the deal with that? </p>
<p>Well, in childhood, the brain is super plastic or malleable and that allows kids to learn new tasks and skills really quickly. But then at some point in our maturing brain, this plasticity starts to wane. And so the question is why? Why would we not want to be like super plastic all the time? Well, there’s some evidence that prolonged plasticity, beyond childhood, is linked or can contribute to neurological conditions where you see kind of the activity of neurons is not controlled well in the brain. So think of epilepsy or schizophrenia. And so there’s a certain point in our life where we want these neural connections to be solid. We want there to be a little bit of flexibility for learning and memory, but not so much dramatic plasticity that the connections are constantly rearranging.</p>
<p>Dan: OK, so we’ve got this need to shut down plasticity or control it or limit it in some way. Why fruit flies?</p>
<p>Sarah: Fruit flies are really an excellent model for neuroplasticity because while they’re simple, they have many of the same cell types, including astrocytes and neurons. And they have many of the same genes that are present in humans. And in fact, there have been six Nobel prizes awarded for research in flies that changed our understanding of how biology works in humans.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A colorful microscope image of a developing fruit fly brain." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In this image showing a developing fruit fly brain on the right and the attached nerve cord on the left, the astrocytes are labeled in different colors showing their wide distribution among neurons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sarah DeGenova Ackerman</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And so I wanted to use the fruit fly in order to identify different ways that the brain restricts plasticity to these earlier developmental stages or these young brains. And fly is a great model for that, because we have the ability to change the activity of neurons, in other words, to induce plasticity at different stages and see what happens under different manipulations.</p>
<p>And so what I found is that the neurons in the fruit fly brain are really plastic early in life as, as we know for humans as well, and then this plasticity wanes. But if I got rid of these astrocytes, these glial cells, these neurons maintain their plasticity much later in development.</p>
<p>Dan: This stuff could potentially have relevance to humans and people, and you know, potentially other animals too. But what are some of those potential applications? </p>
<p>Sarah: There are a lot, they’re all kind of a ways down the road, but in humans, like spinal cord injuries or neck injuries, for example, there’s very limited recovery for these patients because of failure to re-engage in the mature nervous system. So my goal is to use the fly to identify common and core principles that regulate plasticity so that we might take advantage of these pathways or try to find therapies or drugs that alter or work through these pathways to either increase or dial up plasticity or dial down plasticity whenever it’s needed. Or even, you know, age related, memory loss that doesn’t shoot all the way to dementia. All of these conditions are somehow influenced by plasticity mechanisms, just going awry, whether too much or too little or at the wrong time. And so if we can really understand the basic mechanisms that are shaping plasticity, this could become a way that we could really impact a lot of lives. </p>
<p>Dan: Awesome. Well, Sarah, thanks to you and to your undergrad for making a difference. </p>
<p>Sarah: Thank you. </p>
<p>Dan: You can read an article that Sarah Ackerman has written about her research on theconversation.com. We’ll put <a href="https://theconversation.com/astrocyte-cells-in-the-fruit-fly-brain-are-an-on-off-switch-that-controls-when-neurons-can-change-and-grow-158601">a link</a> in the show notes. </p>
<p>Gemma: To end this episode. We’ve got some reading recommendations from our colleague, Moina Spooner at The conversation in Nairobi, Kenya.</p>
<p>Moina: Hi, this is Moina Spooner from The Conversation, based in Kenya. We’ve had a couple of big stories in the East African region this week. The first is on Somalia, where there have been clashes between militia groups and soldiers of the federal government. Claire Elder, a lecturer from the London School of Economics and Political Science, explains how the current government’s decision on April 12 to seek a two-year extension has thrown Somalia’s fragile political process into disarray. With the situation now escalating, she argues that external mediation is needed as <a href="https://theconversation.com/somalia-toxic-elite-politics-and-the-need-for-cautious-external-mediation-159270">toxic elite politics take root</a> and the political window for a Somali-led process is closing.</p>
<p>Another big story in the region is Kenya’s announcement that it’s going to close the country’s two main refugee camps, Kakuma and Dadaab. This means that all the refugees will now need to be repatriated. It would affect over 400,000 people, most of whom are of Somali origin. Kenya is trying to legitimise this action by labelling the refugees as a threat to national security.</p>
<p>The pretext is that the camps are abetting terrorists, namely Al-Shabaab. Oscar Mwangi, an associate professor of political science from the National University of Lesotho, argues that in doing so, Kenya has <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-kenya-is-on-thin-ice-in-its-justification-for-sending-somali-refugees-back-home-159356">failed to comply with international law by compromising the refugees’ rights</a>. And that Kenya has also disregarded its commitments to international humanitarian obligations. That’s all for me for now. Take care and I hope you enjoy the reads.</p>
<p>Gemma: Moina Spooner there in Nairobi. That’s it for this week. Thanks to all the academics who’ve spoken to us for this episode. And to The Conversation editors Laura Hood, Steven Vass, Jane Wright, Moina Spooner and Stephen Khan for their help. And thanks to Alice Mason, Imriel Morgan and Sharai White for our social media promotion. </p>
<p>Dan: You can find us on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/TC_Audio">@TC_Audio</a>, on Instagram at <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/?hl=en">theconversationdotcom</a> or send us an email at podcast@theconversation.com. And if you want to learn more about any of the things we talked about on the show today, there are links to further reading in the shownotes, and you can also sign up for our <a href="https://theconversation.com/newsletter?utm_campaign=PodcastTCWeekly&utm_content=newsletter&utm_source=podcast">free daily email</a>. </p>
<p>Gemma: The Conversation Weekly is co-produced by Mend Mariwany and me, Gemma Ware, with sound design by Eloise Stevens. Our theme music is by Neeta Sarl. </p>
<p>Dan: And I’m Dan Merino. Thanks so much for listening everyone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/160042/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
A transcript of episode 13 of The Conversation Weekly podcast, including new research on neuroplasticity in the brain.Gemma Ware, Head of AudioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1598832021-04-29T10:54:32Z2021-04-29T10:54:32ZScotland: Why May election is crucial for independence movement, and the UK – podcast<p>In this episode of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/the-conversation-weekly-98901">The Conversation Weekly podcast</a>, as Scotland prepares to vote in landmark parliamentary elections on May 6, we explore why the question of independence from the UK is dominating the debate. And a team of researchers working with fruit flies, has discovered a biological switch that can turn neuroplasticity on and off in the brain. What might that mean?</p>
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<p>It’s been seven years since Scotland voted to remain in the UK in the 2014 independence referendum. At the time, it was billed as a once-in-a-generation vote, but now Scotland’s first minister, Nicola Sturgeon, argues that the UK’s Brexit from the European Union is a change significant enough to warrant a second referendum. Meanwhile, support has been growing for independence <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/3ea5b867-9a3c-404e-b2f9-c644fee4e3bd">over the past few years</a>.</p>
<p>Sturgeon’s Scottish National Party (SNP) is the largest pro-independence group. If pro-independence parties hold a majority in the Scottish parliament after the May 6 election – Sturgeon will ask the UK government in Westminster, led by Boris Johnson, for a second referendum on Scottish independence. But he’s unlikely to agree. </p>
<p>In this episode, we speak to three experts to explain what’s at stake and what could happen next. Kezia Dugdale, is director of the <a href="https://www.gla.ac.uk/schools/socialpolitical/johnsmith/">John Smith Centre</a> and a lecturer in public policy at the University of Glasgow, as well as a former leader of the Scottish Labour Party. She explains that a person’s stance on independence is “still the biggest dominating factor over how you will vote in party-political terms” in Scotland. Dugdale predicts that if there is a pro-independence majority, but Johnson’s government refuses to grant Scotland permission to hold a second referendum, “there’ll be a lot of Punch and Judy-style back and forth”. But she says that every time the UK government says no it will work in the SNP’s favour because, “it reaffirms everything they tell the electorate about the UK government not observing the will of the people of Scotland”.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/brexit-has-changed-peoples-minds-on-independence-qanda-with-kezia-dugdale-former-scottish-labour-leader-159858">'Brexit has changed people's minds on independence': Q&A with Kezia Dugdale, former Scottish Labour leader</a>
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<p>Darren Nyatanga, a PhD candidate at the University of Liverpool, where he’s researching the constitutional impacts of Brexit on the UK union, explains the process through which a second referendum could happen. He says the referendum’s legitimacy is vital, particularly given the SNP’s wish for an independent Scotland to rejoin the EU. “If the EU does not recognise the legitimacy of independence,” he says, then its unlikely they will be forthcoming in “accepting them as a member state”.</p>
<p>And economist Graeme Roy, dean of external engagement at the <a href="https://www.gla.ac.uk/colleges/socialsciences/">College of Social Sciences at the University of Glasgow</a>, sets out the economic arguments used by both sides in the independence debate. Roy says that a lot has changed economically for Scotland since the 2014 referendum, particularly due to falling revenues from North Sea oil. “That really matters in a Scottish context,” he says, because it has higher public expenditure than the rest of the UK, “so oil revenues would have been one way to help it support that.”</p>
<p>For our next story, we hear about some new research into neuroplasticity – the brain’s ability to change its structure. The brains of young animals can change more easily than adults – which is why, for example, kids can learn languages more easily than adults. Many diseases are caused by to little or too much neuroplasticity – and being able to turn it off and on has obvious medical benefits. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03441-2">New research</a> published recently by Sarah Ackerman, postdoctoral fellow at the Institute of Neuroscience and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Oregon, and her team, on their research using fruit flies, looked into what controls these changes. The goal is to help fight diseases, but this work could also potentially unlock the superpowered learning that comes with a malleable brain. We talk to her about what she’s found. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/astrocyte-cells-in-the-fruit-fly-brain-are-an-on-off-switch-that-controls-when-neurons-can-change-and-grow-158601">Astrocyte cells in the fruit fly brain are an on-off switch that controls when neurons can change and grow</a>
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<p>And Moina Spooner, commissioning editor at The Conversation in Nairobi, Kenya, gives us her recommended reads for the week.</p>
<p>The Conversation Weekly is produced by Mend Mariwany and Gemma Ware, with sound design by Eloise Stevens. Our theme music is by Neeta Sarl. You can find us on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/TC_Audio">@TC_Audio</a>, on Instagram at <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/?hl=en">theconversationdotcom</a>. or via email on podcast@theconversation.com. You can also sign up to <a href="https://theconversation.com/newsletter?utm_campaign=PodcastTCWeekly&utm_content=newsletter&utm_source=podcast">The Conversation’s free daily email here</a>.</p>
<p>A transcript of this episode <a href="https://theconversation.com/scottish-independence-whats-at-stake-in-may-elections-160042">is available here.</a></p>
<p>News clips in this episode are from <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1TmUP1StPf0">BBC</a> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QlMKebueygY">News</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNMA9kra_fg">ITV</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYJPh0TIPKQ">Sky News</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yWNjKsUJnQU">Channel 4 News</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r7GM4nK5axc">The Telegraph</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n1PQBND3Xa4">CBS News</a>. </p>
<p><em>You can listen to The Conversation Weekly via any of the apps listed above, our <a href="https://feeds.acast.com/public/shows/60087127b9687759d637bade">RSS feed</a>, or find out how else to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-listen-to-the-conversations-podcasts-154131">listen here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/159883/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Plus, how researchers have discovered a biological switch that can turn neuroplasticity on and off in the brain. Listen to episode 13 of The Conversation Weekly podcast.Gemma Ware, Head of AudioDaniel Merino, Associate Breaking News Editor and Co-Host of The Conversation Weekly PodcastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1586012021-04-12T12:28:55Z2021-04-12T12:28:55ZAstrocyte cells in the fruit fly brain are an on-off switch that controls when neurons can change and grow<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394301/original/file-20210409-17-yp356o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C44%2C1060%2C668&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The colors in this microscope photo of a fruit fly brain show different types of neurons and the cells that surround them in the brain.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.doelab.org/">Sarah DeGenova Ackerman</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Neuroplasticity – the ability of neurons to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0158">change their structure and function in response to experiences</a> – can be turned off and on by the cells that surround neurons in the brain, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03441-2">according to a new study</a> on fruit flies that I co-authored.</p>
<p>As fruit fly larvae age, their neurons shift from a highly adaptable state to a stable state and lose their ability to change. During this process, support cells in the brain – called astrocytes – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.09.056">envelop the parts of the neurons</a> that send and receive electrical information. When my team removed the astrocytes, the neurons in the fruit fly larvae remained plastic longer, hinting that somehow astrocytes suppress a neuron’s ability to change. We then discovered two specific proteins that regulate neuroplasticity.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394336/original/file-20210409-17-346mnx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Fruit flies on a table." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394336/original/file-20210409-17-346mnx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394336/original/file-20210409-17-346mnx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394336/original/file-20210409-17-346mnx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394336/original/file-20210409-17-346mnx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394336/original/file-20210409-17-346mnx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394336/original/file-20210409-17-346mnx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394336/original/file-20210409-17-346mnx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">As fruit flies develop, special cells surround their neurons and seem to halt neuroplasticity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sarah DeGenova Ackerman</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>The human brain is made up of billions of neurons that form complex connections with one another. Flexibility at these connections is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1820836117">major driver of learning and memory</a>, but things can go wrong if it isn’t tightly regulated. For example, in people, too much plasticity at the wrong time is linked to brain disorders such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.09.040">epilepsy</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(00)81109-5">Alzheimer’s disease</a>. Additionally, reduced levels of the two neuroplasticity-controlling proteins we identified are linked to increased susceptibility to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2018.00470">autism</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-00944-8">schizophrenia</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly, in our fruit flies, removing the cellular brakes on plasticity permanently impaired their crawling behavior. While fruit flies are of course different from humans, their brains work in very similar ways to the human brain and can offer valuable insight.</p>
<p>One obvious benefit of discovering the effect of these proteins is the potential to treat some neurological diseases. But since a neuron’s flexibility is closely tied to learning and memory, in theory, researchers might be able to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12682">boost plasticity</a> in a controlled way to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0288">enhance cognition in adults</a>. This could, for example, allow people to more easily learn a new language or musical instrument. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A colorful microscope image of a developing fruit fly brain." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394317/original/file-20210409-13-1a039sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In this image showing a developing fruit fly brain on the right and the attached nerve cord on the left, the astrocytes are labeled in different colors showing their wide distribution among neurons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sarah DeGenova Ackerman</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How we did the work</h2>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-sssMIEAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">My colleagues and I</a> focused our experiments on a specific type of neurons called motor neurons. These control movements like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13064-018-0103-z">crawling</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.903400311">flying</a> in fruit flies. To figure out how astrocytes controlled neuroplasticity, we used genetic tools to turn off specific proteins in the astrocytes one by one and then measured the effect on motor neuron structure. We found that astrocytes and motor neurons communicate with one another using a specific pair of proteins called neuroligins and neurexins. These proteins essentially function as an off button for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03441-2">motor neuron plasticity</a>.</p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>My team discovered that two proteins can control neuroplasticity, but we don’t know how these cues from astrocytes cause neurons to lose their ability to change.</p>
<p>Additionally, researchers still know very little about why neuroplasticity is so strong in younger animals and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1820836117">relatively weak in adulthood</a>. In our study, we showed that prolonging plasticity beyond development can sometimes be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03441-2">harmful to behavior</a>, but we don’t yet know why that is, either. </p>
<p>[<em>Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>I want to explore why longer periods of neuroplasticity can be harmful. Fruit flies are great study organisms for this research because it is very easy to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1567">modify the neural connections in their brains</a>. In my team’s next project, we hope to determine how changes in neuroplasticity during development can lead to long–term changes in behavior.</p>
<p>There is so much more work to be done, but our research is a first step toward treatments that use astrocytes to influence how neurons change in the mature brain. If researchers can understand the basic mechanisms that control neuroplasticity, they will be one step closer to developing therapies to treat a variety of neurological disorders.</p>
<p><em>To learn more about Sarah DeGenova Ackerman’s research on fruit flies and neuroplasticity, tune in to this episode of The Conversation Weekly podcast.</em></p>
<iframe src="https://embed.acast.com/60087127b9687759d637bade/60899b812984c378fd29a86a?cover=true&ga=false" frameborder="0" allow="autoplay" width="100%" height="110"></iframe><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158601/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah DeGenova Ackerman receives funding from the NIH/NINDS. Sarah DeGenova Ackerman is a Milton Safenowitz postdoctoral fellow of the ALS Association.</span></em></p>Adaptable neurons are tied to learning and memory but also to neurological disorders. By studying fruit flies, researchers found a mechanism that controls neuroplasticity.Sarah DeGenova Ackerman, Postdoctoral Fellow, UO Institute of Neuroscience and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of OregonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1416852020-07-15T16:32:24Z2020-07-15T16:32:24ZBrains manage neurons like air traffic controllers manage airplane movements<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345636/original/file-20200705-33922-1a9x9cd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C26%2C5763%2C3224&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Our brains communicate information in a manner that can be likened to an air traffic controller. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Air traffic controllers monitor the movements of thousands of flights — taking into account the types of aircraft used and the cargo carried — to destinations in real time. As well, in order to properly co-ordinate arrivals and departures, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/michelerobson/2020/05/29/the-most-stressful-job-in-the-world-what-its-really-like-to-be-an-air-traffic-controller/">aircraft speeds must be constantly adjusted. Without this constant control adhering to clear navigation rules, chaos would invade the airspace</a>.</p>
<p>My research in neurophysiology and neuroscience has shown me how the brain is a rich and complex biological system. Every day, it faces the same situation as an air traffic controller but on a completely different scale: it has to manage the incessant traffic of signals that pass between billions of neurons and co-ordinate their pace constantly. </p>
<p>How does the brain do this?</p>
<p>Most of the volume of our brain is occupied by wires called axons, which form a complex network called white matter. Like a maze of airways linking cities around the world, white matter manages communication and co-ordination between the various areas where populations of neurons process information. These areas are located in different parts of the brain, sometimes close to each other, sometimes far away: this is the principle of distributed computing.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347366/original/file-20200714-139969-1eqj47b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347366/original/file-20200714-139969-1eqj47b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347366/original/file-20200714-139969-1eqj47b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347366/original/file-20200714-139969-1eqj47b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347366/original/file-20200714-139969-1eqj47b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347366/original/file-20200714-139969-1eqj47b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347366/original/file-20200714-139969-1eqj47b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347366/original/file-20200714-139969-1eqj47b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Air traffic controllers, pictured here at the Venice International Airport in 2011, are responsible for processing and managing vast amounts of information.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The faster, the better!</h2>
<p>The control of traffic in the brain is crucial — the faster the information travels through the brain, the more efficiently the different areas of the brain co-operate to allow the proper functioning of memory and other aspects of cognition.</p>
<p>To maintain this incessant traffic, specialized cells called oligodendrocytes act as controllers by enveloping the axons with a substance called myelin. This myelin is a lipid (or fat) insulator with a characteristic pale colour, hence the name “white matter.” It allows the electrical signals of neurons to travel long distances without slowing down or losing intensity. However, myelin also offers an advantage to information passing through white matter: it allows signals to arrive on time, neither too early nor too late.</p>
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À lire aussi :
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-memories-are-formed-and-retrieved-by-the-brain-revealed-in-a-new-study-125361">How memories are formed and retrieved by the brain revealed in a new study</a>
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<p>Today we know that because of its plasticity, the geography of the brain is constantly changing. However, research published in recent years have shown that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1252304">white matter changes not only during development but also adaptively later, for example, during learning</a>.</p>
<h2>The rules of neural traffic</h2>
<p>This type of plasticity had been observed mainly in the synapses of grey matter. It has now been shown that the structure of white matter constantly adapts and reorganizes itself. Through this form of plasticity, called adaptive myelination, the structure and properties of white matter are optimized. As a result, communication between neurons is maintained even when the brain’s size, activity and connections change. In fact, oligodendrocytes can adjust the amount of myelin to speed up or slow down the propagation of signals and maintain stable neuronal trafficking.</p>
<p>But how do white matter and its glial cells adapt to stabilize neuronal traffic and accomplish this incredible co-ordination challenge?</p>
<p>This question, like many concerning glial cells, is difficult to answer with traditional neuroimaging methods, but it’s of primary importance to a better understanding of neurodegenerative diseases. One example is multiple sclerosis, which causes myelin thinning and leads to a systemic disorganization of the flow of information in the brain, causing profound cognitive and motor disorders.</p>
<h2>Co-ordinated neuronal activity</h2>
<p>A recent interdisciplinary study provides <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1916646117">a better understanding of the rules governing the control of neuronal traffic in white matter</a>. It is important to note that neuron activity — a series of Morse code-like impulses — is not random. Rather, neurons tend to activate in groups and synchronize, generating waves or oscillations called brain rhythms. Researchers believe that in order to communicate with each other, different areas of the brain must be able to align and co-ordinate these rhythms.</p>
<p>New results obtained from human brain imaging data, combined with mathematical models, show that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1916646117">white matter reorganizes itself to optimize the alignment of these rhythms</a>. To do this, it controls the speed at which these waves propagate through white matter by adjusting the amount of myelin present.</p>
<p>Oligodendrocytes therefore adapt the conductivity of axons to enable them to respond effectively to changing neuronal traffic demands and orchestrate the alignment between the oscillations present in different parts of the brain. They’re real cellular air traffic controllers!</p>
<h2>Even the sick brain manages</h2>
<p>Another surprising result is that the plastic properties of white matter also seem to allow the brain to adapt despite the presence of disease or injury. Indeed, it has been shown that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.0560-17.2017">white matter can reorganize in the presence of damage to preserve communication and synchronization between neurons</a>, even if connections become either absent or damaged, for example in the presence of cancer.</p>
<p>Some experiments in animals have shown that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.14845">preventing glial cells from adapting in the presence of injury limits recovery and causes many cognitive and behavioural problems</a>.</p>
<p>The plasticity of white matter appears to be a key element of brain resilience and could therefore represent an interesting option for developing new therapeutic approaches, particularly in stroke victims. These new results highlight the importance of glial cells and white matter plasticity in the functioning and flexibility of cognitive processes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/141685/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jérémie Lefebvre received funding from the Canadian Institutes for Health Research (CIHR) and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). </span></em></p>Air traffic controllers have to process and manage large amounts of information to get airplanes to their destinations. The brain manages the incessant traffic of neurons in a similar fashion.Jérémie Lefebvre, Professeur agrégé de neurosciences computationnelles et neurophysiologie, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1265812019-11-14T23:44:14Z2019-11-14T23:44:14ZYour brain on sugar: What the science actually says<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301668/original/file-20191113-77305-17ucjtz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=345%2C581%2C3453%2C2123&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The average Canadian adult consumes more than triple the daily limit of 25g added sugar recommended by the World Health Organization.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash/muhammad ruqiyaddin)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We love sweet treats. But too much sugar in our diets can lead to <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/does-sugar-make-you-fat">weight gain and obesity</a>, <a href="https://www.diabetes.ca/recently-diagnosed/type-2-toolkit">Type 2 diabetes</a> and <a href="http://www.actiononsugar.org/sugar-and-health/sugars-and-tooth-decay/">dental decay</a>. We know we shouldn’t be eating candy, ice cream, cookies, cakes and drinking sugary sodas, but sometimes they are so hard to resist. </p>
<p>It’s as if our brain is hardwired to want these foods.</p>
<p>As a neuroscientist my research centres on how <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-the-food-industry-conspiring-to-make-you-fat-81537">modern day “obesogenic,” or obesity-promoting, diets</a> change the brain. I want to understand how what we eat alters our behaviour and whether brain changes can be mitigated by other lifestyle factors.</p>
<p>Your body runs on sugar — glucose to be precise. Glucose comes from the Greek word <em>glukos</em> which means sweet. Glucose fuels the cells that make up our body — <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-neuron-2794890">including brain cells (neurons)</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301665/original/file-20191113-77338-10uj0dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301665/original/file-20191113-77338-10uj0dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301665/original/file-20191113-77338-10uj0dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301665/original/file-20191113-77338-10uj0dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301665/original/file-20191113-77338-10uj0dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301665/original/file-20191113-77338-10uj0dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301665/original/file-20191113-77338-10uj0dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">3D illustration of neurons in human brain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Dopamine “hits” from eating sugar</h2>
<p>On an evolutionary basis, our primitive ancestors were scavengers. Sugary foods are excellent sources of energy, so we have evolved to find sweet foods particularly pleasurable. Foods with unpleasant, bitter and sour tastes can be unripe, poisonous or rotting — causing sickness. </p>
<p>So to maximize our survival as a species, we have an innate brain system that makes us like sweet foods since they’re a great source of energy to fuel our bodies. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/forget-toast-and-oatmeal-low-carb-breakfasts-reduce-sugar-spikes-in-those-with-type-2-diabetes-115621">Forget toast and oatmeal, low-carb breakfasts reduce sugar spikes in those with Type 2 diabetes</a>
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<p>When we eat sweet foods the brain’s reward system — called the <a href="https://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/glossary/mesolimbic-pathway">mesolimbic dopamine system</a> — gets activated. <a href="https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/explainer-what-dopamine">Dopamine</a> is a brain chemical released by neurons and can signal that an event was positive. When the reward system fires, it reinforces behaviours — making it more likely for us to carry out these actions again. </p>
<p>Dopamine “hits” from eating sugar promote rapid learning to preferentially find more of these foods. </p>
<p>Our environment today is abundant with sweet, energy rich foods. We no longer have to forage for these special sugary foods — they are available everywhere. Unfortunately, our brain is still functionally very similar to our ancestors, and it really likes sugar. So what happens in the brain when we excessively consume sugar?</p>
<h2>Can sugar rewire the brain?</h2>
<p>The brain continuously <a href="https://brainworksneurotherapy.com/what-neuroplasticity">remodels and rewires itself through a process called neuroplasticity</a>. This rewiring can happen in the reward system. Repeated activation of the reward pathway by drugs or by eating lots of sugary foods causes the brain to adapt to frequent stimulation, leading to a sort of tolerance. </p>
<p>In the case of sweet foods, this means we need to eat more to get the same rewarding feeling — a classic feature of addiction. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301664/original/file-20191113-77320-o9qil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301664/original/file-20191113-77320-o9qil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301664/original/file-20191113-77320-o9qil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301664/original/file-20191113-77320-o9qil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301664/original/file-20191113-77320-o9qil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301664/original/file-20191113-77320-o9qil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301664/original/file-20191113-77320-o9qil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Regularly eating high-sugar foods can amplify cravings.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/fact-or-fiction-is-sugar-addictive-73340">Food addiction</a> is a controversial subject among scientists and clinicians. While it is true that you can become physically dependent on certain drugs, it is debated whether you can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.08.016">addicted to food</a> when you need it for basic survival.</p>
<h2>The brain wants sugar, then more sugar</h2>
<p>Regardless of our need for food to power our bodies, many people experience food cravings, particularly when stressed, hungry or just faced with an alluring display of cakes in a coffee shop. </p>
<p>To resist cravings, we need to inhibit our natural response to indulge in these tasty foods. A network of inhibitory neurons is critical for controlling behaviour. These <a href="https://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/blog/2014/5/16/know-your-brain-prefrontal-cortex">neurons are concentrated in the prefrontal cortex</a> — a key area of the brain involved in decision-making, impulse control and delaying gratification.</p>
<p>Inhibitory neurons are like the brain’s brakes and <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/gamma-aminobutyric-acid">release the chemical GABA</a>. Research in rats has shown that <a href="http://www.learnmem.org/cgi/doi/10.1101/lm.038000.114">eating high-sugar diets can alter the inhibitory neurons</a>. The sugar-fed rats were also less able to control their behaviour and make decisions. </p>
<p>Importantly, this shows that what we eat can influence our ability to resist temptations and may underlie why diet changes are so difficult for people.</p>
<p>A recent study asked people to rate <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.10.007">how much they wanted to eat high-calorie snack foods when they were feeling hungry</a> versus when they had recently eaten. The people who regularly ate a high-fat, high-sugar diet rated their cravings for snack foods higher even when they weren’t hungry. </p>
<p>This suggests that regularly eating high-sugar foods could amplify cravings — creating a vicious circle of wanting more and more of these foods.</p>
<h2>Sugar can disrupt memory formation</h2>
<p>Another brain area affected by high sugar diets is the <a href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/313295.php">hippocampus</a> — a key memory centre. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301666/original/file-20191113-77363-1tjadl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301666/original/file-20191113-77363-1tjadl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301666/original/file-20191113-77363-1tjadl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301666/original/file-20191113-77363-1tjadl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301666/original/file-20191113-77363-1tjadl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301666/original/file-20191113-77363-1tjadl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301666/original/file-20191113-77363-1tjadl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Is your breakfast affecting your memory?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash/ashwin vaswani)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Research shows that rats eating high-sugar diets were <a href="http://learnmem.cshlp.org/content/23/7/386.full.html">less able to remember</a> whether they had previously seen objects in specific locations before. </p>
<p>The sugar-induced changes in the hippocampus were both a <a href="https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/brain-physiology/what-neurogenesis">reduction of newborn neurons</a>, which are vital for encoding memories, and an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2013.11.016">increase in chemicals linked to inflammation</a>. </p>
<h2>How to protect your brain from sugar?</h2>
<p>The World Health Organization advises that we limit our intake of added sugars to <a href="https://www.ages.at/en/topics/nutrition/who-sugar-recommendations/">five per cent of our daily calorie intake</a>, which is 25g (six teaspoons). </p>
<p>Considering the average Canadian adult consumes <a href="https://sugar.ca/Sugars-Consumption-and-Dietary-Guidelines/Consumption-of-Sugars-in-Canada.aspx">85g (20 teaspoons) of sugar per day</a>, this is a big diet change for many.</p>
<p>Importantly, the brain’s neuroplasticity capabilities allow it to reset to an extent following cutting down on dietary sugar, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2016.03.002">physical exercise can augment this process</a>. Foods rich in omaga-3 fats (found in fish oil, nuts and seeds) are also neuroprotective and can boost brain chemicals needed to form new neurons. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/young-adults-need-to-eat-more-omega-3-fats-95508">Young adults need to eat more omega-3 fats</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>While it’s not easy to break habits like always eating dessert or making your coffee a double-double, your brain will thank you for making positive steps. </p>
<p>The first step is often the hardest. These diet changes can often get easier along the way.</p>
<p>[ <em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/ca/newsletters?utm_source=TCCA&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126581/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Reichelt receives funding from the Australian Research Council and Canada First Research Excellence Fund (BrainsCAN, Western University). </span></em></p>Sugar triggers dopamine “hits” in the brain, making us crave more of it. Sugar also disrupts memory formation.Amy Reichelt, BrainsCAN Research Associate, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1076062019-03-13T19:10:46Z2019-03-13T19:10:46ZAn impaired sense of smell can signal cognitive decline, but ‘smell training’ could help<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260607/original/file-20190225-26177-1nr2pnq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">As people age, their sense of smell can decline.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">From shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As we age, we <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00020/full">often have problems</a> with our ability to smell (called olfactory dysfunction). Older people might not be able to identify an odour or differentiate one odour from another. In some cases they might not be able to detect an odour at all.</p>
<p>Odour identification difficulties are common in people with neurodegenerative diseases, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13786326_Olfaction_in_neurodegenerative_disease_a_meta-analysis_of_olfactory_functioning_in_Alzheimer's_and_Parkinson's_diseases">including Alzheimer’s disease</a>.</p>
<p>In the absence of a known medical cause, an impaired sense of smell can be a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1064748116302123">predictor of cognitive decline</a>. Older people who have difficulty identifying common odours have been estimated to be <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28944467">twice as likely</a> to develop dementia in five years as those with no significant smell loss.</p>
<p>Olfactory dysfunction is <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-psychogeriatrics/article/awareness-of-olfactory-deficits-in-healthy-aging-amnestic-mild-cognitive-impairment-and-alzheimers-disease/D6DA1D61A00B36DD049B11EAEB73C2F8">often present</a> before other cognitive symptoms appear, although this loss can go undetected.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-do-we-smell-104772">Curious Kids: How do we smell?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Beyond being a potential early indicator of Alzheimer’s disease, olfactory problems can pose safety risks, such as not being able to smell gas, smoke, or rotten food. </p>
<p>Smell ability is also strongly linked to our ability to taste, so impairments can lead to decreased appetite and therefore nutritional deficiencies. In turn, olfactory deficits can decrease quality of life and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/chemse/article/39/3/185/502849">increase the risk</a> of depression.</p>
<p>But there is <a href="https://europepmc.org/abstract/med/28040824">emerging evidence</a> that olfactory or “smell training” can improve ability to smell. These findings may offer some hope for older adults experiencing olfactory difficulties and an associated decline in quality of life.</p>
<h2>How is our sense of smell linked to our brains?</h2>
<p>The process of smelling activates the complex olfactory network in the brain. When we smell a rose, for example, receptors in the nose detect the many molecules that make up the rose’s odour. </p>
<p>This information is then sent to the many areas of the brain (including the olfactory bulb and olfactory cortex, the hippocampus, the thalamus and the orbitofrontal cortex) that help us process the information about that odour.</p>
<p>To name the rose, we access our stored knowledge of its pattern of odour molecules, based on past experience. So identifying the smell as belonging to a rose is considered a cognitive task.</p>
<h2>What is smell training?</h2>
<p>Smell training has been studied in various animals, from flies to primates. Animals exposed to multiple odours develop an increased number of, and connections between, brain cells. This process has been shown to <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Plasticity-in-the-olfactory-system%3A-lessons-for-the-Wilson-Best/73b409a3970b81b5103981406b585325e7e5f5f9">enhance learning</a> and memory of odours.</p>
<p>In humans, olfactory training has typically involved smelling a range of robust odours representing major odour categories – flowery (such as rose), fruity (lemon), aromatic (eucalyptus) or resinous (cloves). Participants may be asked to focus their attention on particular odours, try to detect certain odours, or note odour intensities.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260608/original/file-20190225-26177-1jmqf7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260608/original/file-20190225-26177-1jmqf7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260608/original/file-20190225-26177-1jmqf7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260608/original/file-20190225-26177-1jmqf7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260608/original/file-20190225-26177-1jmqf7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260608/original/file-20190225-26177-1jmqf7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260608/original/file-20190225-26177-1jmqf7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An inhibited sense of smell means we may not taste our food as well.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">From shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Generally, training is repeated daily for several months. Periods <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jgs.12669">over three months</a> are suggested for older adults.</p>
<p>This training has been shown to improve people’s ability to identify and tell the difference between smells. To a lesser extent, it can help with odour detection in people with various forms of smell loss, including those with a <a href="https://europepmc.org/abstract/med/28040824">brain-derived impairment</a> such as a head injury or Parkinson’s disease.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-happening-in-our-bodies-as-we-age-67931">What's happening in our bodies as we age?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Importantly, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/gps.4725">one recent study</a> of olfactory training in older adults found it not only improved performance on identifying smells, but was also associated with improvement in other cognitive abilities.</p>
<p>For example, those who undertook smell training had <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/gps.4725">improved verbal fluency</a> (improved ability to name words associated with a category), compared to control participants who completed Sudoku exercises.</p>
<h2>How does smell training work?</h2>
<p>Neuroplasticity, our brains’ ability to change continuously in response to experience, may be key to how smell training works. </p>
<p>Neuroplasticity involves the generation of new connections and/or the strengthening of existing connections between neurons (brain cells), which in turn may lead to changes in thinking skills or behaviour. We can see evidence of neuroplasticity when we practise a skill such as playing an instrument or learning a new language.</p>
<p>The olfactory network is considered particularly neuroplastic. Neuroplasticity may therefore underlie the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/gps.4725">positive results</a> from smell training, both in terms of improving olfactory ability and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1868530/">boosting capacity</a> for other cognitive tasks.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-nature-nurture-and-neuroplasticity-10734">Explainer: nature, nurture and neuroplasticity</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Could smell training be the new brain training?</h2>
<p>Brain training aiming to maintain or enhance cognitive function has been extensively studied in older people <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-psychogeriatrics/article/awareness-of-olfactory-deficits-in-healthy-aging-amnestic-mild-cognitive-impairment-and-alzheimers-disease/D6DA1D61A00B36DD049B11EAEB73C2F8">with dementia</a> or <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001756&xid=17259,15700019,15700124,15700149,15700168,15700173,15700186,15700189,15700201">at risk of it</a>. </p>
<p>Established cognitive training approaches generally train participants to use learning strategies with visual or auditory stimuli. To date, formal cognitive training has not been attempted using smells. </p>
<p>However, using the considerable neuroplasticity of the olfactory network and evidence-based cognitive training techniques, both olfactory and cognitive deficits may be targeted, particularly in older adults at risk of dementia. It seems possible we could train our brains through our noses.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/107606/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex Bahar-Fuchs receives funding from The National Health and Medical Research Council and has previously received funding from Dementia Australia and the Dementia Centres for Research Collaboration. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Wolf does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our ability to smell is a function of the brain, so it makes sense that an impaired sense of smell can point to cognitive decline. The good news is training our noses may be effective.Anna Wolf, Postdoctoral Fellow, Academic Unit for Psychiatry of Old Age, The University of MelbourneAlex Bahar-Fuchs, Researcher, Psychiatry, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1068502019-02-06T19:18:24Z2019-02-06T19:18:24ZDoes microdosing improve your mood and performance? Here’s what the research says<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257366/original/file-20190206-86233-7rvfkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Microdosers take such small quantities of psychedelic substances that there are no noticeable effects.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/essential-oils-water-drops-bottle-on-1136976854">By AppleZoomZoom</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Microdosing means regularly taking very small doses of psychedelic substances such as LSD or psilocybin (magic mushrooms) over a period of weeks or months. The practice has <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/how-lsd-microdosing-became-the-hot-new-business-trip-64961/">made countless headlines</a> over the past couple of years, with claims it can improve health, strengthen relationships, and increase productivity.</p>
<p>These claims are surprising because microdosers take doses so small there are no noticeable effects. These can be just 1/20th of a typical recreational dose, often every three or four days. With such small amounts, microdosers go about their daily business, including going to work, without experiencing any typical drug effects.</p>
<p>Previous research suggests microdosing may lead to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1455072517753339">better mood and energy levels</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-018-5049-7">improved creativity</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/microdosers-of-lsd-and-magic-mushrooms-are-wiser-and-more-creative-101302">increased wisdom</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-018-5119-x">changes to how we perceive time</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lsd-microdosing-is-trending-in-silicon-valley-but-can-it-actually-make-you-more-creative-72747">LSD 'microdosing' is trending in Silicon Valley – but can it actually make you more creative?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But these previous studies have mainly involved asking people to complete ratings or behavioural tasks as one-off measures. </p>
<p>Our study, <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0211023">published today in PLOS One</a>, tracked the experience of 98 users over a longer period – six weeks – to systematically measure any psychological changes. </p>
<p>Overall, the participants reported both positive and negative effects from microdosing, including improved attention and mental health; but also more neuroticism. </p>
<h2>What we did</h2>
<p>As you would expect, there are many legal and bureaucratic barriers to psychedelic research. It wasn’t possible for us to run a study where we actually provided participants with psychedelic substances. Instead, we tried to come up with the most rigorous design possible in the current restrictive legal climate. </p>
<p>Our solution was to recruit people who were already experimenting with microdosing and to track their experiences carefully over time, using well validated and reliable psychometric measures.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257370/original/file-20190206-86233-j6ezp5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257370/original/file-20190206-86233-j6ezp5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257370/original/file-20190206-86233-j6ezp5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257370/original/file-20190206-86233-j6ezp5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257370/original/file-20190206-86233-j6ezp5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257370/original/file-20190206-86233-j6ezp5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257370/original/file-20190206-86233-j6ezp5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Microdosers go about their lives without any typical drug effects.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/gxD8hCmi0IQ">Parker Byrd</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Each day we asked participants to complete some brief ratings, telling us whether they had microdosed that day and describing their overall experience. This let us track the immediate effects of microdosing.</p>
<p>At the beginning and end of the study participants completed a detailed battery of psychological measures. This let us track the longer-term effects of microdosing.</p>
<p>In a separate sample, we explored the beliefs and expectations of people who are interested in microdosing. This let us track whether any changes in our main sample were aligned with what people generally predict will happen when microdosing.</p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>There are five key findings from our study.</p>
<p><strong>1. A general positive boost on microdosing days, but limited residual effects of each dose.</strong></p>
<p>Many online accounts of microdosing suggest people microdose every three or four days. The thinking is that each microdose supposedly has a residual effect that lasts for a few days. </p>
<p>The daily ratings from participants in our study do not support this idea. Participants reported an immediate boost in all measures (connectedness, contemplation, creativity, focus, happiness, productiveness and wellness) on dosing days. But this was mostly not maintained on the following days. </p>
<p>However, there was some indication of a slight rebound in feelings of focus and productivity two days after dosing.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257367/original/file-20190206-86224-1hsin25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257367/original/file-20190206-86224-1hsin25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257367/original/file-20190206-86224-1hsin25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257367/original/file-20190206-86224-1hsin25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257367/original/file-20190206-86224-1hsin25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257367/original/file-20190206-86224-1hsin25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257367/original/file-20190206-86224-1hsin25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Microdosers experienced increased focus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/zP1BLbbYszg">Rawpixel</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>2. Some indications of improvements in mental health</strong></p>
<p>We also looked at cumulative effects of longer term microdosing. We found that after six weeks, participants reported lower levels of depression and stress. </p>
<p>We recruited people who were not experiencing any kind of mental illness for the study, so levels of depression and stress were relatively low to begin with. Nevertheless, ratings on these measures did drop. </p>
<p>This is an intriguing finding but it’s not clear from this result whether microdosing would have any effect on more significant levels of mood disturbance.</p>
<p><strong>3. Shifts in attention</strong></p>
<p>The microdosers in our study reported reduced mind wandering, meaning they were less likely to be distracted by unwanted thoughts. </p>
<p>They also reported an increase in absorption, meaning they were more likely to experience intense focused attention on imaginative experiences. Absorption has been linked to strong engagement with art and nature.</p>
<p><strong>4. Increases in neuroticism and some challenging experiences</strong></p>
<p>Not everyone had a good time microdosing. Some participants reported unpleasant and difficult experiences. In some cases, participants tried microdosing just once or twice, then didn’t want to continue. </p>
<p>Overall, participants reported a small increase in neuroticism after six weeks of microdosing, indicating an increase in the frequency of unpleasant emotions.</p>
<p><strong>5. Changes do not entirely match people’s expectations</strong></p>
<p>People have strong expectations about the effects of microdosing. But when we looked at the specific variables participants most expected would change, these didn’t match up with the changes actually reported by our microdosers. </p>
<p>Two of the biggest changes microdosers expected were increases in creativity and life satisfaction, but we found no evidence of shifts in these areas. This suggests the changes we found were not simply due to people’s expectations.</p>
<h2>What does it all mean?</h2>
<p>This complex set of findings is not what’s typically reported in media stories and online discussions of microdosing. There are promising indications of possible benefits of microdosing here, but also indications of some potential negative impacts, which should be taken seriously.</p>
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<p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/opening-up-the-future-of-psychedelic-science-101303">Opening up the future of psychedelic science</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It’s important to remember this was an observational study that relied heavily on the accuracy and honesty of participants in their reports. As such, these results need to be treated cautiously.</p>
<p>It’s early days for microdosing research and this work shows that we need to look more carefully at the effects of low dose psychedelics on mental health, attention, and neuroticism.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106850/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vince Polito does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Popular accounts of the effects of microdosing don’t quite match the experience of long-term microdosers, according to this new research.Vince Polito, Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Cognitive Science, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/945682018-07-19T21:26:07Z2018-07-19T21:26:07ZPlay games with your kids this summer to boost their brains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226385/original/file-20180705-122271-p4aw9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many board games strengthen the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of the brains of players. This results in improved cognitive functions such as IQ, memory, information retention and problem-solving.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Research shows that playing games can enhance our personal, social and emotional well-being, as well as our mental acuity. </p>
<p>A study conducted at Harvard Medical School in 2017 points out that <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/the-pursuit-of-happiness">loneliness can be more detrimental to health than smoking</a>. Happiness, on the other hand, is strongly correlated with close relationships with family members and friends.</p>
<p>Playing both board games and video games with family members provide opportunities to get together and develop these relationships. They stimulate players physically, mentally and emotionally. </p>
<p>Games have also been found to change the brain structurally and functionally, according to many scientific studies. They can promote neurogenesis — the growth of new neurons in the brains. They can also promote neuroplasticity — changes in neural pathways and synapses that lead to structural changes in the brain. </p>
<p>These changes result in <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/the-athletes-way/201310/video-gaming-can-increase-brain-size-and-connectivity">new brain cells and better connectivity among the different brain regions</a>, thus enhancing mental skills such as memory, attention span, spatial intelligence, language learning ability and coordination. </p>
<h2>Enthusiasm, stress reduction, calmness</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3788340">A 2017 study</a> published in <em>Frontiers in Human Neuroscience</em> showed that experienced players of the board game <em>Baduk</em>, or <em>Go</em>, had increased gray matter in the <a href="https://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/blog/2014/6/11/know-your-brain-nucleus-accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a> and decreased gray matter in <a href="https://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/blog/2-minute-neuroscience-amygdala?rq=amygdala">the amygdala</a>, as compared to novices. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226381/original/file-20180705-122259-h8j0gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226381/original/file-20180705-122259-h8j0gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226381/original/file-20180705-122259-h8j0gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226381/original/file-20180705-122259-h8j0gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226381/original/file-20180705-122259-h8j0gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226381/original/file-20180705-122259-h8j0gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226381/original/file-20180705-122259-h8j0gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Games can improve memory and decision making skills.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The nucleus accumbens is an area of the brain responsible for <a href="https://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/blog/2014/6/11/know-your-brain-nucleus-accumbens">processing environmental stimuli related to rewarding or unpleasant experiences</a>. Its functioning is based on the neurotransmitters dopamine, which promotes desire, and serotonin, which promotes satiety and inhibition. </p>
<p>Increase in gray matter in the nucleus accumbens leads to more positive experiences and enthusiasm.</p>
<p>The amygdala is an almond-shaped set of neurons located deep in the brain’s medial temporal lobe. It is <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/amygdala.htm">part of the limbic system and responsible for processing emotions</a>. A decrease in gray matter in the amygdala <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2840837/">leads to stress reduction and increased calmness</a>. </p>
<h2>Better decision-making</h2>
<p>Research also shows that action video game experts have <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep09763#affil-auth">more grey matter and enhanced functional connectivity in the insula subregions of their brains</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/blog/2013/05/what-is-insula">The insula</a> is a small portion of the cerebral cortex, responsible for self-awareness and present moment awareness. Increase in gray matter in the insula of the brain facilitates better decision-making. </p>
<p>Many board games also strengthen <a href="https://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/blog/2014/5/23/know-your-brain-hippocampus?rq=hippocampus">the hippocampus</a> and <a href="https://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/blog/2014/5/16/know-your-brain-prefrontal-cortex">prefrontal cortex</a> of the brains of players. <a href="http://www.psy.cmu.edu/%7Esiegler/2014-Laski-Siegler.pdf">This results in improved cognitive functions</a> such as IQ, memory, information retention and problem-solving.</p>
<p>Human brains have two hippocampi, located in each of the temporal lobes below the cerebral cortex. These are mainly responsible for memory consolidation along with spatial navigation and orientation. An increase in gray matter in the hippocampus is desired <a href="https://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/blog/2014/5/23/know-your-brain-hippocampus?rq=hippocampus">for better memory and for prevention of dementia</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226387/original/file-20180705-122253-1hrn02n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226387/original/file-20180705-122253-1hrn02n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226387/original/file-20180705-122253-1hrn02n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226387/original/file-20180705-122253-1hrn02n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226387/original/file-20180705-122253-1hrn02n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226387/original/file-20180705-122253-1hrn02n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226387/original/file-20180705-122253-1hrn02n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Research shows playing video games with family or friends can reduce the risk of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s among adults.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The prefrontal cortex is located at the very front of the brain and is responsible for performing “executive functions” such as reason, logic, problem-solving, planning, memory, directing attention, developing and pursuing goals and inhibiting counterproductive impulses. </p>
<h2>Improving memory</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00592">A study published in <em>Frontier Human Neuroscience</em></a> in 2015 documented the results of using a “Virtual Week (VW)” training game with older adults. This was a computerized game that simulated the schedule of a day on the circuits of the board, engaging participants in events such as choosing what to eat for meals or how to interact with others. The game also asked them to remember to do things on time — for example to take medication at breakfast, or deliver a message to colleagues. </p>
<p>Participants were trained to play the game for 12 sessions of one hour, over a period of a month. This resulted in cognitive and neural plasticity, improving the “prospective memory” of the participants — the ability to remember and successfully execute intentions and planned activities.</p>
<p>Playing collaborative strategic board games in an informal and interactional context has also been found <a href="http://www.dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijgbl.2011040105">to improve computational thinking</a> — including skills such as conditional logic, distributed processing, debugging, simulation and algorithm building. </p>
<h2>Reducing mental problems</h2>
<p>Research has also found that <a href="https://www.mpg.de/research/video-games-brain">playing video games with family or friends can reduce the risk of mental health problems</a> such as schizophrenia, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s among adults. </p>
<p>One study, published in 2014 in the <em>American Psychological Association</em> also reported that <a href="http://www.apa.org/action/resources/research-in-action/dyslexia.aspx">playing video games could help children with dyslexia</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226382/original/file-20180705-122277-bhwjc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226382/original/file-20180705-122277-bhwjc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226382/original/file-20180705-122277-bhwjc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226382/original/file-20180705-122277-bhwjc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226382/original/file-20180705-122277-bhwjc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226382/original/file-20180705-122277-bhwjc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226382/original/file-20180705-122277-bhwjc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It is important to strike a balance between video games and board games for kids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Then benefits of playing games can be increased by metacognition (thinking about thinking) and meditation sessions. Although there is ample research evidence to show that playing board and video games substantially affect the brain positively, adults need to stimulate metacognition in children — encouraging them to explain why they made certain decisions during the game. </p>
<p>This type of <a href="https://www.parentingscience.com/board-games-for-kids.html">probing can make video and board games more powerful tools</a> for developing mental acuity among kids. </p>
<p>Combining game sessions with short meditation sessions may also <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-many-benefits-of-meditation-in-the-classroom-94566">enhance the quality of time spent together with family and friends</a> in a purposeful, joyous manner. </p>
<h2>Balance board games and video games</h2>
<p>Games do come with many cognitive benefits but striking a balance is the key. Too much of anything can be detrimental. </p>
<p>Research shows that kids need to be encouraged to participate in social games as well as instructional and video games, but the negative consequences of getting addicted to these should also be explained to them. </p>
<p>As adults also we need to keep a watch on how much time we spend playing games, and on the type of games played.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94568/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Kaufman receives funding from the AGE-WELL National Centre of Excellence Network in Canada.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neha Shivhare does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From dyslexia, to dementia to schizophrenia, there is evidence that playing games can help, while boosting family connections and emotional wellbeing.Neha Shivhare, Assistant Professor, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, India; Visiting Fellow, Simon Fraser UniversityDavid Kaufman, Professor of Education, Simon Fraser UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/931832018-03-14T10:49:47Z2018-03-14T10:49:47ZControversial brain study has scientists rethinking neuron research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210020/original/file-20180313-30954-l9is0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=289%2C0%2C3156%2C1922&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Could it be that a baby has all the brain cells she ever will?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/2Lb835v61Qo">Jv Garcia on Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Scientists have known for about two decades that some neurons – the fundamental cells in the brain that transmit signals – are <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/content/22/3/614">generated throughout life</a>. But now a controversial new study from the University of California, San Francisco, casts doubt on whether many <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25975">neurons are added to the human brain after birth</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=J8IBQ_8AAAAJ&hl=en">As a translational neuroscientist</a>, this work immediately piqued my interest. It has direct implications for the <a href="http://naegelelab.research.wesleyan.edu">research my lab does</a>: We transplant young neurons into damaged brain areas in mice in an attempt to treat epileptic seizures and the damage they’ve caused. Like many labs, part of our work is based on a foundational belief that the hippocampus is a brain region where new neurons are born throughout life.</p>
<p>If the new study is right, and human brains for the most part don’t add new neurons after infancy, researchers like me need to reconsider the validity of the animal models we use to understand various brain conditions – in my case temporal lobe epilepsy. And I suspect other labs that focus on conditions including drug addiction, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder are thinking about what the UCSF study means for their investigations, too. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210098/original/file-20180313-30983-17040k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210098/original/file-20180313-30983-17040k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210098/original/file-20180313-30983-17040k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210098/original/file-20180313-30983-17040k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210098/original/file-20180313-30983-17040k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210098/original/file-20180313-30983-17040k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210098/original/file-20180313-30983-17040k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210098/original/file-20180313-30983-17040k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In the brain of a baby who died soon after birth, there are many new neurons (green in this image) in the hippocampus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25975">Sorrells et al</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>When and where are new neurons born?</h2>
<p>No doubt, the adult human brain is able to learn throughout life and to change and adapt – a capability brain scientists call neuroplasticity, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-brain-plasticity-and-why-is-it-so-important-55967">brain’s ability to reorganize itself by rewiring connections</a>. Yet, a central dogma in the field of neuroscience for nearly 100 years had been that a child is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195065169.001.0001">born with all the neurons she will ever have</a> because the adult brain cannot regenerate neurons. </p>
<p>Just over half a century ago, researchers devised a way to study proliferation of cells in the mature brain, based on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/35036235">techniques to incorporate a radioactive label</a> into new cells as they divide. This approach led to the startling discovery in the 1960s that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.901370404">rodent brains actually could generate new neurons</a>. </p>
<p>Neurogenesis – the production of new neurons – was previously thought to only occur during embryonic life, a time of extremely rapid brain growth and expansion, and the rodent findings were met with considerable skepticism. Then researchers discovered that new neurons are also <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/80/8/2390.short">born throughout life in the songbird brain</a>, a species scientists use as a model for studying vocal learning. It started to look like neurogenesis plays a key role in learning and neuroplasticity – at least in some brain regions in a few animal species. </p>
<p>Even so, neuroscientists were skeptical that many nerve cells could be renewed in the adult brain; evidence was scant that dividing cells in mammalian brains produced new neurons, as opposed to other cell types. It wasn’t until researchers extracted neural stem cells from adult mouse brains and grew them in cell culture that scientists showed these precursor cells could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.90.5.2074">divide and differentiate into new neurons</a>. Now it is generally well accepted that neurogenesis takes place in two areas of the adult rodent brain: the olfactory bulbs, which process smell information, and the hippocampus, a region characterized by neuroplasticity that is required for forming new declarative memories.</p>
<p>Adult neural stem cells cluster together in what scientists call niches – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.devcel.2015.01.010">hotbeds for cultivating the birth and growth of new neurons</a>, recognizable by their distinctive architecture. Despite the mounting evidence for regional growth of new neurons, these studies underscored the point that the adult brain harbors only a few stem cell niches and their capacity to produce neurons is limited to just a few types of cells. </p>
<p>With this knowledge, and new tools for labeling proliferating cells and identifying maturing neurons, scientists began to look for postnatal neurogenesis in primate and human brains.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210140/original/file-20180313-30989-51senu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210140/original/file-20180313-30989-51senu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210140/original/file-20180313-30989-51senu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210140/original/file-20180313-30989-51senu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210140/original/file-20180313-30989-51senu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210140/original/file-20180313-30989-51senu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210140/original/file-20180313-30989-51senu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210140/original/file-20180313-30989-51senu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A mouse neural stem cell (blue and green) grows in a lab dish. Can human brain cells do what rodent brain cells do?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nihgov/34021671492">Mark McClendon, Zaida Alvarez Pinto, Samuel I. Stupp, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s happening in adult human brains?</h2>
<p>Many neuroscientists believe that by understanding the process of adult neurogenesis we’ll gain insights into the causes of some human neurological disorders. Then the next logical step would be trying to develop new treatments harnessing neurogenesis for conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease or trauma-induced epilepsy. And stimulating resident stem cells in the brain to generate new neurons is an exciting prospect for treating neurodegenerative diseases.</p>
<p>Because neurogenesis and learning in rodents <a href="https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1731-05.2005">increases with voluntary exercise</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000368575">decreases with age</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a021303">early life stress</a>, some workers in the field became convinced that older people might be able to enhance their memory as they age by maintaining a program of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015950108">regular aerobic exercise</a>.</p>
<p>However, obtaining rigorous proof for adult neurogenesis in the human and primate brain has been technically challenging – both due to the limited experimental approaches and the larger sizes of the brains, compared to reptiles, songbirds and rodents.</p>
<p>Researchers injected a compound found in DNA, nicknamed BrdU to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/3305">identify brand new neurons in human adult hippocampus</a> – but the labeled cells were extremely rare. Other groups demonstrated that adult human brain tissue obtained during neurosurgery contained stem cell niches that housed progenitor cells that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02301">could generate new neurons in the lab</a>, showing that these cells had an inborn neurogenic capacity, even in adults.</p>
<p>But even when scientists saw evidence for new neurons in the brain, they tended to be scarce. Some neurogenesis experts were skeptical that evidence based on incorporating BrdU into DNA was a reliable method for proving that new cells were actually being born through cell division, rather than just serving as a <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/content/22/3/614.long">marker for other normal cell functions</a>.</p>
<p>Further questions about how long human brains retain the capacity for neurogenesis arose in 2011, with a study that compared numbers of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10487">newborn neurons migrating</a> in the olfactory bulbs of infants versus older individuals up to 84 years of age. Strikingly, in the first six months of life, the baby brains contained lots of chains of young neurons <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf7073">migrating into the frontal lobes</a>, regions that guide executive function, long-range planning and social interactions. These areas of the human cortex are hugely increased in size and complexity compared to rodents and other species. But between 6 to 18 months of age, the migrating chains dwindled to a thin stream. Then, a very different pattern emerged: Where the migrating chains of neurons had been in the infant brain, a cell-free gap appeared, suggesting that neural stem cells become depleted during the first six months of life. </p>
<p>Questions still lingered about the human hippocampus and adult neurogenesis as a source for its neuroplasticity. One group came up with a clever approach based on radiocarbon dating. They measured how much atmospheric ¹⁴C – a radioactive isotope derived from nuclear bomb tests – was incorporated into people’s DNA. This method suggested that as many as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2013.05.002">700 new cells are added to the adult human hippocampus every day</a>. But these findings were contradicted by a 2016 study that found that the neurogenic cells in the adult hippocampus <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nan.12337">could only produce non-neuronal brain cells called microglia</a>. </p>
<h2>Rethinking neurogenesis research</h2>
<p>Now the largest and most comprehensive study conducted to date <a href="https://theconversation.com/adult-human-brains-dont-grow-new-neurons-in-hippocampus-contrary-to-prevailing-view-93123">presents even stronger evidence</a> that robust neurogenesis doesn’t continue throughout adulthood in the human hippocampus – or if it does persist, it is extremely rare. This work is controversial and not universally accepted. Critics have been <a href="https://www.statnews.com/2018/03/07/adult-brains-neurogenesis/">quick to cast doubt on the results</a>, but the finding isn’t totally out of the blue. </p>
<p>So where does this leave the field of neuroscience? If the UCSF scientists are correct, what does that mean for ongoing research in labs around the world?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210092/original/file-20180313-30983-74xzrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210092/original/file-20180313-30983-74xzrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210092/original/file-20180313-30983-74xzrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210092/original/file-20180313-30983-74xzrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210092/original/file-20180313-30983-74xzrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210092/original/file-20180313-30983-74xzrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210092/original/file-20180313-30983-74xzrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210092/original/file-20180313-30983-74xzrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s much easier to work with rodent brains than human ones. This is a stained image of the hippocampus and neurons of a mouse with neurodegenerative disease.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nichd/22028646372">NICHD/I. Williams</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Because lots of studies of neurological diseases are done in mice and rats, many scientists are invested in the possibility that adult neurogenesis persists in the human brain, just as it does in rodents. If it doesn’t, how valid is it to think that the mechanisms of learning and neuroplasticity in our model animals are comparable to those in the human brain? How relevant are our models of neurological disorders for understanding how changes in the hippocampus contribute to disorders such as the type of epilepsy I study? </p>
<p>In my lab, we transplant embryonic mouse or human neurons <a href="https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0005-14.2014">into the adult hippocampus in mice, after damage caused by epileptic seizures</a>. We aim to repair this damage and suppress seizures by seeding the mouse hippocampus with neural stem cells that will mature and form new connections. In temporal lobe epilepsy, studies in adult rodents suggest that naturally occurring hippocampal neurogenesis is problematic. It seems that the newborn hippocampal neurons become highly excitable and contribute to seizures. We’re trying to inhibit these newborn hyperexcitable neurons with the transplants. But if humans don’t generate new hippocampal neurons, then maybe we’re developing a treatment in mice for a problem that has a different mechanism in people.</p>
<p>Perhaps our species has evolved separate mechanisms for neuroplasticity, distinct from those used by species such as rats and mice. One possibility is that there are other sites in the human brain where neurogenesis occurs - its a big structure and more exploration will be necessary. If it turns out to be true that the human brain has a diminished capacity for neurogenesis after birth, the finding will have important implications for how neuroscientists like me think about tackling brain disorders.</p>
<p>Perhaps most importantly, this work underscores how crucial it is to learn how to increase the longevity of the neurons we do have, born early in life, and how we might replace or repair neurons that become damaged.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/93183/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Janice R. Naegele receives funding from the National Institutes of Health, Connecticut Regenerative Medicine Fund and CURE Epilepsy.</span></em></p>Neuroscience labs around the world may need to reevaluate some of their assumptions about whether what works in animals will really produce meaningful treatments for people.Janice R. Naegele, Alan M Dachs Professor of Science, Professor of Biology, Neuroscience and Behavior, Wesleyan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/847592017-10-05T22:01:53Z2017-10-05T22:01:53ZA war made me realize: The world needs biomedical engineers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188928/original/file-20171005-2140-1tryt5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Biomedical engineering involves the application of engineering solutions to medical problems. Employment in the field is projected to grow 23 per cent from 2014 to 2024.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It was a sunny and pleasant spring day in Dezful, a small city in the south part of Iran. There were not many people on the street but I remember a young teenager pedalling slowly on his bike. I remember him because a moment later he was decapitated by a piece of metal when an Iraqi missile hit the neighbourhood. </p>
<p>His headless body pedalled for a while before falling to the ground. Everything in that moment registered in my brain like a scene in slow motion. </p>
<p>In shock, all I was thinking was: “Wow! How can the body balance without the brain? The body’s motion must have also been programmed in the spinal cord!”</p>
<p>It was spring of 1981 and I was 20 at the time, a second year university student with no background in biology or human physiology. A year earlier, I wanted to become a nuclear physicist and work on a Nobel Prize winning project. Then the war between Iran and Iraq started and the universities closed. I went to the Red Cross and to hospitals to learn first aid and then to the fronts to help with the war casualties. </p>
<p>The war scenes — and particularly the teenage cyclist on that particular day — made me decide to become a biomedical engineer. </p>
<h2>Engineering knowledge, medical problems</h2>
<p>Biomedical Engineering (BME) is now one of the fastest growing fields. Molecular Biology advances were the first modern revolution. Genomics was the second. Now the convergence of the life sciences and engineering as Biomedical Engineering is referred to as <a href="http://news.mit.edu/2016/strategy-convergence-research-transform-biomedicine-0623">the third revolution</a>. </p>
<p>But what is BME? And who can be called <a href="http://www.bmes.org/content.asp?contentid=140">a biomedical engineer</a>? The simplest and most informative definition is this: BME is the application of engineering knowledge and skills to challenging medical problems. </p>
<p>We can learn from examples. One of my heroes is the late <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Bach-y-Rita">Dr. Paul Bach-y-Rita</a>, a physician and researcher at Wisconsin University. When young Paul had just started his engineering studies, a friend of his father told him he could never become a physician. To prove that friend wrong, Paul quit engineering and went to study medicine. Thus, he became a medical doctor with an engineering mind. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A short 10 minute story by Wired Science called ‘Mixed Feelings’ showcasing the work of the late, great Paul Bach-y-Rita and his revolutionary work in neurosplasticity.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Dr. Bach-y-Rita created two major life-changing technologies: one was for a woman with complete lack of balance; the other was for the blind to see again. In both of his great inventions, he used the tongue as the sensory input. </p>
<p>He used the brain’s plasticity to rewire the brain to use tongue nerve signals instead of vestibular (balance) signals and instead of eyes. I encourage you to read about his technologies on <a href="https://subject-zero.com/aknowledgements/paul-bach-y-rita/">vestibular replacement</a> and <a href="http://discovermagazine.com/2003/jun/feattongue">the “seeing tongue.”</a> </p>
<h2>Medical devices for sleep apnea</h2>
<p>A biomedical engineer must be multilingual, as every field of science has its own lingo. For example, in my team, we develop medical devices for diagnosis and treatment of sleep apnea. It is not enough to have electronics knowledge and skill; one must also have in-depth knowledge of upper airway physiology, sleep apnea pathophysiology and the characteristics of the signals that are being recorded. </p>
<p>That is why I am a firm believer that a biomedical engineer must have experience in the recording and analysis of basic human biological signals — such as those of the muscles, heart, brain and respiration.</p>
<p>Design of medical devices for diagnosis and rehabilitation is only one of many different research fields in which BME is pushing the boundaries. However, advances in science occur in incremental steps. </p>
<p>As an example, <a href="https://ecglibrary.com/ecghist.html">electrocardiography (ECG)</a> is now the very first vital signal recorded and monitored in most clinical routines. Yet it took many scientists experimenting over many years, from <a href="http://www.batteryfacts.co.uk/BatteryHistory/Galvani.html">Galvani’s famous electricity experiment on frogs’ legs</a> in 1786, until the construction of the first commercialized ECG device in the 20th century by Einthoven <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1924/einthoven-bio.html">(who subsequently received the Nobel Prize in Medicine)</a>. </p>
<h2>Customised prosthetics and robotic devices</h2>
<p>Not every biomedical engineer has to become a researcher. A biomedical engineer may work and serve society in many different ways and the job market is growing rapidly. An <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/biomedical-engineers.htm">analysis from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics</a> projects employment in biomedical engineering to grow 23 per cent from 2014 to 2024 — much faster than other occupations. </p>
<p>Biomedical engineers are also involved in performance testing of new and proposed products. Government positions often involve product-testing and establishing safety standards for devices. In hospitals, biomedical engineers can advise on selection, use and maintenance of medical equipment or life-support systems. They also build customized devices for special health care or research needs including prosthetic and robotic devices to increase quality of life. </p>
<p>In research institutions, biomedical engineers supervise laboratories and equipment. They can direct research activities in collaboration with colleagues in medicine, physiology, pharmaceuticals, nursing and other engineering disciplines. </p>
<p>Some biomedical engineers are technical advisors for marketing departments of companies or in management positions. Others take more advanced training in fields such as medicine to bridge particular deficiencies in the increasingly integrated approach to health care.</p>
<h2>One student-centered graduate program</h2>
<p>At the University of Manitoba, we designed our graduate BME program as a multidisciplinary initiative involving the faculties of engineering, medicine and science. We accept students with backgrounds in engineering or science and train them to become biomedical engineers. </p>
<p>The main innovation of this program is not its concept nor its content - there are many other similar programs in North America - but its functional interdisciplinary design. Another is its admission’s flexibility: the program admits students from a wide variety of backgrounds, and tailors each student’s program to their needs. </p>
<p>The main research areas of the program include but are not limited to: medical instrumentation and sensors, biological signal processing, biomedical image processing and reconstruction, gait analysis and rehabilitation, biophotonics, orthopaedic mechanics, neurocognitive science and non-invasive diagnosis of neurological disorders. </p>
<p>Why study in such a program? As I always say to my new graduate students: our research can bring us fame but we do not work for fame; our research can bring us money but that is not our incentive either; we do biomedical engineering because humanity needs it. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/NAj-c5UQl1A?wmode=transparent&start=6" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84759/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zahra Moussavi works for University of Manitoba as an academic and director of Biomedical Engineering Program. She does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond the academic appointment above.</span></em></p>One professor explains how war in Iran led her to a career in biomedical engineering - a rapidly growing field that offers students exciting opportunities to serve humanity.Zahra Moussavi, Professor of Biomedical Engineering, University of ManitobaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/732052017-02-23T00:08:44Z2017-02-23T00:08:44ZSome brain training programs are backed by evidence. Here’s how to pick them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157803/original/image-20170222-20306-1m1tnmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Brain training programs support healthy brain ageing – but you've got to choose the right one. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/senior-man-using-tablet-computer-sitting-349253225?src=W_GphWTVRsQOY2CRcS99gw-1-27">from www.shutterstock.com </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Brain training has been <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-psychogeriatrics/article/div-classtitleearly-intervention-for-cognitive-decline-can-cognitive-training-be-used-as-a-selective-prevention-techniquediv/4B805F948849B2D8D8BDBAD328C1BA5A">touted</a> as a way to prevent age-related cognitive decline. Many products are available for purchase. But are any actually effective? </p>
<p>We <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11065-016-9338-9">reviewed</a> the merits of peer-reviewed clinical intervention studies that investigated commercial computerised brain training products in healthy people aged over 50 years. </p>
<p>We identified seven programs whose claims of efficacy were supported by evidence, but only two of these met our highest standards. These were <a href="http://www.brainhq.com/welcome?lead_id=google-search-text-home-Brand_(US_CAN_UK_AUS_SAF_NZ)&gclid=CKeGs5rgpNICFQYKKgodsioFww">BrainHQ</a> and <a href="https://www.cognifit.com/">Cognifit</a>.</p>
<p>Exercises from BrainHQ continuously adjusted difficulty depending on how the user was performing. One set of exercises included matching pairs of confusable syllables, reconstructing sequences of verbal instructions, and identifying details in a verbally presented story. </p>
<p>Other sets of exercises are visually engaging – for example, in one of the exercises the user is assumed to be a gardener. To grow plants, the user has to match pictures after they appear briefly on screen, one after the other. </p>
<p>Exercises from Cognifit contain 21 different tasks. In one of the tasks a hot-air balloon flies in the sky. On its way, it lands on different clouds. The user has to remember and reproduce its exact route. </p>
<p>In another task, a letter grid appears in the centre of the screen. A picture of a well-known object appears in the lower left corner of the screen and the user has to find the name of this object spelled out in the letter grid. </p>
<p>Overall, both programs provided reasonable clinical evidence to support healthy brain ageing. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/aging/healthybrain/">Healthy brain ageing</a> is a broad term that focuses on sustaining cognitive function and capacity to function independently as we age. </p>
<h2>Less than 40% of programs come with evidence</h2>
<p>To determine if particular brain training exercises are effective, it’s important to look at the scientific evidence behind these exercises and the purpose for which they are recommended (for example, to promote healthy brain ageing, or for dementia or other neurological diseases), and to understand the principle behind the design of such exercises. </p>
<p>We identified 18 computerised brain training programs available across the world that were marketed with scientific claims. Of these, only seven programs (less than 40%) had been assessed by peer-reviewed studies that reported formal outcome measures of the programs on specific cognitive domains such as memory, reasoning, processing speed and executive functions. We selected studies that had been conducted in healthy adults, aged at least 50 years. </p>
<p>Trials were regarded as “well designed” if they were randomised clinical trials with a control group. They were classified as being of high, moderate or poor quality <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12882612">as rated</a> from one to ten on a checklist. Trials with a score greater than six are deemed high quality; trials with scores between five and six are moderate quality; and those with a score less than five are poor quality. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157981/original/image-20170222-6413-dxmizb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157981/original/image-20170222-6413-dxmizb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157981/original/image-20170222-6413-dxmizb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157981/original/image-20170222-6413-dxmizb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157981/original/image-20170222-6413-dxmizb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157981/original/image-20170222-6413-dxmizb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157981/original/image-20170222-6413-dxmizb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157981/original/image-20170222-6413-dxmizb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An example of a brain training activity on BrainHQ.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.brainhq.com/welcome?lead_id=google-search-text-home-Brand_(US_CAN_UK_AUS_SAF_NZ)&gclid=CKiondXgpNICFQoHvAodfiMA2g">Screenshot, BrainHQ</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We classified the seven computerised brain training programs into three categories according to the strength of the evidence supporting their claims of efficacy. This process included an examination of the quantity and quality of the clinical trial applied in each instance. </p>
<h3>Level one</h3>
<p>Programs in this category had at least two well-designed randomised controlled trials, one of which was of high-quality design. Two brain training programs met these criteria (BrainHQ and Cognifit).</p>
<h3>Level two</h3>
<p>Programs in this category were supported by only one randomised controlled trial of high-quality design. Three programs were classified at this level (Cogmed, BrainAge 2 and My Brain Trainer). </p>
<h3>Level three</h3>
<p>Programs in this category were supported by only one randomised controlled trial of moderate or poor design. Two were rated at this level (Dakim and Lumosity). </p>
<p>Our findings indicate some computerised brain training programs are backed by evidence in their claim to assist in promoting healthy brain ageing. However, such programs must be further validated using brain imaging methods to investigate their mechanism of action. </p>
<h2>How to pick an effective program</h2>
<p>Brain training programs feature different exercises that particularly target specific cognitive domains such as memory, reasoning, speed of processing, and executive functions. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3622463/">Effective exercises</a> are mostly designed on the principle of the brain’s capability to rewire and reconnect – the <a href="http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.neuro.21.1.149?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&journalCode=neuro">neuroplasticity principle</a>. <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/wol1/doi/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2008.02167.x/abstract">Such computerised exercises</a> are <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0061624">adaptive according to a person’s capability</a>, continuously challenging and audio and/or visually interactive. </p>
<p>Some features to look for in deciding whether a program is right for you include: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>the program is recommended for your specific purpose – for example, healthy brain ageing, rehabilitation, learning and concentration</p></li>
<li><p>the program is scientifically validated </p></li>
<li><p>the program is adaptive and engaging</p></li>
<li><p>the program is continuously challenging</p></li>
<li><p>the program features audio and/or is visually interactive</p></li>
<li><p>the program provides feedback about your progress. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Programs that train the brain to be more responsive using specific tasks and increasing levels of difficulties are thought to help rewire neural pathways according to the neuroplasticity principle. </p>
<h2>Identifying programs least likely to work</h2>
<p>In our review process, we identified 18 brain training programs. Of these, 11 had no clinical trials or empirical evidence to indicate they were effective in promoting healthy brain ageing. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157983/original/image-20170222-6413-gt83vj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157983/original/image-20170222-6413-gt83vj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157983/original/image-20170222-6413-gt83vj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1043&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157983/original/image-20170222-6413-gt83vj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1043&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157983/original/image-20170222-6413-gt83vj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1043&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157983/original/image-20170222-6413-gt83vj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1311&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157983/original/image-20170222-6413-gt83vj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1311&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157983/original/image-20170222-6413-gt83vj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1311&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Programs that train the brain to be more responsive are thought to help rewire neural pathways.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.cognifit.com/">Screenshot, Cognifit</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To spot the programs without adequate evidence, one option is to go to the program’s website and identify whether the company provides links to specific studies relevant to your purposes. </p>
<p>Most of the websites provide only supportive evidence – that is, they do not refer to specific clinical trials, but instead quote the principles of the brain’s ability to rewire or reconnect, or cite studies that used other programs. Very few have a list of studies that directly measured the impact of the program in question. </p>
<p>Findings from studies that are randomised, double-blinded (both the investigator and the user don’t know if the intervention is real or only a placebo) and have a control group that meets the gold standard of clinical trials are more reliable than non-randomised trials without any control conditions. </p>
<h2>Training programs to prevent cognitive decline</h2>
<p>However, evidence concerning how or where these software programs affect plasticity in brain cells or connections within the brain is lacking. Assessments using specific biological markers of Alzheimer’s disease (or other neurodegenerative diseases) such as blood and brain imaging would considerably enhance clinical validation of brain training programs. This would also enable greater understanding of the connection between computerised brain exercises and human cognition, and provide an insight into new therapeutic pathways. </p>
<p>It’s possible computerised exercises that are adaptable and continuously challenging may help the brain to rewire lost connections that are linked with dementia later in life. At the moment, however, there is little evidence computerised brain training programs can help prevent dementia onset. Thus, more longitudinal follow-up studies are required. </p>
<p>Regardless of whether new neural pathways are established, some mental exercises may work simply by increasing the blood circulation in the brain, similar to physical exercise. Thus, healthy brain ageing may be achieved by maintaining or improving cognitive functions via avenues such as brain training, but <a href="https://www.fightdementia.org.au/files/YBM_evidence_paper_29_lores.pdf">also through</a> social interaction, exercise, diet and other lifestyle strategies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/73205/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Tejal Shah works as a post doctoral research fellow for the Australian Alzheimer's Research Foundation, Hollywood Private Hospital, Perth, Western Australia. Dr Shah was earlier supported by the Australian Postgraduate Award from the University of Western Australia, the Research Excellence Award from Edith Cowan University and the Freemasons of Western Australia Education Grant 2010 and 2011.</span></em></p>Many brain training programs are based on the principles of neuroplasticity. But a new study shows that less than 40% are backed by proof of efficacy.Tejal Shah, Visiting Fellow , Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/662452016-10-03T06:03:49Z2016-10-03T06:03:49ZBrain training – why it’s no walk in the park<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139990/original/image-20161002-15278-35vlc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We don't need fancy gadgets to improve our brain power. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-372558295/stock-photo-brain-training-concept-with-businessman-holding-brain.html?src=iVKB6kWf406kDU3ljNFppw-1-6">ScandinavianStock/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’ve probably heard of “brain training exercises” – puzzles, tasks and drills which claim to keep you mentally agile. Maybe, especially if you’re an older person, you’ve even bought the book, or the app, in the hope of staving off mental decline. The idea of brain training has widespread currency, but is that due to science, or empty marketing?</p>
<p>Now a major new review, <a href="http://m.psi.sagepub.com/content/17/3/103">published in Psychology in the Public Interest</a>, sets out to systematically examine the evidence for brain training. The results should give you pause before spending any of your time and money on brain training, but they also highlight what happens when research and commerce become entangled.</p>
<p>The review team, led by <a href="http://www.dansimons.com/">Dan Simons</a> of the University of Illinois, set out to inspect all the literature which brain training companies cited in their promotional material – in effect, taking them at their word, with the rationale that the best evidence in support of brain training exercises would be that cited by the companies promoting them.</p>
<h2>But the CEO says it works …</h2>
<p>A major finding of the review is the poverty of the supporting evidence for these supposedly scientific exercises. Simons’ team found that half of the brain training companies that promoted their products as being scientifically validated didn’t cite any peer-reviewed journal articles, relying instead on things like testimonials from scientists (including the company founders). Of the companies which did cite evidence for brain training, many cited general research on neuroplasticity, but nothing directly relevant to the effectiveness of what they promote.</p>
<p>The key issue for claims around brain training is that practising these exercises will help you in general, or on unrelated tasks. Nobody doubts that practising a crossword will help you get better at crosswords, but will it improve your memory, your IQ or your ability to skim-read email? Such effects are called transfer effects, and so-called “far transfer” (transfer to a very different task than that trained) is the ultimate goal of brain training studies. What we know about transfer effect is reviewed in Simons’ paper.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139991/original/image-20161002-9475-12lwyyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139991/original/image-20161002-9475-12lwyyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139991/original/image-20161002-9475-12lwyyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139991/original/image-20161002-9475-12lwyyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139991/original/image-20161002-9475-12lwyyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139991/original/image-20161002-9475-12lwyyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139991/original/image-20161002-9475-12lwyyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Doing puzzles make you, well, good at doing puzzles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-335283932/stock-photo-an-elderly-woman-is-doing-crossword-puzzle-with-a-pencil-this-is-a-good-exercise-for-older-people-to-train-their-brains.html?src=8V_dvhU5-m4uqcKHsh3GMA-1-45">Jne Valokuvaus/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>As well as trawling the company websites, the reviewers inspected a list provided by an industry group <a href="http://www.cognitivetrainingdata.org/">Cognitive Training Data</a> of some 132 scientific papers claiming to support the efficacy of brain training. Of these, 106 reported new data (rather than being reviews themselves). Of those 106, 71 used a proper control group, so that the effects of the brain training could be isolated. Of those 71, only 49 had a so-called “active control” group, in which the control participants actually did something rather than being ignored by the the researchers. (An active control is important if you want to distinguish the benefit of your treatment from the benefits of expectation or responding to researchers’ attentions.) Of these 49, about half of the results came from just six studies.</p>
<p>Overall, the reviewers conclude, no study which is cited in support of brain training products meets the gold standard for best research practises, and few even approached the standard of a good randomised control trial (although note their cut off for considering papers missed <a href="https://theconversation.com/at-last-a-gold-standard-study-on-brain-training-50210">this paper</a> from late last year which showed the benefits of online brain training exercises, including improvements in everyday tasks, such as shopping, cooking and managing home finances.</p>
<h2>Promotion is premature</h2>
<p>The implications, they argue, are that claims for general benefits of brain training are premature. There’s excellent evidence for benefits of training specific to the task trained on, they conclude, but less evidence for enhancement on closely related tasks and little evidence that brain training enhances performance on distantly related tasks or everyday cognitive performance.</p>
<p>The flaws in the studies supporting the benefits of brain training aren’t unique to the study of brain training. Good research is hard and all studies have flaws. Assembling convincing evidence for a treatment takes years, with evidence required from multiple studies and from different types of studies. Indeed, it may yet be that some kind of cognitive training can be shown to have the general benefits that are hoped for from existing brain training exercises. What this review shows is not that brain training can’t work, merely that the promotion of brain training exercises is – at the very least – premature based on the current scientific evidence. </p>
<p>Yet in a <a href="http://www.aarp.org/content/dam/aarp/research/surveys_statistics/health/2015/2014-Brain-Health-Research-Study-AARP-res-gen.pdf">2014 survey of US adults</a>, more than 50% had heard of brain training exercises and showed some credence to their performance-enhancing powers. Even the name “brain training”, the authors of the review admit, is a concession to marketing. In reality, these games are usually developed without anyone measuring brain activity or brain changes directly.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140079/original/image-20161003-20200-j5ofl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140079/original/image-20161003-20200-j5ofl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140079/original/image-20161003-20200-j5ofl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140079/original/image-20161003-20200-j5ofl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140079/original/image-20161003-20200-j5ofl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140079/original/image-20161003-20200-j5ofl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140079/original/image-20161003-20200-j5ofl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A brisk walk in the park gives your brain a boost.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-218997220/stock-photo-young-fitness-woman-legs-walking-on-forest-trail.html?src=A2oPvILsegs-4tIRZOLqcw-1-38">lzf/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>The widespread currency of brain training isn’t because of overwhelming evidence of benefits from neuroscience and psychological science, as the review shows, but it does rely on the appearance of being scientifically supported. The billion-dollar market in brain training is parasitic on the credibility of neuroscience and psychology. It also taps into our lazy desire to address complex problems with simple, purchasable, solutions (something written about at length by Ben Goldacre in his book <a href="http://www.badscience.net/">Bad Science</a>).</p>
<p>The Simons review ends with recommendations for researchers into brain training, and for journalists reporting on the topic. My favourite was their emphasis that any treatment needs to be considered for its costs, as well as its benefits. By this standard there is no commercial brain training product which has been shown to have greater benefits than something you can do for free. </p>
<p>Also important is the opportunity cost: what could you be doing in the time you invest in brain training? The reviewers deliberately decided to focus on brain training, so they didn’t cover the proven and widespread benefits of exercise for mental function. I’m happy to tell you now that a brisk walk round the park with a friend is not only free, and not only more fun, but has <a href="http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v9/n1/abs/nrn2298.html">better scientific support</a> for its cognitive-enhancing powers than all the brain training products which are commercially available.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/66245/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
When research and commerce become entangled, consumers are the losers.Tom Stafford, Lecturer in Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/559672016-04-04T15:24:52Z2016-04-04T15:24:52ZWhat is brain plasticity and why is it so important?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115149/original/image-20160315-9235-1gk49lz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The malleable brain.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/dl2_lim.mhtml?src=pp-same_artist-345677969-CEpmxXdZVCl0GcQVlWe9tg-2&clicksrc=download_btn_inline&id=345677975&size=medium_jpg&submit_jpg=">www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Neuroplasticity – or brain plasticity – is the ability of the brain to modify its connections or re-wire itself. Without this ability, any brain, not just the human brain, would be unable to develop from infancy through to adulthood or recover from brain injury. </p>
<p>What makes the brain special is that, unlike a computer, it processes sensory and motor signals in parallel. It has many neural pathways that can replicate another’s function so that small errors in development or temporary loss of function through damage can be easily corrected by rerouting signals along a different pathway. </p>
<p>The problem becomes severe when errors in development are large, such as the effects of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/proving-that-the-zika-virus-causes-microcephaly-53716">Zika virus</a> on brain development in the womb, or as a result of damage from a blow to the head or following a stroke. Yet, even in these examples, given the right conditions the brain can overcome adversity so that some function is recovered. </p>
<p>The brain’s anatomy ensures that certain areas of the brain have certain functions. This is something that is predetermined by your genes. For example, there is an area of the brain that is devoted to movement of the right arm. Damage to this part of the brain will impair movement of the right arm. But since a different part of the brain processes sensation from the arm, you can feel the arm but can’t move it. This “modular” arrangement means that a region of the brain unrelated to sensation or motor function is not able to take on a new role. In other words, neuroplasticity is not synonymous with the brain being infinitely malleable.</p>
<p>Part of the body’s ability to recover following damage to the brain can be explained by the damaged area of the brain getting better, but most is the result of neuroplasticity – forming new neural connections. In a study of <em>Caenorhabditis elegans</em>, a type of nematode <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-humble-worm-might-tell-us-about-doubling-our-lifespan-31481">used as a model organism in research</a>, it was found that <a href="http://bit.ly/1PQrQFa">losing the sense of touch enhanced the sense of smell</a>. This suggests that losing one sense rewires others. It is well known that, in humans, losing one’s sight early in life can heighten other senses, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC544930/">especially hearing</a>. </p>
<p>As in the developing infant, the key to developing new connections is environmental enrichment that relies on sensory (visual, auditory, tactile, smell) and motor stimuli. The more sensory and motor stimulation a person receives, the more likely they will be to recover from brain trauma. For example, some of the types of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3321650/">sensory stimulation</a> used to treat stroke patients includes training in virtual environments, music therapy and mentally practising physical movements.</p>
<p>The basic structure of the brain is established before birth by your genes. But its continued development relies heavily on a process called developmental plasticity, where developmental processes change neurons and synaptic connections. In the immature brain this includes making or losing synapses, the migration of neurons through the developing brain or by the rerouting and sprouting of neurons.</p>
<p>There are very few places in the mature brain where new neurons are formed. The exceptions are the <a href="http://oro.open.ac.uk/18990/">dentate gyrus of the hippocampus</a> (an area involved in memory and emotions) and the <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/content/22/3/629.short">sub-ventricular zone of the lateral ventricle</a>, where new neurons are generated and then migrate through to the olfactory bulb (an area involved in processing the sense of smell). Although the formation of new neurons in this way is not considered to be an example of neuroplasticity it might contribute to the way the brain recovers from damage.</p>
<h2>Growing then pruning</h2>
<p>As the brain grows, individual neurons mature, first by sending out multiple branches (axons, which transmit information from the neuron, and dendrites, which receive information) and then by increasing the number of synaptic contacts with specific connections. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115155/original/image-20160315-9242-1olurf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115155/original/image-20160315-9242-1olurf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115155/original/image-20160315-9242-1olurf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115155/original/image-20160315-9242-1olurf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115155/original/image-20160315-9242-1olurf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115155/original/image-20160315-9242-1olurf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115155/original/image-20160315-9242-1olurf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Why doesn’t everyone make a full recovery after a stroke?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/dl2_lim.mhtml?src=YQFaG-ShCxSisI3tTNSjnA-1-13&clicksrc=download_btn_inline&id=291525017&size=medium_jpg&submit_jpg=">www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>At birth, each infant neuron in the cerebral cortex has about 2,500 synapses. By two or three-years-old, the number of synapses per neuron increases to about 15,000 as the infant explores its world and learns new skills – a process called synaptogenesis. But by adulthood <a href="https://www.harpercollins.com/9780688177881/the-scientist-in-the-crib">the number of synapses halves</a>, so-called synaptic pruning. </p>
<p>Whether the brain retains the ability to increase synaptogenesis is debatable, but it could explain why aggressive treatment after a stroke can appear to reverse the damage caused by the lack of blood supply to an area of the brain by reinforcing the function of undamaged connections.</p>
<h2>Forging new paths</h2>
<p>We continue to have the ability to learn new activities, skills or languages even into old age. This retained ability requires the brain to have a mechanism available to remember so that knowledge is retained over time for future recall. This is another example of neuroplasticity and is most likely to involve structural and biochemical changes at the level of the synapse.</p>
<p>Reinforcement or repetitive activities will eventually lead the adult brain to remember the new activity. By the same mechanism, the enriched and stimulating environment offered to the damaged brain will eventually lead to recovery. So if the brain is so plastic, why doesn’t everyone who has a stroke recover full function? The answer is that it depends on your age (younger brains have a better chance of recovery), the size of the area damaged and, more importantly, the treatments offered during rehabilitation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/55967/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Duncan Banks is currently in receipt of grants totalling £355,000 from Regenero Ltd., Milton Keynes Council and Sir Halley Stewart Trust. In the past he has been awarded grants from the MRC, Wellcome Trust, Glaxo SmithKline and ReGen Therapeutics. He is waiting to hear about grant applications to the Economic and Social Research Council and European Food Safety Authority.</span></em></p>Without the ability to rewire itself, the brain wouldn’t be able to grow or recover from injury.Duncan Banks, Lecturer in Biomedical Sciences, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/414152015-05-14T14:36:54Z2015-05-14T14:36:54ZThis is the age of the brain – but bending beliefs and feelings raises political questions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/81680/original/image-20150514-28615-s1z0ma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Where did I leave my skull cap?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When it comes to developing ways to enhance human beings, we are increasingly fascinated by all things neurological. If the 20th century was all about the gene, the 21st is shaping up to be the century of the brain. This fascination has even produced a dedicated discipline of neuroethics, which includes the study of the moral case for using medicine to make changes to our personalities, feelings and beliefs.</p>
<p>Society is already used to the idea of mood-altering drugs, both in the form of prescription medicines such anti-depressants and illicit substances such as MDMA (ecstacy). Using both human and non-human subjects, researchers are now beginning to sketch a neurological picture of the brain’s electrochemical functions.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/1/2/158.full">studies</a> using <a href="http://www.ndcn.ox.ac.uk/research/introduction-to-fmri;d=Rk1SSUI=">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI) have revealed that particular areas of the brain are associated with particular cognitive events such as <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/293/5537/2105.short">our moral emotions and ethical reasoning</a>. Other research has shown that particular chemicals in the brain play an important role in <a href="http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v7/n10/full/nn1327.html">forming relationships</a> and <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7042/abs/nature03701.html">building trust</a>. As a result, scientists and philosophers have begun to imagine ways in which our brains could be altered and perceptions or actions changed as a result.</p>
<p>Research suggests we may be able to maintain our <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/01/the-case-for-using-drugs-to-enhance-our-relationships-and-our-break-ups/272615/">intimate relationships</a> through the use of so-called <a href="https://philosophynow.org/issues/91/Love_and_Other_Drugs">love drugs</a>. We could use substances that predispose us towards feelings, <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/107/40/17433.abstract">judgements</a> and <a href="http://jop.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/03/26/0269881115573806.abstract">behaviours</a> that make us more social. We might even improve our <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1196/annals.1382.015/abstract?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&userIsAuthenticated=true">ethical thinking</a> by taking drugs that enhance our cognitive abilities <a href="http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/bostrom20070606">more generally</a>.</p>
<h2>Political implications</h2>
<p>For the most part, the academic debate suggests that, if neuroscientific research proceeds as imagined, then it would be ethical for us to pursue and embrace this kind of neurotechnological enhancement. But most neuroethicists have neglected to fully consider the political, as opposed to simply individual ethical, implications of such future technologies.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-5930.2008.00410.x/abstract">some have argued</a> that morally enhancing humanity is not just welcome but required if we are to survive <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eld5U-PIsrcC&dq=unfit+for+the+future&source=gbs_navlinks_s">global challenges</a> such as warfare, climate change and over-population that potentially threaten our existence. </p>
<p>More recently, scientists have been experimenting with a technology that creates an explicitly political use for neurological technologies. Researchers from Leiden University in the Netherlands showed that electrically stimulating a certain part of the brain can be used to <a href="http://www.brainstimjrnl.com/article/S1935-861X%252815%252900927-4/abstract">reduce an individual’s feelings of prejudice</a>. The authors even suggest that brain stimulation could help us achieve Martin Luther King’s dream of a society in which people will not be judged by the colour of their skin but by the content of their character. </p>
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<p>While I do not wish to argue that racism, sexism, homophobia or any other form of prejudice should be accommodated, it is not clear that its neurotechnological “suppression” would, in fact, bring about the society Martin Luther King dreamt of. </p>
<p>After all, how should we judge the character, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/japp.12108/abstract">or even actions</a>, of individuals whose behaviour and perspectives result from interventions in their neurological makeup? Indeed, how should we judge a society whose citizens are not so much subjects as they are “neuro-subjects” - individuals who understand themselves and each other in neurological terms rather than as moral agents?</p>
<h2>A broader view</h2>
<p>Efforts to enhance human beings tend to focus on the <a href="http://ideas.aeon.co/viewpoints/richard-ashcroft-on-why-is-it-so-hard-to-imagine-utopia-today">benefits to the individuals</a> concerned. But, whether or not specific neurotechnologies are designed to alter our social behaviour, their introduction and use will certainly have a social impact. In this light, a purely ethical assessment of potential neurotechnologies that change the way we think and feel seems critically incomplete. Any neurotechnology that purports to alter our subjective point of view is essentially political in nature. </p>
<p>For example, debates about love drugs almost entirely ignore sociological research into the changing nature of intimacy under the current capitalist system. Some believe that relationships are now more about the benefits they bring, such as a stable environment for child-raising, mutual development and social belonging, than <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/The_Transformation_of_Intimacy.html?id=ibsjC8DtgpgC&hl=en">romantic love</a>. Because it treats love and intimacy as a means to an end, the idea of love drugs could further this social change.</p>
<p>What is required is a more acutely socio-political understanding of not only the neurosciences and what they have to offer but also of neuroethics more generally. Human beings are not simply neurological, or even biological phenomena. We are made up of socio-cultural and historical elements and, like <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_YPf0MiZDYUC&source=gbs_similarbooks">psychological</a> <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4O0d3Wxj0sUC&dq=rose+psychology&source=gbs_navlinks_s">discourses</a> before it, the neurosciences are now <a href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10023.html">part of this realm</a>.</p>
<p>There needs to be a greater level of dialogue and engagement between <a href="http://tcs.sagepub.com/content/early/2014/06/27/0263276414537319">neuroscience and social science</a> if we are to use the knowledge and technologies that emerge from this domain in a politically, and not just ethically, responsible manner.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/41415/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nathan Emmerich does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research into how feelings and opinions can be shaped using technology or drugs could impact the whole of society not just the individuals concerned.Nathan Emmerich, Visting Research Fellow, Queen's University BelfastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/409892015-04-30T20:48:21Z2015-04-30T20:48:21ZNo brain, no pain: it is in the mind, so test results can make it worse<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79904/original/image-20150430-6253-m9mndz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Your pain is in fact produced in your head and it will produce it more readily and more intensely if you have what you think is clear evidence that something is wrong.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mislav-marohnic/5233928419">Mislav Marohnić/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A common recommended “don’t” of the Choosing Wisely campaign in the <a href="http://www.choosingwisely.org/clinician-lists/american-association-neurological-surgeons-imaging-for-nonspecific-acute-low-back-pain/">United States</a>, <a href="http://www.choosingwiselycanada.org/recommendations/radiology/">Canada</a> and now <a href="http://www.nps.org.au/media-centre/media-releases/repository/choosing-wisely-australia-launching-in-2015">Australia</a> is getting imaging for non-specific back pain. The initiative, which identifies <a href="http://www.choosingwisely.org.au/recommendations">tests, treatment and procedures that have little benefit</a> but may lead to harm, is indeed wise in highlighting the dangers of such scanning.</p>
<p>The recommendation is based on several major studies – from <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00586-007-0412-0">2007</a>, <a href="http://www.bmj.com/content/337/bmj.a171">2008</a>, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.24853/full">2009</a>, <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00586-010-1502-y">2010</a>, <a href="http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleID=746774&atab=7">2011</a> and <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008686.pub2/full">2013</a>. But while not imaging might be based on solid advice, it’s old advice. The recommendation has been around for years - ever since it was discovered that the state of your back MRI <a href="http://www.bodyinmind.org/spinal-mri-and-back-pain/">doesn’t relate very well</a> to <a href="http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199407143310201">whether or not you have back pain</a>.</p>
<h2>Still, they come…</h2>
<p>Nonetheless, the vast majority of people who turn up to participate in our research, two or three weeks into an episode of back pain, bring with them a bundle of MRIs tucked under their arm and a somewhat worried look on their face. </p>
<p>When we ask referrers about their almost ubiquitous MRI use, the most common answers tend to be “the pain was just so severe and the patient really wanted it”, “better to be safe than sorry”, “no harm in just excluding the nasty stuff”, and, the clanger - “lucky we did - there are some pretty major problems in there”. </p>
<p>And here is the rub. There’s no doubt that MRI is a really powerful tool. I am one of those who is gobsmacked by the detail these things provide and the magic of being able to see inside ourselves. I’m also pretty convinced that MRIs don’t carry physical risks. </p>
<p>So what’s problem? If people can afford it, or if the pain is really severe, it can’t do any harm, right?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79903/original/image-20150430-6258-17cojue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79903/original/image-20150430-6258-17cojue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79903/original/image-20150430-6258-17cojue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79903/original/image-20150430-6258-17cojue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79903/original/image-20150430-6258-17cojue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79903/original/image-20150430-6258-17cojue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79903/original/image-20150430-6258-17cojue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pain is always created by your brain in an attempt to make you do something to protect your body.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jetheriot/6186786217">J E Theriot/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of my favourite phrases when it comes to the biological processes involved in pain is that we are “fearfully and wonderfully complex”. The key to understanding why an MRI might actually make your back pain worse is to understand first how back pain works. Indeed, how all pain works. </p>
<p>Pain is always – 100% of the time – created by your brain in an attempt to make you do something to protect your body. People right in the middle of an acute episode of back pain know this better than most - it’s a brutal, distressing and, at times, terrifying feeling that possesses you to desperately want to be rid of it. </p>
<p>It’s so compelling and so clearly “in your body”, that it can be difficult to believe that you <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9313643">don’t actually need a body part to have pain in it</a>. </p>
<p>But you do need a brain. No brain - no pain. </p>
<h2>Don’t believe me?</h2>
<p>You may not want to accept this – and many can’t at first bite – but it’s a comparatively small step to get there: any credible evidence of danger to your body will make pain worse and any credible evidence of safety to your body will make it better. </p>
<p>Because we haven’t yet identified everything that carries credible evidence of safety and danger, we lump those we don’t know about together and call them placebo (safety) and nocebo (danger) effects. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79906/original/image-20150430-6253-jmo0xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79906/original/image-20150430-6253-jmo0xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1083&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79906/original/image-20150430-6253-jmo0xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1083&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79906/original/image-20150430-6253-jmo0xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1083&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79906/original/image-20150430-6253-jmo0xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1360&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79906/original/image-20150430-6253-jmo0xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79906/original/image-20150430-6253-jmo0xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1360&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Imaging will pick up the ‘kisses of time’ that have morphed your vertebrae and joints to better withstand the forces on them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/katiecowden/2585721422">Katie Cowden/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The idea that the “placebo effect” or the “nocebo effect” are actual “things” is, in my view, <a href="http://www.bmj.com/content/336/7653/1086.2">a bit daft</a> because they’re really just umbrella terms for all the effects we haven’t identified yet. </p>
<p>As we discover that, for example, a clinician’s <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673685909845?np=y">belief in the treatment they’re administering</a> affects its pain-relieving capacity, or that the pain-relieving effect of acupuncture <a href="http://theconversation.com/acupuncture-research-the-path-least-scientific-10273">depends more on whether you think you had acupuncture</a> than it does on whether you actually had it, the placebo “effect” seems to get smaller. It’s not the effect that’s getting smaller, we’re just understanding things better. But that’s a bit by-the-by for now.</p>
<p>The stakes in this idea of “credible evidence of danger” are very high when it comes to pain because of neuroplasticity - the wonderful adaptability of our brain and nervous system. Of course, it’s not just your brain that changes by itself, it’s your whole body, which is why I prefer to think of it as “<a href="http://www.bodyinmind.org/time-to-embrace-bioplasticity/">bioplasticity</a>”. </p>
<p>The point is that the more you play the piano, or football, the better you get at playing the piano, or football. So it follows that the more your whole system produces something like pain, the better it gets at producing pain.</p>
<h2>Try it out</h2>
<p>With this model of pain in mind, and a healthy respect for bioplasticity, let’s revisit that MRI you got after a week of brutal back pain. If you’re over 25 and half normal, then your MRI will show “stuff”. </p>
<p>It will pick up the “kisses of time” that have morphed your vertebrae and joints to better withstand the forces on them; it will pick up old minor injuries - perhaps you never knew you had - that have healed but left their trace just like a scar on your skin; it will pick up evidence that you’re no longer fresh out of the womb; and it will pick up many of your own idiosyncratic anatomical characteristics. Just like a photo of your face clearly shows you’re not the same as anyone else. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, when it comes to MRIs, these usual things are then given rather scary names, such as “broad-based disc bulge”, “degenerative changes” and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spondylolysis">spondylolysis</a>. </p>
<p>Credible evidence of danger? Sure sounds like it. And, because of your own fearfully and wonderfully complex system, your brain will store this information and quite possibly turn up the “need to protect” meter, just a bit. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79905/original/image-20150430-6233-1fap1aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79905/original/image-20150430-6233-1fap1aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79905/original/image-20150430-6233-1fap1aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79905/original/image-20150430-6233-1fap1aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79905/original/image-20150430-6233-1fap1aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79905/original/image-20150430-6233-1fap1aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79905/original/image-20150430-6233-1fap1aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The pain-relieving effect of acupuncture depends more on whether you think you had acupuncture than on whether you actually had it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ggvic/2864310831">Victoria Garcia/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So you dive into the challenge of finding the best strategy to “fix the MRI”, until eventually you come across someone with the apparent audacity to tell you, actually, those MRIs are pretty normal. Now you are livid, right? Are they telling me my pain is all in my head?!?! </p>
<p>Clearly, it is not - it is in your back. But, like it or not, if you are a human, your pain is in fact produced in your head and it will produce it more readily and more intensely if you have what you think is clear MRI evidence that something is wrong.</p>
<h2>Getting wise</h2>
<p>I have deliberately taken a provocative line here, but it is by no means outrageous. There are <a href="http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/3/719.full">experimental data that clearly predict this scenario</a> and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20798647">big studies</a> that suggest getting an MRI early on is associated with poor outcome later. </p>
<p>So choose wisely when your back hurts; remember that even brutal back pain is rarely a sign of serious pathology and that it’s really, really common.</p>
<p>Remember that it will pass and it’s best to gradually increase your activity - respect your pain but don’t fear it. You should see a physiotherapist or a doctor because they know the important questions to ask and can coach you on the best road to recovery.</p>
<p>And remember – whether you think you are a tough nut or a bit of a softie – your brain considers <em>all</em> credible evidence of danger when it’s producing pain. If you do end up getting an MRI, expect to see the “kisses of time” and remember that they’re normal, even if they have scary names. Know that there’s no way of finding out when old injuries occurred, and the imaging will probably look just the same when your back no longer hurts.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/40989/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lorimer Moseley consults to health care providers in Australia, North America and Europe. He receives royalties for books about the prevention and treatment of pain and he receives payment for professional development seminars in Australia, North & South America, Asia and Europe. He receives project and fellowship funding support from the National Health & Medical Research Council of Australia. He is Chair of the PainAdelaide Stakeholders' Consortium.</span></em></p>People develop a long-term problem after an episode of back pain if they expect to not recover. Steps by the medical sector to avoid catatrophising back pain by not suggesting scans will help.Lorimer Moseley, Professor of Clinical Neurosciences and Foundation Chair in Physiotherapy, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.