tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/personality-types-26684/articlesPersonality types – The Conversation2023-11-02T17:15:42Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2159612023-11-02T17:15:42Z2023-11-02T17:15:42ZSelf-control isn’t always a good thing – having too much can be bad for your mental health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557253/original/file-20231102-19-e3yeev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C3800%2C2127&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Characteristics of 'overcontrolled' personalities may make a person more likely to experience social isolation and loneliness.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-asian-girl-feels-upset-isolated-2175326403">silverkblackstock/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Having high self-control is often <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1019725108">seen as a good thing</a>. It’s believed to be key to success in many aspects of life – whether that’s getting a promotion at work, sticking to your workout regime or resisting the temptation of a sweet treat when you’re watching what you eat. </p>
<p>But as suggested by a theory published by Professor Thomas Lynch in 2018, high self-control may <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Q9HDgAAQBAJ&dq=thomas+lynch+radically+open&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s">not always be a good thing</a> – and for some, it could be linked to certain mental health problems.</p>
<p>According to Lynch’s theory, every single one of us leans more towards one of two personality styles: undercontrol or overcontrol. The way we tend to lean depends on many factors, including our genes, the behaviour that people around us reward and discourage, our life experiences and the coping strategies we use in everyday life.</p>
<p>Importantly, being undercontrolled or overcontrolled is neither good or bad. While it makes us more likely to behave in a certain way, most of us are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/psychological-flexibility#:%7E:text=Psychological%20flexibility%20is%20the%20ability%20to%20stay%20in%20contact%20with,the%20situation%20and%20personal%20values">psychologically flexible</a> and can adapt to the different situations we’re put in. So, regardless of whether we’re overcontrolled or undercontrolled, this flexibility helps us deal with life’s challenges and setbacks in a constructive way.</p>
<p>But both undercontrol and overcontrol <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6955577/#:%7E:text=At%20the%20core%20of%20an,a%20lack%20of%20social%20connectedness">can become problematic</a>. This usually happens when a combination of biological, social and personal factors makes us much less flexible.</p>
<p>Most of us are probably more familiar with what problematic undercontrol looks like. People who are <a href="https://abriradicallyopendbt.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/the-behavior-therapists-RO-DBT-special-issue.pdf">highly undercontrolled</a> may have few inhibitions and struggle to control their emotions. Their behaviour may be unpredictable, as it’s often dependent on the mood they’re in. This can negatively affect their <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1010076108">relationships, education, work, finances and health</a>. </p>
<p>There are many therapies out there that can help undercontrolled people. These therapies help them learn to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6955577/#:%7E:text=At%20the%20core%20of%20an,a%20lack%20of%20social%20connectedness">regulate emotions and increase self-control</a>. For example, cognitive behavioural therapy aims to teach people control over their <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/cognitive-behaviour-therapy">thoughts, behaviour and emotions</a>. Similarly, dialectical behaviour therapy – designed for people who experience emotions very intensely – targets <a href="https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/drugs-and-treatments/talking-therapy-and-counselling/dialectical-behaviour-therapy-dbt/">emotion dysregulation</a>. </p>
<h2>Problematic overcontrol</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, overcontrol isn’t talked about as much. This may be because overcontrolled traits – such as persistence, the ability to make plans and stick to them, striving for perfection and being in control of emotions – are <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Q9HDgAAQBAJ&dq=thomas+lynch+radically+open&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s">often highly regarded</a> in our society. But when overcontrol becomes an issue, it can be damaging in many areas of life.</p>
<p>Highly overcontrolled people may struggle to adapt to change. They may be less open to new experiences and criticism, and be very set in their ways. They may experience bitter feelings of envy towards others and struggle to relax and have fun in social situations. They may also use fewer gestures, rarely smile or cry, and try to hide their emotions at any cost. </p>
<p>Together, these characteristics may make a person more likely to experience social isolation and loneliness. This may ultimately cause their <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Q9HDgAAQBAJ&dq=thomas+lynch+radically+open&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_">mental health to worsen</a>.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, many of the available psychological therapies <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359178905000029">aren’t helpful</a> in treating issues of overcontrol. This is because they focus on improving self-control and emotion regulation. But since overcontrolled people already control and regulate too much, they instead need a therapy that can help them learn that sometimes it’s okay to <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/2724236356?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true">relax and let go</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A therapist writes in a notebook while a female patient sits across from them." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557256/original/file-20231102-23-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557256/original/file-20231102-23-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557256/original/file-20231102-23-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557256/original/file-20231102-23-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557256/original/file-20231102-23-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557256/original/file-20231102-23-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557256/original/file-20231102-23-zt8dre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Typical therapy methods won’t work to treat issues of overcontrol.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/professional-psychologist-conducting-consultation-526087603">Dmytro Zinkevych/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Alongside his theory, Lynch also developed a therapy designed to treat issues of overcontrol – known as <a href="https://abriradicallyopendbt.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/the-behavior-therapists-RO-DBT-special-issue.pdf">radically open dialectical behaviour therapy</a>. Early studies have shown that the therapy has <a href="https://www.radicallyopen.net/research-on-ro-dbt.html">a lot of potential</a> in helping overcontrolled people. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2015.69.2.141">It does this</a> by teaching them how to let go of the need to always be in control, be more open about their emotions, better communicate with other people, and be more flexible in the midst of changing situations.</p>
<p>Importantly, this therapy is <a href="https://abriradicallyopendbt.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/the-behavior-therapists-RO-DBT-special-issue.pdf">transdiagnostic</a>, which means it can be helpful regardless of what mental health condition a person might have been diagnosed with before. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6955577/">Research shows</a> that it may be useful for people who struggle with a range of mental health conditions – such as treatment-resistant depression, anorexia nervosa and autism spectrum disorders. </p>
<p>But, to receive suitable help, a person must first be correctly identified as highly overcontrolled.</p>
<p>The current assessment of overcontrol is quite long and complex. It involves a few questionnaires and an interview that must be conducted by a specially trained clinician. This can limit access to support and slow down research. </p>
<p>I am working on developing a simplified assessment method that will help promptly identify problematic overcontrol. This will make it easier for researchers to continue studying overcontrol, too. </p>
<p>High self-control is typically admired and highly overcontrolled people are rarely open about their struggles. That’s why problematic overcontrol can go unnoticed for a long time. Continued work in this field will hopefully make it easier for people to get the help they need.</p>
<p>Importantly, overcontrol and undercontrol are complex concepts and cannot be self-diagnosed. If you suspect you may be highly overcontrolled or undercontrolled – and especially if it’s affecting your health and wellbeing – it’s important to reach out to a <a href="https://www.radicallyopen.net/find-a-therapist.html">doctor or therapist</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215961/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex Lambert works and studies at Nottingham Trent University. She also collaborates with individuals affiliated with Radically Open Ltd.</span></em></p>‘Overcontrol’ is a personality style that can make it difficult for some people to adapt to change or enjoy social situations.Alex Lambert, PhD Candidate, Psychology of Maladaptive Overcontrol, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2152422023-10-17T15:27:23Z2023-10-17T15:27:23ZElon Musk is an ‘engineer’ but Bill Gates is a ‘leader’ – new research shows founder personality can dictate startup success<p>From Elon Musk’s supreme confidence to Jeff Bezos’ ability to make smart decisions <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2019/11/14/how-billionaire-jeff-bezos-makes-fast-smart-decisions-under-pressure-says-ex-amazon-manager.html">under pressure</a>, some of the most successful entrepreneurs are known for their distinctive personalities. But these traits aren’t just interesting side notes to these founders’ stories: confidence and calmness, along with other qualities such as a love of adventure, can have a big impact on startup success.</p>
<p>A startup is typically counted as a “success” if it’s acquired by another company or goes public (that is, its shares become available to trade on a stock exchange). And common investor wisdom attributes this to either supply side (novel products) or demand side (market interest or “hot sectors”) factors. </p>
<p>Of course, many other elements are associated with startup success. There’s a “Goldilocks age” for startups, for example, with those younger than seven years old less likely to be successful because they haven’t had enough time to develop. Startups based in hot spots like San Francisco, Berlin or London are also more likely to succeed due to better access to finance and talent.</p>
<p>While <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-41980-y">our new research</a> shows all these elements are important, it reveals that the personalities of founders are actually the most influential factor in startup success.</p>
<h2>AI uncovers the x-factor: founder personality</h2>
<p>Our multidisciplinary team from the University of New South Wales, the University of Oxford, University of Technology Sydney and the University of Melbourne embarked on a two-year mission to unravel the mysteries behind startup success. We tapped into detailed data on more than 21,000 global startups to discern patterns that might predict a venture’s triumph or downfall.</p>
<p>Using AI algorithms, we applied the “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/five-factor-model-of-personality">five-factor</a>” model – a psychology theory that divides personality into five main groups – to analyse startup founders worldwide. After comparing data on thousands of successful founders to information about employees, we discovered that entrepreneurs exhibit very different combinations of personality traits to everyone else. </p>
<p>Entrepreneurs tend to have a penchant for variety and novelty. They often have a desire to be the centre of attention and an inherent exuberance. While these traits might sound generic, in the business world they translate into risk-taking, networking and relentless energy – critical ingredients for startup success.</p>
<p>Based on our findings, we have identified six distinct founder personality types: leader, accomplisher, operator, developer, fighter and engineer. Each type has its own combination of subtle personality traits, for example, operators value orderliness and fighters are emotionally sensitive.</p>
<p><strong>Founder personality traits</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554238/original/file-20231017-19-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Table showing founder personality types, traits and examples." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554238/original/file-20231017-19-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554238/original/file-20231017-19-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554238/original/file-20231017-19-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554238/original/file-20231017-19-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554238/original/file-20231017-19-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554238/original/file-20231017-19-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554238/original/file-20231017-19-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-41980-y">McCarthy, Gong, Braesemann, Stephany, Rizoiu and Kern</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Many of these personality types are thriving in the real-life startup world. Take, for instance, Bill Gates, co-founder of Microsoft. He <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/5086412.stm">left Harvard</a> to chase what was then a risky dream. This epitomises “openness to adventure”, which we found was a characteristic of the “leader” personality type. </p>
<p>This theme of defying the odds coupled with seemingly limitless energy resonates with many founder stories. </p>
<p>Melanie Perkins, a co-founder of <a href="https://www.afr.com/street-talk/iconiq-coatue-join-canva-register-at-us-25-5bn-valuation-20230808-p5duqs">$26 billion</a> graphic design software company Canva, faced over 100 rejections from investors before <a href="https://fortune.com/longform/melanie-perkins-canva-founder-ceo-interview/">securing the venture capital funding</a> needed to build the platform. She has described herself as “<a href="https://www.theceomagazine.com/business/coverstory/canva-melanie-perkins/">determined, stubborn and adventurous</a>” – also traits of the “leader” founder type.</p>
<p>Jeff Bezos is a well-known “acccomplisher”. He left his secure position at a New York hedge fund to found Amazon from Seattle. This wasn’t an impulsive move, it was a strategic choice. Bezos saw Seattle as the best place for a national distribution hub because it would benefit from Washington state’s specific <a href="https://medium.com/galileo-onwards/amazon-in-seattle-7d4d8c5d825d">tax laws</a>. Such meticulous planning and long-term vision has characterised some of Amazon’s other achievements, including the development of Amazon Web Services, a global <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-next-for-amazon-after-jeff-bezos-no-dramatic-changes-just-more-growth-and-optimisation-154553">cloud computing</a> leader.</p>
<p>And, of course, no discussion of start-up personalities would be complete without Tesla and Space-X founder Elon Musk. This “engineer’s” many business interests are driven by boundless imagination, as well as intellect. You can see this in SpaceX’s audacious goal to <a href="https://theconversation.com/elon-musk-releases-details-of-plan-to-colonise-mars-heres-what-a-planetary-expert-thinks-79733">colonise Mars</a> and Tesla’s futuristic Cybertruck design, as well as Musk’s underground transportation system <a href="https://theconversation.com/hyperloop-and-the-future-of-ground-transport-17020">Hyperloop</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Founders are wired differently</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553685/original/file-20231013-19-511pl2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map of the brain showing six successful founder personality types: leaders, accomplishers, operators, developers, fighters, engineers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553685/original/file-20231013-19-511pl2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553685/original/file-20231013-19-511pl2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553685/original/file-20231013-19-511pl2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553685/original/file-20231013-19-511pl2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553685/original/file-20231013-19-511pl2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553685/original/file-20231013-19-511pl2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553685/original/file-20231013-19-511pl2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-41980-y">McCarthy, Gong, Braesemann, Stephany, Rizoiu, Kern</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>The power of diversity</h2>
<p>Our model also indicated that startups with a diverse blend of these founder personality types are 8 to 10 times more likely to be successful.</p>
<p>Canva’s three co-founders are a great example of this. <a href="https://www.forbes.com/profile/cameron-adams/?sh=7cf16a2a27c1">Ex-Googler</a> Cameron Adams’s <a href="https://themaninblue.com/about/">technical intellect and imagination</a> has combined with Cliff Obrecht’s <a href="https://www.forbes.com.au/news/billionaires/felt-like-a-failure-the-untold-story-of-canva-couples-rise-to-billionaire-founders/">assertive dealmaking</a> and Perkins’ <a href="https://www.theceomagazine.com/business/coverstory/canva-melanie-perkins/">energy, trustworthiness and adventurousness</a> to create a tech juggernaut.</p>
<p>Even if you’re not gearing up to launch or invest in the next big startup, personality offers a fascinating lens through which to view the start-up world and its most talked-about figures. And these findings are likely to hold in other settings too: team performance is shaped by the right combination of different personalities.</p>
<p>Behind every successful startup, there’s more than just a groundbreaking product or a burgeoning market, there’s a dynamic founder – or founders – with a personality that’s the secret to startup success.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215242/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Start-up success isn’t just about finding the right product or underserved market, personalities matter too.Fabian Braesemann, Departmental Research Lecturer in AI & Work, University of OxfordPaul X. McCarthy, Adjunct Professor and Industry Fellow, UNSW SydneyPeggy Kern, Associate Professor, Centre for Positive Psychology, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1911492023-01-12T13:19:54Z2023-01-12T13:19:54ZConsumers often can’t detect fake reviews – and underestimate how many negative reviews might be fakes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501162/original/file-20221214-14106-u73s9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=42%2C8%2C5565%2C3724&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fake reviews of products and services are rampant online – and are often hard to pick out from the real ones.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/bad-rating-and-negative-reviews-concept-reputation-royalty-free-image/1271987935?phrase=online%20negative%20rating&adppopup=true">anyaberkut/iStock/Getty Images Plus via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Consumers who have a personality that scores high in terms of openness – such as being open to new adventures and intellectually curious – have better success at spotting fake reviews than other personality types, according to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-04-2021-4597">our recently published research</a>. Extroverted people, on the other hand, tend to have a harder time identifying a fake review. </p>
<p>To reach these conclusions, we compiled reviews from a unique data set of 1,600 Chicago hotel reviews, marked as either fake or real, that was compiled by artificial intelligence engineer and researcher <a href="https://myleott.com/">Myle Ott</a> and his team for peer-reviewed research they <a href="https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1107.4557">published in 2011</a> and <a href="https://aclanthology.org/D13-1199/">2013</a>.</p>
<p>Ott and colleagues mined real reviews from travel review websites such as Tripadvisor, Hotels.com and Expedia, which have a reasonably small deception rate. They gathered fake reviews by using Amazon Mechanical Turk to recruit people to write fake hotel reviews that sounded truthful.</p>
<p>We then used <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2016/07/11/what-is-mechanical-turk/">Amazon Mechanical Turk</a> to recruit 400 participants and asked them to imagine they needed to choose a hotel for a planned trip to Chicago. Each participant was assigned a hotel, read eight reviews about it, guessed at which ones were fake and explained why they seemed fake or real. The eight reviews were a balanced set of two positive fake, two positive real, two negative fake and two negative real, shown in a randomized order. </p>
<p>Participants then answered questions that allowed us to assess where they rank in terms of the <a href="https://www.thomas.co/resources/type/hr-guides/what-are-big-5-personality-traits">big five personality types</a>: extroversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness and neuroticism.</p>
<p>Overall, we found that consumers generally trust negative reviews more than positive ones. In evaluating whether an online review is genuine, consumers frequently underestimate the number of negative reviews that can be fake, while assuming that some positive reviews might be fake. </p>
<p>When we asked our participants why they thought a negative review was trustworthy, we found that they didn’t fully take into account that the writer might be motivated to post the review out of a desire to harm the business – for example, hostile competitors or angry customers. </p>
<p>We also found that readability, length and content affected perceptions of the review. Study participants were more likely to trust positive reviews when the sentences were short, and more likely to trust negative reviews when the sentences were long. </p>
<p>Shorter negative reviews with less emotional content were also more believable. </p>
<p>And in terms of personality type, while participants scoring high on openness were best at spotting fake reviews, and those with more extroversion did the worst, it was only for positive reviews. All personality types did pretty poorly at weeding out fake negative reviews. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Consumers consider online reviews to be among the <a href="https://doi.org/10.17705/1jais.00305">most important sources of information</a> for making buying decisions. However, according to <a href="https://www.which.co.uk/news/article/thousands-of-fake-customer-reviews-found-on-popular-tech-categories-on-amazon-agk4L2H5c96L">a 2019 report by Which?</a>, the U.K.’s consumer champion organization, many of these reviews on popular websites such as Amazon are fakes.</p>
<p>But consumers <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1207/s15327957pspr1003_2">are consistently bad at detecting</a> fake reviews in their buying decisions.</p>
<p>Our research could help consumers become more aware of how they respond to reviews, especially negative ones.</p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Our research has identified certain features in the length, wording and structure of online reviews, as well as consumer personality types, that lead consumers to trust online reviews. We still don’t know why these features convey trustworthiness to consumers or why they differ for positive versus negative reviews.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191149/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shabnam Azimi is an assistant professor of marketing, Quinlan School of Business, Loyola University of Chicago.</span></em></p>Online reviews have a big impact on buying decisions – but how can shoppers sort the real ones from the fakes?Shabnam Azimi, Assistant Professor, Loyola University ChicagoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1807822022-04-11T19:57:25Z2022-04-11T19:57:25Z‘Impulsive psychopaths like crypto’: research shows how ‘dark’ personality traits affect Bitcoin enthusiasm<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457288/original/file-20220411-19-am14x3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C6%2C4077%2C2146&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/rear-view-asian-man-has-stock-2124669554">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since the invention of Bitcoin in 2009 the global cryptocurrency market has grown from nothing to a value of <a href="https://money.com/crypto-market-doubled-value-whats-next/">around US$2 trillion</a>. From a price of US$1 in 2011, Bitcoin rose to an all-time high of more than US$63,000 in April 2021, and now hovers <a href="https://www.coinbase.com/price/bitcoin">around the US$42,000 mark</a>. </p>
<p>Large fluctuations in cryptocurrency prices are common, which makes them a highly speculative investment. What kind of people are willing to take the risk, and what motivates them? </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886921008321">We conducted a survey</a> to find out. In particular, we wanted to know about the relationship between the so-called “dark tetrad” personality traits and attitudes towards cryptocurrency. </p>
<h2>The dark tetrad</h2>
<p>In psychology, the “<a href="https://psychcentral.com/pro/exhausted-woman/2015/11/the-dark-tetrad-possibly-the-scariest-boss#1">dark tetrad</a>” refers to a group of four personality traits. These are Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy (together known as the “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0092656602005056">dark triad</a>”), plus sadism. </p>
<p>They are called “dark” because of their “evil” qualities: extreme selfishness and taking advantage of others without empathy. The dark tetrad are also often related to risk-taking behaviours. </p>
<h2>The appeal of cryptocurrency</h2>
<p>We identified two main areas of appeal. First, the high risks and high potential returns of crypto trading make it attractive to the kind of people who like gambling. </p>
<p><iframe id="2PIjE" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/2PIjE/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Second, cryptocurrencies are not issued or backed by governments like traditional or “fiat” currencies. This makes them attractive to people who distrust government.</p>
<h2>What are the personalities of crypto buyers?</h2>
<p>We asked 566 people to complete online personality surveys as well as answer questions about their attitudes to crypto and whether or not they planned to invest in it. Of our participants, 26% reported they own crypto and 64% showed interest in crypto investing. </p>
<p>We measured their dark tetrad traits using standard psychological tests. We also measured traits that might connect the dark tetrad to judgements about crypto: <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/how-to-cope-with-fomo-4174664">fear of missing out</a> (FOMO; the feeling that others are experiencing better things than you are), <a href="https://www.berkeleywellbeing.com/positivity.html#:%7E:text=Positivity%20is%20the%20practice%20or,behaviors%20like%20kindness%20and%20generosity.">positivity</a> (the tendency to be positive or optimistic in life), and <a href="https://www.psypost.org/2021/06/new-psychology-research-uncovers-why-people-with-dark-tetrad-personality-traits-are-more-likely-to-believe-conspiracy-theories-61088">belief in conspiracy theories</a>. </p>
<h2>Why do people want to buy crypto? It’s not just about making money</h2>
<p>A common reason to invest in crypto is the hope of earning high returns. Beyond the desire to build wealth, our research shows dark personality traits also drive crypto buying. </p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machiavellianism_(psychology)">Machiavellianism</a> is named after the Italian political philosophy of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>. People who rate highly on this trait are good at deception and interpersonal manipulation. </p>
<p>Machiavellians take a calculated approach to achieving goals, and avoid impulsive decisions. They are less likely to engage in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_gambling#:%7E:text=Problem%20gambling%20or%20ludomania%20is,both%20social%20and%20family%20costs.">problem gambling</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/behind-the-crypto-hype-is-an-ideology-of-social-change-177981">Behind the crypto hype is an ideology of social change</a>
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<p>Machiavellians also tend to believe strongly in government conspiracies. For example, they often believe politicians usually do not reveal their true motives, and that government agencies closely monitor all citizens. </p>
<p>We found Machiavellians like crypto primarily because they distrust politicians and government agencies. Many crypto supporters believe governments are corrupt, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/behind-the-crypto-hype-is-an-ideology-of-social-change-177981">crypto avoids government corruption</a>.</p>
<h2>Overconfidence and positivity</h2>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissism">Narcissism</a> is a self-centred personality trait, characterised by feelings of privilege and predominance over others. Narcissists are overconfident and are more willing to do things like <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886911000055?casa_token=cFSsgSVVHyAAAAAA:mDeBqzKw0a7eaTCq8JCLHPeVGkiTCc3x_ZIpjtqtl-pmFMEwLVtQ9UUiIRlDtj0HV6VWuyLLl6g">make risky investments in the stock market</a> and gamble. </p>
<p>Narcissists tend to focus on the positive side of life. We found narcissists like crypto because of their great faith in the future, and because of their confidence their own lives will improve. </p>
<h2>Impulsive psychopaths like crypto</h2>
<p>Psychopathy is a callous, impulsive antisocial personality trait. Psychopathic people often find it difficult to perceive, understand, or address emotions due to a lack of emotional intelligence and empathy.</p>
<p>The reckless nature of psychopaths makes them more resistant to stress and anxiety. As a result, psychopaths like <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00662/full">stimulation-seeking</a> and risk-taking. They are prone to gambling and gambling addiction.</p>
<p>We found that impulsive psychopaths like crypto, because they fear missing out on investing rewards that others are experiencing. </p>
<h2>How is sadism involved?</h2>
<p>Everyday <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadistic_personality_disorder">sadism</a> relates to a personality enjoying another’s suffering. Sadists often display aggression and cruel behaviours. For example, sadists troll others on the Internet for enjoyment. </p>
<p>At first glance, buying crypto is unlikely to harm others. However, we found sadists like crypto because they do not want to miss out on investment rewards either. To them, perhaps both the pleasure from seeing another’s pain and the fear of missing out are related to selfishness. </p>
<p>Unlike narcissists, we found both psychopaths and sadists lack positivity about their prospects, which cancels out their liking of crypto.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dark tetrad personality traits influence positivity, conspiracy beliefs, and fear of missing out, which in turn influence attitudes to cryptocurrency.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A psychological lens</h2>
<p>Studying cryptocurrency through the psychological lens of the dark tetrad offers insight into why people want to buy crypto. We are not suggesting that everyone interested in crypto displays dark tetrad traits.</p>
<p>We studied only a subset of people interested in crypto who do have these traits. If you happen to be a Bitcoin or other crypto holder, you may or may not exhibit them. </p>
<p>If you want to know how you score for dark tetrad traits, you can do the <a href="https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/SD3/">Dark Triad Personality Test</a> and <a href="https://www.psychmechanics.com/sadism-test/">Sadism Test</a> online.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180782/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Narcissism and belief in conspiracy theories may be among the factors that motivate people to buy cryptocurrencies.Di Wang, Senior lecturer, Queensland University of TechnologyBrett Martin, Professor of Marketing, Queensland University of TechnologyJun Yao, Senior Lecturer in Marketing, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1681942021-09-21T02:29:36Z2021-09-21T02:29:36ZPersonality traits may drive our ideas about fairness and sharing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422063/original/file-20210920-23-71epr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C2%2C1595%2C1061&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Disputes over fairness can create conflict. Families squabble over inheritances, societies polarise around the question of how to distribute wealth fairly, and nations become mired in territorial quarrels. </p>
<p>Many of these disputes stem from different perspectives people have on fairness. In new research, we found people’s ideas about fairness may stem from their personality traits.</p>
<h2>No universal rule for sharing</h2>
<p>Many disputes over fairness stem from the fact there isn’t a single universal moral solution to sharing a resource. Instead, there are several commonly used and widely acceptable moral stances, or norms.</p>
<p>Consider dividing an inheritance among siblings. Under the “norm of equality”, the inheritance should be split equally among them, regardless of any other information.</p>
<p>By the “equity norm”, however, a sibling in dire economic need should receive a larger share. By the “indirect reciprocity norm”, a sibling who has done more to take care of their parents while they were ill deserves a greater portion of the inheritance.</p>
<p>Individuals may disagree in good faith about which of these norms should guide the division of the inheritance.</p>
<h2>More than selfishness</h2>
<p>Previous research has shown that, in situations where multiple norms can be applied, individuals gravitate toward norms that best <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2112">serve their economic interests</a>. </p>
<p>But is this the whole story? Do people just select norms to serve their momentary interest? Or might they also have stable preferences for particular norms, even when they have no personal stake? </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-do-children-think-of-economic-inequality-we-did-an-experiment-to-find-out-163262">What do children think of economic inequality? We did an experiment to find out</a>
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<p>In our work at the Decision Neuroscience Lab at the University of Melbourne, we shed light on these issues in two new studies. In the first, we developed a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-74975-0">new way to measure the relative importance individuals give to different fairness norms</a>. In the second, we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506211038295">related these measures to personality traits</a>.</p>
<h2>The ten-dollar question</h2>
<p>To measure the importance individuals assign to different norms, we asked participants to make moral judgements of how people chose to share $10 in a simple game. Our participants rated different sharing behaviours on a scale from “morally good” to “morally bad”. </p>
<p>The participants showed prominent differences in how they judged different sharing behaviours. Most participants judged even-handed sharing (dividing the $10 equally) as more moral than more generous sharing (giving away more than they kept), but some did the opposite. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422067/original/file-20210920-25-140xtq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422067/original/file-20210920-25-140xtq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422067/original/file-20210920-25-140xtq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422067/original/file-20210920-25-140xtq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422067/original/file-20210920-25-140xtq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422067/original/file-20210920-25-140xtq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422067/original/file-20210920-25-140xtq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">When judging the morality of another person choice to split $10 dollars with a third party, people’s responses correlated with personality.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Some participants were quite harsh in their judgements of low sharing (such as keeping $9 and giving only $1 to one’s partner), whereas others were more accepting of such behaviours. </p>
<p>To describe these differences, we mathematically derived a set of scores for each individual, where each score reflected the importance they place on a different fairness norm.</p>
<h2>Why should personality matter?</h2>
<p>Personality traits describe characteristics of individuals that are relatively stable over time, and also persist across situations. In our research, we looked at the set of personality traits described by the Big Five framework which include: extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and negative emotionality.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/psychology-by-numbers-a-brief-history-of-personality-tests-53927">Psychology by numbers: a brief history of personality tests</a>
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<p>In some situations, most individuals behave in a similar way regardless of their personality. Almost everyone is likely to agree it is morally wrong to murder an innocent person. </p>
<p>In other situations, there will be individual differences in behaviour that do not systematically relate to personality differences. Residents of an apartment building will reliably press different buttons in the lift, but each person’s choice is determined by where they live. </p>
<p>However, many situations produce individual differences in behaviour that reveal people’s personalities — such as how they respond differently to stress, good news, a major life change, and so on. So, why might judging the behaviour of others be one of these situations?</p>
<p>First, there are robust individual differences in the importance people assign to fairness norms in moral judgements. Second, previous research has demonstrated that agreeableness in particular <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000217">predicts adherence to fairness norms</a> in several sharing situations. </p>
<p>Agreeableness is thought to capture kindness, politeness and compassion when dealing with others. How agreeableness is connected to fairness-related moral judgements of other people has not been studied before. </p>
<p>One might expect a kind, polite and compassionate person to be more forgiving and tolerant when judging others. On the other hand, agreeableness predicts higher adherence to fairness norms, so perhaps a polite and compassionate person would be highly sensitive to perceived unfairness, and thus judge the perpetrator of the unfairness more harshly. We hypothesised the latter to be the case.</p>
<h2>How do personality traits relate to importance people assign to fairness norms?</h2>
<p>For our second study, we measured agreeableness alongside other personality traits (including extraversion, conscientiousness, negative emotionality, and openness) using a reliable and well-validated questionnaire. We then examined associations these personality traits had with moral judgements in our sharing game. </p>
<p>Our findings supported the idea that agreeable individuals would judge abuses of fairness norms more harshly – and provided no support for the idea that agreeable people would be forgiving and tolerant when judging others that abuse fairness norms. Agreeable people may still be more forgiving when they are affected by norm abuses themselves, but do not seem to be forgiving on other people’s behalf. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422069/original/file-20210920-28-rs5qw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422069/original/file-20210920-28-rs5qw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422069/original/file-20210920-28-rs5qw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422069/original/file-20210920-28-rs5qw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422069/original/file-20210920-28-rs5qw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422069/original/file-20210920-28-rs5qw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422069/original/file-20210920-28-rs5qw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People who score highly for agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness and extraversion tended to judge the decisions of others more harshly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>We found people who scored highly on the traits of conscientiousness, openness and extraversion also made harsher judgements. These findings were somewhat surprising to us, so we recommend future studies to further investigate why this is the case. </p>
<p>Do conscientious people have a stricter understanding of fairness norms, or are they more diligent when rating the behaviour of others? Are extraverts more sensitive to abuse of some moral norms because they are more sensitive to social rewards and punishments than introverts? Do highly open people have a more confident understanding of moral situations? Further research is needed to get to the bottom of these questions.</p>
<h2>More tolerance for moral plurality</h2>
<p>What do these findings mean for conflicts around fairness that we encounter in our everyday lives? At least some of these conflicts likely occur because of differences in the importance individuals assign to different fairness norms. </p>
<p>Revealing these differences cannot settle disputes, but it may help us better understand moral plurality, and have a more tolerant approach to differences in perspective when negotiating fairness in our everyday lives.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-and-you-how-your-personality-affects-how-you-cope-and-what-you-can-do-about-it-134037">Coronavirus and you: how your personality affects how you cope and what you can do about it</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168194/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The research described in this article was supported by an Australian Research Council grant (ARC DP160103353) to Stefan Bode.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Feuerriegel and Luke Smillie do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There are many ways to decide what’s ‘fair’ in a given situation. Which one you prefer may depend on what kind of person you are.Milan Andrejević, PhD Candidate in Psychology, The University of MelbourneDaniel Feuerriegel, Research Fellow In Psychology, The University of MelbourneLuke Smillie, Associate Professor in Personality Psychology, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1588002021-04-12T13:40:10Z2021-04-12T13:40:10ZHave introverts really fared better in lockdown?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394479/original/file-20210412-15-1s245sy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=191%2C0%2C6050%2C3643&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/introvert-mindset-asian-kids-happy-music-1865624851">MR.Yanukit/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since the onset of the pandemic, everyone from newspaper columnists to Twitter users has advanced the idea that extroverts and introverts are handling the crisis differently. </p>
<p>Many claim that introverts adapt to social distancing and isolation better than extroverts, with some even suggesting that introverts are practically “<a href="https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/rendezview/hey-introverts-stop-loving-this-crisis-so-much/news-story/a519a8644d149222b0c22c97aa2c28c2">loving</a>” the crisis, as it offers them a rare chance to play to their <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2020/may/02/for-introverts-lockdown-is-a-chance-to-play-to-our-strengths">strengths</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1233489965587275776"}"></div></p>
<p>According to personality theories, <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-63285-007">extroversion-introversion</a> constitutes one of the fundamental psychological axes along which people differ. Extroverts typically exhibit higher levels of energy and sociability compared to introverts, enjoying a boost in mood after social interactions. <a href="https://psyarxiv.com/8ze6w/">Introverts</a> do not tend to experience such benefits. </p>
<p>It therefore seems intuitive that introverts will fare better than extroverts during periods of lockdown isolation. Some <a href="https://www.scotsman.com/news/opinion/columnists/why-lockdown-heaven-introverts-me-jim-duffy-3019045">anecdotal evidence</a> supports this contention, but scientific evidence is now stacking up to dismiss the idea that introverts love lockdowns. In any case, it’s worth bearing in mind how complex and multifaceted our personalities are – with many other traits determining how we’ve fared during the pandemic.</p>
<h2>Coping with lockdown</h2>
<p>In psychology, extroversion is associated with better wellbeing, happiness and mental health. Despite the social isolation we’ve been experiencing during the pandemic – something said to suit introverts – evidence suggests that extroverts’ wellbeing has held remarkably firm during successive lockdowns.</p>
<p>Indeed, recent studies have found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.561609">introversion was predictive</a> of more severe loneliness, anxiety and depression after the circumstantial changes brought about by the pandemic. Extroversion, meanwhile, was correlated with lower levels <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.10.053">of anxiety</a> and a lower likelihood of experiencing <a href="https://greaterdivide.com/2020/04/30/the-resilience-of-extroverts-in-a-time-of-lock-downs/">mental health issues</a> during lockdown. </p>
<p>These results were further supported by a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248895">recent longitudinal study</a> that followed 484 US college students through their 2020 spring term. As the pandemic progressed, introverts experienced increases in stress, while more extrovert students reported slight decreases in stress.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/young-people-reveal-the-struggles-of-lockdown-and-how-they-coped-149603">Young people reveal the struggles of lockdown – and how they coped</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Interestingly, the trend was reversed for positive mood: extroverts tended to experience a decline in mood during the early pandemic period, while introverts experienced a slightly improved mood. </p>
<p>If this finding appears to validate claims that introverts fare better than extroverts in a lockdown, it’s important to note that despite the decline in mood among extroverts, they still reported an overall more positive mood than their introverted peers.</p>
<h2>Explaining extroverts</h2>
<p>Certain lifestyle factors may partly explain these findings. As the pandemic unfolded, even extroverts who lived alone may have found communication apps like Zoom, <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2020/03/31/tech/houseparty-coronavirus-lockdown-scli-intl/index.html">Houseparty</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-56180581">Clubhouse</a> adequate in maintaining their social lives. </p>
<p>Equally, introverts who had greeted lockdown with a certain amount of glee may have soon discovered that being <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/04/02/998440/lockdown-was-supposed-to-be-an-introverts-paradise-its-not/">locked in with housemates</a> or family hardly delivered the solitude they’d been looking forward to.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1255666252602920965"}"></div></p>
<p>But recent findings are also consistent with what psychologists would expect of extroverts – even during a crisis. Many theories have been proposed to explain why they tend to enjoy higher levels of wellbeing, with some researchers pointing to the support offered by extroverts’ wider social network, while others highlight links between extroversion and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2003.08.001">healthy activities</a></p>
<p>A particularly relevant study recently investigated the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110398">coping responses</a> of extroverts at times of crises, and found that extroversion was related to more problem-solving coping strategies such as seeking emotional support. These patterns are consistent with the well-documented association of extroversion with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868306294907">greater optimism</a>. </p>
<h2>Additional traits</h2>
<p>Behind these diverse explanations lies a further consensual principle held by psychologists: personality is multifaceted, and it’s the different combinations of personality traits that ultimately determines our behaviour and wellbeing.</p>
<p>Let’s take the <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-11667-005">five-factor theory of personality</a>, one of the most popular personality theories, as an example. In addition to the extroversion-introversion spectrum, the theory also accounts for four other traits: openness (being open to new experiences, feelings and ideas); conscientiousness (being organised, self-disciplined and goal-driven); agreeableness (being helpful, cooperative and good-natured); and neuroticism (being emotionally unstable). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A pawn chess piece in the middle of a circular diagram featuring the words of the five personality traits" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394483/original/file-20210412-13-9e7guo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394483/original/file-20210412-13-9e7guo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394483/original/file-20210412-13-9e7guo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394483/original/file-20210412-13-9e7guo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394483/original/file-20210412-13-9e7guo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394483/original/file-20210412-13-9e7guo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394483/original/file-20210412-13-9e7guo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A common theory in psychology holds that our personalities can be broken down to five main traits.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/3d-illustration-pawn-center-big-five-1747403999">Olivier Le Moal/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These other traits will also have influenced how people have reacted to the pandemic. While extroversion is often associated with healthy activities, it is <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2004-20177-003">conscientiousness</a> that predicts health-related behaviours best. Similarly, while extroverts tend to have a larger social network than introverts, it is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378873313000415?via%253Dihub">agreeableness</a> that ultimately predicts the quality of that social network.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/personalities-that-thrive-in-isolation-and-what-we-can-all-learn-from-time-alone-135307">Personalities that thrive in isolation and what we can all learn from time alone</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In other words, extroversion-introversion on its own is far too simplistic a measure for us to use when thinking about people’s response to the pandemic. When it comes to coping with lockdown, different combinations of personality traits could entail very different behaviours.</p>
<h2>Beyond personality</h2>
<p>Aside from personality traits, we all follow motivational forces, usually guided by values and beliefs, that could also influence our behaviour and wellbeing during lockdown.</p>
<p>Even someone with high levels of extroversion and conscientiousness, which would predict a healthy set of behaviours during lockdown, could have found their wellbeing affected by their values.</p>
<p>A materialistic person, for instance, might be compelled to follow maladaptive coping behaviours such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2007.26.3.334">impulsive online shopping</a>, which one study revealed to have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7893314/">increased</a> during the pandemic – as a coping mechanism for negative emotional states. </p>
<p>Such motivational forces can guide our behaviour as much as our personalities, and our wellbeing during the pandemic will be determined by how all these forces intersect and interact.</p>
<p>Even though extroversion-introversion can be a revealing measure of our lives, it’s missing the much more complex and intriguing picture of human behaviour that psychologists are continuing to study with interest during the pandemic.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158800/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lis Ku receives funding from the British Academy. </span></em></p>Popular opinion has it that introverts are thriving in lockdown – but studies paint a different picture.Lis Ku, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, De Montfort UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1340372020-03-24T18:58:23Z2020-03-24T18:58:23ZCoronavirus and you: how your personality affects how you cope and what you can do about it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/322190/original/file-20200323-22618-vsvdoi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5092%2C3397&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cuyahoga-falls-ohusa-02-28-2020-1659147811">Eleanor McDonie/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>To some people, fighting in the aisles over toilet paper makes sense. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/mar/05/even-as-behavioural-researchers-we-couldnt-resist-the-urge-to-buy-toilet-paper">Driven by the social proof of empty shelves</a> and in fear of losing out, they fight. To others, such behaviour would be unthinkable. Clearly some cope differently to others when it comes to the coronavirus pandemic. The question is, why? </p>
<p>Our <a href="http://danariely.com/books/predictably-irrational/">behaviour is not that rational</a>. And it’s influenced by many factors, including <a href="http://web.missouri.edu/%7Esegerti/capstone/choicesvalues.pdf">change of context</a>, <a href="http://sciencesearch.defra.gov.uk/Default.aspx?Menu=Menu&Module=More&Location=None&Completed=0&ProjectID=16189">habit</a> and the focus of this piece – personality. </p>
<p>Personality is thought to be fairly stable across time and context, and difficult to change. So why bother to understand it? Exposing the cues your personality is sending will give you some choice over how to cope with the scarcity, threat of disease or social isolation the COVID-19 pandemic has brought. And if you’re lucky, you might just catch those personality cues in time and make better behavioural choices.</p>
<h2>The big 5 traits</h2>
<p>To understand personality let’s use the <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Between-facets-and-domains%3A-10-aspects-of-the-Big-DeYoung-Quilty/6257c0833dfa6fe89ef2e1133653b74f9dadc5f6">Big Five Aspect Scale</a>. The big five traits are commonly known by the acronym OCEAN. It stands for: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism. </p>
<p>Each of those traits is a continuum. For example, on the extraversion trait scale extraversion is at one extreme and introversion at the other. </p>
<p>And each trait is comprised of two aspects:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>openness is comprised of openness to experience, and intelligence or preference for abstract thinking</p></li>
<li><p>conscientiousness is made up of the aspects industriousness, or work drive, and orderliness</p></li>
<li><p>extraversion is comprised of enthusiasm and assertiveness</p></li>
<li><p>agreeableness is comprised of compassion and politeness</p></li>
<li><p>neuroticism or susceptibility to negative emotion is comprised of the aspects, withdrawal and volatility, the latter a kind of defensive aggression.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>What does this mean for how we respond?</h2>
<p>So, what kinds of behavioural cues are those aspects of your personality likely to send you about coping with the coronavirus? While it’s still early days, the behavioural impact of this pandemic appears to be gathering around three themes – anxiety, social distancing and micro public disorder. </p>
<p>At a time like this anxiety is likely to loom large, particularly if you are high in neuroticism. While the withdrawal aspect of neuroticism describes psychological rather than physical withdrawal, the new behavioural norms of social distancing being broadcast will feel very natural if withdrawal is an important aspect of your personality. </p>
<p>But if volatility is a large part of your make-up, empty shelves could trigger a strong desire for you to defend your right to your share. Negative or defensive aggression cues like those, if strong enough, could overwhelm the more considered part of your thinking. If unchecked or, worse, provoked by jostling crowds, for instance, you could find yourself arguing over toilet paper, despite being mild-mannered most other times. </p>
<p>Another big change we are facing is social distancing. </p>
<p>Being low on extraversion, enforced social distancing could be an absolute boon – your guilty little secret. At last you have a socially sanctioned excuse to keep those noisy extraverts at bay and be left alone to your rich inner world. </p>
<p>If you’re conscientious too, and high in aspect orderliness, you get the chance to have everything at home just so. You can colour-coordinate your wardrobe and have all the hangers pointing the same way. Or better still you can put the tins in your pantry in alphabetical order, with the smallest packages to the front, labels facing outward, of course. </p>
<p>If you’re high in trait extraversion, something <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282720170_The_impact_of_individual_differences_on_influence_strategies">scarce is likely to be very attractive</a>. Seeking out excitement and opportunity, you’re likely drawn to the very thing you can’t have, those elusive toilet rolls.</p>
<p>And then there are the outbreaks of micro public disorder, cracks in the façade of acceptable behaviour that expose glimpses of something ugly below.</p>
<p>If you’re highly conscientious, it’s probably not so much that you enjoy working hard or being organised, but that you really can’t stand being idle or in a mess. Faced with shortages, you’re likely to want to be ready for the worst. The urge to hoard, and the temptation to work hard at it, could be difficult to resist.</p>
<p>Disagreeable people want to compete and dominate. So, if you’re low in agreeableness, the cues you’ll be getting will not be so much about getting toilet paper, as making sure you get more of the toilet paper than the next guy. If you’re also low in openness, you are more likely to be high in <a href="http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e82f/2cad364fee947f312be75bdb7d4366bb9a95.pdf">disgust sensitivity</a>. Which might be why we see people fighting over toilet rolls of all things.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/322193/original/file-20200323-22590-1cu736v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/322193/original/file-20200323-22590-1cu736v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/322193/original/file-20200323-22590-1cu736v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322193/original/file-20200323-22590-1cu736v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322193/original/file-20200323-22590-1cu736v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322193/original/file-20200323-22590-1cu736v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322193/original/file-20200323-22590-1cu736v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322193/original/file-20200323-22590-1cu736v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People whose personalities rate low on agreeableness and high on volatility might find themselves fighting in the aisles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/coronavirus-panic-shopping-women-fighting-over-1672900705">Jorieri/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Self-awareness will help</h2>
<p>The really difficult challenge is to spot the wave of behavioural cues as it crashes towards you and step back before you’re washed into a sea of unthinking action. </p>
<p>While personality change is really difficult, you can at least be aware of the behavioural cues your personality is sending you and try to make better choices.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Wondering about your personality traits? You can take an online Big 5 test <a href="https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/IPIP-BFFM/">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/134037/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Conor Wynn does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If you know your own personality traits, you might then be better placed to resist your worst unthinking impulses in a time of high anxiety.Conor Wynn, PhD Candidate at BehaviourWorks, Monash Sustainable Development Institute, Monash University, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1287772019-12-17T02:01:53Z2019-12-17T02:01:53ZRobot career advisor: AI may soon be able to analyse your tweets to match you to a job<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306943/original/file-20191215-85417-7jqaf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C8%2C2779%2C1236&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tennis professionals like Maria Sharapova (pictured) share similar personality traits to her peers and rivals in tennis, but these traits are entirely different to those in other professions such as technology or science.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/johanlb/5790331774/">johanlb/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine yourself graduating from high school, with the world before you. </p>
<p>But now you must decide what career you want to pursue. You hope for a job that will pay the bills, but also one you will enjoy. After all, you will spend a large portion of your waking hours at work. </p>
<p>But how can you make a reliable choice – beyond what your parents might be pushing for, or what your final year results will get you direct entry into.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2019/12/10/1917942116">study published today</a> in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science found different professions attract people with very different psychological characteristics.</p>
<p>When looking for a new career, you might visit a career adviser and answer a set of questions to identify your interests and strengths. These results are used to match you with a set of potential occupations. </p>
<p>However, this method relies on long surveys, and doesn’t account for the fact that many occupations are changing or disappearing as technology transforms the employment landscape. </p>
<h2>21st century job search</h2>
<p>We wondered if we could develop a data-driven approach to matching a person with a suitable profession, based on psychological traces they reveal online. </p>
<p>Studies have shown people leave traces of themselves through <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1073191113514104?journalCode=asma">the language they post online</a> and <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/110/15/5802">their online behaviours</a>. </p>
<p>Could we analyse this to find out the extent to which people doing the same job shared the same personality traits?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/employment-services-arent-working-for-older-jobseekers-jobactive-staff-or-employers-98852">Employment services aren't working for older jobseekers, jobactive staff or employers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In our research, we identified more than 100,000 Twitter users, each of whom included one of 3,513 job titles in their user profile. </p>
<p>Then, using a tool available through IBM’s cloud-based artificial intelligence engine Watson, and its <a href="https://personality-insights-demo.ng.bluemix.net/">Personality Insights</a> service, we gave each profile a score across ten personality-related characteristics, based on the language in their posts. </p>
<p>We used a variety of data analytics and machine learning techniques to explore the personality of each of the occupations. </p>
<p>For example, to create the “vocation compass map” we used an unsupervised machine learning algorithm to cluster occupational personality data into twenty distinct clusters, grouping the occupations that were most similar in terms of personality.</p>
<h2>An occupational map</h2>
<p>Work has long been thought to be more fulfilling if it fits who we are as a person, in terms of our personality, values, and interests. </p>
<p>Our results confirmed this, and we found that different occupations tended to have very different personality profiles. </p>
<p>For instance, software programmers and scientists were generally more open to experiencing a variety of new activities, were intellectually curious, tended to think in symbols and abstractions, and found repetition boring. On the other hand, elite tennis players tended to be more conscientious, organised and agreeable. </p>
<p>Our findings point to the possibility of using data shared on social media to match an individual to a suitable job.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306939/original/file-20191215-85376-1bpayac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306939/original/file-20191215-85376-1bpayac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306939/original/file-20191215-85376-1bpayac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306939/original/file-20191215-85376-1bpayac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306939/original/file-20191215-85376-1bpayac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306939/original/file-20191215-85376-1bpayac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306939/original/file-20191215-85376-1bpayac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306939/original/file-20191215-85376-1bpayac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People belonging to different occupations generally have distinct personality traits. This figure shows the digital fingerprints of 1,200 individuals across nine occupations. Each dot corresponds to a user - with people grouped.
within their self-identified occupation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Paul X. McCarthy</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We used machine learning to cluster more than one thousand roles based on the inferred personality traits of people in those roles.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/inspire-children-with-good-careers-advice-and-they-do-better-at-school-33104">Inspire children with good careers advice and they do better at school</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We found many similar jobs could be grouped together.</p>
<p>For example, one cluster included different technology jobs such as software programming, web development, and computer science. Another group included gym management, logistic coordination, and concert promotions.</p>
<p>You can <a href="http://bit.ly/vocation-map-interactive">explore more with this interactive online map</a> we made. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306941/original/file-20191215-85428-nn12m0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306941/original/file-20191215-85428-nn12m0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306941/original/file-20191215-85428-nn12m0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306941/original/file-20191215-85428-nn12m0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306941/original/file-20191215-85428-nn12m0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306941/original/file-20191215-85428-nn12m0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306941/original/file-20191215-85428-nn12m0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306941/original/file-20191215-85428-nn12m0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Vocations Map we created has clusters based on the predicted personalities of 101,152 Twitter users, across 1,227 occupations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marian-Andrei Rizoiu</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, while many of the combinations aligned with existing occupation classifiers (current formal groupings that governments and other organisations use to group jobs together), some clusters included roles not traditionally grouped together. </p>
<p>For instance, cartographers, grain farmers and geologists ended up grouped together and shared similar personality traits to many of the technology professionals. </p>
<h2>A data-driven vocation compass</h2>
<p>With our results, we explored the idea of building a data-driven vocation compass: a recommendation system that could find the best career fit for someone’s personality. </p>
<p>We built a system that could recommend an occupation aligned to people’s personality traits with over 70% accuracy. </p>
<p>Even when our system was wrong, it wasn’t far off, and pointed to professions with very similar skill sets. For instance, it might suggest a poet becomes a fictional writer. </p>
<p>Professions are quickly changing due to automation and technological breakthroughs. And in our connected, digital world, we leave behind traces of ourselves. Our work has offered one approach to using these traces in a productive way. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/artificial-intelligence-may-take-your-job-so-political-leaders-need-to-start-doing-theirs-103764">Artificial intelligence may take your job, so political leaders need to start doing theirs</a>
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<p>This approach may one day be used to help people find their dream career, or at the very least, better our understanding of the hidden personality dimensions of different roles.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/128777/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marian-Andrei Rizoiu receives funding from Facebook, the Australian National University and the University of Technology Sydney. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul X. McCarthy and Peggy Kern do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>After analysing posts from 100,000 Twitter users, our research used big data, machine learning and artificial intelligence to reveal the hidden personality traits underpinning thousands of jobs.Peggy Kern, Associate professor, The University of MelbourneMarian-Andrei Rizoiu, Lecturer in Computer Science, University of Technology SydneyPaul X. McCarthy, Adjunct Professor, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1185322019-06-10T19:06:01Z2019-06-10T19:06:01ZRelationships: yes, you do have a type – and it’s likely to be your ex, new study suggests<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278723/original/file-20190610-52741-kip5of.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cheerful-handsome-young-man-sitting-two-513208924?src=g7vjsGTAFvOw--q2tRbL7Q-2-49&studio=1">Dean Drobot/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“They’re just not my type.” Whether during private conversation with a trusted friend, or while watching a favourite romantic comedy, we’ve all heard these words spoken about a potential suitor. But for all its prevalence in conversations about modern day relationships, hardly anyone has investigated whether “my type” actually exists.</p>
<p>Recent work <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00052/full">has suggested</a> that we do have go-to preferences when it comes to demographic and physical characteristics such as education, age difference, hair colour, and height. However, no previous research has provided strong evidence that we consistently seek a particular personality type across partners. Now, a group of researchers have found just that – and if you’re not sure what your type is, you might want to look in a mirror.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1902937116">newly published study</a>, researchers used the longitudinal <a href="https://www.ratswd.de/en/en/researchdata/pairfam">German Family Panel</a> study to assess where more than 12,000 survey participants fitted with the “big five” personality traits – openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Over nine years, the researchers tracked the relationship status of these people, who had to pop the rather unusual question to partners of whether they would mind filling out the same personality questionnaire for the good of science.</p>
<p>After nine years and thousands of questionnaires, the researchers ended up with 332 participants who had been in relationships with at least two different romantic partners who were both happy to participate in the study. That’s a pretty hefty drop in sample size, but more than enough to draw firm conclusions from the data.</p>
<p>The results showed that the current partners of participants described their personalities in ways that were similar to former partners. So while people <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0265407518816880">tend to believe</a> that their personality preferences change over time, it appears that people do have a specific “type” that persists across relationships. In most cases, similarity was only tested across two partners, but for the 29 participants who had more than two willing partners, the results were the same.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278725/original/file-20190610-52780-qh61x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278725/original/file-20190610-52780-qh61x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278725/original/file-20190610-52780-qh61x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278725/original/file-20190610-52780-qh61x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278725/original/file-20190610-52780-qh61x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278725/original/file-20190610-52780-qh61x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278725/original/file-20190610-52780-qh61x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">They may look alike, but how neurotic are they?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/friends-enjoy-holiday-555378193?studio=1">Bojan656/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Like it or not, your type might be closer to your own personality than you’d like to admit. The research showed that the personalities of the partners were not only similar to each other, but to the participants themselves. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232468156_Personality_influences_on_the_choice_of_situations">Seeking out</a> a little of yourself in your partners may help explain why our own personalities tend to be <a href="https://rap.ucr.edu/jrp_triad.pdf">relatively stable</a> when interacting with friends and loved ones. It’s a lot easier to seek relationships that allow us to hold onto our existing ideas of what we are like.</p>
<p>That is, unless you’re an extrovert in search of new experiences. Participants who scored highly in openness to experience and extroversion were much less likely to choose partners with similar personalities to both ex-partners and themselves. So while our relationships can entrench who we think we are, if we are willing to step outside of what we know, they also offer the opportunity to discover new ways of seeing the world.</p>
<p>Interestingly, the study could hold potential for online dating. While <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0956797617714580">previous research</a> has struggled to predict romantic desire from personality traits and preferences, this research suggests that just as music streaming services use our existing library to make personalised recommendations for exciting new sounds, dating apps could use our relationship history to help us find future flames.</p>
<p>Of course, given that we don’t know how long the relationships in the study lasted for, there’s no guarantee that such a strategy will keep the fire burning. Too much similarity in a relationship can make partners <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-you-should-date-your-best-friend-72784">feel unable</a> to grow and develop. Married people can have a particularly <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/j087v38n01_05?casa_token=VjH9g1YkgSkAAAAA:OiYQOe1k7fZM7ANHQsYH22aOpKah_r3FMhVA0MOQuGdY4sa_1phNYcOXkL-F-bV-7rlEuDD-0Nrz">low tolerance</a> for behaviours that their new spouse shares with the former, and such similarity can generate <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J087v40n03_08?casa_token=TIP1QPSGCiAAAAAA:znwrOjCmIyp8CO10e-vIFEtDGZ-dLeeKAM_yYB99Q9EFQ9H8dkWtfs4LkdW2___IlxWVld7H0JxF">anxiety and hopelessness</a>.</p>
<p>On the other hand, having a current partner that resembles an ex-partner can <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19424620.2015.1082012">ease bonding processes</a> and help establish positive patterns of interaction. So don’t go blaming high divorce rates on a tendency towards a type just yet.</p>
<p>Research like this isn’t the be all and end all when it comes to the search for a soulmate. There are plenty of <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145059">other factors</a> that influence who we enter into a romantic relationship with. But don’t be surprised if the next update in your relationship status is really just a return to the status quo.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118532/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stanley Gaines does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research finds that people tend to prefer a specific personality type across partners - and its usually one that resembles their own.Stanley Gaines, Senior Lecturer In Psychology, Brunel University LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1121032019-02-21T12:33:57Z2019-02-21T12:33:57ZVideo games could help uncover your hidden talents – and make you happier<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260165/original/file-20190221-195857-1ilwzhl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/excited-friends-playing-video-games-home-530002369?src=aWwx2xuY0YIz-U5lB6aNSg-1-9">Ivanko80/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve ever wondered whether you could make a real contribution to the world but aren’t sure you have any really meaningful talents, perhaps you should look at how you play computer games. A growing body of research suggests that the virtual world can show you what you are truly capable of. </p>
<p>While some people see video games as a means of living out fantasy, the truth is who we are in the virtual world largely reflects who we are in the real one. For instance, one <a href="https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijcgt/2017/6531404/">piece of research</a> has found that a player’s real values match their in-game decisions, suggesting that their true personality often gets reflected in a game scenario. There is <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260910284_Friending_your_way_up_the_ladder_Connecting_massive_multiplayer_online_game_behaviors_with_offline_leadership">also evidence</a> that our ability to lead is strongly reflected in the way we form relationships in video games.</p>
<p>Some of us are fortunate enough to be aware of these kinds of skills and can take advantage of them in real life as well as in the virtual world. Some players even list their in-game achievements <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/can-warcraft-game-skills-help-land-a-job-1407885660">on their CVs</a>. But there are also many people who are capable of much more than they realise. In fact, the above research suggests that the in-game decisions we make and the behaviour we show while playing can tell us about value systems and skills that are, perhaps, unconscious.</p>
<p>This is because when we are playing in an engaging simulated scenario, we can enter a <a href="http://psy2.ucsd.edu/%7Enchristenfeld/Happiness_Readings_files/Class%207%20-%20Csikszentmihalyi%201975.pdf">state of “flow”</a>. This is a psychological phenomenon characterised by an extreme focus on tasks, an innate sense of joy, matching our skill level with the level of challenge and, interestingly, a total lack of self-consciousness. In other words, we are so involved in the game scenario that we are reacting more authentically instead of filtering behaviour through our perceived social expectations and rules.</p>
<p>Given that these characteristics often stay in the area of game play and aren’t put to use in the real world, there is a clear need to make people more aware that games have this revelatory power. At the very least, there should be a way for the persistence, problem-solving skills and motivation of many game players to be transferred to their ordinary working lives.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260171/original/file-20190221-195853-1kkkwl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260171/original/file-20190221-195853-1kkkwl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260171/original/file-20190221-195853-1kkkwl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260171/original/file-20190221-195853-1kkkwl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260171/original/file-20190221-195853-1kkkwl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260171/original/file-20190221-195853-1kkkwl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260171/original/file-20190221-195853-1kkkwl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Authentic reactions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/enthusiastic-gamer-man-joystick-his-hands-1199314594?src=AMNSScrwcuQHdJOqe_NHDA-1-23">N Defender/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>After realising this need, I am developing a system to help people uncover these traits and ultimately lead better lives. The system comprises two sections. The first part is a game that allows players to solve problems in a variety of ways and exposes the kind of unconscious qualities mentioned above. The software monitors the behaviour and choices made during play and logs them in a unique profile for that player.</p>
<p>Drawing on research that categorises gamers according to <a href="https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1541902">what motivates them</a> to play, the game will let players choose between actions that indicate skill levels and personality types, as defined by tests such as <a href="https://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/home.htm?bhcp=1">Myers Briggs</a>. These actions could include putting items together for tool making for solving problems, choosing to explore new areas alone, or even how one player converses with another.</p>
<p>The downside of existing personality tests is that they are effectively self administered. This means that the answers can be second guessed and biased. By having a system where natural behaviours are stimulated, and then measured against personality indicators, the results are more likely to truly represent the players.</p>
<h2>Putting your talents to use</h2>
<p>The second part of the system feeds the gathered data back to the player as a way of reflecting their unconscious behaviour. The personality traits identified can then be matched to ideal career paths that better suit the latent tendencies uncovered. This could even be tied in to existing online job search facilities to find better suited jobs. </p>
<p>Ultimately, this system gives players a way to take their lives to the next level by helping them to make plans more in line with their latent talents, values and preferences. If someone has the opportunity to work in a real job that reflects their talents in the same way the right video game does, they’re more likely to frequently experience the gratifying state of flow, resulting in greater happiness and satisfaction.</p>
<p>In psychology, we call this kind of realising or fulfilling the potential of your talents “self-actualisation”, and it sits on top of the hierarchy of what we <a href="http://www.researchhistory.org/2012/06/16/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs/">need to be happy</a>. So, ultimately, using video games to uncover our true talents could help us find a way to fully express who we are, simply through the daily living of our lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/112103/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Craig Weightman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Your virtual self reflects your real-life skills and values. Understanding them could help you find a more suitable job.Craig Weightman, Lecturer in Games and Visual Effects, Staffordshire UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1023412018-09-12T02:46:53Z2018-09-12T02:46:53ZHappiness hinges on personality, so initiatives to improve well-being need to be tailor-made<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235142/original/file-20180906-190647-oivn0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The same interventions for happiness and well-being won't work for everyone.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">bewakoof com official unsplash</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Happiness, <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/65485-all-men-seek-happiness-this-is-without-exception-whatever-different">it’s been said</a>, is the goal of all human endeavour. Why else do we strive to improve medicine, strengthen economies, raise literacy, lower poverty, or fight prejudice? It all boils down to improving human well-being.</p>
<p>Psychologists have conducted <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12172000">hundreds of studies</a> of the correlates of well-being. You might think well-being is determined by your circumstances — such as the size of your social circle or your pay cheque. These factors <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00140.x">are important</a>, but it turns out a far stronger role is played by your <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18193998">personality</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/so-many-in-the-west-are-depressed-because-theyre-expected-not-to-be-79672">So many in the West are depressed because they're expected not to be</a>
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<h2>Extraversion linked to happiness</h2>
<p>All aspects of our personality have links with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=sun+kaufman+smillie">different aspects of our well-being</a>, but one personality trait that seems particularly important is extraversion. Extraversion describes the degree to which one behaves in a bold, assertive, gregarious, and outgoing way. Several studies have shown <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118427378.ch11">people who are more extraverted enjoy higher levels of well-being</a>. </p>
<p>Some years ago, personality psychologists working in this area came across a powerful idea: what if we could harness the happiness of extraverts simply by <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12500821">acting more like they do</a>? A wave of studies investigating this idea seemed to support it.</p>
<p>For example, lab experiments showed when people were instructed to act extraverted during an interactive task, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/spc3.12077">they felt happier</a>. Surprisingly, even introverts enjoyed acting extraverted in these studies. </p>
<p>Researchers have also used mobile devices to track people’s levels of extraverted behaviour and well-being in the real world. This, too, showed <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3492883/">people feel happier when acting more extraverted</a>. Again, even people who described themselves as highly introverted felt happiest when acting more like an extravert.</p>
<p>These findings appeared to suggest engaging in extraverted behaviour could be an effective tool for boosting well-being, and potentially form the basis of well-being programs and interventions. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235125/original/file-20180906-191868-1nwsd88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235125/original/file-20180906-191868-1nwsd88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235125/original/file-20180906-191868-1nwsd88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235125/original/file-20180906-191868-1nwsd88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235125/original/file-20180906-191868-1nwsd88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235125/original/file-20180906-191868-1nwsd88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235125/original/file-20180906-191868-1nwsd88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235125/original/file-20180906-191868-1nwsd88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Can acting extraverted make you feel happier?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">huyen nguyen unsplash</span></span>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-bad-moods-are-good-for-you-the-surprising-benefits-of-sadness-75402">Why bad moods are good for you: the surprising benefits of sadness</a>
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<p>But there were critical limitations to this research. Findings from the lab experiments — based on short, contrived interactions among strangers — might not necessarily apply in the real world. And the field studies that tracked people’s behaviour and well-being in the real world were correlational. This means they could not tell us whether acting extraverted during everyday life <em>caused</em> increases in well-being. </p>
<p>To resolve these uncertainties, we conducted the first randomised controlled trial of extraverted behaviour as a well-being intervention, recently published in the <a href="https://psyarxiv.com/8ze6w/">Journal of Experimental Psychology: General</a>.</p>
<h2>What did we find?</h2>
<p>We randomly assigned participants in our study to act extraverted, or to a control condition comprising non-extraverted behaviours, for one week of their lives. An additional control group did not receive any acting instructions. We tracked multiple indicators of well-being throughout the week, and assessed well-being again at the end of the intervention.</p>
<p>On average, people in the “act extraverted” intervention reaped many well-being benefits — but these positive effects also hinged on personality. Specifically, more naturally extraverted people benefited the most, but those who were relatively introverted did not appear to benefit at all, and may have even suffered some well-being costs. </p>
<p>Although our findings are at odds with previous studies on acting extraverted, they support the cautions offered both by <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00106.x">psychologists</a> and <a href="https://www.quietrev.com/quiet-the-book/">self-help writers</a>: there are costs to acting out of character.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-a-cult-of-happiness-leading-us-to-lose-sight-of-life-42820">Is a cult of happiness leading us to lose sight of life?</a>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235141/original/file-20180906-190659-10kt9wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235141/original/file-20180906-190659-10kt9wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235141/original/file-20180906-190659-10kt9wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235141/original/file-20180906-190659-10kt9wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235141/original/file-20180906-190659-10kt9wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235141/original/file-20180906-190659-10kt9wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235141/original/file-20180906-190659-10kt9wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235141/original/file-20180906-190659-10kt9wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Our personalities can and do change.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ali yahya unsplash</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Working with your personality</h2>
<p>The fact our well-being critically depends on our personality sounds like bad news. We like to think we are masters of our destiny, and anyone can be whoever and however they want. But what if our destiny is constrained by our personality?</p>
<p>Our personality <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26151971">shapes our lives</a>, but it also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2743415/">changes</a>, and we can potentially <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25822032">affect these changes ourselves</a>. Personal change may not be easy, but we now know personality is not “fixed”.</p>
<p>Also, the findings of our study don’t suggest you need to be extraverted to be happy. Rather, they show one specific well-being intervention is effective for extraverts but less so for introverts. What we now need is more research to help us better understand how well-being interventions can best take personality into account.</p>
<p>This is not a new idea. Similar insights underlie <a href="http://www.personalizedmedicinecoalition.org/Userfiles/PMC-Corporate/file/pmc_case_for_personalized_medicine.pdf">personalised medicine</a>, and marketing researchers know advertising is more effective when <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22547658">tailored to the traits of the consumer</a>. Similarly, researchers in positive psychology have often argued well-being interventions will be more effective <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10879-014-9291-y">if they’re matched to an individual’s personality</a>. </p>
<p>There’s no silver bullet for happiness. If we want to build our well-being, we have to learn how to build it around our personalities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102341/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luke Smillie receives funding from the Australian Research Council and The Templeton Foundation</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessie Sun and Rowan Jacques-Hamilton do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Past studies have found acting extraverted can even make introverts happy. But a new study had the opposite findings.Luke Smillie, Senior Lecturer in Personality Psychology, The University of MelbourneJessie Sun, PhD Student, University of California, DavisRowan Jacques-Hamilton, Research Assistant, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/957352018-05-24T10:22:34Z2018-05-24T10:22:34ZPersonality tests with deep-sounding questions provide shallow answers about the ‘true’ you<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/220226/original/file-20180523-51141-s5bwj2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=529%2C98%2C4742%2C3377&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A quirky quiz probably isn't going to tell you much about your innermost essence.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-smiling-young-woman-covering-her-648726070">StunningArt/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you ever clicked on a link like “What does your favorite animal say about you?” wondering what your love of hedgehogs reveals about your psyche? Or filled out a personality assessment to gain new understanding into whether you’re an introverted or extroverted “type”? People love turning to these kinds of personality quizzes and tests on the hunt for deep insights into themselves. People tend to believe they have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616689495">a “true” and revealing self</a> hidden somewhere deep within, so it’s natural that assessments claiming to unveil it will be appealing. </p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Ep1t9nsAAAAJ&hl=en">As</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=So__A9oAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">psychologists</a>, we noticed something striking about assessments that claim to uncover people’s “true type.” Many of the questions are poorly constructed – their wording can be ambiguous and they often contain forced choices between options that are not opposites. This can be true of BuzzFeed-type quizzes as well as more seemingly sober assessments.</p>
<p>On the other hand, assessments created by trained personality psychologists use questions that are more straightforward to interpret. The most notable example is probably the well-respected <a href="https://ipip.ori.org/newBigFive5broadKey.htm">Big Five Inventory</a>. Rather than sorting people into “types,” it scores people on the established psychological dimensions of openness to new experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness and neuroticism. This simplicity is by design; psychology researchers know that the more respondents struggle to understand the question, the worse the question is.</p>
<p>But the lack of rigor in “type” assessments turns out to be a feature, not a bug, for the general public. What makes tests less valid can ironically make them more interesting. Since most people aren’t trained to think about psychology in a scientifically rigorous way, it stands to reason they also won’t be great at evaluating those assessments. We recently conducted <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550618766409">series of studies</a> to investigate how consumers view these tests. When people try to answer these harder questions, do they think to themselves “This question is poorly written”? Or instead do they focus on its difficulty and think “This question’s deep”? Our results suggest that a desire for deep insight can lead to deep confusion.</p>
<h2>Confusing difficult for deep</h2>
<p>In our first study, we showed people items from both the Big Five and from the Keirsey Temperament Sorter (KTS), a popular “type” assessment that contains many questions we suspected people find comparatively difficult. Our participants rated each item in two ways. First, they rated difficulty. That is, how confusing and ambiguous did they find it? Second, what was its perceived “depth”? In other words, to what extent did they feel the item seemed to be getting at something hidden deep in the unconscious?</p>
<p>Sure enough, not only were these perceptions correlated, the KTS was seen as both more difficult and deeper. In follow-up studies, we experimentally manipulated difficulty. In one study, we modified Big Five items to make them harder to answer like the KTS items, and again we found that participants rated the more difficult versions as “deeper.”</p>
<p>We also noticed that some personality assessments seem to derive their intrigue from having seemingly nothing to do with personality at all. Take <a href="https://www.buzzfeed.com/agh/this-color-association-test-will-reveal-the-age-you-are-at-h">one BuzzFeed quiz</a>, for example, that asks about which colors people associate with abstract concepts like letters and days of the week and then outputs “the true age of your soul.” Even if people trust BuzzFeed more for entertainment than psychological truths, perhaps they are actually on board with the idea that these difficult, abstract decisions do reveal some deep insights. In fact, that is the entire idea behind <a href="http://www.emory.edu/EMORY_REPORT/erarchive/2001/May/erMay.7/5_7_01lilienfeld.html">classically problematic</a> measures such as the Rorschach, or “ink blot,” test. </p>
<p>In two studies inspired by that BuzzFeed quiz, we found exactly that. We gave people items from purported “personality assessment” checklists. In one study, we assigned half the participants to the “difficult” condition, wherein the assessment items required them to choose which of two colors they associated with abstract concepts, like the letter “M.” In the “easier” condition, respondents were still required to rate colors on how much they associated them with those abstract concepts, but they more simply rated one color at a time instead of choosing between two.</p>
<p>Again, participants rated the difficult version as deeper. Seemingly, the sillier the assessment, the better people think it can read the hidden self.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/220227/original/file-20180524-51121-1e0hdfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/220227/original/file-20180524-51121-1e0hdfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/220227/original/file-20180524-51121-1e0hdfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220227/original/file-20180524-51121-1e0hdfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220227/original/file-20180524-51121-1e0hdfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220227/original/file-20180524-51121-1e0hdfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220227/original/file-20180524-51121-1e0hdfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220227/original/file-20180524-51121-1e0hdfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Complicated or hard-to-parse questions about yourself aren’t going to spring open a shortcut to the true you.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/optical-form-examination-pencil-213521044">Basar/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<h2>Intuition may steer you wrong</h2>
<p>One of the implications of this research is that people are going to have a hard time leaving behind the bad ideas baked into popular yet unscientific personality assessments. The most notable example is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which infamously remains quite popular while doing a fairly poor job of assessing personality, due to <a href="https://www.vox.com/2014/7/15/5881947/myers-briggs-personality-test-meaningless">longstanding issues</a> with the <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/give-and-take/201309/goodbye-mbti-the-fad-won-t-die">assessment itself</a> and the long-discredited <a href="https://medium.com/@AdamMGrant/mbti-if-you-want-me-back-you-need-to-change-too-c7f1a7b6970">Jungian theory</a> behind it. Our findings suggest that Myers-Briggs-like assessments that have largely been debunked by experts might persist in part because their formats overlap quite well with people’s intuitions about what will best access the “true self.” </p>
<p>People’s intuitions do them no favors here. Intuitions often <a href="https://www.basicbooks.com/titles/andrew-shtulman/scienceblind/9780465094929/">undermine scientific thinking</a> on topics like physics and biology. Psychology is no different. People arbitrarily divide parts of themselves into “true” and superficial components and seem all too willing to believe in tests that claim to definitively make those distinctions. But the idea of a “true self” doesn’t really work as a scientific concept.</p>
<p>Some people might be stuck in a self-reinforcing yet unproductive line of thought: Personality assessments can cause confusion. That confusion in turn overlaps with intuitions of how they think their deep psychology works, and then they tell themselves the confusion is profound. So intuitions about psychology might be especially pernicious. Following them too closely could lead you to know less about yourself, not more.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95735/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Few can resist an assessment that promises to reveal your hidden, true self. But new research suggests that people mistakenly believe difficult to answer questions offer deep insights.Randy Stein, Assistant Professor of Marketing, California State Polytechnic University, PomonaAlexander Swan, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Eureka CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/903052018-03-04T19:24:19Z2018-03-04T19:24:19ZWhat makes someone more likely to be bullied at work and how companies can help them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208629/original/file-20180302-65519-1q3xihf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Being bullied as a child, being female, young, and neurotic are significant predictors of whether you might be bullied in the workplace, one survey found.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Being bullied as a child, being female, young, and neurotic are significant predictors of whether you might be bullied in the workplace, <a href="https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/49528/">our online anonymous survey shows</a>. </p>
<p>Our team investigated the personality traits and coping styles of workplace bullying victims which might contribute to their victimisation.</p>
<p>Neuroticism <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1992-25763-001">is defined as</a> a vulnerability to negative mood states such as excessive worrying, anxiety, anger, hostility, self-consciousness, and difficulty coping with stress. </p>
<p>Destructive behaviours such as bullying or harassment <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/annweh/wxx022">reduce employees’ potential at work</a>, in turn increasing businesses’ operational costs. They are often associated with staff absence, increased sick days, and high staff turnover, which are also expensive for organisations.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-employers-need-to-do-to-protect-workers-from-cyberbullying-87499">What employers need to do to protect workers from cyberbullying</a>
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<p>Absenteeism is usually a direct consequence of repeated harassment in the workplace. However, presenteeism (attending work when not fit to do so) is the <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-19070-001">new norm in psychologically unsafe workplaces</a>.</p>
<p>Our study showed that most employees suffering repeated abuse at work nevertheless chose to continue attending. Yet only a small percentage reported taking action towards changing their situation – 10% of individuals had attempted to resolve the situation and 9% had made a complaint.</p>
<p>Presenteeism contributes to a loss of work productivity. An <a href="http://www.medibank.com.au/about-us/media-centre-details.aspx?news=449">Australian Medibank survey</a> in 2011 showed that presenteeism results in the loss of an estimated 6.5 working days per year, per employee. This cost an estimated A$34.1 billion to the Australian economy over 2009 and 2010. </p>
<p>These statistics show that although employees might keep going to work, they do not maintain their previous standards when their mental health is compromised.</p>
<h2>What neuroticism looks like in the workplace</h2>
<p>Neuroticism and mental health difficulties are often expressed in subtle ways. </p>
<p>For example, an employee might become excessively worried about missing work and professional opportunities, or unreasonably concerned about what others will think or do in their absence. </p>
<p>But mental distress is not always a function of personality. Resilient people can also be brought to breaking point by the “climate” at work without the control to change it. </p>
<h2>Bullying takes many forms</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/">Safe Work Australia defines</a> workplace bullying as repeated and unreasonable behaviours directed towards a worker or a group of workers creating a risk to health and safety.</p>
<p>But bullying is not limited to overt behaviours. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28686136">Covert and subtle victimisation</a>, such as spreading gossip about someone or deliberately excluding them, also causes distress. </p>
<p>Concealed harassment tactics often involve abuse of power that functions to silence potential complainants. </p>
<p>Organisational policy is one effective way to stop bullying and incivility at work. However, there is a difference between policy and application. Most bullying policies <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/doi/full/10.1177/1350508413516175">only tackle overt behaviours</a>.</p>
<h2>What should be done?</h2>
<p>Suffering in silence and not seeking help is costly to individuals and organisations. On the flip side, workplace psychological safety increases productivity. </p>
<p>According to the <a href="http://psychologicallysafeworkplace.ca/">Mental Health Commission of Canada</a>, employers who invest in psychologically safe workplaces see the benefits not only in productivity but also in recruiting and retaining staff, reduced workplace conflict, and declining costs of disability and absenteeism.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-happens-when-employees-are-fired-for-complaining-at-work-90939">What happens when employees are fired for complaining at work</a>
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<p>But to tackle the problem effectively, workplace policies need to tackle all types of bullying behaviours, both overt and covert. </p>
<p>Whether the individual chooses to leave or stay at work, the consequences of bullying persist for years and are never forgotten. All workplaces should provide effective policies for managing continuing abuse and improving the mental health outcomes of individuals after bullying.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90305/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our study showed that the majority of employees chose to continue attending work despite suffering repeated abuse at work.Raquel Peel, PhD Researcher, James Cook UniversityBeryl Buckby, Lecturer, Clinical Psychology, James Cook UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/912102018-02-09T17:01:14Z2018-02-09T17:01:14ZHow a thrill-seeking personality helps Olympic athletes<p>One of the main draws of the Winter Olympics is the opportunity to witness some of the most exciting and nail-biting athletic feats. </p>
<p>The daring events include the bobsled and downhill skiing. Then there’s the terrifying skeleton: Imagine barreling down a narrow chute of twisted ice-coated concrete at 125 miles per hour. Now imagine doing that head first, like a human battering ram. </p>
<p>Athletes train for years for these events, but most of these elite athletes possess something that helps them succeed during these high-stakes events: their personality.</p>
<p>Some people have a personality trait that helps them focus in highly chaotic environments like the ones you’ll see during the Winter Olympics. It’s called a high sensation-seeking personality, and it’s a trait that, as a psychologist, I’ve long been fascinated with.</p>
<h2>Calm in the face of danger</h2>
<p>To some extent, we all crave complex and new experiences – that is, we all seek new sensations. </p>
<p>Whether it’s our attraction to the latest shiny gadget or the newest fashion trend, novelty tugs at us. But even though we all share an interest in new sensations, what sets high sensation-seeking personalities apart is that they crave these exotic and intense experiences to an extent that they’re willing to risk their health.</p>
<p>What’s amazing is that some high sensation-seeking individuals experience less stress and are fearless and calm in the face of danger. For example, 2014 Olympic slalom gold medalist Mikaela Shiffrin tears down mountains at speeds of 80 mph. But she recently <a href="https://view.imirus.com/209/document/12827/page/34">told Sky Magazine</a> that the experience can feel like it unfolds in slow motion while she’s “finding a way to control the controllable.”</p>
<p>There’s <a href="http://www.dana.org/News/Details.aspx?id=43484">neurological evidence</a> to back up the sense of calm that athletes like Shiffrin feel in midst of chaos and danger. </p>
<p>You may have heard of <a href="https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-cortisol#1">cortisol</a> – it’s the “fight or flight” hormone, and it can make us feel stressed and overwhelmed. </p>
<p>However, when people with high sensation-seeking personalities have intense experiences, they don’t produce that much cortisol. On top of that, they produce higher levels of “pleasure” chemicals like dopamine. </p>
<p>What’s more, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4763828/">researchers have found</a> that people with high sensation-seeking personalities have increased sensitivity to things that could be rewarding (like landing <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HfSf8QZwHwY">a perfect switch backside 1620</a>) and decreased sensitivity to potential dangers (like the fear of wiping out after doing a triple jump).</p>
<p>High sensation-seeking isn’t exclusive to Winter Olympians, of course. It can creep into every aspect of life, influencing the way you interact with other people, the things you do for fun, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0191886986901364">music you like</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9316713">the way you drive</a> and even the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0191886994901791">jokes you tell</a>.</p>
<h2>Leaping before you look</h2>
<p>In the 1950s, while studying sensory deprivation, psychologist <a href="http://www.euroformhealthcare.biz/temperament-traits/the-biological-theory-of-sensation-seeking-developed-by-zuckerman.html">Robert Zuckerman</a> stumbled upon this sensation-seeking trait. Zuckerman was eventually able to show that sensation-seeking is made up of four distinct components. </p>
<p>Each contributes to an individual’s unique way of seeking (or avoiding) sensation. (And you can actually <a href="http://buzz.drkencarter.com">take a test</a> to see where you fall for each of these four components on the sensation-seeking scale.)</p>
<p>The first two – thrill-seeking and experience-seeking – were mentioned earlier. But the sensation-seeking personality trait also involves disinhibition and boredom susceptibility.</p>
<p>Disinhibition has to do with our willingness to be spontaneous and our ability to let loose. People with low levels of disinhibition always look before they leap. Those high in disinhibition? They just leap. </p>
<p>Boredom susceptibility boils down to your ability to tolerate the absence of external stimuli. Those with high scores in boredom susceptibility dislike repetition: They tire easily of predictable or dull people, and they get restless when forced to perform mundane tasks. </p>
<p>This last component might be the toughest thing for Olympic athletes who are high-sensation seekers to deal with. In order to be a successful Olympian, you need to spend countless hours practicing dull, repetitive workouts and drills.</p>
<p>It’s easy to see how all of these aspects of sensation-seeking personalities might exist in Olympic athletes, whether it’s a snowboarder experimenting with a daring new trick or a hockey forward navigating a puck through a maze of defenders. </p>
<p>People with high sensation-seeking personalities don’t just crave these situations. In those moments, they’re in their element. Where a low sensation-seeking person might crumble, they thrive. </p>
<p>So when you’re watching the Winter Olympics and wondering how the athletes can handle the pressures and dangers of competition, just remember: For some of them, chaos and intensity are secret weapons of success.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91210/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kenneth Carter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When faced with chaos or danger, most people retreat. Not so for those who possess a certain personality trait.Kenneth Carter, Charles Howard Professor of Psychology, Oxford College, Emory UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/818942017-08-09T19:40:29Z2017-08-09T19:40:29ZReward or punishment: finding the best match for your child’s personality<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180493/original/file-20170801-766-hr8zux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Does your child benefit from a time-out or other method of discipline?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of the more frustrating assumptions in the mix of modern parenting advice is the <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=mAs9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=john+locke+and+tabula+rasa&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=tabula%20rasa&f=false">“tabula rasa” idea</a> that all kids are born as identical clean slates. </p>
<p>I suspect the increase in this attitude is partly due to the loss of large families. With the total fertility rate in Australia down to <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Products/3301.0%7E2011%7EMain+Features%7EFertility+rates">1.88 children per woman</a>, the acceptance that some people are lucky enough to get a “beginner’s baby”, compared with one who takes them straight to advanced level, has very much diminished.</p>
<p>Somewhere along the line we have lost the appreciation of intrinsic <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=zBSLBQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=early+personality+differences&ots=voKLVq5EiB&sig=FDwQb8fQBnfENKTbXjIR27c9A6Y#v=onepage&q=early%20personality%20differences&f=false">personality differences</a>, which has led to a frustratingly common belief that a one-size-fits-all approach to shaping behaviour and discipline will always work. </p>
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<p><em><strong>Further reading: <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-discipline-your-children-without-rewards-or-punishment-39178">How to discipline your children without rewards or punishment</a></strong></em></p>
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<p>Someone frequently will preach intervention X, which you try, and it doesn’t work. What’s the typical response? “Oh you mustn’t have done it properly” rather than “oh, your kid mustn’t share the same motivations as my kid, let’s figure out what drives them and work with that”.</p>
<h2>One size doesn’t fit all</h2>
<p>Yet research tells us that <a href="http://www.unige.ch/fapse/emotion/tests/temperament/publications/ejds_02_01_zentner.pdf">babies differ wildly</a> in their natural temperaments, as early as <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dev.20232/abstract;jsessionid=0BE5C6D4896D2B2F3B5873AC09C0FDD9.f02t01">in the womb</a>. </p>
<p>Here’s a pair of babies I prepared earlier, in the same womb, at the same time. What does this picture below tell you about their temperament and subsequent personality as they’ve aged?</p>
<p>If you guessed the boy on the right is now an extroverted, adventurous, sociable young man – you guessed right. And if you guessed the girl on the left is a highly cautious introvert (despite 21 years of relentless <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-cognitive-behaviour-therapy-37351">CBT</a> from her mother) – spot on.</p>
<p>So how could these two children possibly be expected to respond favourably to the same discipline techniques? Can you imagine Anxious Baby Girl knowingly breaking a rule; can you imagine Novelty-Seeking Boy being able to stick to one?</p>
<p>This is where <a href="https://theconversation.com/gentle-parenting-explainer-no-rewards-no-punishments-no-misbehaving-kids-31678">modern-day parenting advice</a> regarding “appropriate” disciplinary techniques typically falls apart. The assumption is that all children are alike, but what happens if you don’t have angel-baby who is interested in pleasing others or responds positively to praise? </p>
<p>What if your child gets excited by pushing boundaries and breaking rules, is aggressive and angry, morose and difficult, even downright anti-social? All of these are possible personality styles – so how can you best manage problematic behaviour in the context of such different temperaments?</p>
<h2>Tailoring the response to each child</h2>
<p>The answer lies in understanding your child and what makes them tick. </p>
<p>An easy mistake to make is trying to apply a punishment (a response designed to reduce or extinguish a behaviour) but in doing so, inadvertently supplying a reward (which reinforces and increases the behaviour).</p>
<p>If your child loves attention for example, any form of attention (including yelling or a smack) may well act as reward. For example, my attention-seeking adult boy now invests a substantial amount of energy winding up his grandmother to earn himself a “smack” – which he finds hysterically funny. </p>
<p>Time-out, on the other hand, especially if it removed his audience, was a very effective punishment for him.</p>
<p>Conversely, imagine what happened when I put my scaredy-cat daughter in time-out. She loved it. Her quiet nature craves alone time, so what was intended as a form of punishment in her case would act as a reward. </p>
<p>In fact, allowing someone with a naturally anxious disposition to “withdraw” or “avoid” (for example, not going to a party, getting extensions on a deadline) may actually reinforce or enable poor coping strategies. It’s a tricky balance.</p>
<p>Children differ cognitively, too. A child with a poor attention span and limited working memory will need an <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322308008275">immediate reward or punishment</a> rather than delayed for it to work. </p>
<p>This is where a short sharp smack can become a very seductive technique for some parents; in contrast to other children who have highly developed verbal skills and memory, where parents can wax lyrical to negotiate future expected behaviours.</p>
<h2>Children with serious behaviour problems</h2>
<p>When we delve into the really complicated cases, University of Sydney professor Mark Dadds has been working with a fascinating group of an estimated 0.5% of children who, despite loving parents and a good upbringing, <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/national/bad-to-the-bone-20110919-1khts.html">don’t respond</a> to disciplinary approaches at all. </p>
<p>While these children are few and far between, they highlight an unpalatable possibility – that no standard disciplinary technique will work for these difficult little characters. These children and their parents require highly specialised neuro-psychological training to edge them towards more effective approaches.</p>
<p>In debating the pros and cons of all the available disciplinary approaches out there, don’t fall into the trap of believing that just because an intervention worked for your child, it will automatically work for everyone else’s. </p>
<p>In fact, the same technique applied to a different child might even exacerbate the problem. When it comes to effective discipline, what works well or even what works at all will depend on the child.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/81894/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachael Sharman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Parents need to use different approaches to shape behaviour depending on the child’s personality type.Rachael Sharman, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, University of the Sunshine CoastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/718262017-01-25T06:06:26Z2017-01-25T06:06:26ZWhat your brain structure says about your personality<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154050/original/image-20170124-26971-1b1cty9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research can help explain why we get more chilled out as we age.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ruslan Guzov/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>From <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/lifestyle/wellbeing/5125678/Foot-reading-what-your-toes-say-about-you.html">toe length</a> to <a href="http://uk.businessinsider.com/what-handwriting-says-about-your-personality-2015-1?r=US&IR=T">handwriting</a> and <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3112170.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3112170.stm">sleeping position</a>, there have been countless studies linking various features with specific personality traits. But these are of course just associations between incidental features – which toe length we happen to have does not, after all, shape who we are as individuals.</p>
<p>For that, we need to look at the brain and its complex anatomy. Now we have discovered striking structural differences in the brains of people with different personality types. We believe that the structural changes – seen as variations in the thickness, area and folding of the brain – may result from differences in development in early life.</p>
<p>I led the international team of researchers behind the study, published in Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. We analysed the brains of over 500 healthy people aged 22 to 36 years. The structural brain scans were provided by the <a href="http://www.humanconnectomeproject.org/">Human Connectome Project</a>, a US project funded by the National Institutes of Health. </p>
<p>We evaluated personality traits using a questionnaire called the <a href="http://www.sigmaassessmentsystems.com/assessments/neo-five-factor-inventory-3/">NEO five factor inventory</a>. By doing this, we were able to divide the participants into the so-called <a href="http://pages.uoregon.edu/sanjay/bigfive.html">“big five” personality traits</a>: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness.</p>
<p>We found that neuroticism, a personality trait underlying mental illnesses such as anxiety disorders, was linked to a thicker cortex (the brain’s outer layer of neural tissue) and a smaller area and folding in some brain regions. Conversely, openness, a trait reflecting curiosity and creativity, was associated to thinner cortex and greater area and folding in the brain. The other personality traits were linked to other differences in brain structure, such as agreeableness, which was correlated with a thinner prefrontal cortex (this area is involved in tasks including processing empathy and other social skills). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The folding of our brains seems to play a role in personality.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">_DJ_/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is the first time the big five personality traits have been clearly linked to differences in brain thickness, area and folding in a large sample of healthy individuals. However we have <a href="http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/map-of-teenage-brain-provides-strong-evidence-of-link-between-serious-antisocial-behaviour-and-brain">previously found</a> that the brains of teenagers with serious antisocial behavioural problems differ significantly in structure to those of their peers who do not display such disruptive behaviour.</p>
<p>The relation between differences in brain structure and personality in healthy people suggests that brain changes may be even more pronounced in people with mental illnesses. Linking the brain structure to basic personality traits is a crucial step to improving our understanding of mental disorders. In the future, it may even give us the opportunity to detect those who are at high risk of developing mental illnesses early, which has obvious implications for prompt intervention. </p>
<h2>Stretching the brain</h2>
<p>The differences are likely to stem from “cortical stretching”, a developmental process that shapes our brain in a way that maximises its area and amount of folding while minimising its thickness. In other words, as we grow up in the womb and throughout our life, the brain cortex – including the prefrontral cortex and all other parts of it – becomes thinner while its area and folding increase. It’s like stretching and folding a rubber sheet – this enhances its area, but, at the same time, the sheet gets thinner. </p>
<p>This supports the observation that we are often <a href="http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug03/personality.aspx">more neurotic when we are young</a>. As we age, we learn how to deal with emotions and become more conscientious and agreeable.</p>
<p>The new study suggests that personality is strongly rooted in core principles that govern brain evolution. Indeed, cortical stretching is a key evolutionary process that has enabled the human brain to grow rapidly while still fitting into the skull.</p>
<p>The fact that there are such pronounced differences in brain structure between people with different personality types suggests personality is at least partly genetic. However, brain scans alone cannot get to the bottom of the causes of differences in personality. The next step will be to run studies that follow up people from young ages, to understand how their genes and the environment they are brought up in affect their brain maturation and personality.</p>
<p>Studies like this provide new pieces to the puzzle that is understanding human behaviour. While the fact that brain maturation plays an important role in shaping our personality is an important piece of research, it’s important that we don’t lose sight of the fact that genes aren’t everything. We should always nurture what’s good about our personalities and strive to become better people.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/71826/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luca Passamonti receives funding from Medical Research Council.
Luca Passamonti is also affiliated with the National Research Council (Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche) in Italy (a government-funded research council in Italy).
Data were provided by the Human Connectome Project, WU-Minn Consortium (Principal Investigators: David Van Essen and Kamil Ugurbil; 1U54MH091657) funded by the 16 NIH Institutes and Centers that support the NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Research; and by the McDonnell Center for Systems Neuroscience at Washington University. Data collection and sharing for this project was provided by the MGH-USC Human Connectome Project. The HCP project is supported by the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS).. HCP is also the result of efforts of co-investigators from the University of Southern California, Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH), Washington University, and the University of Minnesota.</span></em></p>Are you neurotic? This may be due to a thick cerebral cortexLuca Passamonti, Clinical Research Associate, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/674942016-10-28T09:57:54Z2016-10-28T09:57:54ZDropping like flies: the rise of workplace burnout and how to tackle it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143338/original/image-20161026-11256-qf6m16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Burnout is on the rise. It is a growing problem for the modern workplace, having an impact on organisational costs, as well as employee health and well-being. These include possible long-term health risks and, due to its contagious nature, a toxic working environment of low morale, scapegoating, and increased office politics. </p>
<p>The annual cost of burnout to the global economy <a href="https://science.report/pub/33910920">has been estimated to be £255 billion</a>. Such costs have led to the World Health Organisation predicting a global pandemic <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4393815/">within a decade</a>.</p>
<p>Organisations have focused on burnout <a href="http://www.personneltoday.com/hr/employee-health-wellbeing-programmes-time-look-beyond-cash-returns/">to protect their profits</a>, placing blame for lowered performance on individual employees, rather than making adequate adjustments <a href="http://www.convergeinternational.com.au/docs/ezine-article/rtk_stress-prevention.pdf">to safeguard against stress</a>. This emphasis on the employee has led to psychometrically profiling those that may be at risk of burnout due to their psychological make-up, rather than organisations taking responsibility and making systematic changes to reduce stress caused by <a href="http://www.theworkfoundation.com/downloadpublication/report/69_69_stress_at_work.pdf">structural level problems</a>. </p>
<p>This blame game is often unhelpful. Not just for the employees in question, but also because it risks a skills shortage in certain professions such as health and social care. Plus, it further contributes to the burnout cycle: with limited staff and resources, demands are placed on fewer employees. </p>
<h2>Causes</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.drjimmirabella.com/dissertations/dissertation-saracook.pdf">Research into burnout</a> has been linked to office politics, menial working tasks that interfere with work duties and high job demands that lead to exhaustion. Rising workloads and long hours are the main culprits; however, some employees are better able to cope or are more adaptable than others. </p>
<p>Perception of stress is also a contributing factor. If you perceive you do not have the right resources to cope with your workload, or perceive it to be more than you can cope with, you are much more likely to succumb to stress-related disorders. </p>
<p>Individual differences and personality types also play a role in the risk of burnout. Type A personalities, for example – who have a mix of behavioural traits that include hardiness, impatience, competitiveness and drive – and people who like to have large amounts of control, are also linked to higher rates of stress at work. Research shows that employees with these personalities tend to be more restless, hostile and time-conscious, which <a href="http://www.beanmanaged.com/doc/pdf/arnoldbakker/articles/articles_arnold_bakker_348.pdf">puts them at greater risk of workplace stress</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143444/original/image-20161027-11260-1a4mxmy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143444/original/image-20161027-11260-1a4mxmy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143444/original/image-20161027-11260-1a4mxmy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143444/original/image-20161027-11260-1a4mxmy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143444/original/image-20161027-11260-1a4mxmy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143444/original/image-20161027-11260-1a4mxmy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143444/original/image-20161027-11260-1a4mxmy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stressed out.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">baranq from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is important, however, not to make banal assumptions when it comes to understanding how different people experience stress. This runs the risk of organisations screening out applicants for jobs on the basis of personality or attributing blame to employees, rather than taking responsibility as an organisation to make adequate changes to safeguard their employees from stress. </p>
<p>Many global organisations have intervention plans that <a href="http://www.personneltoday.com/hr/stress-what-works-and-what-doesnt/">place the onus on the employee</a> to manage their health and well-being through training programmes such as building resilience and coping skills. But this often has the semblance of blaming employees, while abdicating responsibility and not making any real changes to policies. The reality is that organisations are stressful, often purporting an employee wellness agenda that isn’t really implemented in practice.</p>
<h2>Different dimensions</h2>
<p>There are three main dimensions of burnout according to the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277816643_The_Maslach_Burnout_Inventory_Manual">Maslach Burnout Inventory</a>, the most commonly used burnout scale: exhaustion, cynicism and a sense of personal accomplishment, with exhaustion being the most obviously displayed. Signs of burnout can vary between employees and manifest in multiple industries, from healthcare and education settings to legal and corporate finance firms. </p>
<p>Burnout causes a range of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0024813/">psychological</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2931238/">and physical problems</a> and can affect people long after they no longer face the stressful situation. These include fatigue, irritability, depression, withdrawal, mental and physical health problems, and self-medication with alcohol and drug use. Consequently, it is something that employees and organisations must manage carefully. </p>
<p>Employees come in all shapes and sizes. As a result, it is imperative that managers and organisations do not prescribe a one-size fits all model to managing employee well-being. Instead, they should work on an individual basis with each employee, finding flexible interventions and providing an adaptable and agile working environment along the way. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143445/original/image-20161027-11236-m5qzm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143445/original/image-20161027-11236-m5qzm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143445/original/image-20161027-11236-m5qzm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143445/original/image-20161027-11236-m5qzm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143445/original/image-20161027-11236-m5qzm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143445/original/image-20161027-11236-m5qzm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143445/original/image-20161027-11236-m5qzm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Employees come in different shapes and sizes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">trexdruid from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many workplaces are built around teamwork, collaboration and endless meetings to harness creativity. This model does not bode well, however, for people whose creative juices and energy levels are depleted through constant collaboration. In fact, many individuals, especially those that are more introverted, feel exhausted and find it difficult to get their work done in this kind of environment. </p>
<p>As such, organisations can provide a space for these personalities to work alone, where their productivity increases and creative juices can flow. Similarly, organisations can work with employees, providing agile working conditions to help create a sustainable working culture and work-life balance, thus reducing the likelihood of burnout. </p>
<p>Of course, individuals have a role to play too. It is important that people manage their own personal expectations, harnessing their skills and reflecting on their own personal values. This is particularly the case if you’re working in a role that does not readily align with your own values or predisposition. It’s important to reflect on what matters to you, as living an inauthentic life can lead to burnout when your personal values are conflicted.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/67494/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Tottle does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Burnout is a growing problem for the modern workplace. It has an impact on organisational costs, as well as employee health and well-being.Sarah Tottle, Business psychologist, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/638132016-09-29T20:08:14Z2016-09-29T20:08:14ZEveryone’s different: what parts of the brain make our personalities so unique?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137686/original/image-20160914-4936-1ihm9d6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Because everyone is different, psychologists have long debated how to characterise personality.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/beautyisintheeye2/15521669960/in/photolist-pDABHj-aiFiJD-a1XehG-9xrJQt-m7QQgG-agE9Pa-fSXY5-e3eqvr-zbaYaW-gBGYH-7z3iQx-zBwUYH-5jufDb-7seAyF-arMviZ-5jpWYa-8SQ5hq-8FxQQ6-7fBZu1-7z75Dw-pbDV69-kJxsec-4YpHr-8mTCZ3-6AUXhm-7F568S-6Ny7sN-7F5671-5Ly6k3-95E8D5-bBtVH-8SQ4VA-9QCvzw-KG98y-298da-Cxriz1-e8gQ4i-eVnL3r-c5xdef-pkTRug-6HMM3q-CA5dY9-DxpS5N-DvgpUQ-A9xfhH-eiYwS6-8SQ4y5-f83g4R-8SLZP4-kJyHNW">Szoki Adams/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The brain is key to our existence, but there’s a long way to go before neuroscience can truly capture its staggering capacity. For now though, our <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/brain-control-series-31489">Brain Control</a> series explores what we do know about the brain’s command of six central functions: <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-brain-regions-control-our-language-and-how-do-we-know-this-63318">language</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-emotion-centre-is-the-oldest-part-of-the-human-brain-why-is-mood-so-important-63324">mood</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/were-capable-of-infinite-memory-but-where-in-the-brain-is-it-stored-and-what-parts-help-retrieve-it-63386">memory</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/some-people-cant-see-but-still-think-they-can-heres-how-the-brain-controls-our-vision-63323">vision</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-our-brain-controls-movement-and-makes-new-connections-when-parts-are-damaged-63520">motor skills</a> and personality – and what happens when things go wrong.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Personality is a broad term describing how people <a href="http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/150/4/443">habitually relate to the world</a> and their inner self. After the developmental period through childhood and adolescence, these patterns of relating remain reasonably stable through life. They are then <a href="http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1838804.Psychology">referred to as traits</a> and influence behaviour, thinking, motivation and emotion.</p>
<p>Since everyone is different in their own way, <a href="http://projects.ori.org/lrg/PDFs_papers/Goldberg.Am.Psych.1993.pdf">psychologists have debated</a> how to characterise personality. The most popular approach has so far been to <a href="http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ps.41.020190.002221">use five dimensions</a>: openness to experience (curious or cautious), conscientiousness (organised or careless), extraversion (outgoing or solitary), agreeableness (friendly or detached) and neuroticism (nervous or secure). </p>
<p>A <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1992-25763-001">self-report questionnaire</a> is often used to give a score to each dimension, which then describes someone’s personality. These descriptions have been used to understand normal and abnormal behaviour, and to predict work success, academic achievement and interpersonal relationships. </p>
<p>Both genetic and environmental factors determine someone’s personality. Genes <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1399-0004.1994.tb04214.x/abstract">account for between 30-50%</a> of the determination and the rest is made up largely of environmental experiences unique to the individual. </p>
<h2>History of personality</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139385/original/image-20160927-20144-15ztr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139385/original/image-20160927-20144-15ztr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139385/original/image-20160927-20144-15ztr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1369&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139385/original/image-20160927-20144-15ztr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1369&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139385/original/image-20160927-20144-15ztr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1369&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139385/original/image-20160927-20144-15ztr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1720&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139385/original/image-20160927-20144-15ztr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1720&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139385/original/image-20160927-20144-15ztr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1720&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An iron rod was driven through Gage’s head, destroying most of his left frontal lobe and resulting in a profound change in his personality.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phineas_Gage_GageMillerPhoto2010-02-17_Unretouched_Color_CroppedEmphasizingIron.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Understanding the neurological physiology of personality is sometimes seen as the holy grail of psychology, and was the topic of Sigmund <a href="http://www.ebay.com.au/itm/like/122132968218?lpid=107&chn=ps">Freud’s first paper</a>, Project for a Scientific Psychology, in 1895.</p>
<p>Early developments in this field came from historical case descriptions. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1114479/">classical case is of Phineas Gage</a> (1823-60), an American railroad worker who had a large iron rod driven completely through his head in an accident, which destroyed most of his left frontal lobe and resulted in a profound personality change. </p>
<p>After the accident, Gage was described as having become “fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in the grossest profanity (which was not previously his custom), manifesting… little deference for his fellows, impatient of restraint or advice when it conflicts with his desires.”</p>
<p>From this case, the frontal lobes, which occupy the front third of the brain, <a href="http://people.hss.caltech.edu/%7Esteve/files/grafman.pdf">emerged as the seat of higher functions</a> such as judgement, motivation, regulation of behaviour and social consciousness. </p>
<p>Later, in the early 20th century, neuroanatomists identified the limbic lobe – an arc-shaped part of the frontal, temporal and parietal lobes that sits in the middle of the brain – as the seat of emotion. It was recognised as <a href="http://www.springer.com/la/book/9783540346845">making an important contribution</a> to personality. </p>
<p>As our understanding evolved, personality has been regarded as a composite of character and temperament. </p>
<h2>Temperamental traits</h2>
<p>Temperament is understood as the way the body produces behaviour. It <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8038587">refers to certain biases</a> an individual has when responding to external stimuli.</p>
<p>A well-established model proposes that whereas personality traits are based on habitual behaviour, temperamental traits are <a href="http://www.lww.co.uk/kaplan-and-sadocks-comprehensive-textbook-of-psychiatry">someone’s predispositions</a> when it comes to four areas: harm avoidance, novelty seeking, reward dependence, and persistence. These are closely related to basic emotions such as fear, anger, attachment and ambition. </p>
<p>High harm-avoidance leads to avoiding behaviours that don’t produce reward or cause punishment; as in people who are shy, uncertain or socially inhibited.</p>
<p>Individuals with such traits have <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19904278">increased activity in the fear circuit of the brain</a>, involving the amygdala and other structures of the limbic lobe.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139505/original/image-20160927-30419-1c3barj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139505/original/image-20160927-30419-1c3barj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139505/original/image-20160927-30419-1c3barj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139505/original/image-20160927-30419-1c3barj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139505/original/image-20160927-30419-1c3barj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139505/original/image-20160927-30419-1c3barj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139505/original/image-20160927-30419-1c3barj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139505/original/image-20160927-30419-1c3barj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Individuals who are shy have high activity in the fear circuit of the brain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
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<p>This activity has been linked to abnormalities in two neurotransmitters: serotonin and γ-amino butyric acid (GABA). Modulating these with drugs – such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs that include Prozac) and benzodiazepines, <a href="https://theconversation.com/weekly-dose-valium-the-safer-choice-that-led-to-dependence-and-addiction-59824">including Valium</a> – can help people with depressive, anxious and obsessive thoughts.</p>
<p>Novelty seeking leads to exploration and individuals high on this trait are curious, quick-tempered, impulsive and easily bored. They have <a href="http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v17/n8/full/nn.3743.html">increased activity in the basal ganglia</a>, which are clumps of neurons sitting in the middle of the brain. This trait has also been linked to the so-called pleasure molecule dopamine, which acts on the basal ganglia, and changes in this pathway are <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16715055">associated with seeking novelty in different ways</a>. </p>
<p>People with high reward dependence seek social rewards and are <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8038587">likely to be socially sensitive</a> and reliant on social approval. Those low on this trait are tough-minded, cold and aloof.</p>
<p>The temporal lobes of the brain play a major role in how we process social cues, and increased activity in the anterior part of these lobes and in a brain structure called the thalamus has been <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21126511">related to higher levels of reward</a> dependence.</p>
<p>Persistence leads to the maintenance of a behaviour despite fatigue, repetitiveness and frustration, and often results in such qualities as industriousness and determination. The regions of the brain particularly important for this include the inner and lower parts of the frontal lobes, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21126511">especially those called the anterior cingulate and the orbitofrontal cortex</a>, and their networks that involve the basal ganglia.</p>
<p>Persistence is loosely related to motivation. Emotion plays a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23329161">major role in maintaining this drive</a>, as basic emotions, such as happiness, tend to energise behaviour and lack of emotion has the opposite effect.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139679/original/image-20160929-27026-18nqblu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139679/original/image-20160929-27026-18nqblu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1153&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139679/original/image-20160929-27026-18nqblu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1153&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139679/original/image-20160929-27026-18nqblu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1153&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139679/original/image-20160929-27026-18nqblu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1449&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139679/original/image-20160929-27026-18nqblu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139679/original/image-20160929-27026-18nqblu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1449&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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</figure>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-emotion-centre-is-the-oldest-part-of-the-human-brain-why-is-mood-so-important-63324">The emotion centre is the oldest part of the human brain: why is mood so important?</a>
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<p>Researchers have attempted to examine whether brains of high achieving people, such as Einstein, are different. While there <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23161163">have been reports</a> that brain regions involved in numerical and spatial abilities (mid-frontal and inferior parietal regions) were larger and the bundle of <a href="http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2013/09/24/brain.awt252">fibres connecting the two halves of the brain</a> (corpus callosum) was thicker, <a href="http://www.bic.mni.mcgill.ca/users/elise/Alberts_brain.pdf">there is no consensus</a> that Einstein’s brain was remarkably different from others. </p>
<p>There is, however, considerable evidence that people with higher intelligence, as measured on psychometric tests, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9246731">have larger brains on the average</a>. Geniuses whose brains have been studied and found to be large include Carl Gauss (mathematician), Rudolf Wagner (composer) and Vladimir Lenin (political leader), although there are also many exceptions to this rule.</p>
<h2>Character</h2>
<p>Character involves an individual’s goals and values in relation to oneself and others. It is the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8038587">conceptual core of personality</a> and involves complex higher functions such as reasoning, abstraction, concept formation and interpretation of symbols.</p>
<p>A network involving the frontal, temporal and parietal lobes is <a href="http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(15)00816-8">important for these functions</a>, with reasoning and abstraction being largely frontal lobe functions, symbolic representation served by the temporal and parietal lobes and formation of new memories facilitated by the hippocampus and the memory network. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/were-capable-of-infinite-memory-but-where-in-the-brain-is-it-stored-and-what-parts-help-retrieve-it-63386">We're capable of infinite memory, but where in the brain is it stored, and what parts help retrieve it?</a>
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<p>Interaction of these networks with regions regulating temperament and emotion leads to the emergence of individual personality. It is important to emphasise that no particular personality characteristic comes from a specific brain region, as the brain operates as a complex network. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139507/original/image-20160928-30448-1xniwas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139507/original/image-20160928-30448-1xniwas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139507/original/image-20160928-30448-1xniwas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139507/original/image-20160928-30448-1xniwas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139507/original/image-20160928-30448-1xniwas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139507/original/image-20160928-30448-1xniwas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1080&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139507/original/image-20160928-30448-1xniwas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1080&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139507/original/image-20160928-30448-1xniwas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1080&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">People suffering from dissociative identity disorder have been reported to have reduced volumes of the hippocampus and amygdala and reduced activity of the orbitofrontal cortex.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is also considerable redundancy in these networks, as they have an innate ability to compensate, <a href="http://www.normandoidge.com/?page_id=1259">sometimes referred to as neuroplasticity</a>. An excellent example of neuroplasticity was demonstrated in <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/97/8/4398.full">London taxi drivers who were shown</a> to have increased grey matter in the back part of their hippocampi – related to spatial representation of the environment - when compared to those who weren’t professional drivers. </p>
<p>Neuroplasticity is <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12783955">instrumental in recovery from brain injury</a>, such as after a stroke, when other parts of the brain take over some of the functions of injured regions.</p>
<p>Not uncommonly, a problem in brain development or the failure of adaptive mechanisms leads to the development of personality disorder. This is when a person has an enduring pattern of behaviour and ways of thinking that deviates from social and cultural norms, causing distress. </p>
<p>Researchers have begun to look at the neurological biology of various personality disorders. One subject of interest has been multiple personality disorder, now referred to as dissociative identity disorder. People suffering from this have been reported to have <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16585437">reduced volumes of the hippocampus and amygdala</a> and reduced activity of the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17961993">orbitofrontal cortex</a>. These have been linked to childhood trauma which results in abnormal regulation of emotion. </p>
<p>While we have come a long way from the days of phrenology, when personality was read by feeling bumps on the head, the neurological biology of normal and abnormal aspects of personality is only beginning to be understood. What is clear though, is that personality comes from a complex neural construct, shaped by genetics and early developmental experiences that influence the structure and function of the brain.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Read the other articles on Brain Control <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/brain-control-series-31489">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63813/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Perminder Sachdev receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) and the Australian Research Council (ARC). He also has funding support from a number off oundations, including the Vincent Fairfax Foundation, the Holden Foundation, the Yulgilbar Foundation, and the Rebecca Cooper Foundation. </span></em></p>Both genetic and environmental factors determine someone’s personality. Genes account for between 30-50% of the determination and unique environmental experiences making up the rest.Perminder Sachdev, Scientia Professor of Neuropsychiatry, Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CHeBA), School of Psychiatry, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/653652016-09-15T20:01:01Z2016-09-15T20:01:01ZWhy sad songs say so much (to some people, but not others)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137816/original/image-20160914-4963-19knfh1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Melancholic or moved?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">avemario/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Tear-jerkers such as Adele’s <a href="https://youtu.be/hLQl3WQQoQ0">Someone Like You</a> frequently top the charts these days, while gloomy classical compositions like <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zi8vJ_lMxQI">Mozart’s Requiem</a> have moved people for centuries. Both portray and bring about a strong sense of loss and sadness. But our enjoyment of sad music is paradoxical – we go out of our way to avoid sadness in our daily lives. So why is it that, in the arts, themes such as loss can be safely experienced, profoundly enjoyed and even celebrated?</p>
<p>Researchers have long been puzzled about this phenomenon and it’s not until fairly recently that we have started to gain some insight into how we enjoy music. Now, a new study by colleagues and me, <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01176/">published in Frontiers in Psychology</a>, has discovered why some of us enjoy sad music more than others – and it’s got a lot to do with empathy.</p>
<p>Research <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-your-musical-taste-says-about-your-personality-50492">has already shown</a> that open individuals typically score highly on musical sophistication, while “systemisers”, those with a strong interest in patterns, systems and rules, tend to prefer intense music such as rock and punk.</p>
<p>But what about sad music? Surely nobody would like it unless the emotion experienced is not actual sadness but some kind of transformed version of it? Based on <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0157444">large surveys</a> of what people experience while listening to sad music, we know that these experiences typically fall into different categories.</p>
<p>For some, sad music actually deepens and amplifies the feelings of <em>sorrow</em> and <em>loss</em> – emotions that are connected to personal events and memories. These experiences are far from pleasurable and therefore do not offer an explanation for the paradox. For others, sad music brings about feelings of <em>melancholia</em>, the kind of sentiment you might have on a rainy day after your favourite team lost.</p>
<h2>The mystery of being moved</h2>
<p>The most curious type of experience, however, is the <em>feeling of being moved</em>, which we think is the basis of our fascination with sad music. This experience can be difficult to describe verbally, but it is often intense and pleasurable. However, not everyone <a href="https://theconversation.com/chills-and-thrills-why-some-people-love-music-and-others-dont-24007">seems to be able to experience it</a>. So who would? Intuitively, it would make sense that those who easily feel empathy are also easily moved.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ByJzhQ3Ht3c?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>To test this hypothesis, we recruited a nationally representative sample of 102 participants to a listening experiment. We played them a piece of instrumental sad music, Discovery of the Camp by Michael Kamen, which was briefly played in the drama miniseries <a href="http://gb.imdb.com/title/tt0185906/">Band of Brothers</a>. In an initial pilot study, the vast majority of people couldn’t recognise it. </p>
<p>Our decision to focus on instrumental music that participants would be unlikely to have heard previously was to rule out any external sources of emotions, such as specific memories they might have for a particular piece of music or interpretations of the lyrics. In other words, we wanted to be sure that the participants’ emotional responses would be brought about by the music itself. </p>
<p>The listeners were also asked to reveal a wide range of background measures including how prone they were to dwell in nostalgia and what their current mood, health, and quality of life was. We also profiled their music preferences and used standard trait empathy measure, “<a href="http://www.sjdm.org/dmidi/Interpersonal_Reactivity_Index.html">the interpersonal reactivity index</a>”, to evaluate how much empathy they had.</p>
<p>The experiences generated by this particular music ranged from feeling relaxed or moved to sometimes being anxious or nervous. Participants who experienced being moved reported intense, pleasurable, and yet sad emotions at the same time. Crucially, we found that the people who were moved by the piece also scored highly on empathy. Conversely, those with a tendency of being low on empathy hardly ever reported being moved by this music. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137914/original/image-20160915-30580-1ron6w8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137914/original/image-20160915-30580-1ron6w8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137914/original/image-20160915-30580-1ron6w8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137914/original/image-20160915-30580-1ron6w8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137914/original/image-20160915-30580-1ron6w8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137914/original/image-20160915-30580-1ron6w8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137914/original/image-20160915-30580-1ron6w8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Pleasure from sad music may be a reward for empathetic concern.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dragon Images/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What’s more, our findings suggest that the key to the enjoyment is not only the ability to empathise with the sad emotions expressed by the music, but also the ability to self-regulate and distance oneself from this process. This specific component of empathy is known as “empathic concern”. While empathising means responding to somebody’s perceived emotion by experiencing a similar feeling, empathetic concern means also feeling tenderness, compassion and sympathy for them. This specific trait best predicted whether our participants reported being moved by the sad music.</p>
<h2>Understanding the results</h2>
<p>The research adds to a body of work suggesting that music appreciation involves social cognition. People sensitive and willing to empathise with the misfortune of another person – in this case represented by the sad music – are somehow rewarded by the process. There are a number of theories about why that is.</p>
<p>The reward could be purely biochemical. We have all experienced the feeling of relief and serenity after a good cry. This is due to a cocktail of chemicals triggered by crying. A <a href="http://msx.sagepub.com/content/15/2/146">recent theory</a> proposes that even a fictional sadness is enough to fool our body to trigger such an endocrine response, intended to soften the mental pain involved in real loss. This response is driven by hormones such as oxytocin and prolactin, which actually induce the feelings of comfort, warmth and mild pleasure in us. This mix of hormones is probably particularly potent when you take the actual loss and sadness out of the equation – which you can often do in music-induced sadness.</p>
<p>It is also possible that the effect is mainly psychological, where those who allow themselves to be emotionally immersed in the sad music are simply exercising their full emotional repertoire in a way that is inherently rewarding. The capacity to understand the emotions of others is crucial for navigating the social world we live in, and therefore exercising such an ability is likely to be rewarding – due to its evolutionary significance. </p>
<p>Music could almost be compared to a <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-only-some-people-get-skin-orgasms-from-listening-to-music-59719">powerful drug</a>. If empathy lies at the core of transforming this “drug” into pleasure or pain, could music itself be used to train people to be more empathetic?</p>
<p>We do not yet know, although <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-music-therapy-20154">music therapy</a> is commonly used to rehabilitate people with emotional disorders, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-well-do-you-know-your-own-feelings-31309">depression and low self-esteem</a>. Understanding the emotional transformations induced by sad music could certainly help us to understand how musical interventions could be used for those suffering from emotional disorders. </p>
<p>While we may not have fully cracked the code of these transformations, the new study is a first step. But it certainly seems that allowing yourself to be transported and immersed in a musical journey into tragedy and sorrow may be just what your social mind craves and needs to keep in shape.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/65365/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tuomas Eerola receives funding from Academy of Finland (grant # 270220 for Sweet Sorrow - understanding the mechanisms involved in deriving pleasure from sad music). </span></em></p>People who are compassionate may be ‘rewarded’ by experiencing pleasure from sad music.Tuomas Eerola, Professor of Music Cognition, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/635392016-08-05T09:34:05Z2016-08-05T09:34:05ZMusical genres are out of date – but this new system explains why you might like both jazz and hip hop<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133092/original/image-20160804-505-8utcrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/99624358@N00/5506222889/in/photolist-9oyQep-nqndNS-qW5fw7-6XbeEt-wbMF19-j8ivqN-nyBe2L-ekd6yR-71KZpb-9sYpMm-aRn4Z8-6UpWRW-8drjdR-vKuzYC-tkPKDj-8HsrHc-dPsytx-dPycgj-dPyces-dPycio-dPycjY-dPsyE8-dPsyCp-dPycay-dPsyiz-dPybZ5-pLRjqt-pGTcxB-dPsyok-dPsypX-4JFqoE-dhKjPM-dPsyFP-9iAYTG-dPyc3u-5svNQu-Hf1Si-dmWDhJ-48CGjo-naYpy5-naYjr7-nEbhkL-npJjWg-naYmdU-9xup4B-bjkegg-aYpZt2-5CikTp-6MVqhS-bkBsqS">99624358@N00/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s hard to pinpoint the exact time in history when genre labels were used to classify music, but the fact is that over the past century, and certainly still today, genre labels dominate. Whether organising your iTunes library, receiving music recommendations from apps like Spotify, or buying CDs at a record store, genre is the first way in which we navigate the music we like.</p>
<p>However, technological advances have now put millions of songs at our fingertips through mobile devices. Not only do we have access to more music than ever before, but more music is being produced. Places like <a href="https://soundcloud.com/">SoundCloud</a> have made it possible for anyone to record and publish music for others to hear. With this increased diversity in music that we are exposed to, the lines separating genres have become even more blurred than they were previously.</p>
<p>Genre labels are problematic for several reasons. First, they are broad umbrella terms that are used to describe music that vary greatly in their characteristics. If a person says they are a fan of “rock” music, there is no way of knowing whether they are referring to The Beatles, Bob Dylan, or Jimi Hendrix — but all three vary greatly in style. Or if a person tells you that they are a fan of pop music, how do you know if they are referring to Michael Jackson or Justin Bieber?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133093/original/image-20160804-496-ka2he8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133093/original/image-20160804-496-ka2he8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133093/original/image-20160804-496-ka2he8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133093/original/image-20160804-496-ka2he8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133093/original/image-20160804-496-ka2he8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133093/original/image-20160804-496-ka2he8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133093/original/image-20160804-496-ka2he8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Where to start?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ollyy/Shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Genre labels are also often socially driven with little to do with the actual characteristics of the music. They are labels stamped onto artists and albums by record companies with the intent of targeting a particularly type of audience or age group.</p>
<h2>Beyond genre</h2>
<p>The fundamental problem is that genre labels often do not accurately describe artists and their music – they simply do not do them justice. A more accurate way to label music would be based solely on their actual musical characteristics (or attributes). Such a labelling system would also likely better account for diversity in a person’s music taste.</p>
<p>Recently, my team of music psychologists addressed this problem by developing a scientific way to create a basic classification system of music that is based on its attributes and not social connotations. The team included expert in musical preferences, Jason Rentfrow (Cambridge), best-selling author and neuroscientist Daniel Levitin (McGill), big data scientists David Stillwell (Cambridge) and Michal Kosinski (Stanford), and music researcher Brian Monteiro. Our <a href="http://spp.sagepub.com/content/7/6/597">research</a> was published this month.</p>
<p>We had more than 100 musical excerpts spanning over 20 genres and subgenres rated on 38 different musical attributes. We then applied a statistical procedure to categorise these musical attributes and discovered that they clustered into three basic categories: “Arousal” (the energy level of the music); “Valence” (the spectrum from sad to happy emotions in the music); and “Depth” (the amount of sophistication and emotional depth in the music). The statistical procedure mapped each song on each these three basic categories. For example, Joni Mitchell’s “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w5782PQO5is">Blue</a>” is low on arousal (because of the slow tempo and soft vocals), low on valence (because of the expressed nostalgia and sadness), and high on depth (because of the emotional and sonic complexity expressed through the lyrics and sonic texture).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133076/original/image-20160804-484-1kkihi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133076/original/image-20160804-484-1kkihi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133076/original/image-20160804-484-1kkihi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133076/original/image-20160804-484-1kkihi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133076/original/image-20160804-484-1kkihi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133076/original/image-20160804-484-1kkihi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133076/original/image-20160804-484-1kkihi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133076/original/image-20160804-484-1kkihi5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The songs listed represent each of the three musical attribute clusters.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/insights/can-your-personality-explain-your-itunes-playlist">Tricia Seibold | Stanford Business | http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/insights/can-your-personality-explain-your-itunes-playlist</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Arousal, valence, depth</h2>
<p>Will people start walking around wearing T-shirts that say “I love Depth in music”, or list themselves as fans of positive valence on their Twitter profiles? I doubt it. But it might be useful if people began to use attributes to describe the music that they like (aggressive or soft; happy or nostalgic). People’s music libraries today are incredibly diverse, typically containing music from a variety of genres. My hypothesis is that if people like arousal in one musical genre, they are likely to like it in another.</p>
<p>Even though these basic three dimensions probably won’t become a part of culture, recommendation platforms, like Spotify, Pandora, Apple Music, and YouTube should find these dimensions useful when coding and trying to accurately recommend music for their users to listen to. Further, it is also useful for scientists, psychologists, and neuroscientists who are studying the effect of music and want an accurate method to measure it.</p>
<p>Our team next sought to see how preferences for these three dimensions were linked to the <a href="https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/personality-16/trait-perspectives-on-personality-79/the-five-factor-model-311-12846/">Big Five</a>. Personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism). Nearly 10,000 people indicated their preferences for 50 musical excerpts and completed a personality measure. People who scored high on “openness to experience” preferred depth in music, while extroverted excitement-seekers preferred high arousal in music. Those who were relatively neurotic preferred negative emotions in music, while those who were self-assured preferred positive emotions in music.</p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/5zLwT/1/" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="471"></iframe>
<p>So, just as the old Kern and Hammerstein song suggests, “The Song is You”. That is, the musical attributes that you like most reflect your personality. It also provides scientific support for what Joni Mitchell said in a 2013 <a href="http://www.jonimitchell.com/library/view.cfm?id=2600">interview</a> with CBC: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>The trick is if you listen to that music and you see me, you’re not getting anything out of it. If you listen to that music and you see yourself, it will probably make you cry and you’ll learn something about yourself and now you’re getting something out of it.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p><em>Find out how you score on the music and personality quizzes at <a href="http://www.musicaluniverse.org">www.musicaluniverse.org</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63539/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Greenberg received funding from The Cambridge Trust during this period of research. </span></em></p>A team of music psychologists have come up with a new way of classifying music that streaming platforms such as Spotify may find very useful.David M. Greenberg, Music psychologist, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/624112016-08-05T01:31:48Z2016-08-05T01:31:48ZThe talking dead: how personality drives smartphone addiction<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131695/original/image-20160724-26820-z6goya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some people are more prone to become glued to their phones than others.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-452331835/stock-photo-abstract-scene-of-young-woman-using-her-smartphone-seriously-while-sitting-outdoor-on-wood-chair-in.html?src=6bfcaTROPU7B6je0YTAGUQ-1-8">'Phone Woman' via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>How many times a day do you check your smartphone? </p>
<p><a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/cellphone-users-check-phones-150xday-and-other-internet-fun-facts/blogEntry?id=19283674">According to a recent survey</a>, the typical American checks once every six-and-a-half minutes, or approximately 150 times every day. Other research <a href="http://www.tecmark.co.uk/smartphone-usage-data-uk-2014/">has found</a> that number to be as high as 300 times a day. </p>
<p>For young people, the attachment is particularly acute: 53 percent of people between the ages of 15 and 30 <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/cherylsnappconner/2013/09/07/who-wastes-the-most-time-at-work/#4859b1417b3a">reported</a> they would sooner give up their sense of taste than their smartphones.</p>
<p>These data strongly suggest that many may, indeed, be addicted to their smartphones. I’ve studied shopping addiction for 20 years and have a pretty good sense of when normal behaviors veer into unhealthy preoccupations. The fact that <a href="http://jisar.org/2011-4/N1/JISARv4n1p39.html">80 to 90 percent</a> of people use their phones while driving – which, <a href="http://www.donttextdrive.com/statistics/">by one estimate</a>, causes 6,000 deaths and US$9 billion in damages annually – is a clear sign that something is amiss. And as a college professor, I’ve seen, firsthand, the overwhelming distraction caused by smartphones in the classroom. </p>
<p>But I also wondered: Are some people more likely to become addicted to their smartphones than others? There’s a good <a href="http://www.webmd.com/mental-health/addiction/features/do-you-have-addictive-personality?page=2">body of research</a> tying certain personality types to being prone to other addictions. Could a similar link exist for smartphone addiction? </p>
<h2>A staggering commitment</h2>
<p>First, I wanted to delve a bit further into the extent of the smartphone’s grip on our attention. So in 2014 <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4291831/">I conducted research</a> with several coauthors on the amount of time young people spent on their phones. We found that college students spend an average of 8 hours and 48 minutes on their smartphones each day (a figure that I still find mind-boggling). </p>
<p>This number joins a host of other findings that speak to an intense attachment: surveys have found that <a href="https://fb-public.box.com/s/3iq5x6uwnqtq7ki4q8wk">79 percent</a> of us reach for our phones within 15 minutes of waking, <a href="http://www.statisticbrain.com/mobile-device-cell-phone-statistics/">68 percent</a> sleep with them, <a href="http://www.pewinternet.org/facts-sheets/mobile-technology-fact-sheet">67 percent</a> check our smartphones even when they’re not ringing or vibrating and <a href="http://www.pewinternet.org/facts-sheets/mobile-technology-fact-sheet">46 percent</a> state that they “can’t live without their smartphones.”</p>
<p>Yet there are still some who are less likely to become enraptured by the smartphone’s many trappings, who rarely use them or eschew them altogether. They’re at the other end of the spectrum from those who have lost control over their use, who exhibit some of the classic signs of addiction – salience, euphoria, tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, conflict and relapse – that I identified when researching my book on smartphone use, “<a href="http://www.smartphoneloveaffair.com">Too Much of a Good Thing</a>.”</p>
<p>To figure out what might make someone susceptible to smartphone addiction, I recently conducted a <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01918869/79">survey</a> with my colleagues Chris Pullig and Chris Manolis to find out if people with certain personality traits were more or less likely to become addicted to their smartphones. Using a sample of 346 average American college students, we investigated which of seven personality traits might predict this disorder. We also measured how impulsive each student was.</p>
<h2>A pacifier and a status symbol?</h2>
<p>Our results allowed us to better understand the role certain traits play in the development of smartphone addiction. First, we discovered that low attention span and high impulsivity were related to smartphone addiction. If you have trouble concentrating on what’s in front of you and staying on task, you’re more likely to impulsively use your smartphone. </p>
<p>These findings come when our attention spans are already shrinking. <a href="http://www.medicaldaily.com/human-attention-span-shortens-8-seconds-due-digital-technology-3-ways-stay-focused-333474">A 2015 study</a> by Microsoft found that the average attention span of the average person is about 8.25 seconds – shorter that the nine-second attention span of the Carassius auratus (the common goldfish), and nearly four seconds shorter than our average attention span 15 years ago (12 seconds).</p>
<p>When it comes to personality traits, three were found to influence your likelihood of being addicted to your cellular device. The first was emotional instability. Moody or temperamental people are more likely to be addicted to their smartphones than their more stable counterparts. It appears that these people may look for a combination of solace and distraction in their smartphones, and as with many substance addictions, compulsively checking notifications or scrolling through news feeds may be an attempt at mood repair – a high-tech pacifier, if you will.</p>
<p>We found extroverted college students – who often seek to be the life of the party and be connected to those around them – were more likely to be addicted to their smartphones than introverted ones. We found that a “sense of being connected” is the most important emotional drive behind smartphone use. So our introverted peers – who do not share this need to connect – might be less inclined to succumb to the smartphone. </p>
<p>Lastly, materialistic students reported being more dependent on their smartphones. This may seem like a bit of an odd connection, but given the major role smartphones now play in the lives of young adults, it’s not surprising. Because young adults are constantly displaying and using their phones in public, the brand and features of their smartphone tells the world a lot about who they are; in essence, their smartphones have become a way to flaunt, the same way an expensive purse or watch might say something about someone’s wealth. </p>
<p>Our obsession with smartphones is a good example of what has been referred to as the “<a href="http://blog.usabilla.com/the-paradox-of-technology-and-5-ways-to-avoid-it/">paradox of technology</a>.” The modern smartphone can free us to do things in places only dreamed of 20 years ago, but they also, in certain ways, enslave us. Has smartphone use reached a tipping point, where it’s crossed the line from beneficial tool to detriment? </p>
<p>It’s your call.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62411/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James A. Roberts does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Are you moody? Prone to distraction? Cellphones may act as a high-tech pacifier.James A. Roberts, Professor of Marketing, Baylor UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/597192016-05-25T01:01:32Z2016-05-25T01:01:32ZWhy do only some people get ‘skin orgasms’ from listening to music?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/123660/original/image-20160523-11020-gsa0z4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many can identify with the phenomenon of feeling a thrill – followed by a chill – when listening to a particularly moving piece of music. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-197098988/stock-photo-girl-music-emotions.html?src=9ZXvIpojKMddP4xise42hA-1-46">'Pink' via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you ever been listening to a great piece of music and felt a chill run up your spine? Or goosebumps tickle your arms and shoulders? </p>
<p>The experience is called <a href="http://pom.sagepub.com/content/19/2/110.a">frisson</a> (pronounced <em>free-sawn</em>), a French term meaning “aesthetic chills,” and it feels like waves of pleasure running all over your skin. Some researchers have even dubbed it a <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00790/full">“skin orgasm.”</a> </p>
<p>Listening to emotionally moving music is the most common trigger of frisson, but some feel it while looking at beautiful artwork, watching a particularly moving scene in a movie or having physical contact with another person. Studies have shown that roughly two-thirds of the population feels frisson, and frisson-loving Reddit users have even <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/frisson">created a page</a> to share their favorite frisson-causing media. </p>
<p>But why do some people experience frisson and not others? </p>
<p>Working in the lab of Dr. Amani El-Alayli, a professor of Social Psychology at Eastern Washington University, I decided to find out. </p>
<h2>What causes a thrill, followed by a chill?</h2>
<p>While scientists are still unlocking the secrets of this phenomenon, a large body of research over the past five decades has traced the origins of frisson to how we emotionally react to unexpected stimuli in our environment, <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/emo/7/4/774/">particularly music</a>. </p>
<p>Musical passages that include unexpected harmonies, sudden changes in volume or the moving entrance of a soloist are particularly common triggers for frisson because they violate listeners’ expectations in a positive way, similar to what occurred during <a href="https://youtu.be/RxPZh4AnWyk?t=45s">the 2009 debut performance of the unassuming Susan Boyle on “Britain’s Got Talent.”</a> </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/RxPZh4AnWyk?wmode=transparent&start=45" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">‘You didn’t expect that, did you?’</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If a violin soloist is playing a particularly moving passage that builds up to a beautiful high note, the listener might find this climactic moment emotionally charged, and feel a thrill from witnessing the successful execution of such a difficult piece. </p>
<p>But <a href="http://www.sciencealert.com/the-researcher-behind-that-music-chills-study-has-answered-your-questions">science is still trying to catch up</a> with why this thrill results in goosebumps in the first place. </p>
<p>Some scientists have <a href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-do-humans-get-goosebu/">suggested</a> that goosebumps are an evolutionary holdover from our early (hairier) ancestors, who kept themselves warm through an endothermic layer of heat that they retained immediately beneath the hairs of their skin. Experiencing goosebumps after a rapid change in temperature (like being exposed to an unexpectedly cool breeze on a sunny day) temporarily raises and then lowers those hairs, resetting this layer of warmth. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/123636/original/image-20160523-10994-12rwe2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/123636/original/image-20160523-10994-12rwe2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123636/original/image-20160523-10994-12rwe2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123636/original/image-20160523-10994-12rwe2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123636/original/image-20160523-10994-12rwe2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123636/original/image-20160523-10994-12rwe2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123636/original/image-20160523-10994-12rwe2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Why do a song and a cool breeze produce the same physiological response?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Goose_bumps.jpg">EverJean/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since we invented clothing, humans have had less of a need for this endothermic layer of heat. But the physiological structure is still in place, and it may have been rewired to produce aesthetic chills as a reaction to emotionally moving stimuli, like great beauty in art or nature. </p>
<p>Research regarding the prevalence of frisson has varied widely, with studies showing anywhere between <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2007-02644-005">55 percent</a> and <a href="http://mp.ucpress.edu/content/13/2/171.abstract">86 percent</a> of the population being able to experience the effect. </p>
<h2>Monitoring how the skin responds to music</h2>
<p>We predicted that if a person were more cognitively immersed in a piece of music, then he or she might be more likely to experience frisson as a result of paying closer attention to the stimuli. And we suspected that whether or not someone would <em>become</em> cognitively immersed in a piece of music in the first place would be a result of his or her personality type. </p>
<p>To test this hypothesis, participants were brought into the lab and wired up to an instrument that measures <a href="http://pom.sagepub.com/content/32/4/371.short">galvanic skin response</a>, a measure of how the electrical resistance of people’s skin changes when they become physiologically aroused. </p>
<p>Participants were then invited to listen to several pieces of music as lab assistants monitored their responses to the music in real time.</p>
<p>Examples of pieces used in the study include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>The first two minutes and 11 seconds of J. S. Bach’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nlLmI3m1DnU">St. John’s Passion: Part 1 – Herr, unser Herrscher</a></p></li>
<li><p>The first two minutes and 18 seconds of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FSSx9Z7-dJQ">Chopin’s Piano Concerto No. 1: II</a></p></li>
<li><p>The first 53 seconds of Air Supply’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5PRHq1txXus">Making Love Out of Nothing At All</a></p></li>
<li><p>The first three minutes and 21 seconds of Vangelis’ <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aNbarKaDwv8">Mythodea: Movement 6</a></p></li>
<li><p>The first two minutes of Hans Zimmer’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KtMnDmuhKQs">Oogway Ascends</a></p></li>
</ul>
<p>Each of these pieces contains at least one thrilling moment that is known to cause frisson in listeners (several have been used in <a href="http://mp.ucpress.edu/content/24/5/473.abstract">previous</a> <a href="http://mp.ucpress.edu/content/13/2/171.abstract">studies</a>). For example, in the Bach piece, the tension built up by the orchestra during the first 80 seconds is finally released by the entrance of the choir – a particularly charged moment that’s likely to elicit frisson.</p>
<p>As participants listened to these pieces of music, lab assistants asked them to report their experiences of frisson by pressing a small button, which created a temporal log of each listening session. </p>
<p>By comparing these data to the physiological measures and to a personality test that the participants had completed, we were, for the first time, able to draw some unique conclusions about why frisson might be happening more often for some listeners than for others. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/123425/original/image-20160520-4463-1ed9t61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/123425/original/image-20160520-4463-1ed9t61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/123425/original/image-20160520-4463-1ed9t61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123425/original/image-20160520-4463-1ed9t61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123425/original/image-20160520-4463-1ed9t61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123425/original/image-20160520-4463-1ed9t61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123425/original/image-20160520-4463-1ed9t61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123425/original/image-20160520-4463-1ed9t61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This graph shows the reactions of one listener in the lab. The peaks of each line represent moments when the participant was particularly cognitively or emotionally aroused by the music. In this case, each of these peaks of excitement coincided with the participant reporting experiencing frisson in reaction to the music. This participant scored high on a personality trait called ‘Openness to Experience.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The role of personality</h2>
<p>Results from the personality test showed that the listeners who experienced frisson also scored high for a personality trait called <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11031-007-9053-1#page-1">Openness to Experience.</a> </p>
<p><a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/books/14343/017">Studies have shown</a> that people who possess this trait have unusually active imaginations, appreciate beauty and nature, seek out new experiences, often reflect deeply on their feelings, and love variety in life. </p>
<p>Some aspects of this trait are inherently emotional (loving variety, appreciating beauty), and others are cognitive (imagination, intellectual curiosity).</p>
<p>While <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11031-007-9053-1#page-1">previous research</a> had connected Openness to Experience with frisson, most researchers had concluded that listeners were experiencing frisson as a result of a deeply emotional reaction they were having to the music.</p>
<p>In contrast, the results of our study show that it’s the cognitive components of “Openness to Experience” – such as making mental predictions about how the music is going to unfold or engaging in musical imagery (a way of processing music that combines listening with daydreaming) – that are associated with frisson to a greater degree than the emotional components.</p>
<p>These findings, <a href="http://pom.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/03/06/0305735615572358.abstract">recently published</a> in the journal Psychology of Music, indicate that those who intellectually immerse themselves in music (rather than just letting it flow over them) might experience frisson more often and more intensely than others.</p>
<p>And if you’re one of the lucky people who can feel frisson, the <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/Frisson">frisson Reddit group</a> has identified <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/Frisson/comments/44s8uv/music_lady_gagas_performance_of_usas_national/">Lady Gaga’s rendition</a> of the Star-Spangled Banner at the 2016 Super Bowl and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sPyp-GVsoOo&feature=youtu.be">a fan-made trailer for the original Star Wars trilogy</a> as especially chill-inducing.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/59719/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mitchell Colver does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When seeing or hearing something poignant, many get the chills. But about one-third of the population doesn’t feel this sensation.Mitchell Colver, Ph.D. Student in Education, Utah State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/571682016-04-19T10:07:57Z2016-04-19T10:07:57ZWhy grammar mistakes in a short email could make some people judge you<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118927/original/image-20160415-11155-yk1jxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Who is more sensitive to email errors?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/robinhutton/11046211453/in/photolist-hQ7HPB-9fqVcZ-2ddor-bzrEQ-6PLZxi-iNu3o-2x12za-iNvHn-4jX6af-iNtz1-iNvGY-gn4ks-48BW8T-jj2LxD-6tMm78-hEGNwB-8qhoPU-5hPdkc-6wUXoY-7TT3jY-eh8L4D-qUdJ2A-5X9uMJ-2Yxwou-2jBH7N-oMzfd6-hpHEFo-rpUXf-fVep9z-5XPo9h-4me9DH-7dkfS2-cTFHUf-97wA5w-4hZkPw-fSng3o-9DpnHN-7kzY6e-6jjhJy-aMyJY-bfcu2D-5X5g4k-8YQ25-cMcE7-M5NcQ-39tXB-br4N2m-5ntDNv-Hzcca-7YGoH9">Robin Hutton</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I’m a cognitive psychologist who studies language comprehension. If I see an <a href="https://www.airbnb.com/rooms/2375030#_=_">ad for a vacation rental</a> that says “Your going to Hollywood!” it really bugs me. But my collaborator, Robin Queen, a sociolinguist, who studies how language use varies across social groups, is not annoyed by those errors at all. </p>
<p>We were curious: what makes our reactions so different?</p>
<p>We didn’t think the difference was due to our professional specialties. So we did some research to find out what makes some people more sensitive to writing mistakes than others.</p>
<h2>What prior research tells us</h2>
<p>Writing errors often appear in text messages, emails, web posts and other types of informal electronic communication. In fact, these errors have interested other scholars as well. </p>
<p>Several years before our study, Jane Vignovic and <a href="http://www.iotech4d.org/dr-lori-foster-thompson/">Lori Foster Thompson</a>, who are psychologists at North Carolina State University, conducted an experiment <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018628">about vetting a potential new colleague</a>, based only on an email message. </p>
<p>College students who read the email messages perceived the writer to be less conscientious, intelligent and trustworthy when the message contained many grammatical errors, compared to the same message without any errors. </p>
<p>And at our own University of Michigan, Randall J. Hucks, a doctoral student in business administration, was studying how spelling errors in online peer-to-peer loan requests at LendingTree.com affected the likelihood of funding. He found that spelling errors <a href="http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/113335">led to worse outcomes</a> on multiple dimensions.</p>
<p>In both of these studies, readers judged strangers harshly simply because of writing errors.</p>
<h2>Typos vs. grammos</h2>
<p>Over the last several years, we conducted a series of experiments to investigate how written errors change a reader’s interpretation of the message, including the inferences that the reader makes about the writer. </p>
<p>For our <a href="http://doi.org/10.1515/lingvan-2015-0011">original experiments</a>, we recruited college students to be our readers, and for our most <a href="http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149885">recent experiment</a>, we recruited people from across the country who differed widely in terms of age and level of education. </p>
<p>In all of our experiments, we asked our participants for information about themselves (e.g., age, gender), literacy behaviors (e.g., time spent pleasure reading, texts per day), and attitudes (e.g., How important is good grammar?). In the most recent experiment, we also gave participants a <a href="https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/%7Ejohnlab/bfi.htm">personality test</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Responses to errors in emails depend on personality types.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/peskylibrary/2414318190/in/photolist-4Fm1FG-u7ys4-9NRZrn-Dm1pi-dRfkA8-Lq1u5-3fEWCg-7w9q1G-7EEYi8-6ezy5c-e7XEyZ-ekHpdy-dNHCvV-2ukyy5-ckPF4-nmpK3R-motb3-8tgUQX-DS8V7-4seQeo-8LjQce-9zZVbh-ferjFR-8KmyiG-ksAY5n-4fWxMs-9qgV29-7tVY8m-en1gXd-98zxjk-kjjLfk-kNqsQH-h5R7nq-6vg19a-dYAWU-quG7iV-fugNFK-8CwGMT-dyQ27S-FvhUn-ancL5U-eFfkue-8amY99-n8KVBh-bHBmbz-dYB9b-VeacC-8jebih-7Ek5rj-8jaTkt">Pesky Librarians</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In each experiment, we told our participants to pretend that they had posted an ad for a housemate and gotten 12 email responses. After reading each email, the participants rated the writer as a potential housemate, and on other factors like intelligence, friendliness, laziness, etc. </p>
<p>In fact, we had created three versions of each email. One version had no mistakes. One version included a few typos, e.g. <em>abuot</em> for <em>about</em>. Another version had errors involving words that people often mix up, such as <em>there</em> for <em>their</em> (we called these grammos).</p>
<p>Everyone read four normal messages, four with “typos,” and four with “grammos.” Different people read the other versions of each message, so that we could separate responses to the errors from responses to the message content.</p>
<h2>Errors matter – but to whom?</h2>
<p>In all of our experiments, readers rated the writers as less desirable if the emails included either typos or grammos. We expected this based on the earlier research, described above. In addition, people differed in their sensitivity to the two types of errors.</p>
<p>For example, college students who reported higher use of electronic media were less sensitive to the errors, though time spent pleasure reading had no effect. Prior research on writing errors had not compared types of errors, nor collected information about the readers, in order to see which reader characteristics influenced interpretation.</p>
<p>Both of these strategies for understanding how errors impact interpretation are unique to our research. </p>
<p>Perhaps the most interesting finding is from the experiment in which we gave participants the personality test. It measured the five traits considered to be important in personality research: extraversion (i.e. how outgoing or social a person is), agreeableness, openness to experience, conscientiousness and neuroticism (prone to anxiety, fear, moodiness). </p>
<p>This experiment involved adults who varied a lot in age and education, but those differences didn’t affect their interpretation of the writing errors.</p>
<p>Unlike the initial study with college students, use of electronic media had no effect. What mattered were the personality traits: people responded to the writing errors based on their personality type.</p>
<p>People who scored high in conscientiousness or low on the “open-to-experience” trait were more bothered by the typos. People who scored low on agreeability were more bothered by the grammos. And people who scored low on “extraversion” were more bothered by both types of errors. In contrast, how people scored on neuroticism did not alter the impact of either type of error. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C231%2C1830%2C1119&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Personality traits that influence reactions to writing errors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julie Boland</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Remember, by being bothered we mean that the reader gave lower ratings on the housemate questionnaire to writers who made that type of error.</p>
<h2>Why a short email could matter</h2>
<p>Our findings – that our personality influences our interpretation of a message – complement other research that has found that our personality influences what we say and how we say it. </p>
<p>In 2015, <a href="http://gregorypark.org/">Gregory Park</a> and other researchers at the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Cambridge <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=sXaHW_sAAAAJ&citation_for_view=sXaHW_sAAAAJ:XoXfffV-tXoC">analyzed Facebook posts</a> from more than 66,000 users who had also completed a personality test based on the same five personality traits that we measured in our study. They found the use of words like <em>love, party</em> and <em>amazing</em> are correlated with extraversion, while the words <em>sick, hate</em> and <em>anymore</em> are correlated with neuroticism. </p>
<p>This research <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2010.04.001">built upon</a> <a href="http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145041">earlier work</a> by researchers <a href="http://talyarkoni.org/">Tal Yarkoni</a> and <a href="http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/faculty/pennebaker/home2000/jwphome.htm">James W. Pennebaker</a>. </p>
<p>While reading our research, two key points need to be kept in mind. First, we think that errors influenced readers’ perception of the writer mainly because the writer was otherwise unknown – the short email was the only basis for judgment. Second, we didn’t ask the readers how likely they were to point out errors to the people who make them. </p>
<p>So, it doesn’t necessarily follow from our study that your friends will view you more negatively if you don’t proofread your email messages, or that you can predict which people will call you on it based on their personality.</p>
<p>But, you might want to keep these findings in mind when you write for an unknown audience or when you read something from someone you don’t know.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57168/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Writing errors often appear in text messages, emails and other types of informal electronic communication. These errors matter when a short email is the only basis for judgment.Julie Boland, Professor of Psychology and Linguistics, University of MichiganRobin Queen, Professor of Linguistics, English Language and Literatures and Germanic Languages and Literatures, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.