tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/salmon-7614/articlesSalmon – The Conversation2024-02-12T13:58:41Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2226692024-02-12T13:58:41Z2024-02-12T13:58:41ZHow to buy sustainable salmon: an expert guide to navigating the nuance of eco-labels<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574194/original/file-20240207-28-t5ap9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Choosing between wild-caught and farmed salmon can be confusing to shoppers, but certain eco-labels can provide guidance. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fresh-fish-fillet-put-sale-supermarket-1958154268">monticello/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We’ve all been there. You’re in the supermarket freezer aisle trying to make sense of the different labels on seafood products. You know the oceans are <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc0461en">in trouble</a> and you’re trying to do the right thing, but the information is confusing and seemingly contradictory. </p>
<p>One packet of salmon fillets has a smiling dolphin logo on the back. Another, a less-smiley bright blue fish logo. You pull out your smartphone and open the sustainable seafood app your friend told you about, only to become more confused by its traffic light ratings. In the end, you just pick any product that the label assures you is sustainable.</p>
<h2>Making sense of salmon sustainability</h2>
<p>Salmon is one of the <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc0461en">most consumed</a> seafoods globally. It’s a rich source of <a href="https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/173686/nutrients">protein, key micronutrients and fatty acids</a>. But with so many different products on the shelf, it’s hard to know which ones harm the environment and fish stocks the most. </p>
<p>Both wild-caught and farmed salmon can be sustainable, but determining the environmental impact of a fillet isn’t simple. Both can present significant social and environmental problems. Wild-caught salmon can be <a href="https://afspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fsh.10062">overfished</a> or sourced from vulnerable fish populations. But while salmon aquaculture can reduce the pressure on wild stocks, it’s no panacea. </p>
<p>Farmed salmon producers often <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/72/3/997/686282">face scrutiny</a> for overcrowding, parasites and pollution, with <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/sep/30/thousands-of-salmon-escaped-an-icelandic-fish-farm-the-impact-could-be-deadly">escapees from open-net pens</a> feared to endanger local wild populations. The fish meal used to feed farmed salmon presents further problems, as it often <a href="https://journals.plos.org/sustainabilitytransformation/article?id=10.1371/journal.pstr.0000005">originates from wild-caught fish</a> that aren’t always <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-018-0077-1">taken at sustainable levels</a>.</p>
<p>These challenges are expected to be <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/eva.12164">exacerbated by shifting climates</a>: higher water temperatures and reduced rainfall can enable the growth of pathogens, and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/aqc.3624">increase the susceptibility of fish</a> populations to disease. </p>
<p><a href="https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/handle/2077/66214/gupea_2077_66214_4.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y">Many</a> certification schemes, eco-labels, rankings and guides exist to signpost salmon sustainability. For wild-caught salmon, the <a href="https://www.msc.org/uk">Marine Stewardship Council</a> provides the gold standard, assuring that it has been sourced from fisheries managed according to rigorous environmental standards. For farmed salmon, a tick of approval from the <a href="https://asc-aqua.org/">Aquaculture Stewardship Council</a> is considered the most thorough certification, indicating responsible aquaculture practices.</p>
<p>One of us (Laurence Wainwright) has <a href="https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/handle/2077/66214/gupea_2077_66214_4.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y">researched eco-labels for five years</a>, finding that these two certification schemes are currently the most scientifically sound, evidenced-based standards for seafood sustainability – including salmon. </p>
<p>Other seafood sustainability schemes offer some assurances of sustainability, but are often not nearly as rigorous. Schemes for farmed salmon such as the <a href="https://www.soilassociation.org/certification/aquaculture/">Soil Association’s organic standard</a> have recently <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/jan/30/unacceptable-greenwashing-scottish-farmed-salmon-should-not-be-labelled-organic-say-charities">faced criticism</a> for having standards that are perceived by some as not going far enough – or potentially even misleading customers by certifying some Scottish salmon farms as organic. </p>
<p>To a consumer, an “organic” label generally signifies that a product has been grown from organic feed and produced without the use of chemical pesticides or antibiotics. Farmed salmon can be organic, if raised and fed correctly. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://8point9.com/soil-association-pushes-back-against-criticism-of-organic-salmon/">Soil Association spokesperson</a> stated: “Organic farms must follow strict rules to minimise impacts on the environment and animal welfare, and when problems occur, they must prove they are taking action in order to use the organic logo.” The Soil Association’s aquaculture standards are currently under review following a <a href="https://www.soilassociation.org/our-standards/aquaculture-and-northern-ireland-organic-standards-consultation/consultation-on-soil-association-standards-for-uk-organic-aquaculture/">60-day consultation</a>, and an update to its standards is due later in 2024. </p>
<p>According to fish conservation charity <a href="https://wildfish.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Responsibly-Sourced_-FINAL-REPORT_130923.pdf">WildFish</a>, some badges of sustainability in salmon aquaculture can mask details of unregulated salmon supply chains – with certifications rarely being lost even when conditions are breached. According to its 2023 report, some UK farms have been permitted to use wild-caught fish for feed and to use <a href="https://wildfish.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Responsibly-Sourced_-FINAL-REPORT_130923.pdf">toxic chemicals</a> for parasite control, without losing their organic certification. This is controversial: such ambiguity and lack of transparency only hinders the salmon aquaculture industry. </p>
<p>In terms of wild-caught salmon, it is our strong opinion that it is never legitimate, under any circumstances, to call it organic. Not only is this misleading but it defies scientific evidence and undermines the meaning of the term organic.</p>
<h2>Which salmon should you buy?</h2>
<p>When buying salmon or ordering it at a restaurant, look for key information on the labels or ask staff about the sourcing of their fish. </p>
<ul>
<li><p>How, and from where, was it caught or farmed? Either can be sustainable, but the devil is in the detail. </p></li>
<li><p>If farmed, what was it fed – and from where did this feed originate? The feed should be from a sustainable source of fish, and perhaps even certified itself. </p></li>
<li><p>If wild-caught, is there minimal by-catch associated with it? </p></li>
<li><p>Which species of salmon is it? Whether Atlantic, chinook, sockeye, pink, coho or chum, sustainability depends on a variety of factors so there is no hard-and-fast rule. But there are better and worse options: <a href="https://www.seafoodwatch.org/recommendations/download-consumer-guides/sustainable-salmon-guide">this guide</a> from Seafood Watch is very useful. </p></li>
<li><p>Which eco-labels does it have? Certifications from the <a href="https://www.msc.org/uk">Marine Stewardship Council</a> and <a href="https://asc-aqua.org/">Aquaculture Stewardship Council</a> are best. </p></li>
</ul>
<h2>The scale of salmon</h2>
<p>While it’s best to choose locally sourced fish where possible, many salmon-loving populations live far from the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00130095.2018.1506700?needAccess=true">hotspots of salmon production</a>. Sushi salmon in Japan, for example, may have travelled <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d42473-023-00290-7">17,000 km</a> from Norwegian or Chilean farms. And an estimated <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306919223000507#bi005">52%</a> of emissions from the production of 1 kilogram of farmed salmon in Norway comes from its air transport to China for consumption. </p>
<p>The need to mitigate the carbon footprint of salmon production will only increase as the world ramps up decarbonisation efforts. With an <a href="https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population">increasing global population</a>, pressure on the already over-exploited wild salmon stocks is set to intensify.</p>
<p>Salmon farming or aquaculture currently bridges this gap between supply and demand, accounting for <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/79617">70%</a> of the salmon available for consumption. As the <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/79617">fastest-growing food</a> production system, the salmon farming industry is projected to reach a value of <a href="https://www.researchandmarkets.com/report/salmon?utm_source=CI&utm_medium=PressRelease&utm_code=fzgfsf&utm_campaign=1851063+-+Global+Salmon+Market+Report+2023:+Sector+to+Reach+$37.4+Billion+by+2027+at+a+3.9%2525+CAGR&utm_exec=como322prd">US$37 billion</a> (£29 billion) globally by 2027. </p>
<p>We need to fundamentally change our relationship with seafood if we are to preserve this wonderful natural food resource. We don’t have to stop eating salmon but we must make smarter decisions, both at the fish counter and within seafood supply chains. </p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Knowing which fish to buy can be confusing, but certain eco-labels can help decipher whether wild-caught, farmed or organic salmon is best for the environment.Laurence Wainwright, Departmental Lecturer and Course Director, Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment, University of OxfordNatasha Lutz, PhD in Disturbance Ecology and Machine Learning, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2226872024-02-07T13:10:10Z2024-02-07T13:10:10ZSuper Bowl party foods can deliver political bite – choose wisely<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573873/original/file-20240206-26-r38qeg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C8%2C5946%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If you are what you eat, what does that mean for your politics?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/super-bowl-or-football-theme-food-table-scene-royalty-free-image/1455050837">jenifoto/iStock/Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Conservative outrage over the presence of a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/30/us/politics/taylor-swift-travis-kelce-trump.html">female pop star at professional football games</a> is a sign of how many parts of American life and culture have taken on a partisan political flavor. </p>
<p>Partisanship doesn’t just apply to opinions about the dating lives of Taylor Swift and Travis Kelce. Food, too, is another aspect of the latest set of not-quite-political conflicts – including beverage brands and main courses. What you serve at your Super Bowl party, or what the host serves at the event you attend, can now be interpreted, or twisted, through a partisan lens.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=dCficcgAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">public</a>-<a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=da4Qi64AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">opinion</a> research shows that <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-power-of-partisanship-9780197623794?lang=en&cc=us">almost nothing today is free of partisanship</a> – whether the item in question has anything to do with government action, political ideology or public policy, or not. At times, the issues that erupt into political skirmishes are the result of fanciful conspiratorial thinking, blatant misinformation or just the personal preferences of political leaders.</p>
<p>We have found that these developments, in which polarization invades parts of Americans’ lives that really aren’t political, deepen existing divides in society. These conflicts also make it harder to have fun in mixed political company, and harder to steer clear of accidentally offending someone at your Super Bowl party.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573819/original/file-20240206-22-o7l407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A sign reads 'Bud Light' with the logo of Super Bowl LVIII." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573819/original/file-20240206-22-o7l407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573819/original/file-20240206-22-o7l407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573819/original/file-20240206-22-o7l407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573819/original/file-20240206-22-o7l407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573819/original/file-20240206-22-o7l407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573819/original/file-20240206-22-o7l407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573819/original/file-20240206-22-o7l407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s an official sponsor of the Super Bowl, but Bud Light has been part of political controversy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/inbev-bud-light-beer-signage-is-displayed-at-the-911-taco-news-photo/1973661925">Patrick T. Fallon/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An eye on Bud Light</h2>
<p>Bud Light has long been one of the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/07/rise-and-fall-bud-light-boycott/674752/">nation’s most popular beers</a>. Politics has changed that.</p>
<p>In April 2023, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/article/bud-light-boycott.html">transgender influencer Dylan Mulvaney</a> posted a video to Instagram promoting a Bud Light contest. The anti-trans backlash was swift, with calls for boycotts of the beer coming from Republicans, including <a href="https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/3992837-trump-weighs-in-on-bud-light-controversy-time-to-beat-the-radical-left-at-their-own-game/">former President Donald Trump</a>, <a href="https://www.vox.com/money/2023/4/12/23680135/bud-light-boycott-dylan-mulvaney-travis-tritt-trans">U.S. Sen. Marsha Blackburn of Tennessee</a> and <a href="https://www.houstonchronicle.com/food-culture/article/bud-light-boycott-dan-crenshaw-karbach-houston-17888207.php">U.S. Rep. Dan Crenshaw of Texas</a>. </p>
<p>By June 2023, Bud Light was <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/bud-light-dethroned-top-selling-beer-sales-modelo-america-boycott-1804728">no longer the nation’s best-selling beer</a>, falling behind Modelo Especial. The company that makes Bud Light, Anheuser-Busch, saw a 10% drop in revenue in the second quarter of 2023, which it <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/article/bud-light-boycott.html">attributed primarily to the conservative objections</a> to a trans person being associated with the brand. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573826/original/file-20240206-17-yz9iwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A ladle holds some chili above a simmering pot full of food." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573826/original/file-20240206-17-yz9iwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573826/original/file-20240206-17-yz9iwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573826/original/file-20240206-17-yz9iwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573826/original/file-20240206-17-yz9iwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573826/original/file-20240206-17-yz9iwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573826/original/file-20240206-17-yz9iwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573826/original/file-20240206-17-yz9iwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Would you like this dish less if you knew Barack Obama liked it?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/steak-chili-with-black-beans-royalty-free-image/1835909830">LauriPatterson/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Making the nonpolitical political</h2>
<p>In our book, “<a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-power-of-partisanship-9780197623794?lang=en&cc=us">The Power of Partisanship</a>,” we document that partisanship – psychological attachments to one of the two major political parties – in America has drastically increased since the 1950s.</p>
<p>We have found that more Americans identify as strong partisans than ever. We have also found that people’s political preferences are increasingly driven by negative emotions about the other party.</p>
<p>As a result of this increased partisanship, political leaders have more power than ever to introduce new issues and ideas into the public discussion, and use them divisively – even topics that have nothing to do with politics. And leaders’ views affect those of the public.</p>
<p>We found that this partisan phenomenon extends to food. For instance, <a href="https://www.cnn.com/videos/politics/2017/02/23/trump-meatloaf-mania-moos-pkg-erin.cnn">Donald Trump likes meatloaf</a> and <a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/obamas-chili-recipe_n_89826">Barack Obama likes chili</a>. We surveyed people and asked them about their political views and their food preferences. Some of them we told of Trump’s and Obama’s preferences, and some we did not.</p>
<p>Democrats whom we told that Trump likes meatloaf rated that dish significantly lower than Democrats whom we had not told of his preference. Likewise, Republicans we told about Obama’s preference for chili rated it less favorably than Republicans from whom we kept that information.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573829/original/file-20240206-29-wvuls8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A sliced meatloaf on a platter." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573829/original/file-20240206-29-wvuls8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573829/original/file-20240206-29-wvuls8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573829/original/file-20240206-29-wvuls8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573829/original/file-20240206-29-wvuls8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573829/original/file-20240206-29-wvuls8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573829/original/file-20240206-29-wvuls8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573829/original/file-20240206-29-wvuls8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Would you like this meal less if you knew Donald Trump liked it?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/homemade-savory-spiced-meatloaf-royalty-free-image/830989066">bhofack2/iStock/Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Menu planning</h2>
<p>So, when it comes to planning your menu, our research offers some advice.</p>
<p>For a party of Democrats, chili – possibly with an <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2019/03/arugula-rocks-come-at-me-spinach/585571/">arugula salad</a> on the side – is a safe bet. But meatloaf would be a better choice for a party of Republicans. You could reinforce those choices by accompanying the dishes with photos of the politicians with their favorite dishes.</p>
<p>Other foods also divide Americans. Consider <a href="https://thehill.com/homenews/senate/546704-rand-paul-calls-for-republicans-to-boycott-coca-cola/">steering clear of Coca-Cola if you are having Republicans over</a>: The company criticized Georgia’s 2021 law that shortened early voting and made it more difficult to vote by mail.</p>
<p>If you order takeout, some <a href="https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2019/5/29/18644354/chick-fil-a-anti-gay-donations-homophobia-dan-cathy">Democrats might be reluctant to eat Chick-fil-A</a> because of company leaders’ past opposition to LGBTQ rights and marriage equality. But more recently, it’s <a href="https://www.vox.com/politics/2023/5/31/23742373/chick-fil-a-boycott-controversy-conservative-backlash">Republicans who have criticized</a> the fast-food chain for hiring an executive focused on diversity, equity and inclusion – and for shifting the company’s donations <a href="https://www.today.com/food/essay/gay-chick-fil-a-customers-rcna91009">to be less political</a>.</p>
<p>In general, we recommend doing a quick online search to make sure you are up on your social network’s preferences of the day. That’s the best way, though not guaranteed, to avoid serving up something that has recently become politicized by partisan media or party elites. </p>
<p>You might not be up for that much work. Or perhaps you are one of the few Americans left with friends who <a href="http://www.wpsanet.org/papers/docs/Butters_Avoid.pdf">identify with both political parties</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573832/original/file-20240206-18-uc0i46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A foil pan of a dish covered in cheese." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573832/original/file-20240206-18-uc0i46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573832/original/file-20240206-18-uc0i46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573832/original/file-20240206-18-uc0i46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573832/original/file-20240206-18-uc0i46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573832/original/file-20240206-18-uc0i46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573832/original/file-20240206-18-uc0i46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573832/original/file-20240206-18-uc0i46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A safe bet: People of all partisan stripes like lasagna.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/lasagna-convenience-meal-royalty-free-image/178828120">JoeGough/iStock/Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<p>In that case, based on the research in our book, we suggest serving salmon or lasagna. Both are foods that appear to be resistant to partisan cues and are well-liked by members of both parties. Or maybe just throw a potluck, hope for the best, and you may even learn something new about your guests’ political views. Perhaps your guests will rise above partisanship and just enjoy the event.</p>
<p>The old advice to avoid talking about politics and religion in mixed company is evolving. For Americans, almost anything can be political now – from what’s on the table to what’s in the dresser or closet, and even what music we’re listening to.</p>
<p>When elites take positions, partisans follow their leaders. That means every cultural gathering, from the Thanksgiving table to the Super Bowl couch, can be invaded by political conflict. We don’t know about you, but we just want to watch the game.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222687/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shanna Pearson-Merkowitz is a fellow at the Brown Policy Lab and has received funding for research projects from the USDA, the Russell Sage Foundation, and other organizations. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joshua J. Dyck does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Polarization invades parts of Americans’ lives that really aren’t political, dividing society more deeply. That includes decisions about whether or not they like meatloaf or chili.Joshua J. Dyck, Professor & Chair of Political Science; Director of the Center for Public Opinion, UMass LowellShanna Pearson-Merkowitz, Professor of Public Policy and Saul L. Stern Professor of Civic Engagement, University of MarylandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2091962024-01-08T13:36:16Z2024-01-08T13:36:16ZWhat happens to the ocean if we take out all the fish? A marine ecologist explains the complex roles fish play in their ecosystem<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543088/original/file-20230816-19-h6b36a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C12%2C2038%2C1348&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fish swim in a reef at Pearl and Hermes Atoll in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/UNBiodiversity/3ead5d56c624402893c0df11ab789657/photo?Query=ocean%20fish&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=262&currentItemNo=31&vs=true">AP Photo/Jacob Asher </a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>What would happen to the ocean if we took out all the fish? – Reny, age 12</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>The ocean is massive and covers most of the surface of our planet. In addition to its size, it’s packed with life, ranging from an astounding diversity of plants, microbes, worms, corals and crabs to squids, whales and, yes, even fish. The ocean is full of fish, so much so that they make up the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1711842115">second-largest amount of all carbon</a> – the material that makes up living things – in the entire animal kingdom. They’re just behind the group containing insects and crustaceans.</p>
<p>Most people only interact with the ocean from a beach or in a boat, so it can be hard to wrap your head around how many fish there really are. But the ocean is swarming with them, from its surface <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/deepest-ever-fish-filmed-japan-scientists-rcna77858">to its depths</a>. </p>
<p>These fish also come in all kinds of shapes and sizes, ranging from the tiny sardines, guppies and blennies that you might <a href="https://www.palmbeachpost.com/story/opinion/columns/guest/2020/01/25/point-of-view-call-for-more-diversity-not-only-more-fish-in-marine-protected-areas/112150854/">see on a coral reef</a> to massive tunas and whale sharks that you might find <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/surface-slicks-are-pelagic-nurseries-diverse-ocean-fauna">out in the open ocean</a>. </p>
<p>These fish perform all kinds of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.4288">roles in their ecosystems</a> that support the lives of other organisms around them. If they disappeared one day, the ocean would look very different.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542471/original/file-20230813-127481-q0e3vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542471/original/file-20230813-127481-q0e3vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542471/original/file-20230813-127481-q0e3vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542471/original/file-20230813-127481-q0e3vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542471/original/file-20230813-127481-q0e3vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542471/original/file-20230813-127481-q0e3vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542471/original/file-20230813-127481-q0e3vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">School of slopehead parrotfish.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NOAA, Kevin Lino</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I’m a <a href="https://koryevans.weebly.com/">scientist who studies fish</a>, their diversity and all the ways they contribute to ocean environments.</p>
<h2>Fish as food</h2>
<p>Fish play important roles as both <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/marine-life/aquatic-food-webs">predators and prey</a> in ocean ecosystems. Thousands of species throughout the ocean and terrestrial ecosystems rely on fish for food – <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/economic-importance-seafood">including people</a>. </p>
<p>In coral reef ecosystems, small fish are eaten by larger fish and other marine animals. This means the little fish form the base of the food web – they provide energy to the bigger fish and other creatures. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Conceptual food web of a coral reef ecosystem identifying key functional groups." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542472/original/file-20230813-197557-ebgabl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542472/original/file-20230813-197557-ebgabl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=569&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542472/original/file-20230813-197557-ebgabl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=569&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542472/original/file-20230813-197557-ebgabl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=569&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542472/original/file-20230813-197557-ebgabl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=715&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542472/original/file-20230813-197557-ebgabl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=715&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542472/original/file-20230813-197557-ebgabl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=715&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Links between different species of coral reef animals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Global Change Biology, Rogers et al., 2015</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Outside of the water, many birds, mammals and reptiles eat fish and rely on them as an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(99)00015-4">essential source of protein</a>. </p>
<p>Even land plants can benefit from the presence of fish. On the western coast of the United States, salmon returning to small streams after spending several years at sea function as a conveyor belt of nutrients. The salmon feed not only animals that catch them, like bears, but also the plants that border the streams. Studies have shown that some plants get <a href="https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=wildlifenews.view_article&articles_id=407">70% of their nitrogen</a> from salmon that die on or near the river banks. </p>
<p>Humans also depend on fish as a food source. Fish and other seafood products are an important protein source for <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/what-we-do/our-priorities/provide-food-and-water-sustainably/food-and-water-stories/global-fisheries/">nearly 3 billion people</a>. Human populations have been eating and following fish around the world for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1710186114">thousands of years</a>. </p>
<h2>Fish maintain habitats</h2>
<p>Fish are also more than just food. As fish themselves forage for food, they can create and maintain important <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-006-0112-y">habitats for other organisms</a>. In coral reef ecosystems, plant-eating fish control the growth of algae by constantly grazing it down. Without the help of these herbivores, or plant-eating fish, the algae would rapidly grow and smother the coral, effectively killing it. </p>
<p>One type of herbivorous fish, the parrotfish, <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/fish/tough-teeth-and-parrotfish-poop">feeds directly on the corals</a>. At first, this may seem bad for the corals, but the grazing done by parrotfish can actually increase a coral colony’s rate of growth. And <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/fish/tough-teeth-and-parrotfish-poop">the poop</a> – yes, the poop – from parrotfish has been shown to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2022.03.006">particularly nutritious</a> for corals. Parrotfish poop also forms part of the <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/fish/tough-teeth-and-parrotfish-poop">beautiful white sand beaches</a> that you may have enjoyed on a family vacation.</p>
<p>Other fish create habitats for other animals and influence their environment by <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/1986/00000038/00000001/art00006">disturbing sand</a> while they feed. By moving the sand around, they’re exposing tiny organisms hiding in the sand, which other animals can eat. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_pN5-96nduge?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Some fish sift through sand to find their food. That creates more opportunities for other creatures to find food in the sand.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite the fact that many types of fish are confined to the ocean, their presence can be felt across many habitats. They can directly and indirectly affect the lives of the organisms that depend on them for food and shelter. Without fish, Earth would gradually lose its beautiful white sand beaches, the coral reef ecosystems would be overgrown with algae, lots of people would run out of food to eat, and we would lose some of the planet’s most fascinating creatures.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209196/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kory Evans receives funding from National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>There are so many fish in the ocean that if you took them out, important habitats and food sources for many creatures would be lost.Kory Evans, Assistant Professor of BioSciences, Rice UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2188722023-12-12T18:01:46Z2023-12-12T18:01:46ZArctic Report Card 2023: From wildfires to melting sea ice, the warmest summer on record had cascading impacts across the Arctic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564907/original/file-20231211-25-r8pwap.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5982%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Giovanna Stevens grew up harvesting salmon at her family’s fish camp on Alaska's Yukon River. Climate change is interrupting hunting and fishing traditions in many areas.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/aYukonRiverDisappearingSalmon/fa2665d81c31479a916a237985eec432/photo">AP Photo/Nathan Howard</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The year 2023 shattered the record for the <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">warmest summer in the Arctic</a>, and people and ecosystems across the region felt the impact. </p>
<p>Wildfires forced evacuations <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/151985/tracking-canadas-extreme-2023-fire-season">across Canada</a>. Greenland was so warm that a research station <a href="https://nsidc.org/ice-sheets-today/analyses/sudden-shift-southern-heat">at the ice sheet summit</a> recorded melting in late June, only its fifth melting event on record. <a href="https://climate.copernicus.eu/surface-air-temperature-august-2023">Sea surface temperatures</a> in the Barents, Kara, Laptev and Beaufort seas were 9 to 12 degrees Fahrenheit (5 to 7 degrees Celsius) above normal in August. </p>
<p>While reliable instrument measurements go back only to around 1900, it’s almost certain this was the Arctic’s hottest summer in centuries.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map shows Arctic temperatures in 2023 and a chart shows changing heat over time." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=891&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=891&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=891&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1120&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1120&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1120&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Summer heat extremes in 2023 and over time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/">NOAA, Arctic Report Card 2023</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The year started out unusually wet, and snow accumulation during the winter of 2022-23 was above average across much the Arctic. But by May, high spring temperatures had left the <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/terrestrial-snow-cover-2023/">North American snowpack at a record low</a>, exposing ground that quickly warmed and dried, fueling lightning-sparked fires across Canada.</p>
<p>In the <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">2023 Arctic Report Card</a>, released Dec. 12, we brought together 82 Arctic scientists from around the world to assess the Arctic’s vital signs, the changes underway and their effects on lives across the region and around the world.</p>
<h2>Heat’s cascading effects throughout the Arctic</h2>
<p>In an area as large as the Arctic, setting a new temperature record for a season by two-tenths of a degree Fahrenheit (0.1 degrees Celsius) of warming would be significant. Summer 2023 – July, August and September – <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">shattered the previous record</a>, set in 2016, by four times that. Temperatures almost everywhere in the Arctic were above normal.</p>
<p>A closer look at <a href="https://www.gov.nt.ca/en/newsroom/shane-thompson-historic-2023-wildfire-season">events in Canada’s Northwest Territories</a> shows how rising air temperature, sea ice decline and warming water temperature feed off one another in a warming climate.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map shows 2023 spring snow cover duration. A chart shows Arctic snow cover falling since the 1980s." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1035&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1035&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1035&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1300&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1300&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Arctic snow cover in 2023 and over time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/">NOAA, Arctic Report Card 2023</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">winter snow cover melted early</a> across large parts of northern Canada, providing an extra month for the Sun to heat up the exposed ground. The heat and lack of moisture dried out organic matter on and just below the surface; by November, <a href="https://cwfis.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/report">70,000 square miles</a> (180,000 square kilometers) had burned across Canada, about a fifth of it in the Northwest Territories. </p>
<p>The very warm weather in May and June 2023 in the Northwest Territories also <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">heated up the mighty Mackenzie River</a>, which sent massive amounts of warm water into the Beaufort Sea to the north. The warm water melted the sea ice early, and currents also carried it west toward Alaska, where Mackenzie River water contributed to early sea ice loss along most of Northeast Alaska and to increased tundra vegetation growth.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map shows Arctic sea surface temperatures in 2023 and a chart shows temperatures rising over time." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1050&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1050&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1050&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1320&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1320&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sea surface temperatures have been rising.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/">NOAA, Arctic Report Card 2023</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Similar warmth in western Siberia also contributed to quickly melting sea ice and to high sea surface temperatures in the Kara and Laptev seas north of Russia. </p>
<p>The Arctic’s declining sea ice has been a big contributor to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.03.004">tremendous increase in average fall temperatures</a> across the region. Dark open water absorbs the sun’s rays during the summer and, in the autumn, acts as a heating pad, releasing heat back into the atmosphere. Even thin sea ice can greatly limit this heat transfer and allow dramatic cooling of air just above the surface, but the past 17 years have seen the <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/arctic-sea-ice/">lowest sea ice extents</a> on record.</p>
<h2>Subsea permafrost: A wild card for climate</h2>
<p>The report includes <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">12 essays</a> exploring the effects of climate and ecosystem changes across the Arctic and how communities are adapting. One is a wake-up call about the risks in subsea permafrost, a potentially dangerous case of “out of sight, out of mind.”</p>
<p><a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/672770">Subsea permafrost</a> is frozen soil in the ocean floor that is rich in organic matter. It has been gradually thawing since it was submerged after Northern Hemisphere ice sheets retreated thousands of years ago. Today, warmer ocean temperatures are <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">likely accelerating the thawing</a> of this hidden permafrost.</p>
<p>Just as with permafrost on land, when subsea permafrost thaws, the organic matter it contains decays and releases methane and carbon dioxide – greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and worsen ocean acidification.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map shows most subsea permafrost off Siberia but also some off Alaska and Canada." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Known permafrost zones in the Northern Hemisphere. Greens are subsea permafrost.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.grida.no/resources/13519">GRID-Arendal/Nunataryuk</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Scientists estimate that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2018jc014675">nearly 1 million square miles</a> (2.5 million square kilometers) of subsea permafrost remains, but with little research outside the Beaufort Sea and Kara Sea, no one knows how soon it may release its greenhouse gases or how intense the warming effects will be.</p>
<h2>Salmon, reindeer and human lives</h2>
<p>For many people living in the Arctic, climate change is already disrupting lives and livelihoods.</p>
<p><a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">Indigenous observers describe changes</a> in the sea ice that many people rely on for both subsistence hunting and coastal protection from storms. They have noted <a href="https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/30d30ab062ea4aadb39b3734dd7770ae">shifts in wind patterns</a> and increasingly intense ocean storms. On land, rising temperatures are making river ice less reliable for travel, and thawing permafrost is sinking roads and destabilizing homes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map with disasters and indicators of trouble in a warming Arctic." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Highlights from the Arctic Report Card 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/">NOAA, Arctic Report Card 2023</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Obvious and dramatic changes are happening within human lifetimes, and they cut to the core of Indigenous cultures to the point that people are having to change how they put food on the table.</p>
<p>Western Alaska communities that rely on Chinook salmon saw another year of extreme low numbers of returning adult salmon in 2023, scarcity that disrupts both <a href="https://doi.org/10.5751/es-11972-260116">cultural practices and food security</a>. Yukon River Chinook have <a href="https://www.aykssi.org/wp-content/uploads/1615-AYK_SSI-EQ-Expert-Panel-Report-Illustrated-Summary-April-2020.pdf">decreased in size</a> by about 6% since the 1970s, and they’re producing fewer offspring. Then, in 2019, the year when many of this year’s returning Chinook salmon were born, exceptionally warm river water killed many of the young. </p>
<p>The returning Chinook salmon population has been so small during the past two years that <a href="https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/static/applications/dcfnewsrelease/1499128659.pdf">fisheries have been closed</a> even for subsistence harvest, which is the highest priority, in hopes that the salmon population recovers.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac1a36">inability to fish, or to hunt</a> seals because the sea ice has thinned, is not just a food issue. Time spent at fish camps is <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2021/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-food-access-for-alaska-natives-in-2020/">critical for many Alaska Indigenous cultures</a> and traditions, and kids are increasingly missing out on that experience. </p>
<p>As Indigenous communities adapt to ecosystem changes, people are also working to heal their landscapes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man in colorful jacket and hat stands surrounded by dozens of reindeer." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Sámi reindeer herder in traditional clothes counts new calves while preparing the herd for the arduous winter months.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/sami-reindeer-herder-in-traditional-brightly-coloured-news-photo/535053696">In Pictures Ltd./Corbis via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Finland, an <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/peatlands-and-associated-boreal-forests-of-finland-under-restoration/">effort to restore damaged reindeer habitat</a> in collaboration with Sámi reindeer herders is helping to preserve their way of life. For many decades, commercial logging was allowed to tear up hundreds to thousands of square miles of reindeer peatland habitat. </p>
<p><a href="https://youtu.be/w_DUAzQMH_w?feature=shared">The Sámi</a> and their partners are working to replant turf and rewild 125,000 acres (52,000 hectares) of peatlands for reindeer grazing. Degraded peatlands <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00547-x">also release greenhouse gases</a>, contributing to climate change. Keeping them healthy helps capture and store carbon away from the atmosphere.</p>
<p>Temperatures in the Arctic have been rising <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00498-3">more than three times faster</a> than the global average, so it’s not surprising that the Arctic saw its warmest summer and sixth warmest year on record. The 2023 Arctic Report Card is a reminder of what’s a stake, both the risks as the planet warms and the lives and cultures already being disrupted by climate change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218872/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rick Thoman receives funding from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for serving as an editor for the Arctic Report Card.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew L. Druckenmiller receives funding from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for serving as an editor for the Arctic Report Card.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Twila A. Moon receives funding from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for serving as an editor for the Arctic Report Card.</span></em></p>The early heat melted snow and warmed rivers, heating up the land and downstream ocean areas. The effects harmed salmon fisheries, melted sea ice and fueled widespread fires.Rick Thoman, Alaska Climate Specialist, University of Alaska FairbanksMatthew L. Druckenmiller, Research Scientist, National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC), Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado BoulderTwila A. Moon, Deputy Lead Scientist, National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC), Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado BoulderLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2177642023-11-23T21:59:03Z2023-11-23T21:59:03ZRevisiting the Williams Treaties of 1923: Anishinaabeg perspectives after a century<p>One hundred years ago this November, the governments of Canada and Ontario signed treaties with <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/williams-treaties">First Nations of the Chippewa of Lake Simcoe (Beausoleil, Georgina Island and Rama) and the Mississauga of the north shore of Lake Ontario (Alderville, Curve Lake, Hiawatha and Scugog Island)</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100029000/1564415701529">The Williams Treaties (1923)</a>, also known as <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8gtjUUTCJVQ">the Williams Treaty</a> (named after <a href="https://grasac.artsci.utoronto.ca/?p=2169#">Angus S. Williams</a>, the provincial negotiator) pertained to over 20,000 square kilometers of land in exchange for a one-time cash payment of $25 per person. </p>
<p>Since then, the signatories have shared how they were forced to <a href="https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1542370282768/1542370308434">sign the treaties, without lawyers, during one-day negotiations, and never were told about the loss of hunting and fishing rights</a>. </p>
<p>Oral histories from treaty educator <a href="https://anishinabeknews.ca/2018/11/21/williams-treaty-settlement-looks-huge-in-headlines/">Maurice Switzer,</a> and former Alderville chief and community historian <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl9nRtPslM4&t=1s">Dave Mowat</a> now consider the Williams Treaties as <a href="http://education.historicacanada.ca/files/104/Treaties_Printable_Pages.pdf">being among</a> the worst treaties in Canadian history.</p>
<p>A 2018 <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/williams-treaty-reconciliation-1.4910558">agreement between the Williams Treaties First Nations and the governments of Ontario and Canada</a> settled <a href="https://www.ubcpress.ca/lament-for-a-first-nation">litigation about land claims and harvesting rights</a> in the region. But the seven First Nations continue to grapple with the legacy of empty promises and ongoing questions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560565/original/file-20231120-28-p42dv2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map with varied colour zones showing a roughly pacman-shaped periwinkle area representing Williams Treaties territory surrounded by blue areas to the left and bottom." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560565/original/file-20231120-28-p42dv2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560565/original/file-20231120-28-p42dv2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560565/original/file-20231120-28-p42dv2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560565/original/file-20231120-28-p42dv2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560565/original/file-20231120-28-p42dv2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560565/original/file-20231120-28-p42dv2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560565/original/file-20231120-28-p42dv2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Williams Treaties areas seen in periwinkle blue colour, extending from the left side of the map, at Georgian Bay, and from the bottom of the map, at Lake Ontario. Detail from ‘First Nations and Treaties’ Ontario government map.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://files.ontario.ca/iao_community_wall_map_en_2019-08.pdf">(Government of Ontario)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Includes some Greenbelt lands</h2>
<p>The Williams Treaties cover <a href="https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360941656761/1544619778887">lands between Georgian Bay and the Ottawa River, and along the shore of Lake Ontario up to Lake Simcoe</a>.</p>
<p>Earlier this year, the seven Williams Treaties First Nations again asserted that lands will continue to be protected <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/chiefs-of-ontario-greenbelt-vote-1.6949826">despite the provincial government’s plan to develop the Greenbelt,</a> which overlaps in the southern parts of the territory. </p>
<p>Chief of Alderville First Nation, Taynar Simpson, explained the cultural importance of these lands, and that development could “<a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/chiefs-of-ontario-greenbelt-vote-1.6949826">damage water systems and wetlands that supply groundwater, reduce flood risks and improve climate resilience</a>.”</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Bl9nRtPslM4?wmode=transparent&start=1" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">‘In Our Words - Williams Treaty’ video from First Nations, Métis & Inuit Education Association of Ontario.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Encroaching on Indigenous lands</h2>
<p>When the Williams Treaties were signed in 1923, the impacts of colonization had already existed in Anishinaabeg territory for more than a century. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/document/ontarios-long-term-report-economy/chapter-1-demographic-trends-and-projections">wave of new settlement</a> had already encroached onto Indigenous lands in central Ontario and both the <a href="https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/selective-cuttings/68">forestry</a> and <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/page/history-ontario-mining-and-lands-commissioner">mining industries</a> had already started operations. </p>
<p>The punishing aspects of the <a href="http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/the_indian_act/">Indian Act</a>, which included the creation of new reserves, and the implementation of residential and Indian Day Schools, had already existed in this region for decades. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ahtwp.ca/en/explore-and-play/resources/Documents/Alderville-School.pdf">Alderville Manual Training School (later Residential</a>) was first opened in 1836 and numerous other <a href="http://www.indiandayschools.org/">Indian Day Schools existed throughout all seven Williams Treaties First Nations</a>.</p>
<h2>Impacts on lands, <em>manoomin</em>, animals</h2>
<p>These restrictive policies were coupled with a complete reconstruction of Anishinaabek traditional lands and waterways. Through the building of the <a href="https://direct.mit.edu/glep/article/19/3/16/14962/En-gendering-Shoreline-Law-Nishnaabeg-Relational">Trent-Severn waterway, thousands of acres of manoomin (wild rice) were destroyed</a>. </p>
<p>Overharvesting of these regions by settlers resulted in the extirpation of key animals such as <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/page/fish-management-history">salmon and eels,</a> the extinction of the <a href="https://digitaleditions.library.dal.ca/environmentalscience/chapter/chapter-27-the-biodiversity-crisis/">passenger pigeon, and massive declines in wild turkey populations</a>.</p>
<h2>Continued practise of ways of life</h2>
<p>Under these pressures, the Anishinaabeg communities continued to practise their ways of life and challenged the treaty continually in court. </p>
<p>As Elder <a href="https://www.trentu.ca/news/story/38505">Doug Williams-Ban</a> from Curve Lake First Nation has explained: “<a href="https://www.thepeterboroughexaminer.com/opinion/columnists/williams-treaty-settlement-looks-huge-in-headlines/article_ca41e002-ac17-59fe-869d-4ccd83d45a95.html">One of our favourite tricks was to plan our fishing expeditions for Saturday nights – we knew the game wardens would be watching Hockey Night in Canada!”</a> </p>
<p>By 1994, the Supreme Court in <a href="https://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/1138/index.do">R. v. Howard</a> ruled that a Hiawatha First Nation man could be charged for fishing out of season as his harvesting rights had been “extinguished” in the 1923 treaty.</p>
<h2>Williams Treaties Settlement, 2018</h2>
<p>In 2018, the Williams Treaties First Nations and the governments of Ontario and Canada came to a final agreement, settling litigation about land claims and harvesting rights in the region. </p>
<p>The 2018 agreement saw governments of Ontario and Canada <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/williams-treaty-reconciliation-1.4910558">apologize and</a> say: <a href="https://anishinabeknews.ca/2018/11/21/williams-treaty-settlement-looks-huge-in-headlines/">“We are sorry … continued injustices provided insufficient compensation and inadequate reserve lands … and failed to recognize and protect your treaty rights</a>.”</p>
<p>The collective Williams Treaties First Nations approved a <a href="https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1542370282768/1542370308434">proposed $1.1 billion settlement</a>. The settlement amounted to approximately <a href="https://anishinabeknews.ca/2018/11/21/williams-treaty-settlement-looks-huge-in-headlines/">$85 per acre for land surrendered under the Williams Treaties of 1923</a>. The value of the land during the settlement was between $10,000-15,000. </p>
<p>The agreement outlined four key areas: recognition of pre-existing treaty harvesting rights, financial compensation <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/crown-indigenous-relations-northern-affairs/news/2018/09/canada-ontario-and-williams-treaties-first-nations-reach-negotiated-settlement-agreement-for-alderville-litigation.html">($666 million from Canada and $444 million from Ontario), the opportunity to acquire additional reserve lands (plus the apology)</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1063892094148857856"}"></div></p>
<h2>Family lineage of 1923</h2>
<p>Co-author Jackson Pind’s own great aunt, Ruby Marsden Hicks, was 95 years old and the oldest person from Alderville who received the settlement. </p>
<p>She said “<a href="https://anishinabeknews.ca/2018/11/21/williams-treaty-settlement-looks-huge-in-headlines/">it was a long time coming … and would have really helped Ma and Pa</a>.” </p>
<p>She remembers that her father, Moses Muskrat Marsden, was there in November 1923 when the Williams Treaties were signed in Alderville. He had said, <a href="https://anishinabeknews.ca/2018/11/21/williams-treaty-settlement-looks-huge-in-headlines/">“The Indians only wanted to know if they would still have their hunting and fishing rights</a> and when they were told they would, they signed.”</p>
<h2>Ongoing questions</h2>
<p>However, the restoration of harvesting rights has caused confusion among members of the Williams Treaties First Nations. </p>
<p>Before the settlement, a status member of the seven Williams Treaties First Nations could hunt and fish on reserve lands or within 50 feet of the “Indian Islands,” established under the islands of the [Trent Treaty of 1856 (Treaty #78)].
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=luC8j5qWJlU&t=15s&pp=ygUUZG91ZyB3aWxsaWFtcyB0cmVhdHk%3D">For the Anishinaabek who occupied the north shore of Lake Ontario</a>, that included thousands <a href="https://ojs.library.carleton.ca/index.php/ALGQP/article/view/1115">of islands in all the rivers and tributaries</a> that flowed into Lake Ontario. </p>
<p>The settlement’s terms, <a href="https://georginaisland.com/williams-treaty-first-nation-harvesting-rights/">aimed at protecting fish during spawning season, restrict harvesting in these sanctuaries</a>. These sanctuaries are significant historical gathering spots for ceremonial, practical and political activities. </p>
<p>The agreement doesn’t extend harvesting rights beyond pre-existing treaty areas. First Nations harvesting is <a href="https://vitacollections.ca/kl-digitalarchive/3730175/image/4599929">limited to areas up to Silent Lake Provincial Park (Treaty 20)</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/B12IlG-vRwc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Chippewas of Rama First Nation video, Williams Treaties Settlement Agreement Signing Ceremony, Nov. 17, 2018.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Nations incurring tax expenses</h2>
<p>The financial compensation was divided equally among the seven Williams Treaties First Nations, with a portion distributed to members and the rest retained for infrastructure development or land acquisition. </p>
<p>To add new lands, First Nations must navigate the lengthy <a href="https://www.sac-isc.gc.ca/eng/1465827292799/1611938828195">“Additions to Reserve” (ATR) process</a>, which can take up to 25 years. </p>
<p>The settlement allows for the addition of 11,000 acres to each First Nation’s reserve, but they must first purchase these lands and then undergo a sped-up, five-year ATR process. During this time, the First Nations incur tax expenses on these large land parcels. They indirectly return funds to the governments responsible for treaty malpractice.</p>
<h2>Grappling with legacies</h2>
<p>These communities continue to call on the provincial government to adequately consult <a href="https://tworowtimes.com/news/national/chiefs-of-ontario-demand-return-of-all-removed-greenbelt-land-parcels/">Williams Treaties First Nations when making important decisions on their lands</a>, in the Greenbelt and beyond.</p>
<p>Reflecting on this treaty history, one can imagine that if our great-grandparents truly understood the full implications of their 1923 agreements, they might have chosen to reject the documents that have continually dispossessed their great grandchildren from their ancestral lands.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217764/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jackson Pind receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jack Hoggarth has previously received funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. He is affiliated with Curve Lake First Nation and Kawartha Nishnawbe First Nation.</span></em></p>Seven Williams Treaties First Nations continue to call on the provincial government to adequately consult them when making important decisions on their lands in the Greenbelt and beyond.Jackson Pind, Assistant Professor, Indigenous Methodologies, Chanie Wenjack School of Indigenous Studies, Trent UniversityJack Hoggarth, Chair, Anishinaabeg Knowledge and Assistant Professor at Chanie Wenjack School for Indigenous Studies, Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2173492023-11-10T01:21:24Z2023-11-10T01:21:24ZWhy are dead and dying seabirds washing up on our beaches in their hundreds?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558507/original/file-20231108-15-8cqks7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5184%2C3445&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lauren Roman</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In October and November, horrified beachgoers often <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-06/migrating-shearwaters-found-dead-on-nsw-beaches/103068222">find dead and dying muttonbirds</a> washing up in an event called a seabird “wreck”. </p>
<p>Again this year, there are <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-06/migrating-shearwaters-found-dead-on-nsw-beaches/103068222">reports</a> of Australia’s beautiful east coast beaches turned grim with hundreds of dying seabirds.</p>
<p>Here’s what we do and don’t know about seabird wrecks, and what you can do if you come across one.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A short-tailed shearwater sits on a beach with two dead ones behind it" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558721/original/file-20231109-27-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558721/original/file-20231109-27-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558721/original/file-20231109-27-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558721/original/file-20231109-27-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558721/original/file-20231109-27-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558721/original/file-20231109-27-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558721/original/file-20231109-27-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dead and dying shearwaters are a common sight on our beaches in some years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/heathlrobertson/11553387345/in/photolist-iAW7h4-ge83Du-s2H7Yi-iAW8xx-r811fy-hzRj3H-qdhtq9-7u95JY-8PjPRt-peK3eW">Heath Robertson/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Wrecks are becoming more common</h2>
<p>Millions of <a>short-tailed shearwaters</a> (<em>Ardenna tenuirostis</em>), commonly known as muttonbirds, return to southern Australia from the Arctic each spring – a round trip of up to 35,000km. </p>
<p>Not all birds survive their long migration. The fit and healthy largely return in late September and October. The less fit lag behind. To some extent, deaths are natural. </p>
<p>Muttonbirds keep a strict timetable and, while failed migrants can wash up any time during spring, mass mortalities can occur from mid-October to November. Muttonbird wrecks have happened on rare occasions <a href="https://absa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/C27381.pdf">since time immemorial</a>, but are becoming more common. </p>
<p>The many ideas about what is causing wrecks range from storms and overfishing to plastic, blue-green algae and irradiated water from Fukushima. </p>
<p>University of Tasmania researchers have studied the muttonbirds for decades. While we can’t pinpoint the exact cause for every wreck, we can explain what we know and eliminate the unlikely culprits.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1233578600160346113"}"></div></p>
<h2>What we know</h2>
<p>When muttonbird wrecks occur, the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1720577115">casualties are starving</a>. These birds weigh only half their healthy body weight. The factors leading to this starvation <a href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v662/p157-168">start before they reach Australia</a>.</p>
<p>Muttonbirds chase an eternal summer. After <a href="https://absa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Cor-Vol-15-Pg45-52_AustBirdReviews_No3_ShortTailedShearwater.pdf">returning to Australia from the North Pacific</a>, they lay eggs in late November on Australia’s southern islands and raise a single chick. When the weather cools in April the adults depart on a great migration north where the sea ice is melting on the Bering Sea ahead of an Arctic summer. </p>
<p>Ecosystem changes in the sub-Arctic, where the birds fatten up over the northern summer, can lead to death on Australian beaches.</p>
<p>Many marine animals share the North Pacific Ocean with muttonbirds. Among them are <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/allenelizabeth/2019/08/14/abundance-of-pink-salmon-threatens-recovery-of-other-salmon-species/?sh=6f62e08e5c1c">several salmon species</a>, which compete with <a href="https://www.int-res.com/articles/feature/m719p001.pdf">muttonbirds and other marine wildlife</a> for the same zooplankton prey – the abundant small animals floating in the surface waters of the ocean. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/it-might-be-the-worlds-biggest-ocean-but-the-mighty-pacific-is-in-peril-150745">It might be the world's biggest ocean, but the mighty Pacific is in peril</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The <a href="https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=pinksalmon.main#:%7E:text=Pink%20salmon%20have%20the%20shortest,year%20populations%20of%20pink%20salmon.">pink salmon</a> (<em>Oncorhynchus gorbuscha</em>), in particular, is central to the muttonbirds story. You may have seen them in documentaries, being eaten by bears on the annual “salmon run”. You may also eat them yourself, as <a href="https://www.woolworths.com.au/shop/productdetails/693763/woolworths-salmon-in-springwater">tinned salmon</a>. </p>
<p>Pink salmon live hard and fast. Their life cycle from hatching to spawning lasts two years. However, wild numbers couldn’t satisfy consumer demand and by the mid-20th century the species was in trouble. </p>
<p>To take pressure off wild fish stock and meet soaring demand, salmon hatcheries now <a href="https://hakaimagazine.com/features/too-many-pinks-in-the-pacific/">release billions</a> of fry, many more than would exist through nature, into the North Pacific Ocean. Pink salmon numbers, both hatchery and wild fish, have <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1577/C09-054.1">more than doubled</a> in recent decades. </p>
<p>Increased salmon numbers have caused crashes in zooplankton in odd-numbered years, when <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/pink-salmon#:%7E:text=Because%20the%20pink%20salmon%20life,in%20some%20Puget%20Sound%20rivers.">most pink salmon reach spawning size</a> and are <a href="https://www.int-res.com/articles/feature/m719p001.pdf">25 times more abundant</a> than in even-numbered years. The effect is so strong that even healthy breeding muttonbirds arriving in Tasmania are lighter most odd-numbered years.</p>
<p>Other factors are also affecting zooplankton. The Arctic seas are <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/study-finds-strong-marine-heatwaves-arctic">among the fastest warming</a> on Earth. Marine heatwaves have been <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9895051/">causing shifts</a> in where and when zooplankton occur, and how large they grow. </p>
<p>When seabirds on a strict schedule arrive to feed, they can miss the zooplankton buffet. This has <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0226087">led to devastating wrecks</a> for Arctic and sub-Arctic seabird species, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/nov/24/alaska-australia-anxious-observers-fear-mass-shearwater-deaths">including muttonbirds</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A large flock of short-tailed shearwaters at sea" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558511/original/file-20231108-21-r1i95d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558511/original/file-20231108-21-r1i95d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558511/original/file-20231108-21-r1i95d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558511/original/file-20231108-21-r1i95d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558511/original/file-20231108-21-r1i95d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558511/original/file-20231108-21-r1i95d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558511/original/file-20231108-21-r1i95d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Muttonbirds often migrate and forage in large flocks, known as ‘rafts’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lauren Roman</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/seabirds-are-todays-canaries-in-the-coal-mine-and-theyre-sending-us-an-urgent-message-160279">Seabirds are today's canaries in the coal mine – and they're sending us an urgent message</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In 2013, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2021-03-25/shearwater-seabirds-famished-ate-pumice-stones-before-mass-wreck/100021882">millions of muttonbirds starved</a> along Australia’s coast from <a href="https://theconversation.com/celebrating-kgari-why-the-renaming-of-fraser-island-is-about-so-much-more-than-a-name-168378">K'gari/Fraser Island</a> to Tasmania. Though we don’t know the exact cause, this was likely influenced by a double whammy: competition for food with salmon and a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blob_(Pacific_Ocean)">severe marine heatwave called “the blob”</a>. </p>
<p>But what about the other causes? Examination of wrecked birds rules out plastic, blue-green algae and irradiated water from Fukushima as causes of death. </p>
<p>Birds are already in poor condition when they arrive. Storms or strong winds might push an already poorly muttonbird over the edge, but are generally not the cause of its poor condition. People often find muttonbirds after storms because onshore winds blow them from the sea onto beaches.</p>
<h2>What should I do if I find a muttonbird?</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558510/original/file-20231108-19-cychzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558510/original/file-20231108-19-cychzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558510/original/file-20231108-19-cychzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558510/original/file-20231108-19-cychzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558510/original/file-20231108-19-cychzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558510/original/file-20231108-19-cychzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558510/original/file-20231108-19-cychzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Only a muttonbird in very poor condition rests on the beach.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lauren Roman</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If a muttonbird is too weak to fly, sadly it’s unlikely to recover. </p>
<p>If you want to give them a chance, though the odds are low, contact a specialist seabird rescue group. Seabirds have very specific care needs. Taking one home or feeding it, while well intended, may cause more harm than good. </p>
<p>If you find more than a few along the beach, you can report the wreck by emailing the author or contacting the University of Tasmania. Note the time, date, location and number of birds per kilometre. </p>
<p>If you find a muttonbird (or any bird) with a metal ring on its leg, please report the number to the <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/science-research/bird-bat-banding/get-involved/report-band-sightings">Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/with-hundreds-of-call-outs-every-day-wildlife-rescue-services-can-help-us-understand-the-threats-to-our-native-animals-205841">With hundreds of call-outs every day, wildlife rescue services can help us understand the threats to our native animals</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What if I find other dead seabirds or waterbirds?</h2>
<p>There’s another reason to watch out for unusual bird deaths this summer.
A deadly bird disease has a <a href="https://theconversation.com/migrating-birds-could-bring-lethal-avian-flu-to-australias-vulnerable-birds-204793">high probability of reaching Australia’s shores</a>. High pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) has <a href="https://www.woah.org/en/disease/avian-influenza/">killed millions of birds</a> worldwide, including seabirds. </p>
<p>The disease <a href="https://wildlifehealthaustralia.com.au/Portals/0/ResourceCentre/FactSheets/Avian/Avian_Influenza_in_Wild_Birds_in_Australia.pdf">could enter Australia</a> if carried by birds, including muttonbirds, migrating from the Northern Hemisphere (where HPIA is infecting wild bird populations) to Australia. </p>
<p>If you find an unusual number of sick or dying seabirds, shorebirds or waterbirds, report the incident to <a href="https://wildlifehealthaustralia.com.au/Incidents/Report-An-Incident">Wildlife Health Australia</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/migrating-birds-could-bring-lethal-avian-flu-to-australias-vulnerable-birds-204793">Migrating birds could bring lethal avian flu to Australia's vulnerable birds</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217349/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Roman receives funding from the Australian Research Council.
She would like to thank Professor Emeritus Alan Springer and Dr Natalie Bool for providing advice on earlier drafts of this article. Alan led the initial discovery and research about the connection between pink salmon and shearwater wrecks. Natalie completed her PhD thesis on the foraging ecology of short-tailed shearwaters. Their contribution and expertise is much appreciated. </span></em></p>Muttonbird ‘wrecks’ are becoming more common. Despite speculation about many possible causes, the evidence points to changes in the Arctic ocean ecosystem from where the birds migrate to Australia.Lauren Roman, ARC DECRA Fellow, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2072842023-08-28T12:03:27Z2023-08-28T12:03:27ZWhat social change movements can learn from fly fishing: The value of a care-focused message<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544486/original/file-20230824-17-xz9a9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2811%2C1863&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fly-fishing in Alaska's Tongass National Forest.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/fB1dRF">Joseph/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Summer and fall are prime times for getting outdoors across the U.S. According to an annual survey produced by the outdoor industry, 55% of Americans age 6 and up participated in <a href="https://outdoorindustry.org/resource/2023-outdoor-participation-trends-report/">some kind of outdoor recreation</a> in 2022, and that number is on the rise. </p>
<p>However, the activities they choose are shifting. Over the past century, participation has declined in some activities, <a href="https://theconversation.com/fewer-americans-are-hunting-and-that-raises-hard-questions-about-funding-conservation-through-gun-sales-176220">such as hunting</a>, and increased in others, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/could-a-boom-in-us-birding-help-fund-conservation">like bird-watching</a>. </p>
<p>These shifts reflect many factors, including demographic trends and urbanization. But outdoor activities also have their own cultures, which can powerfully affect how participants think about nature. </p>
<p>As scholars who think about <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=u6FOkIQAAAAJ&hl=en">organizational theory</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=F1RxMTcAAAAJ&hl=en">management</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=hkKa8JcAAAAJ&hl=en">entrepreneurship</a>, we are interested in understanding effective ways to promote social change. In a recent study, we analyzed the work of the nonprofit group <a href="https://www.tu.org/">Trout Unlimited</a>, which centers on protecting rivers and streams across the U.S. that harbor wild and native trout and salmon. </p>
<p>We found that since its founding in 1959, Trout Unlimited has pursued a unique type of social change. Historically, people fished to obtain food – but Trout Unlimited has reframed the sport as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231159490">a vehicle for environmental conservation</a>. It did this by gradually shifting members from catch and keep practices to catch and release, with fish carefully returned to the water. In our view, this strategy offers a powerful example of energizing social change through care, rather than disruptive strategies that emphasize power, anger and fearmongering.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/b_xdC5-G69c?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">John McMillan, science director for Trout Unlimited’s Wild Steelhead Initiative, walks through the proper technique to catch and release a type of coastal rainbow trout called steelhead.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A sport that inspires devotion</h2>
<p>Fishing is very popular in the U.S.: As of 2016, <a href="https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2018/demo/fhw16-nat.pdf">more then 35 million Americans fished</a>, mainly in fresh water. Trout Unlimited was <a href="https://www.tu.org/about/#:%7E:text=Founded%20in%20Michigan%20in%201959,coldwater%20fisheries%20and%20their%20watersheds.">founded in 1959</a> on the banks of Michigan’s Au Sable River with the aim of building a strong conservation ethic among anglers. Today, the group has more than 300,000 members spanning hundreds of local chapters across the U.S. </p>
<p>Many Trout Unlimited members prefer fly fishing, a technique that uses a rod, reel, specialized weighted fishing line and artificial flies designed to mimic trout’s natural food sources. Trout generally thrive in beautiful, fast-flowing, cold-water streams and rivers; to catch them, fly fishers repeatedly cast a line so that their lure moves like a flying insect landing and floating on the water. It’s a sport that combines deep knowledge of a specific location with time-honored techniques.</p>
<p>In the 1653 classic “<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/683">The Compleat Angler</a>,” English writer Izaak Walton called fly fishing “an art worthy the knowledge and practice of a wise man.” Norman Maclean’s 1976 book “<a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/R/bo3643831.html">A River Runs Through It</a>,” which recounts the author’s childhood experiences fishing Montana’s Big Blackfoot River, declares, “In our family, there was no clear line between religion and fly fishing.” Changing the practices of devoted anglers is no small feat. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CwRq_pAt9je/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link\u0026igshid=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Fly-fishing and stewardship</h2>
<p>The first stage of change that Trout Unlimited pursued in its interactions with members was what we call mending – fixing aspects of a practice that are seen as problematic or damaging. For Trout Unlimited, that meant subtly removing harvesting practice from images of fly fishing, while simultaneously reinforcing anglers’ deep connections to rivers. </p>
<p>This reframing began in the late 1960s and continues today, as we learned by analyzing cover images and editorials from “Trout,” the organization’s member magazine, and interviewing staffers at Trout Unlimited and others throughout the fly fishing industry. Editors of “Trout” scrubbed away images of harvesting gear, such as <a href="https://www.montanaoutdoor.com/2020/03/creels/">creels</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hrp-r1iavHY">stringers</a> and spears. Instead, they featured photos of trout being safely released and of caught fish remaining underwater in their environment. </p>
<p>These changes did not directly speak to or challenge anglers’ practices. Instead, they worked more subtly. “Trout” editors also began to describe old harvesting artifacts like creels as “something of a curio” and “relics of the past.” </p>
<p>In another editorial shift, the magazine increasingly featured images of vast river landscapes rather than close-up photos of people fishing. This approach elevated the experience of being in nature above that of catching fish. </p>
<p>Editors included poetry and sermonettes in the magazine that modeled normative values of conservation and catch and release practices. Here’s one example: </p>
<blockquote>
<p><em>Carefully I reach out, and lift him in my net,</em></p>
<p><em>But I make sure not to touch him, until my hands are wet.</em></p>
<p><em>For not doing so would damage him, and that would not be right,</em></p>
<p><em>For this indeed I owe him, for such a noble fight.</em></p>
<p><em>As gently as I can, I remove the hook and set him free …</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Using words and images, the magazine sought to trigger positive emotions and a sense of deep connection and love for trout. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CSouKfBB_IY/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link\u0026igshid=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Caring for fishing grounds</h2>
<p>As Trout Unlimited built momentum in the 1960s and ’70s, the organization made river and stream restoration a major priority. This period marked the birth of the modern environmental movement. Americans were recognizing that industrial development was harming precious natural resources, including fishing grounds. </p>
<p>Logging had <a href="https://www.nwcouncil.org/reports/columbia-river-history/logging/">ravaged wetlands and stream banks</a> along river corridors. Dam construction, particularly in Western states, was <a href="https://theconversation.com/removing-dams-from-the-klamath-river-is-a-step-toward-justice-for-native-americans-in-northern-california-196472">blocking fish passage</a>, preventing trout and salmon from swimming upstream to their spawning grounds. Acid drainage from mining operations was <a href="https://www.tu.org/conservation/conservation-areas/watershed-restoration/abandoned-mine-reclamation/">contaminating waterways</a>. And recreational and commercial fishers were over-harvesting many important species.</p>
<p>Trout Unlimited chapters organized events that ranged from local river cleanups to advocating for federal Wild and Scenic designation for free-flowing rivers and streams. This status <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/managing-land/wild-scenic-rivers#">protects them from overuse and in-stream development</a>, such as dams and irrigation diversions.</p>
<p>Members also campaigned for dam removal to open up fish spawning habitat and for creating “<a href="https://riverreporter.com/stories/special-trout-fishing-regulations,43375">no-kill” zones</a> along stretches of rivers, where catch and release was required. Trout Unlimited framed these efforts as supporting fly fishing through positive change. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1669845059661881344"}"></div></p>
<h2>An inclusive message</h2>
<p>Today, Trout Unlimited <a href="https://www.tu.org/conservation/">centers conservation in its mission</a> of protecting, reconnecting, restoring and sustaining coldwater fisheries. We see the organization as an important model in a world driven by social media algorithms that <a href="https://theconversation.com/hate-cancel-culture-blame-algorithms-129402">amplify negative emotions</a>. In our view, driving change through actions that represent love and care, rather than <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2022.2143315">anger and shame</a>, could engage more people in tackling major social challenges.</p>
<p>This approach does have limitations. It is useful when a practice can be altered to be more sustainable, as was the case with catch and release. However, as recent research shows, <a href="https://therevelator.org/recreational-fishing-environmental-impact/">recreational fishing still has major environmental impacts</a>, especially on marine species. And sometimes social change requires ending widespread practices altogether. Nonetheless, the key takeaway for us from Trout Unlimited’s work is that social change doesn’t have to vilify in order to succeed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207284/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Founded in 1959, the membership group Trout Unlimited has changed the culture of fly-fishing and mobilized members to support conservation. Could its approach work for other social problems?Brett Crawford, Associate Professor of Management, Grand Valley State University Erica Coslor, Senior Lecturer in Management, The University of MelbourneMadeline Toubiana, Associate Professor of Entrepreneurship and Organization, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1964722023-07-12T12:40:09Z2023-07-12T12:40:09ZRemoving dams from the Klamath River is a step toward justice for Native Americans in Northern California<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535134/original/file-20230701-19-wvds62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C0%2C3000%2C1989&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Water spills over the Copco 1 Dam on the Klamath River near Hornbrook, Calif.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/DemolishingtheDams/2bf34b6d43764403a7f7dff2d117b3bd/photo">AP Photo/Gillian Flaccus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Klamath River runs over 250 miles (400 kilometers) from southern Oregon to the Pacific Ocean in Northern California. It flows through the steep, rugged Klamath Mountains, past slopes of redwood, fir, tanoak and madrone, and along pebbled beaches where willows shade the river’s edge. Closer to its mouth at Requa, the trees rising above the river are often blanketed in fog. </p>
<p>The Klamath is central to the worldviews, history and identity of several Native nations. From headwaters in <a href="https://klamathtribes.org/history/">Klamath, Modoc and Yahooskin-Paiute lands</a>, it flows through <a href="https://www.shastaindiannation.org/">Shasta</a>, <a href="https://www.karuk.us/index.php/departments/land-management">Karuk</a>, <a href="http://www.hoopatepa.org/">Hupa</a> and <a href="https://www.yuroktribe.org/our-history">Yurok</a> homelands. The Yurok Tribe has <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/09/29/765480451/tribe-gives-personhood-to-klamath-river">legally recognized the personhood of the river</a>. </p>
<p>Historically, the Klamath was the third-largest Pacific salmon-producing river on the West Coast. The river supported <a href="https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8446(2005)30%5B10:DOAFIT%5D2.0.CO;2">abundant and diverse runs of native fish</a>, including Chinook and coho salmon, steelhead trout, Pacific lamprey, green sturgeon, eulachon smelt and coastal cutthroat trout. Most of the Klamath in California has been designated since 1981 as “<a href="https://www.rivers.gov/rivers/klamath-ca.php">wild and scenic</a>” – the strongest level of protection for free-flowing rivers.</p>
<p>People and fish of the Klamath River have been interconnected for millennia. But dams and irrigation systems built before the 1960s – along with other pressures, such as logging, mining and overharvesting – have separated fish from their spawning habitats and Indigenous cultures from sacred fish. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535132/original/file-20230701-43706-zd4b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map shows locations of the four dams on the Klamath." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535132/original/file-20230701-43706-zd4b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535132/original/file-20230701-43706-zd4b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535132/original/file-20230701-43706-zd4b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535132/original/file-20230701-43706-zd4b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535132/original/file-20230701-43706-zd4b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535132/original/file-20230701-43706-zd4b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535132/original/file-20230701-43706-zd4b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Four hydropower dams on the Klamath River are being removed to restore habitat for endangered salmon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/study-reach-klamath-river-dam-removal-sediment-study">USGS</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Recognizing this harm, state, federal and tribal agencies now are <a href="https://wildrivers.lostcoastoutpost.com/2023/jun/23/klamath-river-dam-removal-project-commences-krrc-s/">removing four of the Klamath’s six dams</a> to let fish migrate farther upstream to historical habitats. The target completion date is 2024. This <a href="https://www.asce.org/publications-and-news/civil-engineering-source/civil-engineering-magazine/article/2023/05/construction-begins-on-removal-of-4-klamath-river-dams#:%7E:text=Involving%20the%20simultaneous%20removal%20of,in%202016%20to%20oversee%20the">US$450 million project</a> is the <a href="https://www.americanrivers.org/2022/11/five-key-lessons-as-worlds-biggest-dam-removal-project-will-soon-begin-on-the-klamath-river/">largest dam removal in the world</a>. </p>
<p>Dam removals have catalyzed ecological rebound in other rivers, including the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/west-coast/dam-removals-elwha-river">Elwha in Washington state</a> and the <a href="https://www.mainepublic.org/environment-and-outdoors/2019-07-02/20-years-later-conservationists-celebrate-edwards-dam-removal">Kennebec and Penobscot in Maine</a>. As scholars working in <a href="https://nas.ucdavis.edu/people/beth-middleton">Native American studies</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ulp58GcAAAAJ&hl=en">freshwater ecology</a>, we see the Klamath dam removal as an opportunity to right historical wrongs, improve depleted native fish populations and strengthen an understanding of the relationships between fish and Indigenous peoples.</p>
<h2>People, fish and infrastructure</h2>
<p>Resident fishes of the upper Klamath are <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/endemic-species">highly endemic</a>, meaning that they do not occur anywhere else in the world. They represent a unique collection of species from an ancient river that historically flowed into the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Great-Basin">Great Basin</a> – a swath of arid lands across present-day Nevada and western Utah – before connecting to the lower Klamath River <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/10838/chapter/1">about 1.8 million years ago</a>. Many fishes, particularly Chinook salmon, steelhead and coho salmon, annually migrated to or near the headwaters of the Klamath River to spawn. </p>
<p>As early as 1895, hydroelectric operations began to change the Klamath’s hydrology. In the early 1900s, multiple small regional hydroelectric companies consolidated to form California Oregon Power Co., or Copco, and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation began developing <a href="https://www.usbr.gov/history/">water storage and diversion projects</a>. </p>
<p>White settlers in California had already been <a href="https://www.history.com/news/californias-little-known-genocide">violently attempting to eradicate Native Americans</a> since the mid-1800s. Dam building ushered in a <a href="https://books.google.com.et/books?id=kdHmDShCUZgC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false">new phase of attempted removal</a> for tribes whose lives and cultures were centered along the rivers. Farming communities and lumber companies invaded the ancestral homelands of the Yurok and Karuk peoples. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535140/original/file-20230701-93898-1gg2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A river flows past evergreen trees with mountains in the background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535140/original/file-20230701-93898-1gg2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535140/original/file-20230701-93898-1gg2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535140/original/file-20230701-93898-1gg2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535140/original/file-20230701-93898-1gg2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535140/original/file-20230701-93898-1gg2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535140/original/file-20230701-93898-1gg2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535140/original/file-20230701-93898-1gg2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Klamath River runs from Oregon’s high desert interior through the Cascades and the Klamath Mountains, entering the Pacific Ocean in Northern California.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/WBCmEX">Bob Wick, BLM/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Declining fisheries</h2>
<p>Permitting processes in the heyday of Western dam construction did not consider impacts on Indigenous nations or fisheries. Construction of Copco 1 blocked all fish migration to the Klamath’s upper reaches starting in 1912. Subsequently, Copco 2, J.C. Boyle and Iron Gate dams further shortened fish migrations, cutting off access to approximately 400 miles (650 kilometers) of productive spawning and rearing habitat. None of these dams included <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/explainer-articles/fish-passage">passage systems</a> to help fish access upstream habitats.</p>
<p>Today, wild spring-run Chinook are largely absent from the basin, except for a small population associated with the Salmon River and another population released from a hatchery on the Trinity River. Wild spring-run Chinook have <a href="https://www.dfw.state.or.us/fish/CRP/docs/klamath_reintroduction_plan/ODFW%20and%20The%20Klamath%20Tribes_Upper%20Klamath%20Basin%20anadromous%20reintroduction%20implementation%20plan_Final%202021.pdf">declined by 98% from historical baselines</a>. </p>
<p>Fall-run Chinook still return to the basin in moderate to small numbers, partly because two hatcheries on the Klamath produce and release <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/10838/chapter/1">up to 12 million juveniles annually</a>. According to a <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520227545/inland-fishes-of-california">2002 estimate</a>, between 20,000 and 40,000 wild fall-run Chinook salmon now return from the ocean annually, down from approximately 500,000 historically.</p>
<p>Other native fishes in the Klamath Basin are also in severe decline. The Coho salmon, shortnose sucker, Lost River sucker, bull trout and euchalon all are <a href="https://www.fws.gov/program/endangered-species">federally listed</a> as threatened or endangered. Conservationists have petitioned regulators to list other species, including spring-run Chinook, steelhead and lamprey. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535141/original/file-20230701-38139-emghe2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man examines a felled redwood roughly seven feet in diameter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535141/original/file-20230701-38139-emghe2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535141/original/file-20230701-38139-emghe2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535141/original/file-20230701-38139-emghe2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535141/original/file-20230701-38139-emghe2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535141/original/file-20230701-38139-emghe2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535141/original/file-20230701-38139-emghe2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535141/original/file-20230701-38139-emghe2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dave Severns, a member of the Yurok Tribe, uses traditional methods to craft canoes from hollowed redwood trunks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/klamath-ca-thursday-june-10-2021-the-yurok-tribe-offers-news-photo/1233879225">Robert Gauthier/Los Angeles Times via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Impacts on tribal nations</h2>
<p>Development in the Klamath Basin has pitted agricultural interests against tribal nations and fish, particularly during dry years. Lack of fish passage systems and lower river flow have contributed to fish declines and disease. </p>
<p>Losing salmon along the Klamath is traumatic for Native nations, which see the fish as <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/53.9/indigenous-affairs-klamath-basin-the-familial-bond-between-the-klamath-river-and-the-yurok-people">a cultural and spiritual keystone</a>. For them, working to remove the dams and protect the salmon is a commitment and a responsibility. </p>
<p>As Yurok tribal member Brook Thompson, a restoration engineer, stated in a recent article:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“My people have lived on the Klamath for thousands of years, and I know that the salmon today are the descendants of those my ancestors managed. These salmon are a direct tie to my ancestors – the physical representation of their love for me. <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/53.9/indigenous-affairs-klamath-basin-the-familial-bond-between-the-klamath-river-and-the-yurok-people">The salmon are my relatives</a>.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Tribes have legal rights to protect their fisheries and, ultimately, their cultural survival. In Western water law, rights often follow a first-in-time logic, meaning that the first party to claim or appropriate water <a href="https://www.watereducation.org/aquapedia/water-rights-california">holds the right to it</a>. According to the Winters doctrine, established in a <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/207/564/">1908 Supreme Court ruling</a>, tribal water rights extend back to the dates when reservations were created. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/skokfZFMwI0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Native American communities in the Pacific Northwest have fought for decades to remove hydroelectric dams that harm salmon migration.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Klamath River Reservation was established primarily for Yurok <a href="https://media.fisheries.noaa.gov/dam-migration/yurok_klamath_doi_2011.pdf">on the lower Klamath in 1855</a>, long before water development upstream. Upriver, lands were <a href="https://treaties.okstate.edu/treaties/treaty-with-the-klamath-etc-1864-0865">recognized for the Klamath tribes in 1864</a>. </p>
<p>In 1954 Congress <a href="https://klamathtribes.org/history/">terminated federal recognition</a> for the Klamath Tribe. Three decades later, however, in the 1983 case <a href="https://casetext.com/case/united-states-v-adair-3">U.S. v. Adair</a>, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit recognized that the tribe retained enough water rights to protect its treaty-guaranteed hunting and fishing rights on former reservation land. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.oregon.gov/owrd/programs/waterrights/adjudications/klamathriverbasinadj/pages/default.aspx">state quantification process</a> affirmed in 2012 and reaffirmed in 2021 that tribes had the <a href="https://narf.org/cases/klamath-tribes-water-rights/">most senior water rights in the upper Klamath Basin</a>. The federal government is responsible for ensuring in-stream flows that will sustain the Klamath tribes’ fishing rights, as well as agricultural deliveries to upstream farmers – whose rights generally date to the establishment of the <a href="https://www.usbr.gov/projects/index.php?id=470">federal Klamath Project in 1906</a>. </p>
<p>Downstream, a series of court cases and a 1993 legal opinion from the Department of the Interior <a href="https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.opengov.ibmcloud.com/files/uploads/M-36979.compressed.pdf">affirmed Yurok and Hoopa fishing rights</a>. Tribes have legal priority, both upriver and downriver. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CsZn-cSOjOQ/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link\u0026igshid=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Welcoming salmon home</h2>
<p>Removing the dams will begin to address the terms of the <a href="https://www.congress.gov/116/meeting/house/110110/witnesses/HMTG-116-CN00-Wstate-MyersF-20191022.pdf">Yurok Tribe’s 2019 Resolution 19-40</a>, which recognizes the rights of the Klamath River itself “to exist, flourish, and naturally evolve; to have a clean and healthy environment free from pollutants; to have a stable climate free from human-caused climate change impacts …” and the tribe’s right to “protect the Klamath River, its ecosystem, and species for the continuation of the Yurok people and the Tribe for future generations.”</p>
<p>Dam removal will encourage native and endemic fishes to return to the upper basin and access important spawning and rearing habitats. Fish population responses will probably vary, particularly during the first several years after removal. </p>
<p>However, salmon and trout have evolved to migrate upstream and access important headwater spawning and rearing habitats. Making this possible will support long-term recovery of these ecologically and culturally important species. </p>
<p>It also will promote the recovery of Indigenous peoples’ homelands and lifeways. In Yurok restoration engineer Brook Thompson’s words, “We’re all focused on finding solutions to bringing our salmon back home and creating a healthy life for them. Creating a healthy life for salmon means creating <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=skokfZFMwI0">a healthy life for us as people</a>.”</p>
<p><em>The authors thank Barry McCovey Jr., Director of the Yurok Tribal Fisheries Department, for reviewing this article and providing comments.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196472/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Beth Rose Middleton Manning receives funding from the Resources Legacy Fund (Open Rivers Fund) to study tribal participation in and leadership in dam removal projects.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Lusardi receives funding from Resource Legacy Fund (Open Rivers Fund) to study the effects of dam removal on river ecology. </span></em></p>The largest dam removal project is moving forward on the Klamath River in California and Oregon. Tribal nations there have fought for decades to protect native fish runs and the ecology of the river.Beth Rose Middleton Manning, Professor of Native American Studies, University of California, DavisRobert Lusardi, Assistant Professor of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology and California Trout-UC Davis Coldwater Fish Scientist, University of California, DavisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2006202023-04-02T11:46:52Z2023-04-02T11:46:52ZWith only low-fat Chinook on the menu, southern resident killer whales are going hungry<p>The population of Canada’s southern resident killer whales in the Salish Sea off British Columbia has been <a href="https://usa.oceana.org/responsible-fishing-southern-resident-orcas/">declining for over 30 years</a>. </p>
<p>Sightings of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00883">thin killer whales</a> have led researchers to assign much of the blame for their decline on a shortage of the killer whales’ preferred prey — <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2009.0468">Chinook salmon</a>. </p>
<p>But the issue is not so black and white.</p>
<p>My <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-28321-9">recently published paper</a> found that food quality, not just quantity, matters when it comes to the health and survival of these whales. </p>
<h2>Not all salmon are the same</h2>
<p>Southern resident killer whales are <a href="https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/15975">critically endangered due to a medley of issues</a> such as noise pollution, contaminants and low genetic diversity. Yet, their decline has been most closely linked with a concurrent decline in the abundance of their Chinook salmon prey. </p>
<p>However, killer whales prey on <a href="https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00263">many distinct populations or stocks</a> of Chinook salmon, not all of which are in decline. And this discrepancy begs the question of whether all Chinook salmon are equally nutritious as prey. </p>
<p>Previous research on killer whale energetics — studies that estimate how many calories whales burn and how much food they need — had operated under the assumption that all Chinook were created equal. </p>
<p>But if there are major differences in the energy density of different Chinook stocks, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0026738">previous estimates of the number of salmon required by the killer whales could be off by thousands of fish</a>. </p>
<h2>Types of Chinook salmon</h2>
<p>Chinook salmon are critical prey for the southern resident killer whales due to their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/z98-089">large size, year-round availability and high fat (lipid) content</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A chinook salmon" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518402/original/file-20230330-23-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518402/original/file-20230330-23-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518402/original/file-20230330-23-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518402/original/file-20230330-23-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518402/original/file-20230330-23-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518402/original/file-20230330-23-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518402/original/file-20230330-23-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Not all Chinook salmon are the same. Their life history varies from fish to fish.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Chinook salmon accumulate the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00631">highest lipid levels of any Pacific salmon species</a>. This high lipid content leads to a high energy density and makes the salmon a high-quality food source. </p>
<p>However, not all Chinook salmon are the same. Their life history varies from fish to fish. Some enter freshwater in the spring, migrate hundreds of kilometres and climb hundreds of meters in altitude to reach their spawning grounds, while others spawn close to sea level in the fall, less than 50 kilometres from the sea.</p>
<p>These differences demand different levels of stored energy from the salmon and have been believed to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-1112.2004.00486.x">drive differences in energy accumulation between the populations</a>. </p>
<p>For species, like the southern resident killer whale, that rely on Chinook, the difference in the total calories offered by the different stocks can be extreme. Some research suggests that certain Chinook populations offer half the calories afforded by others. </p>
<h2>The fat of the matter</h2>
<p>My supervisor Brian Hunt and I decided to set out and measure the lipid content of Chinook salmon returning to the Fraser River in British Columbia. </p>
<p>The aquaculture industry commonly uses a hand-held fat meter device to measure lipid content in fish fillets. We calibrated one of these fat meters to provide a more ecologically relevant measure of whole-body lipid content. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514345/original/file-20230309-20-7kyfpn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A researcher uses a gadget to measure the fat content in a Chinook salmon." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514345/original/file-20230309-20-7kyfpn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514345/original/file-20230309-20-7kyfpn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514345/original/file-20230309-20-7kyfpn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514345/original/file-20230309-20-7kyfpn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514345/original/file-20230309-20-7kyfpn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514345/original/file-20230309-20-7kyfpn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514345/original/file-20230309-20-7kyfpn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jacob Lerner uses the fat meter to measure the lipid content in a Chinook salmon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Mei Sato)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We then used the device to measure the energy content on individuals from every major Chinook population from the Fraser. </p>
<p>Through this process, We were able to classify Chinook salmon populations into three categories: a low, medium and high lipid group. The differences between these categories were primarily driven by the distance and elevation of spawning grounds from the ocean. </p>
<h2>Counting calories</h2>
<p>Our data showed that spring Chinook have nearly 70 per cent more lipid and 30 per cent more calories than fall Chinook. </p>
<p>This means that, to meet their energy needs, the southern resident killer whale population would need to eat 325,000 fall chinook salmon over the year if they only ate this category of salmon. If they only ate high-lipid spring salmon, they would require 245,000 salmon to meet their energy needs, a difference of 80,000 Chinook. </p>
<p>Like these whales, the <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/cosewic-assessments-status-reports/chinook-salmon-2020.html">energy-rich spring Chinook are themselves endangered</a>. As these Chinook populations have dropped, the killer whales have steadily been losing access to some of their richest prey sources. </p>
<p>Fewer high-fat Chinook does not only mean that more salmon are required as prey. As the whales go in search of more prey, the increase in foraging effort also means that more energy is spent looking for food.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An orca jumping above the surface of the ocean." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518399/original/file-20230330-16-78wmc1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518399/original/file-20230330-16-78wmc1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=326&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518399/original/file-20230330-16-78wmc1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=326&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518399/original/file-20230330-16-78wmc1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=326&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518399/original/file-20230330-16-78wmc1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518399/original/file-20230330-16-78wmc1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518399/original/file-20230330-16-78wmc1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Whales spend a lot of energy looking for food.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Elaine Thompson, File)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What’s worse? Many fall fish contain high levels of persistent pollutants, resulting in killer whales ingesting <a href="https://doi.org/10.1897/08-125.1">more contaminants</a>.</p>
<h2>Can oceans affect salmon energy?</h2>
<p>The lipid content in Chinook salmon has major implications for both the killer whales that rely on the calories it offers and the salmon that need these <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2020-0385">energy reserves to return to freshwater and spawn</a>. </p>
<p>Understanding the variation in the lipid content of different salmon, using tools like the fat meter, to assess the quality of the salmon can help improve management of both the southern resident and Chinook populations. </p>
<p>Fish hatchery production or enhancement measures could consider the energy density of salmon to ensure that resource managers are supporting high-quality Chinook and not flooding the environment with low-energy stocks. </p>
<p>Our research provides some of the clearest indications of how the elevation and distance of the spawning ground from the sea impacts the Chinook lipid content. But, we have yet to explore how ocean conditions influence the accumulation of marine energy. </p>
<p>Moving forward, it is crucial to understand how changing ocean conditions may impact salmon lipid accumulation, as this will affect both the Chinook salmon and the killer whales that depend on them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200620/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacob Lerner does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Food quality, not just quantity, matters when it comes to the health and survival of the southern resident killer whales.Jacob Lerner, PhD candidate, Oceanography, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2013442023-03-15T15:20:21Z2023-03-15T15:20:21ZThe colour of farmed salmon comes from adding an antioxidant to their feed, with benefits for everyone<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514620/original/file-20230310-318-u7dgwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2800%2C1865&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Salmon's distinctive colour comes from carotenoids in their diet.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A barrage of messages from <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/Cm_TePlOn5g/">social media influencers</a>, along with other <a href="https://www.peta.org/features/is-salmon-pink-dye/">online blogs and articles</a>, have claimed that farmed salmon are bad for you because the fish are <a href="https://www.instagram.com/reel/CnALXrWjeM0/">fed dyes</a> to turn their flesh red. </p>
<p>Some have claimed that farmed salmon is naturally gray, <a href="https://www.instagram.com/reel/CnAXTtyIUA8/">suggesting they are malnourished</a>, and consumers should avoid eating it for this reason.</p>
<p>These claims are utterly false and perpetuate a myth that can confuse or scare salmon consumers. The truth is that the colour of salmon fillets is red due to naturally occurring molecules called carotenoids, such as astaxanthin. This is part of a natural diet of wild salmon, and is added to the food for farmed salmon.</p>
<p>Carotenoids are common in the natural world among different <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-8742-9_3">plants and animals</a>. Salmon have it in their diet from eating algae, krill and other small crustaceans. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418-019-01364-x">Carotenoids are essential pigments produced by bacteria, fungi, algae and plants</a>. Animals cannot make carotenoids on their own, so those found in animals are either directly accumulated from food or partly modified through their own metabolic reactions.</p>
<p>The colour of salmon fillets is from the same pigment that we see in <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00093">shrimp, lobsters</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juan-Amat-2/publication/312056401_Flamingo_coloration_and_its_significance/links/59f45a43458515547c2083b8/Flamingo-coloration-and-its-significance.pdf">even flamingos</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515203/original/file-20230314-3425-6r5s3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="three salmon fish swimming upstream" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515203/original/file-20230314-3425-6r5s3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515203/original/file-20230314-3425-6r5s3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515203/original/file-20230314-3425-6r5s3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515203/original/file-20230314-3425-6r5s3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515203/original/file-20230314-3425-6r5s3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515203/original/file-20230314-3425-6r5s3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515203/original/file-20230314-3425-6r5s3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The colour of wild salmon’s flesh comes from naturally occurring carotenoids in their diet, which need to be added to the feed of farmed salmon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why are salmon red?</h2>
<p>The red colour of salmon flesh — their muscle tissue — is a unique trait in several types of salmon. It’s an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2019.1588">evolved genetic trait</a> that likely occurred as an evolutionary mutation and distinguishes salmon from other types of fish. </p>
<p>While the flesh colour is a direct result of carotenoids in their diet, there is also a unique <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-56438-3">genetic component</a>. The gene beta-carotene oxygenase 1 is responsible for carotenoid metabolism, and most likely explains flesh colour variation in salmon.</p>
<p>Carotenoids, including astaxanthin, can be manufactured and added to the diet of farmed salmon. These can be produced synthetically on a commercial scale, or from natural sources, such as algae; <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10826068.2021.1966802">the freshwater green microalgae, <em>Haematococcus pluvialis</em>, is a popular source</a>. <em>H. pluvialis</em> is an excellent source of astaxanthin for farmed salmonids like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/are.15758">rainbow trout</a>. </p>
<p>More importantly, astaxanthin is a health-sustaining molecule that plays a critical role in fish health and survival, and has benefits for humans too.</p>
<h2>Health benefits to fish</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/3849692">Astaxanthin is a potent antioxidant</a>, meaning it prevents some types of cellular damage. Antioxidants have multiple health benefits for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12200">both fish</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10408690590957188">and humans</a>. </p>
<p>Astaxanthin’s antioxidant activity is <a href="https://doi.org/10.2331/fishsci.62.134">100 times higher than vitamin E</a>, which is a popular antioxidant in human supplements. In fish, it has many important functions related to immunity and reproduction. </p>
<p>Research has shown that astaxanthin has a significant impact on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12200">reproductive performance</a> in many different fish species, like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0426.2006.00770.x">egg production and quality</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.06.011">sperm quality</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/are.12540">fertilization rate</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.2331/fishsci.63.816">survival of newly hatched larvae</a>.</p>
<p>Salmon eggs are red or orange in colour because of the accumulation of astaxanthin, which plays a beneficial role in protecting the eggs.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514764/original/file-20230311-491-xzfncs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="salmon eggs that appear as bright orange small balls are clustered on a rocky riverbed" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514764/original/file-20230311-491-xzfncs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514764/original/file-20230311-491-xzfncs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514764/original/file-20230311-491-xzfncs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514764/original/file-20230311-491-xzfncs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514764/original/file-20230311-491-xzfncs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514764/original/file-20230311-491-xzfncs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514764/original/file-20230311-491-xzfncs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Salmon eggs in the Adams River, B.C. — the carotenoid astaxanthin gives the eggs their distinctive colour.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Astaxanthin plays an important role in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12767">immune function</a> and enhances the production of antibodies and the proliferation of immune cells. It improves <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/jf00054a029">liver function in fish</a>, increases defences against oxidative stress, serves as a source of vitamin A and boosts its activity in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1351/pac198557050685">fish</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ofi.ca/research-projects/one-ocean-health">New Canadian research</a> is underway to investigate the role of dietary astaxanthin in inflammatory control and immunity in Atlantic salmon. Overall, studies have consistently found that dietary astaxanthin is an important nutritional factor in stimulating growth and maintaining health and survival of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12200">aquatic animals</a>.</p>
<h2>Health benefits to humans</h2>
<p>In humans, astaxanthin’s antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects have been shown to protect against stress-associated and inflammatory diseases. There are also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2018.08.012">potential effects on various diseases</a>, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105479">cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes and obesity</a>. </p>
<p>Additionally, pre-clinical trials predict that astaxanthin may regulate <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2021.1983766">intestinal microbiome and glucose metabolism</a>. People can get astaxanthin in their diet by eating salmon or other salmonids like trout as well as shrimp, crab, krill or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2022.05.004">supplements</a>.</p>
<p>Astaxanthin in farmed fish feeds is not only for pigmentation, but is also a necessary nutrient for health and reproduction in fish. In turn, it increases the nutritional value of the fish fillets for consumers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201344/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stefanie Colombo receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada, and the Ocean Frontier Institute through an award from the Canada First Research Excellence Fund. She is affiliated with the Aquaculture Association of Nova Scotia. </span></em></p>Antioxidants in salmon’s diet give the fish their distinctive colour, but internet rumours proliferate about how farmed salmon achieve the same colour.Stefanie Colombo, Canada Research Chair in Aquaculture Nutrition, Dalhousie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1922742022-11-09T14:12:58Z2022-11-09T14:12:58ZClimate change: West Africa’s oceans at risk because of a lack of monitoring<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492280/original/file-20221028-53244-can6ka.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The West African coastline is a source of livelihood for millions.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons/Paul Walter</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Canary-Current">West African Canary Current</a> extends along the north-west African coast, from the northern Atlantic coast of Morocco to Guinea-Bissau. It’s a hotspot for changes in the oceans driven by climate change. These include rising temperatures, <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/stories/what-you-need-know-about-ocean-acidification">ocean acidification</a> and <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/research/climate-change-resources/faq-ocean-deoxygenation#:%7E:text=Deoxygenation%20is%20the%20overall%20decline,through%20photosynthesis%2C%20ventilation%2C%20mixing.">ocean deoxygenation</a>. All affect marine life on multiple levels. </p>
<p>The current is one of the world’s most productive ocean ecosystems, a consequence of the upwelling of cold and nutrient-rich waters. Ecosystems like this provide around <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590332221004115#:%7E:text=Expanding%20ocean%20observation%20and%20climate%20services%20to%20build%20resilience%20in%20West%20African%20fisheries,-Author%20links%20open&text=The%20Canary%20Current%20is%20a,for%20national%20economies%20and%20livelihoods">20% of global fish catches</a> and support livelihoods in coastal communities. </p>
<p>From 2016 -2019, we worked with an international team to draw attention to the impacts of climate change on the West African Canary Current. In a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590332221004115#:%7E:text=Expanding%20ocean%20observation%20and%20climate%20services%20to%20build%20resilience%20in%20West%20African%20fisheries,-Author%20links%20open&text=The%20Canary%20Current%20is%20a,for%20national%20economies%20and%20livelihoods.">recent publication</a>, we described the limited economic and institutional capacity to monitor and respond to climate variability and change in the countries bordering the West African Canary Current and the urgent need to build scientific capacity in the region in order address this shortcoming.</p>
<h2>What’s missing</h2>
<p>The waters of the West African Canary Current share a key characteristic with those of the coast of Oregon in the Pacific north west of America – namely ocean acidification. This happens when the large amounts of carbon dioxide being absorbed by the ocean dissolves in seawater as carbonic acid.</p>
<p>In 2007 shellfish growers in Oregon were nearly all wiped out economically due to increasing acidity of the ocean. The waters they grew their shellfish in had become corrosive to calcium carbonate – the building block for the skeletons and shells of shellfish and corals. The waters they farmed in had become corrosive to the shells of the sea butterfly, <em>Limacina helicina</em>, a delicate sea snail that is only 5mm across. The snail underpins key marine food webs that sustain herring, salmon, whales, seals, seabirds and other species. </p>
<p>But in California, people who depend on the ocean for their livelihood are in a position to understand, anticipate and to some degree adapt to the impacts of climate change on the region. This is thanks to an extensive network of state-of-the-art sensors and input from researchers from academia and the US government.</p>
<p>This is not the case in West Africa. There is only a single mooring – these are long anchored lines of scientific equipment and floats which are deployed to collect a range of ocean data over long periods – managed by French researchers to monitor the impacts of climate change on the West African Canary Current. </p>
<p>Communities are effectively left blind to the effects of climate change. So they can’t take informed measures to adapt.</p>
<p>For example, if a fishery or shellfish stock collapses, stakeholders won’t know what the cause is. It could be as a consequence of overharvesting, deoxygenation that causes fish to migrate to more oxygen-rich waters, or shellfish mortality brought on by acid waters. Or a combination of these factors – or others. </p>
<p>Scientists, managers and stakeholders who want to understand and address the management of fisheries in the Canary Current can’t build or use models because there isn’t data. </p>
<p>To be useful, models must take into account the changes, variations and interactions of the ocean in the region. They must also be supported by regional data.</p>
<p>Without this information, results of tests are incomplete at best and misleading at worst. They are thus unsuitable for guiding management, policy, or donor decisions.</p>
<h2>Solutions</h2>
<p>Scientists from Chile have shown how the rigorous monitoring of climate change, and assessing its impacts on local shellfish species, can inform adaptation efforts. Chile borders the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0079661109001049">Humboldt Current System</a>, an Eastern boundary upwelling ecosystem that extends along the west coast of South America. They have discovered shellfish strains that are relatively tolerant to ocean acidification and optimal habitats for their potential cultivation. This provides a potential means of adaptation to future, and likely more acidic, oceans. These findings are <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287360675_Shellfishing_and_shell_midden_construction_in_the_Saloum_Delta_Senegal">applicable to Senegal</a>, where shellfish have been for at least 5,000 years.</p>
<p>An essential step to building the capacity required to effectively anticipate and adapt to changing ocean chemistry in the Canary Current will the training of additional African Ph.D.-level scientists. This training could be in disciplines such as oceanography, ecology, and physiology. This could be accomplished through novel north-south or south-south partnerships among institutions of higher education or through the strengthening of existing international partnerships. West African scientists would be best suited to address context-specific adaptation measures and incorporate their findings into national policies and legislation. </p>
<p>Another benefit of understanding climate change impacts on West African oceans would be to add more voices to the global chorus calling for reductions in CO2 emissions. Greater representation for those that are most vulnerable, yet least responsible, for those emissions is also important. </p>
<p>Wealthy nations rely upon the data from programmes to monitor ocean acidification, deoxygenation and warming to develop reliable models and policies that provide guidance to industries and local stakeholders. The West African countries bordering the Canary Current, for whom climate change impacts on the oceans will impact livelihoods, food security, and development outcomes, deserve no less.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192274/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There is only a single mooring managed by French researchers that monitors the impacts of climate change on West African Canary Current.Todd L Capson, Chercheur Associé, Institut de physique du globe de Paris (IPGP)Marie Boye, Research Director, CNRS, Institut de physique du globe de Paris (IPGP)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1868662022-09-20T18:12:26Z2022-09-20T18:12:26ZAs chinook salmon get thinner and fewer, southern resident killer whales struggle to find enough food<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478590/original/file-20220810-7093-uwqksn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=148%2C44%2C2108%2C1018&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An endangered female orca leaps from the water in Puget Sound, west of Seattle. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Elaine Thompson)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As marine species continue to decline worldwide, the southern resident killer whale population — <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/l92-missing-believed-dead-southern-resident-killer-whales-bc-1.4709845">which now stands at 75 individuals</a> — along the west coast of North America, has baffled scientists who are trying to understand why this population is struggling.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.whaleresearch.com/">Studied extensively since the mid-1970s</a>, these whales are considered endangered today. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01647.x">Food shortage</a>, <a href="https://doi.org//10.3354/esr00150">vessel traffic</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1897/08-125.1">water pollutants</a> have affected their fertility, body condition and social behaviour. In fact, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2009.0468">food shortage</a> is said to be one of the primary causes of the declining whale population, which feed primarily on chinook salmon. This salmon species can constitute up to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00263">90 per cent of the southern resident killer whale’s diet</a> during summer.</p>
<p>In the late 1980s, the Canadian government applied <a href="https://waves-vagues.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/362732.pdf">restrictive fishing regulations</a> for chinook salmon to protect the population, leading to a drastic decline in commercial fisheries. However, the <a href="https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/salish-sea/chinook-salmon_.html">chinook salmon stocks of the Salish Sea</a> continued to decline. Today, most chinook salmon stocks that the southern resident killer whales feed upon are at very low levels.</p>
<p>As a researcher in ecosystem modelling, I have studied the predator and prey interactions between the southern resident killer whales and their favourite salmon preys since 2019. The declining salmon and whale numbers raised a critical question: Is the southern resident killer whale population solely reliant on the abundance of salmon? And, if so, since when?</p>
<h2>The predator and the prey</h2>
<p>Along with researchers from the University of British Columbia and marine mammal experts, I developed a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270523">bioenergetics model</a> to compare the prey abundance with the energetic requirements of these whales over the last 40 years. </p>
<p>We estimated that these whales could capture about 12 fish per day and evaluated whether those fish were enough to sustain the energetic requirements of the population from May to October. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00263">Chinook salmon populations — targeted by the southern resident killer whales — originate from different geographical areas</a> in the Salish Sea and along the west coast of Vancouver Island.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478591/original/file-20220810-10557-j2s91z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A southern resident killer whale swims past a school of salmon near the Fraser River, B.C." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478591/original/file-20220810-10557-j2s91z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478591/original/file-20220810-10557-j2s91z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478591/original/file-20220810-10557-j2s91z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478591/original/file-20220810-10557-j2s91z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478591/original/file-20220810-10557-j2s91z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478591/original/file-20220810-10557-j2s91z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478591/original/file-20220810-10557-j2s91z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scientists at the University of British Columbia are using aerial drones to study whether endangered southern resident killer whales are getting enough of their preferred prey, chinook salmon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/HO, Keith Holmes, Hakai Institute</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The energy available to these whales depended not only on the abundance of chinook salmon present in their hunting grounds, but also on the size and age of the fish.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1910930116">recent study</a> suggested that most Northeastern Pacific chinook salmon have declined in size over the last decades, and recent <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12272">evidence points that the older, fatter fish are also becoming more scarce</a> in several populations. </p>
<p>We found that these whales were not getting enough food for six of the last 40 years and lost about 17 per cent of their energetic requirements on average. That is equivalent to an adult human missing out on their daily breakfast. </p>
<p>We found that the southern resident killer whale population also consumed less adult chinook salmon than harbour seals in recent years, and less adult chinook salmon than fisheries over the entire time period. It is now essential to estimate the role of fisheries and marine mammal predation on the chinook salmon populations targeted by these whales.</p>
<h2>Who is to blame?</h2>
<p>Southern resident killer whales constitute a very small population, making them vulnerable to various factors that could impact their reproductive ability, social behaviour or body growth. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.3660">recent study</a> suggested that the physicality of the southern resident killer whales have been worsening in recent years and that these observations could be linked to a decrease in food availability. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A pod of whales swim at the surface of the ocean water." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478593/original/file-20220810-13-opbbgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478593/original/file-20220810-13-opbbgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478593/original/file-20220810-13-opbbgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478593/original/file-20220810-13-opbbgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478593/original/file-20220810-13-opbbgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478593/original/file-20220810-13-opbbgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478593/original/file-20220810-13-opbbgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Research reaffirms the central importance of chinook salmon to the whales.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Elaine Thompson, File)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is crucial to understand the primary causes for the decline in chinook salmon populations as well. Is it a result of predation by other animals, including other marine mammals? Degradation of habitats? Prevalence to diseases? Climate change?</p>
<p>The southern resident killer whales and chinook salmon are two iconic species of the west oast of Canada, both of which are in need of conservation. They have a high economic value for tourism and fisheries and are <a href="https://www.nationalobserver.com/2019/09/17/news/coast-salish-communities-race-save-southern-resident-orcas-personal">highly culturally important animals for Coast Salish First Nation Communities</a>.</p>
<h2>Predator-prey relationship holds the key</h2>
<p>The southern resident killer whales are not like any other killer whales. They have a unique <a href="https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/csas-sccs/publications/resdocs-docrech/2001/2001_065-eng.htm">genetic profile</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/z91-206">vocalization characteristics</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00918">geographical distribution</a>. Preserving such uniqueness in a natural ecosystem is essential for promoting biodiversity.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_MFQljQvbkw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Chinook salmon recovery could help conserve the southern resident killer whale population.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We need to look at the link between predators and their prey to understand the trends observed in other similar resident killer whale populations. For example, the northern counterpart of the these whales — referred to as the northern resident killer whale population — feed on similar prey species but have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109124">increasing over the last 40 years</a>.</p>
<p>Today, it is unclear how prey drive these two populations in different directions, and future research on northern resident killer whales might also help us solve the mystery of the decline in the population of its southern counterparts. </p>
<p>It is time for governmental, Indigenous, research and fisheries organizations to unite their efforts to determine what needs to be done in order to protect this whale population and their prey of choice.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186866/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fanny Couture does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The declining salmon and whale numbers raise a critical question: Is the southern resident killer whale population solely reliant on the abundance of salmon? And, if so, since when?Fanny Couture, PhD Candidate, Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1852802022-09-05T12:21:46Z2022-09-05T12:21:46ZSleeping fish? From sharks to salmon, guppies to groupers, here’s how they grab a snooze<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476388/original/file-20220727-1332-1i5lq6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C5181%2C3423&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A large group of yellowfin tuna swimming off the coast of Italy. Like all fish, they sleep, but it's not like human sleep.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/tuna-school-royalty-free-image/607337981">Giordano Cipriani/The Image Bank via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Could you explain how fish sleep? Do they drift away on currents, or do they anchor themselves to a particular location when they sleep? – Laure and Neeraj, New York</strong> </p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>From the goldfish in your aquarium to a bass in a lake to the sharks in the sea – <a href="https://web.uri.edu/gso/news/learning-from-fish-to-spark-innovation-in-ocean-exploration/">35,000 species of fish are alive today</a>, more than 3 trillion of them. </p>
<p>All over the world, they swim in hot springs, rivers, ponds and puddles. They glide through freshwater and saltwater. They survive in the shallows and in the darkest depths of the ocean, more than five miles down.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476397/original/file-20220727-1345-clf6b9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="With its unusual look -- a pancake with wings -- a stingray swims in the ocean." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476397/original/file-20220727-1345-clf6b9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476397/original/file-20220727-1345-clf6b9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476397/original/file-20220727-1345-clf6b9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476397/original/file-20220727-1345-clf6b9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476397/original/file-20220727-1345-clf6b9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476397/original/file-20220727-1345-clf6b9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476397/original/file-20220727-1345-clf6b9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stingrays are a type of fish too, but they are boneless.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/close-up-of-stingray-swimming-in-sea-royalty-free-image/1283034201?adppopup=true">Xiáng Zhèng/EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Just like you, fish need to sleep</h2>
<p>Of those trillions of fish, three major types exist: <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-bony-fish-2291874#:%7E:text=In%20simple%20terms%2C%20a%20bony,as%20Agnatha%2C%20or%20jawless%20fish.">bony fish</a>, like trout and sardines; jawless fish, like the slimy <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/14-fun-facts-about-hagfish-77165589/">hagfish</a>; and <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/sharks-rays">sharks and rays</a>, which are boneless – instead, they have skeletons made of <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-humans-have-bones-instead-of-cartilage-like-sharks-170526">firm yet flexible tissue called cartilage</a>.</p>
<p>And all of them, every last one, needs to rest. Whether you’re a human or a haddock, sleep is essential. It gives a body time to repair itself, and a brain a chance to reset and declutter. </p>
<p><a href="https://case.fiu.edu/about/directory/profiles/heithaus-michael.html">As a marine biologist</a>, I’ve always wondered how fish can rest. After all, in any body of water, predators are all over the place, lurking around, ready to eat them. But somehow they manage, like <a href="https://askabiologist.asu.edu/plosable/who-needs-sleep-anyway">virtually all creatures on Earth</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/B_hxMs-oHro?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">See the mysterious spot off the coast of Mexico where sharks take a nap.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How they do it</h2>
<p>Scientists are still learning about how fish sleep. What we do know: Their sleep <a href="https://animals.howstuffworks.com/fish/do-fish-sleep.htm">is not like ours</a>. </p>
<p>For one thing, people are pretty much out of it when they sleep. While a loud noise might wake you up, you’re mostly unaware of your surroundings. But fish stay aware enough to detect an approaching predator – at least most of the time. </p>
<p>It does appear that most fish have sleep cycles like us. Aquarium fish sleep between <a href="https://whypetfish.com/how-many-hours-do-fish-sleep-a-day/">seven to 12 hours each day</a>. Many fish are active <a href="https://www.aqueon.com/articles/fish-sleeping-habits#:%7E:text=Scientists%20believe%20that%20most%20fish,in%20a%20cave%20or%20crevice.">during daylight and sleep at night</a>, though for some, like numerous types of eels, rays and sharks, it’s the reverse. </p>
<p>How can you tell if a fish is asleep? Most fish don’t have eyelids, so their eyes don’t close. That alone makes it hard to tell when they’re resting. </p>
<p>But if you watch fish in an aquarium, look closely. You’ll see how they stop swimming around and remain very still, sort of hovering in the water. Their gills will pump less too. For fish, that’s sleeping. </p>
<h2>Sleeping with the enemy</h2>
<p>Where do fish sleep? Sometimes right out in the open. But often they’re at or near the bottom. If they can, they squeeze in a spot near rocks or plants so predators can’t get them and currents can’t sweep them away. </p>
<p>Some fish go even further. Parrotfish <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/get-involved/how-to-help/animals-we-protect/parrotfish/">wrap a cocoon of mucus</a> around themselves and sleep in the coral. Sounds like a lot of effort – essentially, making your own sleeping bag every night – but the cocoon protects the parrotfish not just from predators,
but from parasites. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/wtf5AXfMhQQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Night security for a parrotfish: a cocoon of mucus.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How sharks sleep</h2>
<p>There are, however, many species of fish that must swim constantly just to breathe. Think about that – stop swimming, and you die. This is true for many sharks, like <a href="https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/facts/great-white-shark">great whites</a>. </p>
<p>So how do they sleep if they’re always on the move? Instead of stopping altogether, sharks simply slow their swimming, or swim into a current. That’s sort of like sleep – at least the sharks seem less aware of what’s going on around them.</p>
<p>There are species of shark, like the draughtsboard shark, that <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/sharks-apparently-do-sleep-even-with-their-eyes-wide-open-180979707/">breathe without swimming</a>. Scientists recently observed this shark – which is 3 feet (1 meter) long and has a flat head – sleeping on the bottom. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/B7ePdi1McMo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A shark taking a nap?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Whales and dolphins</h2>
<p><a href="https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/">Whales and dolphins</a> are not fish – they’re mammals, like cats, dogs and people. They spend their lives in the ocean, but they can’t breathe underwater. Instead, they periodically rise to the surface and take in air through their blowhole, which is on the top of their heads. </p>
<p>If they went into a deep sleep, the way people do, whales and dolphins would drown; they wouldn’t be aware enough to come to the surface to breathe. So they sleep by <a href="https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/how-do-dolphins-sleep/#:%7E:text=When%20sleeping%2C%20dolphins%20often%20rest,to%20the%20surface%20to%20breath.">resting one half of their brain at a time</a>. The other half remembers to rise to the surface, breathe and stay just alert enough to spot danger. </p>
<p>Is it possible that some fish might do the same thing? Scientists are trying to find out, but still don’t know. There is so much more to learn about how fish sleep. Marine biologists like me have many questions, and we spend our careers in oceans, rivers, lakes and laboratories trying to find answers. But I’ll leave you with this, something I’ve always wondered about: Do fish dream? </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185280/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Heithaus does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Just about every creature on Earth needs to grab some Zs from time to time. Imagine trying to doze while dodging great whites and killer whales.Michael Heithaus, Executive Dean of the College of Arts, Sciences & Education and Professor of Biological Sciences, Florida International UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1824112022-05-16T19:10:18Z2022-05-16T19:10:18ZLearning from Indigenous knowledge holders on the state and future of wild Pacific salmon<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463333/original/file-20220516-19-jtifvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=51%2C51%2C4830%2C2704&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Chum salmon at the end of their life cycle in Fish Creek, Alaska.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Andrea Reid)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Pacific salmon are far more than just food for many Indigenous Peoples across the Pacific Rim. They are part of traditions that go back thousands of years, such as the <a href="https://critfc.org/salmon-culture/tribal-salmon-culture/first-salmon-feast/">First Salmon Ceremony</a> — a celebration to welcome salmon back from their journey into the ocean, and to pay them respect. </p>
<p>Like my Nation, the <a href="https://www.nisgaanation.ca/">Nisga'a Nation</a> on the British Columbia North Coast, many cultures identify as Salmon People. We view salmon as relatives, and see care for them and their health as important responsibilities. </p>
<p>It’s no surprise, then, that the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2017-0127">disappearance of many wild salmon stocks</a> from streams and rivers across British Columbia — likely due to human-mediated stressors such as overfishing, climate change and pollution — has entailed a <a href="https://www.ubcic.bc.ca/first_nations_leaders_declare_collapse_of_pacific_sockeye">profound loss</a> for many Indigenous communities.</p>
<p>That may be why, when I set out to ask <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2021-0089">Elders about threats to B.C. salmon</a>, not a single person turned down the interview. Elders invited me into their homes, fishing boats and smokehouses because they knew they had important knowledge to share that was being overlooked by academics and fisheries management. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463141/original/file-20220515-31328-xjtb32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="an elder sitting in front of fish surrounded by smoke" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463141/original/file-20220515-31328-xjtb32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463141/original/file-20220515-31328-xjtb32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463141/original/file-20220515-31328-xjtb32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463141/original/file-20220515-31328-xjtb32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463141/original/file-20220515-31328-xjtb32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463141/original/file-20220515-31328-xjtb32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463141/original/file-20220515-31328-xjtb32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tŝilhqot'in Elder sitting with smoking salmon at Tl'etinqox Culture Camp in 2018.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Andrea Reid)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Filling in the gaps’</h2>
<p>Indigenous knowledge is often considered by researchers to be anecdotal or too subjective, and thus of less value than the evidence produced by western science. While western science emphasizes the collection of large scale, generalizable and numerical data to look for trends in some natural phenomena, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4138924">Indigenous knowledge systems</a> prioritize highly specific, place-based information that is passed down across generations, based on observations and lived experiences of changes and cycles in nature.</p>
<p>When Indigenous knowledge is used by researchers, it is often to fill in the gaps of western science, and has rarely been done on Indigenous terms. With this study, I looked exclusively to Indigenous knowledge keepers for answers, putting <a href="https://guides.library.ubc.ca/IndigResearch/researchethics">respectful protocol and process</a> at the forefront of the research.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-taken-thousands-of-years-but-western-science-is-finally-catching-up-to-traditional-knowledge-90291">It's taken thousands of years, but Western science is finally catching up to Traditional Knowledge</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>I travelled the same path salmon take as they journey from the ocean back to their spawning grounds, spending time in 18 First Nations across the Fraser, Skeena and Nass rivers along the way. Many of these communities were places I had already spent time in, following salmon upstream, tagging and tracking them to monitor their survival. This meant that I had time (often years) to build relationships before initiating this work. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463142/original/file-20220515-12-c9baie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a woman stands on the side of a bridge aiming at the river below" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463142/original/file-20220515-12-c9baie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463142/original/file-20220515-12-c9baie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463142/original/file-20220515-12-c9baie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463142/original/file-20220515-12-c9baie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463142/original/file-20220515-12-c9baie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463142/original/file-20220515-12-c9baie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463142/original/file-20220515-12-c9baie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Andrea Reid tracking tagged sockeye salmon in the Nass River watershed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Collin Middleton)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Identifying threats</h2>
<p>In interviews, I asked Elders to identify and rank what they believe are the greatest threats to wild salmon. The rankings pointed to salmon farms, climate change, industrial development, contaminants and infectious diseases as the top threats overall. </p>
<p>Concerns varied regionally: hydropower, for example, emerged as a large concern in one area where salmon access was disrupted by the construction of a major dam. Elders also noted that catches of wild salmon were down to one-sixth what they had been between 50 and 70 years ago. They worried that they might not be able to continue to teach young people about the fish.</p>
<p>In many cases, Elders’ concerns weren’t drastically different from the threats that the <a href="https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/432516/publication.html">2009 Cohen Commission</a> identified when it investigated declining sockeye salmon numbers in the Fraser River. However, the way in which this knowledge was shared and the frame of reference it provides is unique.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463324/original/file-20220516-19-1x1y50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="one person pours water from a cup into the hands of another" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463324/original/file-20220516-19-1x1y50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463324/original/file-20220516-19-1x1y50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463324/original/file-20220516-19-1x1y50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463324/original/file-20220516-19-1x1y50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463324/original/file-20220516-19-1x1y50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463324/original/file-20220516-19-1x1y50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463324/original/file-20220516-19-1x1y50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Neskonlith First Nation Elder Minnie Kenoras offers water, as Indigenous leaders hold a ceremony to pray for the safety of the salmon, ecosystems and cultural heritage that depend on the Fraser River. The ceremony was held ahead of work being done to drill under the river for the Trans Mountain pipeline expansion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The role of greed</h2>
<p>Elders expressed great concern about social stressors, such as greed. Greed is not a stressor that western science tends to consider, in part because it is not easily measured. The fact that greed came up time and again, especially in conversations about the management choices we make around salmon, highlights the differences between western science’s prescriptions for rebuilding salmon stocks, and the remedies offered by Indigenous knowledge holders. </p>
<p>Rather than see salmon as a commodity to be maximized or optimized, many Indigenous Peoples know that we must care for salmon so that they can continue to take care of us in turn, as they’ve been doing for thousands of years.</p>
<p>Perhaps this shift in the way we view our relationship with salmon is what we need most to see wild salmon one day return in large numbers to B.C. rivers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182411/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrea Reid receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). She is on the board of the Wild Salmon Center. </span></em></p>Indigenous knowledge systems are valuable in addressing the salmon crisis in British Columbia and beyond.Andrea Reid, Assistant Professor, Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1778712022-03-01T19:04:00Z2022-03-01T19:04:00ZSwap salmon for sardines to keep four million tonnes of fish in the sea<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448381/original/file-20220224-50602-8dsgfm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3594%2C2193&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/fish-can-metallic-aluminum-3287443/">Monicore/Pixabay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cutting down on meat and dairy is one way to make your diet better for the planet. But when it comes to sustainable seafood, buying sardines instead of salmon for your sandwiches and salads should be your first port of call. </p>
<p>A third of fish stocks are being harvested at rates that exceed what these populations can replenish, and 90% are fished right up to their sustainable limit, according to the UN <a href="https://www.fao.org/publications/sofia/2020/en/">Food and Agriculture Organization</a>. A leading cause of overfishing is, ironically, the demand for fish feed. Over <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000005">one-third</a> of all fish caught worldwide are fed to farmed animals instead of people. Fish farming, or aquaculture, is the world’s <a href="https://www.fao.org/publications/sofia/2020/en/">fastest growing</a> food sector. <a href="https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/statistics">Most</a> of the Atlantic salmon sold in supermarkets in the UK is farmed. </p>
<p>Rearing these large, predatory fish involves feeding them a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids and protein, nutrients that are also essential to humans for brain development and nerve function. In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000005">new study</a>, my colleagues and I found that if people ate the wild-caught fish, such as sardines, which are usually destined for salmon farms, it would leave nearly 4 million tonnes of fish in the sea and provide an extra 6 million tonnes of seafood.</p>
<h2>Feed people, not fish farms</h2>
<p>The sea provides humanity with a bounty of nutrient-rich food, which we have benefited from for thousands of years. Seafood is one of the most easily absorbed sources of key nutrients such as omega-3 and vitamins D and A that humans need. It is believed that a diet that included seafood may have helped humans develop <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/107/22/10002">bigger brains</a>. There is a global responsibility to sustainably use this resource, as over <a href="https://www.fao.org/publications/sofia/2020/en/">3.3 billion people</a> rely on it as their source of animal protein.</p>
<p>Salmon raised in coastal farms off Scotland is the UK’s <a href="https://www.salmonscotland.co.uk/news/economy/salmon-consumption-rises-by-nearly-8-in-the-uk">largest food export</a> by total annual economic value (followed by bread and pastries). Our research team carried out a thorough assessment of the Scottish salmon industry, collecting data on fish nutrient content, fishmeal and fish oil composition and examining the transfer of micronutrients from feed to fish.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A circular pen containing swimming fish seen from above." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coastal salmon farms produce a lot of effluent pollution.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-salmon-fish-farms-grand-manan-1112269721">Russ Heinl/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found that by removing wild-caught fish from salmon feed and only using fish byproducts instead – such as trimmings and offcuts from the filleting of farmed fish – 3.7 million tonnes of fish could be left in the sea and global annual seafood production could increase by 6.1 million tonnes. Over half of the essential dietary minerals and fatty acids available in wild fish are currently lost to human mouths when these fish are fed to farmed salmon.</p>
<p>By comparing salmon with other options, our research also highlighted the health and environmental benefits of eating more sustainably farmed seafood, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00423-5">mussels</a>. Mussels belong to the bivalve class of molluscs that include shellfish like clams and oysters (but not prawns, lobsters or crabs). <a href="https://www.zoo.cam.ac.uk/directory/david-willer">Our research</a> has shown that mussels are one of the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-020-0116-8">most sustainable foods on the planet</a>, more so than any other meat, fish, and most land-based crops like soya, wheat and rice. </p>
<p>Mussels require no feed, they simply eat algae in the water. The reefs they create act as nurseries where young fish can develop to full size, helping to regenerate wild fish stocks. Bivalve farms use up no land and no freshwater. They actually act as a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/raq.12465">carbon sink</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A crab rests on an underwater rope covered in mussels." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mussel farms can provide habitat for other species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/carcinus-maenas-known-green-crab-captured-1494248843">A Daily Odyssey/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But what if you like eating salmon? The use of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03308-6">alternative feeds</a> in salmon farms is growing, but some are better than others. Feeds made from crops like soya and corn need a lot of land and water to produce, but those made using <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-020-0078-x">algae</a> are richer in omega-3 and use up sea space (of which there is plenty) instead of land. We need more research and investment to produce nutritious seafood while reducing pressure on marine ecosystems.</p>
<p>If you’re ever unsure, there are two simple mnemonics to guide what fish you should buy:</p>
<p>ECOME - Eat clams, oysters and mussels everywhere</p>
<p>SMASH - Sardines, mackerel, anchovies, sprats and herring</p>
<p>So enjoy your moules frites and barbecued sardines. Eat small, oily fish and bivalve shellfish. Eating more of these tasty foods, and foregoing the salmon and tinned tuna, can make a real difference to the ocean.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177871/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr David Willer is funded by a Henslow Research Fellowship at Murray Edwards College, University of Cambridge.</span></em></p>Farming shellfish instead of large, predatory fish, is also better for the planet.David Willer, Henslow Research Fellow, Sustainable Seafood, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1729542021-12-19T19:53:09Z2021-12-19T19:53:09ZBuy Australian oysters and farmed barramundi: 5 tips to make your feast of summer seafood sustainable<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436279/original/file-20211208-23-1hhuar6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4031%2C3017&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Summer in Australia is synonymous with seafood, from fish and chips at the beach to prawns on the barbie. But how do we know if the seafood is sustainable – that is, harvested from healthy stocks with minimal negative environmental impacts?</p>
<p>More than one third of the world’s fisheries are being harvested at unsustainable levels according to the <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca9229en/">latest figures</a> from the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation. </p>
<p>Research shows public awareness of the problem is <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/faf.12148">growing</a>. But <a href="https://www.awe.gov.au/abares/research-topics/fisheries/fisheries-and-aquaculture-statistics/seafood-consumption">62% of the seafood</a> Australians eat is imported, which can make it hard to determine the food’s provenance.</p>
<p>While comprehensive sustainable seafood guides like the Australian Marine Conservation Society’s <a href="https://goodfish.org.au/sustainable-seafood-guide/?gclid=Cj0KCQiA47GNBhDrARIsAKfZ2rAh7Ua3F22ItDtGZqDqWUbQRnhqmh0_dnEgnt8goejwrl8YUgO1NgoaAnloEALw_wcB">Good Fish</a> are readily available, we know some people find them daunting and time-consuming to use. To make it simpler, we’ve put together five tips for better seafood-buying, focusing on holiday favourites. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-you-really-eating-how-threatened-seafood-species-slip-through-the-law-and-onto-your-plate-147108">What are you really eating? How threatened ‘seafood’ species slip through the law and onto your plate</a>
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<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="oyster farm in lake in NSW" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Oyster farms like this one in Merimbula, NSW, are often classed as sustainable.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>5 ways to ensure you’re buying sustainable seafood this summer</h2>
<ol>
<li><p><strong>Eat farmed Australian prawns.</strong> Much intensive prawn farming overseas <a href="https://www.globalseafood.org/advocate/wrestling-with-a-generational-problem-thai-shrimp-industry-rates-higher/">has been linked</a> to the destruction of coastal habitats, and <a href="https://goodfish.org.au/species/banana-prawn/">some Australian wild-caught prawns</a> have bycatch issues, meaning rare species like dugongs and turtles are accidentally caught by trawling. By contrast, Australian prawn farming is done in tanks on land, often making it a <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/about/Corporate-governance/Ensuring-our-impact/Impact-case-studies/Future-Industries/Aquaculture-feed-and-prawn-breeding">more sustainable industry</a>. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Eat wild-caught Australian rock lobster.</strong> This year, lobster prices <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2021-11-16/victorians-tempted-with-cheap-lobster-for-christmas/100624512">are much lower</a> than usual due to export issues. Australia’s rock lobster fisheries are generally <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11160-017-9493-y">sustainably fished</a> as opposed to imported lobster. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Eat farmed Australian oysters and mussels.</strong> It’s hard to go wrong here – fresh local oysters and mussels are widely available in stores and restaurants and are usually sustainable. Imported options are not widely available and usually tinned. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Eat farmed Australian barramundi.</strong> Locally farmed barramundi is the most commonly available sustainable fish species. Some wild-caught Australian barramundi fisheries have <a href="https://goodfish.org.au/species/barramundi/">issues with bycatch</a> while imported farmed barramundi have <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.666897/full#B21">recurring issues</a> with disease. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>When in doubt, pick fresh Australian seafood.</strong> Australian fisheries are <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000131">better managed</a> than most others around the world, making local fish usually the better choice. </p></li>
</ol>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-624" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/624/3e29ef21fe913d800c4650212f7acb23d80a0154/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p><em>Data taken from the Good Fish Guide.</em></p>
<h2>What to watch out for</h2>
<p>My team and I recently <a href="https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/202112.0164/v1">examined</a> more than 50,000 seafood products from southeast Queensland supermarkets, restaurants and other outlets and found only 5% could be classed as sustainable. </p>
<p>If you’re buying seafood to cook at home, you’re most likely to find sustainable options at speciality seafood outlets, which we found were more likely to stock Australian products. While some sustainable options are available in major supermarkets, they skew much more heavily to imported seafood. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/like-eating-fish-its-time-to-start-caring-where-it-comes-from-33144">Like eating fish? It's time to start caring where it comes from</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>We know there are a lot of salmon lovers out there - it was the most commonly found seafood product in our survey. Nearly all salmon sold in Australia is farmed Atlantic salmon produced in Tasmania. Unfortunately, this salmon is <a href="https://goodfish.org.au/species/atlantic-salmon/">currently classified</a> as “Say No” by the Good Fish guide due to significant environmental impacts. </p>
<p>On a positive note, the Tasmanian salmon industry is <a href="https://nre.tas.gov.au/Documents/Salmon%20Plan%20-%20One%20Year%20Review.pdf">working to address</a> these well-documented problems and the potential for improvement is high. It’s worth checking sustainable seafood guidelines frequently, as sustainability changes over time. </p>
<p>The Good Fish guide <a href="https://goodfish.org.au/sustainable-seafood-guide/?species_rating=better-choice">lists more options</a> such as sustainable abalone (wild and farmed), mullet, mudcrabs and whiting. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Black tiger prawns caught in a net" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australia’s farmed prawns are typically regarded as more sustainable than imported prawns and many wild-caught options.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What about eating out?</h2>
<p>Australia has no regulations requiring origin and species labels on cooked seafood. That means that when you buy flake, it could actually be a critically endangered species like the hammerhead or school shark. </p>
<p>This is not a problem we can solve as individual seafood lovers. A 2014 Senate inquiry found the exemption for cooked seafood <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Rural_and_Regional_Affairs_and_Transport/Seafood_labelling/%7E/media/Committees/rrat_ctte/Seafood_labelling/c03.pdf">should be removed</a>, but it did not become law. </p>
<p>To fix this, the government should introduce laws to improve seafood transparency and sustainability, especially in restaurants and cafes. This would make Australia world leaders in this area, given many major countries do not have mandated country-of-origin labelling for cooked seafood. </p>
<p>While we work towards a national solution, it’s important we vote with our wallets to buy sustainable seafood wherever possible. This will encourage the industry we want to see and avoid unnecessarily trashing our oceans.</p>
<p><em>Tia Vella contributed to this article</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172954/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carissa Klein receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>It’s a great time to buy sustainable Australian seafood, from cheaper lobster to farmed prawns and oysters. Here’s how.Carissa Klein, Associate professor, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1699822021-11-16T13:12:52Z2021-11-16T13:12:52ZInfrastructure matters for wildlife too – here’s how aging culverts are blocking Pacific salmon migration<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428181/original/file-20211025-17-1dmtsin.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=30%2C0%2C3995%2C2969&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A culvert in Seattle's Lake City neighborhood, rated 67% passable for salmon. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ashlee Abrantes</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the Biden administration prepares to make the biggest <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/07/28/politics/infrastructure-bill-explained/index.html">investment in U.S. infrastructure</a> in more than a decade, there’s much discussion about how systems like roads, bridges and electric power grids affect people’s daily lives. Here’s an angle that’s received less attention: Wildlife depends on infrastructure too.</p>
<p>I’m studying how human-made structures affect salmon migration between freshwater streams and the Pacific Ocean. Washington state is home to <a href="https://wdfw.wa.gov/get-involved/calendar/event/learn-about-washingtons-five-salmon-species">five species</a> of Pacific salmon: chum, pink, and the locally endangered sockeye, coho and Chinook. Salmon are commercially, environmentally and culturally important to the Northwest, and many people here follow their migrations.</p>
<p>To travel out to the sea and back inland to spawn, salmon have to pass through thousands of culverts – tunnels that carry streams beneath roads or railways.
When culverts fall into disrepair or are blocked, water might still be able to pass through, but fish can’t. This can be a death sentence to fish that migrate. </p>
<p>Washington state has thousands of culverts that need repairs. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/20/climate/washington-salmon-extinction-climate-change.html#:%7E:text=The%20Washington%20State%20Recreation%20and,are%20to%20blame%2C%20it%20said.">Salmon are in critical decline</a>, and fixing culverts could increase fish migration and reproduction. </p>
<p>This issue isn’t unique to the Pacific Northwest. Atlantic salmon in the U.S. Northeast are <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/atlantic-salmon-protected">listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act</a>. State and federal agencies have undertaken significant habitat restoration and conservation efforts, particularly in Maine, to boost salmon populations. These initiatives, which are projected to cost <a href="https://www.concordmonitor.com/Ambitious-new-plan-to-save-Atlantic-salmon-has-big-price-tag-23497635">hundreds of millions of dollars over the coming decades</a>, involve actions such as removing river dams. New infrastructure investments could help salmon, as well as people, get where they need to go.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZR4_LhPCgbo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Like other Pacific salmon species, sockeye salmon migrate upriver from the sea to spawn in streams far inland.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>From streams to the sea and back</h2>
<p>Most salmon are <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZR4_LhPCgbo">anadromous</a>: They are born in streams, dine on aquatic insects and then make their way downstream to live the majority of their adult lives in the ocean. Then, <a href="https://www.nps.gov/olym/learn/nature/the-salmon-life-cycle.htm">one to seven years later</a>, depending on the species, they return to the streams where they were born to reproduce. </p>
<p>Each female lays hundreds of eggs in a redd, or depression, in river bottom gravel. Males <a href="https://www.nps.gov/olym/learn/nature/the-salmon-life-cycle.htm">release milt (fluid containing sperm) into the water</a>, fertilizing the eggs. Of the thousands of eggs an individual female can lay in a lifetime, <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/wfrc/science/questions-and-answers-about-salmon?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects">approximately 0.001% or fewer will hatch and survive to adulthood</a>. </p>
<p>Salmon are at the top of many rivers’ complex food chains. They are a <a href="https://www.wildorca.org/orcas-and-salmon/">primary food source for orcas</a> found off the coast of Washington and British Columbia. And they play vital roles in maintaining the health of the state’s waterways by <a href="https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=wildlifenews.view_article&articles_id=407">providing essential nutrients</a>, such as nitrogen and phosphorus.</p>
<p>Salmon also hold <a href="https://www.critfc.org/salmon-culture/tribal-salmon-culture/">significant cultural value</a> for Indigenous peoples, who have fought to maintain tribal fishing rights on Washington’s rivers in the face of dam construction and lack of culvert maintenance. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"920410348032753665"}"></div></p>
<h2>An uphill journey to spawn</h2>
<p>Anadromous salmons’ arduous journey upstream to reproduce can cover <a href="https://www.fws.gov/salmonofthewest/salmon.htm">several thousand miles</a>. Once the fish pass through estuaries – tidal zones where rivers meet the ocean – they stop feeding, using all their energy to swim.</p>
<p>When roads cross over streams or creeks, engineers build <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/west-coast/endangered-species-conservation/fish-passage-solutions-west-coast-culverts-tidegates-and">culverts</a> to maintain the flow of water. They can be made of concrete, steel or other materials, in various shapes, but usually they are arches or tubes. Maintaining a stream’s flow prevents flooding, which is good for the roadway and everyone around it, and supports the animals living in the waterway.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/barriers-fish-migration">Migrating fish</a> depend on accessible waterways. Young salmon and <a href="https://npafc.org/species/">other anadromous species</a> need to reach the ocean – where there is space to disperse and much more abundant high-energy food than in fresh water – in order to mature and grow to large sizes. </p>
<p>And since water flows downhill, returning upstream to reproduce is literally an uphill battle. Salmon are powerful fish and can bypass some natural barriers by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5pTnejk4s4">jumping out of the water</a>, but they can’t get around obstructed culverts.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6Ory-XZW3i8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Retired biologist Paul Dorn and Quinault Tribe student Talon Capoeman-Williams explain why stream health and maintenance matter for salmon migration.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Repairs and rights</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, many culverts that are meant to keep streams and rivers accessible to fish are in disrepair, congested or completely blocked. This interferes with the reserved fishing rights of Tribes in the Pacific Northwest, protected by 19th-century treaties with the U.S. government.</p>
<p>In 2001, 21 of Washington’s treaty tribes <a href="https://crosscut.com/2018/06/will-state-learn-another-loss-tribal-fishing-rights">took the state to court</a> to force it to repair or replace culverts that would ensure safe passage for salmon and other fish. In 2013, a U.S. District Court judge set deadlines to repair Washington’s worst culverts. </p>
<p>The state appealed the ruling, but the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals and the U.S. Supreme Court <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/11/us/washington-salmon-culverts-supreme-court.html">upheld it</a>. As a result, the state now faces a 2030 deadline to repair 490 of its most problematic culverts. In 2018 Washington’s Department of Fish and Wildlife conservatively estimated that the state had 20,000 impaired culverts, including those affected by the federal injunction. </p>
<p>Washington’s <a href="https://app.leg.wa.gov/rcw/default.aspx?cite=77.95.160">Fish Barrier Removal Board</a> oversees culvert repair projects. It includes appointees from many state organizations, but none from the treaty tribes involved in the litigation. The board has approved about eight funded repair or replacement projects per year since 2017, but it needs to fund at least 36 per year to meet the injunction deadline.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431719/original/file-20211112-17238-1ccgjxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Fish swims into a passageway underneath a bank covered with ivy." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431719/original/file-20211112-17238-1ccgjxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431719/original/file-20211112-17238-1ccgjxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431719/original/file-20211112-17238-1ccgjxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431719/original/file-20211112-17238-1ccgjxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431719/original/file-20211112-17238-1ccgjxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431719/original/file-20211112-17238-1ccgjxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431719/original/file-20211112-17238-1ccgjxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A salmon migrating upstream to reproduce enters a culvert in Sedro-Woolley, Washington.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ashlee Abrantes</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Clearing the way</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/10/us/politics/infrastructure-bill-passes.html">federal infrastructure bill</a> includes US$1 billion to <a href="https://nwsportsmanmag.com/infrastructure-bill-passage-includes-fish-wildlife-passage-elements/">remove, fix or replace culverts that impede fish passage nationwide</a> – a provision <a href="https://kilmer.house.gov/news/press-releases/kilmer-votes-to-create-jobs-and-support-historic-bipartisan-investment-in-american-infrastructure">written by members of Washington’s congressional delegation</a>, constituting the first federal program dedicated to this issue. The bill also provides $350 million to build <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/05/31/climate/wildlife-crossings-animals.html">wildlife-friendly road crossings</a> and reconnect <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/news/new-maps-document-big-game-migrations-across-western-united-states">migration routes</a> that have been fragmented by development. </p>
<p>Pacific salmon support fisheries worth over <a href="https://media.fisheries.noaa.gov/2021-09/FEUS2017-final-v1.3.pdf">$700 million annually</a>. And conserving salmon habitat generates <a href="https://your.kingcounty.gov/dnrp/library/2005/kcr1845.pdf">billions of dollars in ecosystem services</a>, such as reduced flooding and better fishing opportunities, for waterways in and around Seattle. </p>
<p>Compared with these benefits, I see investments to fix culverts and make the state’s infrastructure more environmentally friendly as a bargain. As human populations increase and development pushes deeper into wild areas, I believe there will be a growing need for measures like this that can help people coexist safely with wild species.</p>
<p><em>This article has been updated to accurately reflect legal doctrine governing tribal fishing rights, specifically as stated in U.S. vs. Winans, 198 U.S. 371 (1905): “The Treaty was not a grant of rights to the Indians, but a reservation by the Indians of rights already possessed and not granted away by them.”</em></p>
<p>[<em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-newsletter-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/169982/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ashlee Abrantes receives funding from the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program. </span></em></p>Salmon migrate thousands of miles from inland streams to the ocean and back. The newly enacted infrastructure bill includes funding to help salmon and other wild species on their way.Ashlee Abrantes, Ph.D. Candidate in Environmental Science & Policy, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1678542021-09-16T20:08:21Z2021-09-16T20:08:21ZTasmania’s salmon industry detonates underwater bombs to scare away seals – but at what cost?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421037/original/file-20210914-15-165vtic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C6%2C4256%2C2816&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australians <a href="https://blog.csiro.au/heres-the-seafood-australians-eat-and-what-we-should-be-eating/">consume</a> a lot of salmon – much of it farmed in Tasmania. But as Richard Flanagan’s <a href="https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=richard+flanagan+toxic&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8">new book Toxic</a> shows, concern about the industry’s environmental damage is growing. </p>
<p>With the industry set to <a href="https://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/Documents/salmonplan.pdf">double in size</a> by 2030, one dubious industry practice should be intensely scrutinised – the use of so-called “cracker bombs” or seal bombs.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2020-12-01/tasmanian-atlantic-salmon-industry-growth-over-30-years/12923592">A$1 billion industry</a> uses the technique to deter seals and protect fish farming operations. Cracker bombs are underwater explosive devices that emit sharp, extremely loud noise impulses. Combined, Tasmania’s three major salmon farm operators have <a href="https://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/Documents/RTI%20075%20-%202020-21.pdf">detonated</a> at least 77,000 crackers since 2018. </p>
<p>The industry says the deterrent is necessary, but international research shows the devices pose a <a href="https://montereybay.noaa.gov/research/techreports/trkerr2018.html">significant threat</a> to some marine life. Unless the salmon industry is more strictly controlled, native species will likely be killed or injured as the industry expands.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="pile of grey and white fish" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tasmanian salmon farming is a billion-dollar industry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Protecting a lucrative industry</h2>
<p>Marine farming has been <a href="https://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/sea-fishing-aquaculture/marine-farming-aquaculture">growing rapidly</a> in Tasmania since the 1990s, and Atlantic salmon is Tasmania’s <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/research/animals/Aquaculture/Salmon">most lucrative</a> fishery‑related industry. The salmon industry comprises three major producers: Huon Aquaculture, Tassal and Petuna. </p>
<p>These companies go to great effort to protect their operations from fur seals, which are <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/marine/marine-species/seals-and-sea-lions">protected</a> in Australia with <a href="https://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/wildlife-management/management-of-wildlife/seal-management">an exemption</a> for the salmon industry. </p>
<p>Seals may attack fish pens in search of food and injure salmon farm divers, though known incidents of harm to divers are <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-10-25/tasmania-salmon-farm-seal-response-too-much-advocates-say/10422294">extremely rare</a>.</p>
<p>The industry uses a number of seal deterrent devices, the use of which is approved by the government. <a href="https://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/Documents/Seal%20Management%20Framework.pdf">They include</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>lead-filled projectiles known as “beanbags”, which are fired from a gun</p></li>
<li><p>sedation darts fired from a gun</p></li>
<li><p>explosive charges or “crackers” thrown into the water which detonate under the surface.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>In June this year, the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-06-18/salmon-giant-tassal-behind-seal-deaths-and-injuries/100226774">ABC reported</a> on government documents showing the three major salmon producers had detonated more than 77,000 crackers since 2018. The documents showed how various seal deterrent methods had led to maiming, death and seal injuries resulting in euthanasia. Blunt-force trauma was a factor in half the reported seal deaths.</p>
<p>A response to this article by the salmon industry can be found below. The industry has previoulsy <a href="https://www.theadvocate.com.au/story/5699108/seal-control-methods-scrutinised/">defended</a> the use of cracker bombs, saying it has a responsibility to protect workers. It says the increased use of seal-proof infrastructure means the use of seal deterrents is declining. If this is true, it’s not yet strongly reflected in the data.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-the-seafood-australians-eat-and-what-we-should-be-eating-108046">Here's the seafood Australians eat (and what we should be eating)</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="salmon farm infrastructure in water" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Seal deterrents are deployed to protect salmon farm operations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Piercing the ocean silence</h2>
<p>Given the prevalence of seal bomb use by the salmon industry, it’s worth reviewing the evidence on how they affect seals and other marine life.</p>
<p>A study on the use of the devices in California <a href="https://www.middlebury.edu/institute/sites/www.middlebury.edu.institute/files/2018-12/Seal%20Bombs%20in%20CA-%20Final.pdf">showed</a> they can cause horrific injuries to seals. The damage includes trauma to bones, soft tissue burns and prolapsed eye balls, as well as <a href="https://www.et.org.au/grisly_animal_welfare_abuses">death</a>.</p>
<p>And research suggests damage to marine life extends far beyond seals. For example, the devices can disturb porpoises which rely on echolocation to find food, avoid predators and navigate the ocean. Porpoises emit clicks and squeaks – sound which travels through the water and bounces off objects. In 2018, a <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.00142/full">study</a> found seal bombs could disturb harbour porpoises in California at least 64 kilometres from the detonation site.</p>
<p>There is also a body of research showing how similar types of industrial noise affect marine life. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-16569-x">A study</a> in South Africa in 2017 showed how during seismic surveys in search of oil or gas, which produce intense ocean noise, penguins raising chicks often avoided their preferred foraging areas. Whales and fish have also shown similar avoidance behaviour.</p>
<p>The study showed underwater blasts can also kill and injure seabirds such as penguins. And there may be implications from leaving penguin nests unattended and vulnerable to predators, and leaving chicks hungry longer. </p>
<p>Research also shows underwater explosions damage to fish. <a href="https://www.awionline.org/sites/default/files/uploads/documents/McCauley-1238105863-10165.pdf">One study</a> on caged fish reported profound trauma to their ears, including blistering, holes and other damage. Another <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.00142/full">study</a> cited official reports of dead fish in the vicinity of seal bomb explosions.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-causing-tuna-to-migrate-which-could-spell-catastrophe-for-the-small-islands-that-depend-on-them-164000">Climate change is causing tuna to migrate, which could spell catastrophe for the small islands that depend on them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="dolphin jumps out of waves" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Man-made noise can disturb a variety of marine animals, including porpoises.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Shining a light</h2>
<p>Clearly, more scientific research is needed into how seal bombs affect marine life in the oceans off Tasmania. And regulators should impose far stricter limits on the salmon industry’s use of seal bombs – a call <a href="https://salmonreform.org/upload/675860/documents/B9FB00CB7B9F994C.pdf">echoed</a> by Tasmania’s Salmon Reform Alliance. </p>
<p>All this is unfolding as federal environment laws <a href="https://theconversation.com/let-there-be-no-doubt-blame-for-our-failing-environment-laws-lies-squarely-at-the-feet-of-government-141482">fail</a> to protect Australian plant and animal species, including <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/scienceshow/a-call-for-strengthened-environmental-legislation/13371866">marine wildlife</a>. </p>
<p>And the laws in Tasmania are far from perfect. In 2017, Tasmania’s Finfish Farming Environmental Regulation <a href="https://www.legislation.tas.gov.au/view/html/inforce/2017-12-04/act-2017-046">Act</a> introduced opportunities for better oversight of commercial fisheries. However, as the Environmental Defenders Office (<a href="https://www.edo.org.au/publication/fin-fish-farming-environmental-regulation-tasmania/">EDO</a>) has noted, the director of Tasmania’s Environment Protection Authority can decide on license applications by salmon farms without the development necessarily undergoing a full environmental assessment. </p>
<p>Tasmania’s Marine Farming Planning Act <a href="https://www.legislation.tas.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-1995-031">covers</a> salmon farm locations and leases. As the EDO <a href="https://www.parliament.tas.gov.au/ctee/Council/Submissions/FIN%20FISH/Submissions%20126%20-%20223/220%20Environmental%20Defenders%20Office.pdf">has noted</a>, the public is not notified of some key decisions under the law and has very limited public rights of appeal.</p>
<p>Two relevant public inquiries are underway – a federal inquiry into <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/About_the_House_News/Media_Releases/Opportunities_for_expansion_in_aquaculture">aquaculture expansion</a> and a Tasmanian parliamentary probe into <a href="https://www.parliament.tas.gov.au/ctee/Council/Reports/gaa.inq.FIN.rep.200409.INTERIMREPORTFIN.%20jm.004.pdf">fin-fish sustainability</a>. Both have heard evidence from community stakeholders, such as the <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/House/Standing_Committee_on_Agriculture_and_Water_Resources/Australianaquaculture/Submissions">Tasmanian Alliance for Marine Protection</a> and the <a href="https://www.parliament.tas.gov.au/ctee/Council/Submissions/FIN%20FISH/Submissions%201%20-%20125/89%20Tasman%20Peninsula%20Marine%20Protection.pdf">Tasmanian Conservation Trust</a>, that the Tasmanian salmon industry lacks transparency and provides insufficient opportunities for public input into environmental governance.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/Documents/salmonplan.pdf">Tasmanian government</a> has thrown its support behind rapid expansion of the salmon industry. But it’s essential that the industry is more tightly regulated, and far more accountable for any environmental damage it creates.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-indigenous-knowledge-should-be-an-essential-part-of-how-we-govern-the-worlds-oceans-161649">Why Indigenous knowledge should be an essential part of how we govern the world's oceans</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<hr>
<p>In a statement in response to this article, the Tasmanian Salmonid Growers Association, which represents the three producers named above, said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Around $500 million has been spent on innovative pens by the industry. These pens are designed to minimise risks to wildlife as well as to fish stocks and the employees. We believe that farms should be designed to minimise the threat of seals, but we also understand that non-lethal deterrents are a part of the measures approved by the government for the individual member companies to use. If these deterrents are used it is under strict guidelines, sparingly, and in emergency situations when staff are threatened by these animals, which can be very aggressive.</p>
<p>Tasmania has a strong, highly regulated, longstanding salmon industry of which we should all be proud. The salmon industry will continue its track record of operating at world’s best practice now and into future. Our local people have been working in regional communities for more than 30 years, to bring healthy, nutritious salmon to Australian dinner plates, through innovation and determination.</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167854/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Benjamin Richardson is a member of the Tasmanian Greens, and a former member of the management committee of the Tasmanian Environmental Defenders Office.</span></em></p>The industry says the deterrent is necessary, but evidence suggests the devices pose a significant threat to some marine life, including maiming and killing seals.Benjamin J. Richardson, Professor of Environmental Law, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1519042021-03-26T12:24:08Z2021-03-26T12:24:08ZFarming fish in fresh water is more affordable and sustainable than in the ocean<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391754/original/file-20210325-15-bts8vt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C16%2C5503%2C3650&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Jeremiah Kiarie rounds up tilapia at Green Algae Highland fish farm in central Kenya on April 29, 2017.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/jeremiah-son-of-fish-farmer-william-kiarie-rounds-up-news-photo/696599724">Tony Karumba/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A tidal wave of interest is building in farming the seas. It’s part of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/blue-economy-how-a-handful-of-companies-reap-most-of-the-benefits-in-multi-billion-ocean-industries-153165">global rush</a> to exploit oceanic resources that’s been dubbed the “<a href="https://theconversation.com/blue-acceleration-our-dash-for-ocean-resources-mirrors-what-weve-already-done-to-the-land-130264">blue acceleration</a>.” </p>
<p>Optimistic projections say that smart mariculture – fish farming at sea – could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2616-y">increase ocean fish and shellfish production</a> by 21 million to 44 million metric tons by 2050, a 36%-74% jump from current yields. Other estimates suggest that an ocean aquaculture area <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-a-tiny-portion-of-the-worlds-oceans-could-help-meet-global-seafood-demand-82680">the size of Lake Michigan</a> might produce the same amount of seafood as all of the world’s wild-caught fisheries combined. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>This story is part of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/oceans-21-96784">Oceans 21</a></em></strong>
<br><em>Our series on the global ocean opened with <a href="https://oceans21.netlify.app/">five in depth profiles</a>. Look out for new articles on the state of our oceans in the lead up to the UN’s next climate conference, COP26. The series is brought to you by The Conversation’s international network.</em></p>
<p>Our work as interdisciplinary researchers studying <a href="https://worldfishcenter.org/strategy-2030/">aquatic</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=gs3YPlEAAAAJ&hl=en">food</a> <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wenbo-Zhang-18">systems</a> shows that these claims <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19679-9">exaggerate mariculture’s true potential</a>, and that increasing mariculture in a sustainable way is fraught with challenges. </p>
<p>We see <a href="https://theconversation.com/let-them-eat-carp-fish-farms-are-helping-to-fight-hunger-90421">freshwater fish farms</a> as a better way to help fight hunger and bolster food security. In our view, governments, funders and scientists should focus on improving aquaculture on land to help meet the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals">United Nation Sustainable Development Goals</a>. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-yhtVSW65Ag?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In recent years Bangladesh has become a leader in low-cost, sustainable aquaculture.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Questionable assumptions</h2>
<p>Ocean aquaculture advocates often cite limited supplies of wild-caught fish and call for <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/10/how-aquaculture-can-feed-the-world-and-save-the-planet-at-the-same-time">cultivating them to feed the world</a>. As they see it, aquaculture on land is limited by scarce land and freshwater resources, while the oceans offer vast areas suitable for farming. </p>
<p>Framed this way, mariculture seems to offer boundless potential to meet future demand for seafood and feed vulnerable populations with <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/05/how-to-build-a-bluer-ocean-economy-after-cobid-19/">little environmental impact</a>. But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19679-9">our research</a> paints a different picture. We see far fewer technical, economic and resource constraints for freshwater aquaculture than for ocean farming, and far greater potential for land-based fish farms to contribute to global food security.</p>
<p>Freshwater aquaculture has grown steadily over the past three decades. Asia is at the center of this boom, accounting for <a href="http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca9229en">89% of world aquaculture production</a>, excluding plants. </p>
<p>The most important species groups – carp, tilapia and catfish – are herbivorous or omnivorous, so they don’t need to eat animal protein to thrive. While they may be fed small amounts of fish to speed growth, their mainstay diet consists of inexpensive byproducts of crops like rice, groundnut and soy, as well as natural plankton.</p>
<p>It’s relatively cheap and easy to grow freshwater fish in small earthen ponds. Aquaculture has been an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2018.08.077">economic boon</a>, especially in Asia, providing jobs and income for vast numbers of family farms, workers and small businesses. Farmed freshwater fish tend to be an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.10.005">affordable staple food</a> for millions of low- and middle-income consumers – and many better-off ones, too. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1362437219651379203"}"></div></p>
<h2>Raising marine fish</h2>
<p>Raising marine fish is a different proposition. The harsh ocean environment makes production risky, and the biology of these species makes many of them difficult and costly to breed and grow. </p>
<p>Most marine aquaculture species are carnivores, so they need other fish as part of their diets. About <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12209">20 million metric tons of fish</a> caught each year is used instead to feed farmed fish. It’s a <a href="https://www.seafoodwatch.org/seafood-basics/sustainable-solutions/limit-wild-fish-use-as-feed">contentious environmental and ethical issue</a>, as some of these fish could otherwise be food for humans.</p>
<p>Improvements in technology have reduced, though not eliminated, the amount of fish used in feeds, especially for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10641262.2011.597890">farmed salmon</a>. It now takes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2019.100216">half as much fresh fish</a> to raise salmon as it did 20 years ago. </p>
<p>These innovations were achieved through <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13657305.2019.1632391">massive investments</a> by the Norwegian government and the industry, dating back to the 1970s. Research focused on genetic improvement, nutrition and production systems, and it’s paid off. Farmed salmon now accounts for <a href="http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/global-production/en">45% of all fish farmed from the sea</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Floating salmon pens off Canadian coast." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Grieg Seafood operates a salmon farm in Clio Channel, Broughton Archipelago, British Columbia, Canada, in partnership with the Tlowitsis First Nation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/2jnT5gB">David Stanley/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, it’s unlikely that other less popular fish, like grouper, sea bass or cobia, will be as thoroughly researched or farmed with the same efficiency. The market is too small. </p>
<p>For a land-based analogy, think of chickens. Like salmon, they have long been the focus of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.180325">intensive research and development</a>. As a result, they now grow to market size in just 45 days. On the other hand, the guinea fowl – a chickenlike bird raised for specialty markets – has undergone limited selective breeding, develops slowly and yields far less meat, making it more costly to raise and more expensive to buy. </p>
<h2>Farming the open ocean</h2>
<p>Marine fish farming is currently done in sheltered bays and sea lochs. But there is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1808737115">growing interest</a> in a new high-tech method that raises fish in huge submersible cages anchored far from land in the open ocean. It’s risky business, with high operating costs. Expensive infrastructure is vulnerable to intense storms. </p>
<p>To be successful, offshore farms will need to grow high-priced fish such as bluefin tuna. And they will need to operate at industrial scale, like SalMar’s massive “Ocean Farm” in Norway, which has capacity for <a href="https://salmonbusiness.com/salmars-gigantic-ocean-farm-gears-up-for-harvest/">1.5 million fish</a>.</p>
<p>While open-ocean mariculture may be technically feasible, its economic viability is questionable. Pilot projects in Norway, <a href="https://www.marinelink.com/news/aquaculture-inside-de-maas-offshore-fish-483165">China</a> and the <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/can-deepwater-aquaculture-avoid-the-pitfalls-of-coastal-fish-farms">U.S.</a> are not yet commercially successful. And though there is strong global demand for salmon, other species like grouper have small niche markets. They are likely to remain specialized high-end products because of steep production costs. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Boats move a 100-foot-tall circular pen through ocean waters." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A tugboat tows an offshore ocean farming facility in Qingdao, China, on June 14, 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/an-offshore-ocean-farming-facility-ocean-farm-1-is-towed-by-news-photo/696148000">Visual China Group via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Freshwater alternatives</h2>
<p>Human population is growing fastest in <a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/publications/world-population-prospects-2019-highlights.html">Africa</a>, and incomes are rising most rapidly in <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/12/asia-economic-growth/">Asia</a>. Most additional future demand for fish will come from low- and middle-income consumers in these regions. Farming tilapia and catfish is already becoming more popular in Egypt and both West and East Africa. </p>
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<p>Meanwhile, total seafood consumption in high-income countries <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/I9540EN/i9540en.pdf">has plateaued</a> since 2000. But even in these countries, demand for farmed freshwater fish is growing because it’s an affordable source of protein. In the U.S., tilapia, <a href="https://www.seafoodhealthfacts.org/description-top-commercial-seafood-items/pangasius">pangasius</a> (freshwater catfish) and channel catfish are the fourth-, sixth- and eighth-most-<a href="https://aboutseafood.com/about/top-ten-list-for-seafood-consumption/">consumed</a> seafood items.</p>
<p>Offshore mariculture might one day produce luxury fish that generate profits for a few large investors. But we believe freshwater aquaculture will continue to feed far more people and benefit many more farmers and small businesses. </p>
<p>Investments in selective breeding, disease control and farm management through public-private partnerships can create a more sustainable aquaculture industry, reducing the amount of land, freshwater and feed used to grow fish while increasing productivity. For more inclusive and sustainable development, we believe governments and funders should prioritize raising fish on land.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151904/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ben Belton shares a joint appointment with WorldFish as Global Lead for Social and Economic Inclusion</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dave Little receives funding from, and works on a voluntary basis for, various organisations supporting knowledge development and promotion of aquaculture. He has interests in a commercial tilapia company.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wenbo Zhang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Aquaculture is a growing source of healthy protein for millions of people around the world, but there are big differences between farming fish on land and at sea.Ben Belton, Associate Professor of International Development, Michigan State UniversityDave Little, Professor of Aquatic Resources Development, University of StirlingWenbo Zhang, Lecturer in Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1565382021-03-23T21:03:11Z2021-03-23T21:03:11Z‘Dancing’ fish could be key to ridding salmon farms of parasites<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390948/original/file-20210322-17-gs54h1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C0%2C5964%2C3368&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A bluestreak cleaner wrasse in an aquarium.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Biologists study the social behaviour of fish through their communication, which includes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-27721-9_2">grunts, clicks</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2003.0107">coordinated flatulence</a>. Cleaner fish feed on the parasites that live on the skin of many different species of fish, known as clients.</p>
<p>Some species of tropical cleaner fish are skilled communicators and display <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2004.05.048">elaborate dances</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105275">New research</a> focusing on the social behaviour of cold-water cleaner fish aims to help salmon farmers control parasitic sea-lice in aquaculture. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/salmon-farms-are-in-crisis-heres-how-scientists-are-trying-to-save-them-94538">Salmon farms are in crisis – here's how scientists are trying to save them</a>
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<h2>Dancing tropical fish</h2>
<p>Diving among the coral reefs of the Indo-Pacific — the geographic region comprising the Indian Ocean and the west Pacific Ocean — you might see a <a href="https://www.fishbase.se/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?ID=5459&AT=bluestreak+cleaner+wrasse">bluestreak cleaner wrasse</a>, which is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470996058.ch12">highly intelligent</a> species and perhaps the first fish to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000021">show self-awareness</a>. This wrasse relies on cleaning parasites from clients to find the majority of its diet. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391010/original/file-20210322-15-1bkbq6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="two small cleaner wrasses on a bigger orange lunar-tailed bigeye, including one in the mouth" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391010/original/file-20210322-15-1bkbq6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391010/original/file-20210322-15-1bkbq6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391010/original/file-20210322-15-1bkbq6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391010/original/file-20210322-15-1bkbq6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391010/original/file-20210322-15-1bkbq6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391010/original/file-20210322-15-1bkbq6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391010/original/file-20210322-15-1bkbq6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Bluestreak cleaner wrasses communicate with their client fish in order to provide a mutually beneficial service.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Attracting new clients and getting them to cooperate while removing parasites can be a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.2469">difficult task</a>. To make the job easier, bluestreak cleaner wrasse perform a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2004.05.048">complex dance</a> and massage clients with their fins. This display <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms1547">relaxes the client</a>, allowing the cleaner to approach and closely inspect its skin for parasites. </p>
<p>This is an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12198">example of mutualism</a> because both parties benefit from interaction: the cleaner gets a meal and the client is rid of parasites. For decades, biologists have studied the behaviour of bluestreak cleaner wrasse to research mutualism, however, there are <a href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v540/p217-226/">many other species</a> of cleaner fish which are yet to be studied. </p>
<h2>Cold-water communication</h2>
<p>Investigating whether cold-water cleaner fish communicate with clients is particularly important for the salmon aquaculture business. Sea-lice are a huge <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/19245636">economic</a>, <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2004.3027">ecological</a> and <a href="https://salmonbusiness.com/disturbing-lice-salmon-video-sparks-huge-animal-welfare-concerns/">ethical</a> problem for salmon farmers, and controlling louse populations is a big challenge. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389388/original/file-20210313-17-6ydo8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="salmon-louse attached to a salmon" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389388/original/file-20210313-17-6ydo8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389388/original/file-20210313-17-6ydo8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389388/original/file-20210313-17-6ydo8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389388/original/file-20210313-17-6ydo8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389388/original/file-20210313-17-6ydo8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389388/original/file-20210313-17-6ydo8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389388/original/file-20210313-17-6ydo8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adult female salmon-louse attached on a salmon host.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ben Whittaker</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.509">Stocking cold-water cleaner fish in sea-farms</a> may help reduce parasite numbers on the salmon. However it is unknown whether cold-water cleaner fish dance for their clients, or whether these species can communicate at all, which would affect <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12194">how good they are at removing sea-lice</a> from salmon. </p>
<p>To investigate this potential, our <a href="https://www.uoguelph.ca/ib/boulding">research team</a> at the University of Guelph looked at how cunner wrasse communicated with salmon.</p>
<h2>Strike a pose</h2>
<p>Along with Sumika Maeda, we filmed <a href="https://www.fishbase.se/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?ID=3672&AT=cunner">cunner wrasse</a>, a native cleaner fish from eastern Canada, swimming inside aquariums with salmon to see how the two species interact. At first, we were disappointed not to see any underwater dancing, but then a particularly large cunner swam out in front of the salmon and made an unusual pose. </p>
<p>The cunner pointed down towards the floor, spread its fins open wide, and hung suspended in the water for a few brief moments before swimming away. Several minutes later it returned to strike another pose, this time for longer, and moving slowly around the salmon. </p>
<p>Our video analysis showed that cunners posed more frequently towards salmon that had sea-lice on their skin, compared to salmon free of parasites. Cunners that posed more frequently would get closer to salmon, and also spend longer time periods visually inspecting the salmon.</p>
<p>These results imply that cunner wrasse pose towards salmon as a form of communication, which helps the cunner gain access to lice on the salmon’s skin. </p>
<h2>Poser for mutualism</h2>
<p>Cunner wrasse didn’t perform the complex ballet of their tropical counterpart, however, they displayed a series of highly exaggerated poses that was reminiscent of the <a href="https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog-post/brief-history-voguing">voguing trend</a> of the late 1980s. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/TsoNjVSSSsI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A cunner wrasse poses for salmon.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This simpler dance style might reflect the fact that cunners can find <a href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/7195196">alternate food sources</a>, and don’t rely on eating parasites as much as bluestreak cleaner wrasse. Studying more diverse species of cleaner fish might give more insight on the biology of mutualism and fish communication.</p>
<p>It’s important to note than not every cunner showed posing behaviour and some individuals would hide from salmon, whereas others embraced the spotlight. Measuring differences in posing behaviours could help farmers choose the best cleaners to use for sea-lice control. It could also help identify factors that influence communication between cunner wrasse and salmon, like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016.03.047">genetics</a> and <a href="http://hdl.handle.net/10451/30309">environment</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/156538/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth G. Boulding received funding for this project from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada STPGP</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ben Whittaker does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cleaner fish feed on the parasites that live on other fish. Studying communication between cleaner fish and their clients may help employ them in salmon farms, which can be plagued by parasites.Ben Whittaker, Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of Integrative Biology, University of GuelphElizabeth Boulding, Professor, Integrative Biology, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1548162021-03-04T11:06:24Z2021-03-04T11:06:24ZYour favorite fishing stream may be at high risk from climate change – here’s how to tell<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/383623/original/file-20210210-23-1f0u7xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5751%2C3811&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Stream temperature affects the survival of fish like salmon and trout.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/fly-fisherwoman-casting-and-fishing-british-colombia-canada-news-photo/1277721026">Peter Adams/Avalon/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many of the streams that people count on for fishing, water and recreation are getting warmer as global temperatures rise. But they aren’t all heating up in the same way.</p>
<p>If communities can figure out where these streams will warm the most, they can plan for the future. That has been difficult to predict in the past, but a new method involving temperature patterns may make it easier. </p>
<p>People have widely assumed that streams fed by substantial amounts of groundwater are more resistant to climate change than those fed mostly by snowmelt or rain. It turns out that this groundwater buffering effect varies quite a bit. The depth of the groundwater affects the stream temperature response to warming, which in turn affects the habitats of fish and other wildlife and plants.</p>
<p>In a study published in March 2021 in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-21651-0">Nature Communications</a>, my colleagues and I describe a simple, inexpensive method that allows communities to look at the temperature history of a stream compared to local air temperature to gauge the depth of the groundwater feeding into it and, from there, assess its risk as the climate changes. </p>
<h2>Why temperature matters</h2>
<p>While a few degrees of temperature change may not seem like much, the majority of animals living in streams and rivers cannot regulate their own body temperatures, so they move around in the environment to find suitable habitats. Many have adapted over time to a narrow range of temperatures. For example, when the waters are warm, especially during hot summer months with low water flow, fish like salmon and trout that live in colder waters must seek out colder water or perish. These ecological effects can have cascading consequences – for wildlife, humans and local economies.</p>
<p>Most streams flow all the time. During times without rainfall, water in streams mostly comes from below ground. In fact, groundwater is thought to make up an average of <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1139/">52% of surface water flow across the United States</a>. </p>
<p>Because groundwater is typically colder than surface water in summer, the groundwater flowing into streams can buffer the overall stream temperature from climate warming. However, deeper groundwater tends to have more stable temperatures than groundwater closer to the surface.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Map from the study" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386012/original/file-20210224-17-1vbwuqv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386012/original/file-20210224-17-1vbwuqv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386012/original/file-20210224-17-1vbwuqv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386012/original/file-20210224-17-1vbwuqv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386012/original/file-20210224-17-1vbwuqv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386012/original/file-20210224-17-1vbwuqv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386012/original/file-20210224-17-1vbwuqv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A new technique can classify whether the water flowing into streams is primarily from groundwater and whether that groundwater is from shallow or deep sources.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Danielle Hare</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Previous studies have shown that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2005.00052.x">groundwater temperature</a> is tied to the depth that it travels. <a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-2469-2015">Shallow groundwater is more readily influenced by climate variability</a> because it’s close to the land surface. <a href="http://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-1393-2019">It is also more susceptible to drying,</a> which can reduce, or even disconnect, the shallow groundwater flow from the stream.</p>
<p>Our research builds on these observations. We found that streams with shallow groundwater sources are likely to be warming as much as streams fed mostly by snowmelt and rain, and at similar rates.</p>
<h2>Figuring out a stream’s risk</h2>
<p>The main method currently used to evaluate if streams are fed by groundwater at large scales cannot differentiate between a stream that relies on shallow groundwater and one fed by deep groundwater. That means that plans for how to manage the effects of climate change are likely not accounting for these important differences. Other studies have also shown that <a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-2469-2015">changes to the land</a>, such as from wildfires, snow pack changes and deforestation, influence shallow groundwater temperature more than deep groundwater temperature. </p>
<p>Looking at temperature patterns can provide more information about the risks streams might face. </p>
<p>We found that when the temperature of a stream follows the same warming and cooling pattern as the air temperature, with a time lag of about 10-40 days, that stream is likely being fed by shallow groundwater. Deeper groundwater stays cooler in the summer and the stream’s temperature doesn’t fluctuate as much.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Chart of stream water and air temperature" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/383941/original/file-20210212-15-1rjqrhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/383941/original/file-20210212-15-1rjqrhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/383941/original/file-20210212-15-1rjqrhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/383941/original/file-20210212-15-1rjqrhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/383941/original/file-20210212-15-1rjqrhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/383941/original/file-20210212-15-1rjqrhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/383941/original/file-20210212-15-1rjqrhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When stream water temperature follows the same warming pattern as local air temperature, but with a lag of about 10 to 40 days, it’s a sign that the stream is fed by shallow groundwater.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Danielle Hare</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We analyzed the water and air temperature at 1,424 sites along streams across the United States and found that approximately 40% of the streams were strongly influenced by groundwater. Of those, we found that half were fed predominantly by shallow groundwater, which was much higher than expected. Comparing this method’s results <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.344">against field and modeling data</a> in smaller studies has shown its rigor.</p>
<p>[<em>Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?nl=science&source=science-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Because this method requires only stream and air temperature data, landowners and local communities can gather the data at little cost, or it may already be available. Once that information is known, they can plan for future changes and take steps to protect the water quality in streams that are most likely to provide long-term stability.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/154816/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Danielle Hare receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Groundwater was once thought to buffer streams from warming, but an inexpensive new technique shows streams fed by shallow groundwater may be just as susceptible as those without.Danielle Hare, Hydrogeologist, Graduate Research Assistant, University of ConnecticutLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1517322021-01-08T16:20:10Z2021-01-08T16:20:10ZHow city roads trap migrating fish<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377769/original/file-20210108-15-1o1reki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5615%2C3741&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Salmon crowd a river in Washington State in the US as they swim upstream to spawn.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/multicolored-coho-sockeye-chinook-salmon-issaquah-1274610649">Danita Delimont/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Greater London is <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/road-lengths-in-great-britain-2019">crisscrossed</a> by 14,800km of public roads, each with an average width of 8m. This network accounts for 8% of the metropolitan area, and motorways and A-roads alone cross the Thames and its tributaries at least 400 times. A similar picture is seen in cities across the world.</p>
<p>You’ve heard of, and maybe seen, <a href="https://theconversation.com/reports-of-uk-roadkill-down-two-thirds-but-will-hedgehogs-thrive-after-lockdown-137645">hedgehogs</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/wildlife-can-be-saved-from-becoming-roadkill-with-a-new-tool-that-finds-the-best-locations-for-fences-147153">deer</a> meeting sticky ends while trying to traverse the tarmac labyrinth. But fish need to cross roads too. Where roads cross small rivers – and they do, hidden underfoot, a lot more than you realise – you get structures like <a href="https://theconversation.com/culverts-the-major-threat-to-fish-youve-probably-never-heard-of-143629">culverts</a>. These are tunnels installed under roads and rail lines which are supposed to help the rivers flowing underneath stay connected.</p>
<p>But culverts, like dams and weirs, can limit the movement of water, nutrients and species in the rivers they conceal. Globally, the numbers of monitored migratory fish species have <a href="https://worldfishmigrationfoundation.com/living-planet-index-2020">declined</a> by an average of 76% since 1970. Culverts have contributed to this by disrupting the access of these species to food and spawning areas. Poorly installed, ageing, damaged, and “perched” culverts that form mini waterfalls on the downstream side of the structure modify water flows and prevent fishes from migrating up and downstream.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two large, metal tunnels with flowing water set in the side of a motorway embankment." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377758/original/file-20210108-15-17mh6ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377758/original/file-20210108-15-17mh6ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377758/original/file-20210108-15-17mh6ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377758/original/file-20210108-15-17mh6ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377758/original/file-20210108-15-17mh6ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377758/original/file-20210108-15-17mh6ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377758/original/file-20210108-15-17mh6ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Migratory fish can struggle to pass through culverts with raised outflows.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/culvert-drain-under-road-small-river-637070674">Maximillian cabinet/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But this is not the only effect that roads have on rivers. Roads carrying high volumes of traffic are also sources of toxic chemicals, which can run off tarmac and into nearby streams. Combined, culverts and chemicals create unhealthy environments that migratory fishes cannot avoid. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/culverts-the-major-threat-to-fish-youve-probably-never-heard-of-143629">Culverts – the major threat to fish you've probably never heard of</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>That’s not a roundabout, it’s a trap</h2>
<p>Like London, many of the world’s largest cities are nestled at river mouths – the first ports of call for migratory fishes. In the UK, Atlantic salmon return to rivers from the sea to spawn as adults, while European eels return to the same waters to feed as they grow from juveniles to adults. So salmon and eels both need to make it upstream and back again to the sea, navigating these large cities with their heavily trafficked roads to complete their lifecycles.</p>
<p>In the US city of Seattle in the 1990s, the habitats of some urban rivers were restored and culverts that had acted as barriers to migratory fish were removed. Despite this positive change, it was subsequently found that within these rivers, up to <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/371/6525/185">90% of Coho salmon</a> migrating upstream to spawn would suddenly die after rainstorms. Scientists determined that the deaths were related to the density of roads and high traffic volumes, but it wasn’t enough to pinpoint the exact cause. </p>
<p>It wasn’t until 2020, more than two decades later, that scientists <a href="https://phys.org/news/2020-12-scientists-mystery-mass-coho-salmon.html?utm_source=TrendMD&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=Phys.org_TrendMD_1">discovered</a> Coho salmon were dying en masse from exposure to a toxic chemical called 6PPD-quinone, which leaches from tyre particles that wash into streams. The <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/370/6521/1145?intcmp=trendmd-sci">researchers believe</a> this compound is probably found on busy roads globally. </p>
<p>A similar <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/dec/23/road-runoff-pollution-damages-londons-rivers-study-finds">study</a> from 2019 mapped the roads which contribute the most runoff pollution to rivers across Greater London, using the <a href="https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/road_runoff_water_quality_study_exec_summary_dec_19.pdf">number and types of vehicles</a> that travel on a given road each day and monthly rainfall figures. The hotspots of pollution the researchers were able to map corresponded with river catchments already classified as “poor” or “bad” by a recent EU Water Framework Directive assessment.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376999/original/file-20210104-23-1v8wfq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map showing Greater London's roads and where they cross river tributaries." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376999/original/file-20210104-23-1v8wfq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376999/original/file-20210104-23-1v8wfq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376999/original/file-20210104-23-1v8wfq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376999/original/file-20210104-23-1v8wfq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376999/original/file-20210104-23-1v8wfq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=673&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376999/original/file-20210104-23-1v8wfq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=673&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376999/original/file-20210104-23-1v8wfq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=673&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Roads and water quality in catchments of Greater London.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stephanie Januchowski-Hartley</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Avoiding the traps</h2>
<p>Around the world, more roads and higher traffic volumes lower the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/dec/23/road-runoff-pollution-damages-londons-rivers-study-finds">water quality</a> of urban rivers, increasing deaths among migratory fish species. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-did-the-fish-cross-the-road-our-invention-helps-them-get-to-the-other-side-of-a-culvert-103433">Modifying or replacing culverts</a> that limit fish movements will only be <a href="https://wdfw.wa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/01501/wdfw01501.pdf">part of the solution</a> if the toxic chemicals that run off tarmac and into rivers aren’t also addressed. In pollution hotspots, this will mean capturing and filtering stormwater before it enters rivers.</p>
<p>While much of the concern about cars has focused on air pollution and climate change, it’s increasingly clear that shifting to battery-powered alternatives alone won’t reverse the impacts that roads and driving have on rivers and the wider environment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151732/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephanie Januchowski-Hartley receives funding from Welsh European Funding Office and European Regional Development Fund under project number 80761-SU-140 (West).</span></em></p>A recent US study found tyre chemicals were polluting rivers and poisoning migratory salmon.Stephanie Januchowski-Hartley, Sêr Cymru Research Fellow in Environmental Sciences, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1507282020-12-14T13:20:54Z2020-12-14T13:20:54ZTaking fish out of fish feed can make aquaculture a more sustainable food source<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373983/original/file-20201209-18-iriec0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C2122%2C1404&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Farmed red tilapia, Thai Mueang, Thailand.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/red-tilapia-fish-farming-tubtim-fish-economic-royalty-free-image/1201463699">Kittichai Boonpong / EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Aquaculture, or fish farming, is the world’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en">fastest-growing food production sector</a>. But the key ingredients in commercial fish feed – fishmeal and fish oil – come from an unsustainable source: small fish, such as anchovies and herring, near the base of ocean food webs. </p>
<p>My colleagues and I have developed a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-75289-x">high-performing, fish-free aquaculture feed</a> that replaces these traditional ingredients with several types of microalgae – abundant single-celled organisms that form the very bottom of the food chain in fresh and saltwater ecosystems around the world. To test this approach, we developed our feed for <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/florida-fishes-gallery/nile-tilapia/">Nile tilapia</a> – the world’s <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/ca5224en/CA5224EN.pdf">second-most-farmed fish</a>, exceeded only by carp. </p>
<p>Our research showed that tilapia fed our fish-free diet grew significantly better, achieving 58% higher weight gain than tilapia fed conventional feed. The resulting cost per kilogram of tilapia raised on our feed was lower than for fish raised on conventional commercial feed. And our feed yielded a higher level of a key fatty acid that is <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-Consumer/">important for human health</a>, DHA omega-3, in the resulting tilapia fillets. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic of marine food chain" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Small schooling species such as sardines, sauries, and smelt – commonly known as forage fish – play a critical role in sustaining the ocean. These species eat tiny plants and animals, in turn becoming an important food source for bigger fish, seabirds and marine mammals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/data-visualizations/2013/forage-fish-faq">Pew Charitable Trusts</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>About 19 million tons of wild fish – some 20% of the total quantity caught around the world – are rendered into fish meal and fish oil every year, even though <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12209">90% of these harvested fish are fit for human consumption</a>. Analysts project that aquaculture feed demands for fish meal and fish oil could outstrip the supply of small <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/fact-sheets/2013/09/25/forage-fish-faq">forage fish</a>, also known as prey or bait fish, by 2037. If this happens, it could have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0077-1">disastrous consequences</a> for human food security and marine ecosystems. </p>
<p>Aquaculture feeds can also contain soy and corn ingredients from industrial farms on land that generate large amounts of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1404067111">water pollution</a>. Fish can’t fully digest these ingredients, so they end up in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12013">aquaculture wastewater</a>. Just like wastewater from cattle or poultry farms, effluent from fish farms can be a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267877126_Aquaculture_Effluents_and_Water_Pollution">serious pollution source</a>. What’s more, these crops could be used for direct human consumption.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Handful of pelletized fish feed made from microalgae." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fish-free aquafeed made with two types of microalgae.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Devin Fitzgerald</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For all of these reasons, developing fish-free fish feed is a key leverage point for reforming aquaculture so that it helps to conserve natural ecosystems instead of damaging them. Reducing pressure on forage fish will strengthen global marine fisheries. Our work also shows that it is possible to improve the human health benefits of eating farmed tilapia by manipulating the fishes’ diet. </p>
<h2>How we do our work</h2>
<p>We developed our fish-free feed formula in a series of experiments over six years. First, we evaluated how well fish could digest specific varieties of marine <a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/microalgae">microalgae</a>. Then we conducted separate experiments to see how well fish grew using these individual ingredients as replacements for either fish meal or fish oil. </p>
<p>For this feed we used two types of marine microalgae. One is a waste product left over after another type of omega-3 fatty acid, called EPA, has been extracted from the microalga for use in human nutritional supplements. This is the first proof of concept for a tilapia feed that eliminates fish meal and fish oil while improving growth metrics and the resulting nutritional quality of the fish. </p>
<p>Our feed is a substantial improvement over other commercially available feed products. There are some existing fish-free feeds that use soy, corn and other plant-based ingredients, but terrestrial vegetable oils within these feeds lack long chain omega-3 fatty acids. As a result, they produce fish fillets with <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/science/earth/02tilapia.html?_r=0">lower nutritional value</a>.</p>
<p>Microalgae ingredients don’t have this problem. Researchers have been experimenting with using microalgae to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2012.03100.x">replace either fishmeal or fish oil in aquaculture feeds</a>, but there haven’t yet been any fully fish-free microalgae blend feeds available in the market. We hope that ours will be the first. </p>
<p>The other major challenge in developing a commercially successful fish-free feed is achieving a competitive edge over conventional feed on cost and fish growth performance. Our research showed promising results for these factors as well. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Farm employee scoops fish feed into pond" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Feeding pellets to tilapia in ponds in Northern Province, Zambia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/2cxs6Gf">Kendra Byrd, Worldfish/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>We currently have a patent pending for our formula and hope to work with the aquafeed industry, ingredient suppliers and sustainable aquaculture entrepreneurs to bring it to market. The major challenge will be achieving a consistent ingredient supply in order to produce large quantities on an industrial scale. </p>
<p>We’re also working now to develop fish-free feeds for other aquaculture species, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonidae">salmonids</a>, a group that includes trout and salmon. Unlike tilapia, which eat a primarily vegetarian diet, these species are predators, so farming them accounts for most of the fishmeal and fish oil used in aquaculture feeds. Successfully replacing fishmeal and fish oil with microalgae in salmonid feed would be a major advance toward more sustainable aquaculture.</p>
<p>[<em>Get our best science, health and technology stories.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-best">Sign up for The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150728/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pallab Sarker and other participants in the research described in this article have received funding from the U.S. Department of Agriculture; the Sherman Fairchild Professorship, Dean of the Faculty and Vranos family gift at Dartmouth College; the Dean of Social Sciences and Executive Vice Chancellor at the University of California Santa Cruz; and the National Sea Grant Aquaculture Federal Funding Opportunity. </span></em></p>Fish farms feed millions of people around the world, but they also consume a lot of fish that are dried or ground up to make aquafeed. Researchers are developing more sustainable alternatives.Pallab Sarker, Associate Research Professor of Environmental Studies, University of California, Santa CruzLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1462912020-11-12T13:25:32Z2020-11-12T13:25:32ZAmericans don’t eat enough fish and miss out on robust health benefits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362000/original/file-20201006-18-sjzgsw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C307%2C3019%2C3721&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sardines are rich in oils and protein.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/9I3aLTYnWa4">Photo by Ahmed Nadar for Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="26 lbs. - Recommended annual amount of seafood that Americans should eat" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Eating fish can provide powerful advantages for the <a href="https://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy.lib.umb.edu/doi/pdf/10.1080/10408398.2018.1425978?needAccess=true">heart and brain</a>, yet Americans eat <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7353403/">less than half</a> of the 26 pounds per year that experts recommend. By contrast, Americans buy <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/ag-and-food-statistics-charting-the-essentials/food-availability-and-consumption/">seven times more chicken and beef</a> annually than fish. </p>
<p>Why Americans don’t eat more fish has been pondered <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/11/how-to-get-americans-to-eat-fish/265150/">for a long time</a> by health experts, fish farmers and fishermen themselves. One way to consider this question is production. Consumers can buy a product only if it’s available. The more they buy, theoretically, the more that item will be produced. In this case, a greater demand for fish would be stimulated if more fish were offered for sale. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Wild-caught salmon from the Pacific Ocean are a prized fish for consumers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Salmon caught in the Pacific Ocean is a prize catch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/xp3xtQW3pqs">Photo by NOAA for Unsplash.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More seafood could be made available for American consumers from <a href="https://oceanpanel.org/sites/default/files/2019-11/19_HLP_BP1%20Paper.pdf">global ocean sources</a> given that at least <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1905650116">60% of seafood</a> in the U.S. is imported. U.S. aquaculture has the capacity to <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/its-time-to-be-honest-about-seafood/">significantly increase</a>. Research conducted by the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/population-assessments/status-us-fisheries">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries</a> also indicates slightly more domestic wild-caught fish can be harvested. </p>
<h2>Why eat fish?</h2>
<p>Rich in lean protein and long chain omega-3 fatty acids, fish provides robust nutritional benefits that can help ward off <a href="https://www.seafoodnutrition.org/press-releases/eat-seafood-america-boost-health/">chronic disease, boost immunity and reduce inflammation</a> in the body. Seafood provides your body with critical omega-3 fats and minerals, like selenium, zinc, iron and iodine. It also provides vitamins B12 and D that fend off heart disease, among other benefits. </p>
<p>Fish provides such positive benefits for the body that recent <a href="https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/2020-advisory-committee-report">USDA Dietary Guidelines</a> offer guidance specific to pregnant women and children based on the finding that seafood consumption leads to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2019.10.001">cognitive improvement in children</a>. Research shows that integrating seafood into a diet as a way to prevent coronary disease can lead to a potential annual health care <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002981">savings of US$12.7 billion</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Wild Pacific Ocean Dungeness crab." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dungeness crab are fished off the Pacific coast from California to the Gulf of Alaska.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/Mqe3P62_Nfc">Photo by Sidney Pearce for Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Additionally, seafood, as a protein, has a relatively <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/fee.1822">low greenhouse gas production</a>. This benefit is heightened when analyzing the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.229">many species</a> that offer both high nutrient density and low greenhouse gas production. </p>
<h2>Fish beyond shrimp</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://health.gov/sites/default/files/2019-09/2015-2020_Dietary_Guidelines.pdf">2015-2020 USDA Dietary Guidelines</a> suggest that Americans eat 26 pounds of seafood each year. The recommended amount would ideally provide 250 mg per day of the important omega-3 fats. Yet because of how American consumers purchase seafood, this provides them with, on average, only 38% of the recommended daily omega-3’s.</p>
<p>Many of the most popular seafoods purchased by consumers are relatively low in omega-3’s, such as shrimp, the most popular seafood in the U.S., comprising nearly 30% of annual fish sales. Considering the <a href="https://www.intrafish.com/markets/here-are-americas-most-consumed-seafood-species/2-1-760884">10 species</a> that make up 85% of fish available for Americans to buy in restaurants and markets, only salmon, the second most popular seafood item, has <a href="https://www.seafoodnutrition.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/RDN-Toolkit-2020_Omega3-Chart.pdf">relatively high levels of omega-3’s</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Eat fish more often." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fish oil can protect the heart.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/GbfBGZ5Netw">Photo by Gunnar Ridderstrom for Unsplash.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are many species of fish high in omega-3’s that are not regularly purchased or eaten, such as anchovies, herring and sardines. People can replace eating fish by <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11010177">taking supplements</a> or eating other foods, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japr.2019.10.002">such as eggs</a> that contain omega-3’s, to help overcome this deficiency. However, research shows that eating fish itself is <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11745-003-1077-x">better</a> than supplements, given that a fish filet has a full complement of <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/fish-oil-friend-or-foe-201307126467">fats, vitamins, minerals and other supporting molecules</a>. </p>
<p>The health and environmental benefits of fish make it a smart choice to buy and eat. With more people <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/daphneewingchow/2020/03/31/five-ways-that-coronavirus-will-change-the-way-we-eat/#241f04ae1a2b">at home</a> because of the pandemic, this is a good time to explore <a href="https://www.seafoodnutrition.org/recipes/">recipes</a> and <a href="https://www.thespruceeats.com/seafood-basics-4162172">enjoy</a> this nutritionally important food. </p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146291/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Tlusty receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, and the National Sea Grant College Program. He is on the Science and Nutrition Advisory Council of the Seafood Nutrition Partnership, a judge for the F3 Challenge, a board member for the Center for Responsible Seafood, and on the Advisory Committee of the Marine Conservation Action Fund.</span></em></p>The oils in fish are excellent buffers against disease. Why don’t we eat more fish?Michael Tlusty, Associate Professor of Sustainability and Food Solutions, UMass BostonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1362252020-06-01T12:47:29Z2020-06-01T12:47:29ZNative American tribes’ pandemic response is hamstrung by many inequities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338403/original/file-20200528-51516-1ma4eta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C0%2C3000%2C1994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Johnnie Henry, president of the Navajo Nation's Church Rock chapter house community center, hauls drinking water to neighbors in Gallup, N.M., May 7, 2020.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Virus-Outbreak-Barricaded-Town/695595b76b84464a9d5197a7407ed442/2/0">AP Photo/Morgan Lee</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The SARS-CoV-2 virus is novel, but pandemic threats to indigenous peoples are anything but new. Diseases like measles, smallpox and the Spanish flu have decimated Native American communities <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.12.004">ever since the arrival of the first European colonizers</a>. </p>
<p>Now COVID-19 is having similarly devastating impacts in Indian country. Some reservations are reporting infection rates <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/how-covid-19-is-impacting-indigenous-peoples-in-the-u-s">many times higher</a> than those observed in the general U.S. population.</p>
<p>We are social scientists who study many aspects of <a href="http://environmentaljustice.colostate.edu/">environmental justice</a>, including <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=p3jvlSAAAAAJ&hl=en">the politics of food access and food sovereignty</a>, the impacts of <a href="https://www.libarts.colostate.edu/people/samalin/">extractive resource industries</a> like uranium and fossil fuels, and how Indigenous communities <a href="https://ethnicstudies.colostate.edu/people/schneidl/">navigate relationships</a> with state and federal governments to maintain their traditional practices. As we see it, Native American communities face structural and historical obstacles related to settler colonial legacies that make it hard for them to counter the pandemic, even by drawing on innovative indigenous survival strategies. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_TUc0iDWzfE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Housing shortages, health disparities and other inequities make Native Americans especially vulnerable to COVID-19.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>History reverberates on Native lands</h2>
<p>Native communities in North America have been disrupted and displaced for centuries. Many face long-standing food and water <a href="http://www.nativepartnership.org/site/DocServer/2017-PWNA-NPRA-Food-Insecurity-Project-Grow.pdf?docID=7106">inequities</a> that are further complicated by this pandemic. </p>
<p>On the Navajo reservation, which covers more than 27,000 square miles in Arizona, Utah and New Mexico, 76% of households already <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235390130_High_levels_of_household_food_insecurity_on_the_Navajo_Nation">have trouble affording enough healthy food</a>, and the nearest grocery store is often hours away. COVID-related restrictions have further curtailed access to food supplies. </p>
<p>Clean water for basic sanitary measures like hand-washing is also scarce. Native Americans are <a href="http://uswateralliance.org/sites/uswateralliance.org/files/Closing%20the%20Water%20Access%20Gap%20in%20the%20United%20States_DIGITAL.pdf">19 times more likely</a> to lack indoor plumbing than whites in the U.S. Nearly one-third of Navajo households <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/coronavirus-hits-indian-country-hard-exposing-infrastructure-disparities-n1186976">lack access to running water</a>. </p>
<p>Many <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6915e3.htm">health issues</a> that can increase COVID-19 mortality rates occur at high levels among Native Americans. These <a href="http://www.ncai.org/news/articles/2020/03/18/the-national-congress-of-american-indians-calls-for-more-attention-to-covid-19-impacts-to-indian-country">underlying</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30893-X">preexisting</a> conditions – things like hypertension, diabetes, obesity and cardiovascular disease – are <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6913e2.htm">linked to diet</a> and stem from <a href="https://www.oupress.com/books/15107980/indigenous-food-sovereignty-in-the-united-sta">disruption and replacement</a> of Indigenous food systems.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338406/original/file-20200528-51527-1y3vqf0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338406/original/file-20200528-51527-1y3vqf0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338406/original/file-20200528-51527-1y3vqf0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338406/original/file-20200528-51527-1y3vqf0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338406/original/file-20200528-51527-1y3vqf0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338406/original/file-20200528-51527-1y3vqf0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338406/original/file-20200528-51527-1y3vqf0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338406/original/file-20200528-51527-1y3vqf0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/AN) experience higher rates of chronic diseases than non-Hispanic Whites.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.arcgis.com/apps/MapJournal/index.html?appid=e0bf79ae663e4c098308abdaab8c24fd">Urban Indian Health Institute; data from CDC</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Meanwhile, <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/04/07/828688372/overcrowding-makes-it-hard-for-native-americans-to-socially-distance">housing shortages</a> on reservations and <a href="https://indiancountrytoday.com/news/homeless-vulnerable-and-no-option-for-self-isolation--DGU3-v-FEWmTxrdIH73OA">homelessness</a> in urban Native communities make social distancing to reduce COVID-19 transmission impossible. </p>
<h2>High exposure rates</h2>
<p>These factors have clear health impacts. On the Navajo reservation, for instance, through May 27, 2020, <a href="https://www.navajo-nsn.gov/News%20Releases/OPVP/2020/May/FOR%20IMMEDIATE%20RELEASE%20-%201620%20recoveries_102%20new%20cases%20of%20COVID-19_and%20one%20more%20death%20reported.pdf">4,944 people</a> out of a population of 173,000 had tested positive for COVID-19, and 159 had died. </p>
<p>This infection rate per capita exceeds those in hot spots such as <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/alexandrasternlicht/2020/05/19/navajo-nation-has-most-coronavirus-infections-per-capita-in-us-beating-new-york-new-jersey/#11a4fac08b10">New York and New Jersey</a>. Importantly, however, it may also reflect a much <a href="https://www.sltrib.com/news/2020/04/19/navajo-nation-has-higher/">more proactive approach to testing</a> on reservations than in many other jurisdictions.</p>
<p>The fact that elderly people are especially vulnerable to COVID-19 could worsen the pandemic’s effects in Indian Country. Elders are the <a href="https://ais.washington.edu/research/publications/spirits-our-whaling-ancestors">keepers of traditional knowledge, tribal languages and culture</a> – legacies whose loss already threatens the persistence of indigenous communities. </p>
<p>Elders also play key roles in preserving traditional plant and medicine knowledge. In the absence of COVID-19 interventions from Western medicine, many elders have been called on to perform healing practices, which increases their exposure risk. </p>
<h2>Little help from federal and state governments</h2>
<p>Many tribal members rely on the federal government’s <a href="https://www.ihs.gov/">Indian Health Service</a> for health care. But <a href="https://theconversation.com/tribal-leaders-face-great-need-and-dont-have-enough-resources-to-respond-to-the-coronavirus-pandemic-134372">lack of capacity</a> at the agency has hampered its response. Budget shortfalls, <a href="https://indiancountrytoday.com/news/report-grossly-inaccurate-data-used-to-divvy-up-relief-funds-for-tribes-9qkkHmeXj0uhRC42mXYqCA">inaccurate data</a>, the challenges of providing <a href="https://indiancountrytoday.com/news/coronavirus-risk-is-compounded-by-the-rural-DC-rMTUzzE6WDGee8jbENQ">rural health care</a> and ongoing personnel shortages in IHS clinics are compounded by staff being <a href="https://navajotimes.com/reznews/dikos-ntsaaigii-doodaa-nation-musters-defense-against-covid-19/">pulled away</a> to fight the virus in large cities. </p>
<p>And while many states have raised frustrations with the Trump administration’s unwillingness to distribute protective supplies from the <a href="https://www.vox.com/recode/2020/4/3/21206170/us-emergency-stockpile-jared-kushner-almost-empty-coronavirus-medical-supplies-ventilators">dwindling national stockpile</a>, IHS and tribal health care authorities <a href="https://www.azpm.org/p/home-articles-news/2020/3/17/167874-bill-calls-for-more-tribal-community-access-to-federal-stockpile-of-medical-supplies/">never had access</a> to the stockpile at all. </p>
<p>Although the federal government has begun <a href="https://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2020/05/22/hhs-announces-500-million-distribution-to-tribal-hospitals-clinics-and-urban-health-centers.html">distributing relief funds</a> to IHS agencies, there have been serious problems with the accompanying supplies. The Navajo Nation has received <a href="https://www.indianz.com/News/2020/05/22/propublica-former-trump-aide-provided-fa.asp">faulty masks</a>, and a Seattle Native health center asked for tests but <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/native-american-health-center-asked-covid-19-supplies-they-got-n1200246">received body bags instead</a>.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, federally imposed limits on tribal sovereignty have obstructed tribal governments’ efforts to deal with the pandemic themselves. Federal and state governments are <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/makah-tribe-fights-coronavirus-with-self-reliance-and-extreme-isolation/">challenging tribes’ jurisdictional authority</a> to <a href="https://www.azfamily.com/news/mayor-of-page-accused-of-racist-social-media-comment-toward-navajo-nation-president/article_e2e6efd6-8db4-11ea-a8a2-7f6976d702f6.html">close borders to tourists</a> who may carry the virus. South Dakota’s governor has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/may/14/sioux-coronavirus-roadblocks-south-dakota-governor">threatened legal action</a> against two tribes who set up checkpoints to monitor incoming traffic on their reservations. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1263623015209725952"}"></div></p>
<h2>Environmental injustices on Native land</h2>
<p>Energy development and resource extraction have had <a href="https://www.haymarketbooks.org/books/898-all-our-relations">disproportionate impacts</a> on tribes for many years. Today, many Native American leaders worry that ongoing energy production – <a href="https://www.ncsl.org/research/labor-and-employment/covid-19-essential-workers-in-the-states.aspx">an “essential” activity under federal guidelines</a> will bring outsiders into close contact with reservation communities, worsening COVID risks.</p>
<p>The owners of the Keystone XL oil pipeline have announced that they intend to continue construction, which will bring an influx of workers along the proposed route through Montana, South Dakota and Nebraska. The Rosebud Sioux Tribe in South Dakota and Fort Belknap Indian community in Montana have filed for a <a href="https://www.narf.org/keystone-xl/">temporary restraining order</a>, and a key permit for the pipeline was <a href="https://www.democracynow.org/2020/4/16/headlines/us_judge_revokes_crucial_permit_for_keystone_xl_pipeline">revoked in April 2020</a>, but work continues at the U.S.-Canada border.</p>
<p>Construction is accelerating on the <a href="https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/border-issues/2020/03/17/border-patrol-waives-laws-border-wall-construction-southern-arizona/5063618002/">southern border wall</a>, which bisects the <a href="http://www.tonation-nsn.gov/">Tohono O’odham reservation</a> in Arizona and Mexico. The Trump administration has <a href="https://www.thenation.com/article/politics/border-coronavirus-military-immigration/">increased patrols at the border</a>, despite the tribe’s concern that the patrols’ presence is <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/04/06/coronavirus-cbp-160-cases-covid-19-officers-agents/2958736001/">spreading coronavirus</a> on the reservation. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338410/original/file-20200528-51516-7dpo59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338410/original/file-20200528-51516-7dpo59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338410/original/file-20200528-51516-7dpo59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338410/original/file-20200528-51516-7dpo59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338410/original/file-20200528-51516-7dpo59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338410/original/file-20200528-51516-7dpo59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338410/original/file-20200528-51516-7dpo59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338410/original/file-20200528-51516-7dpo59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wild-caught salmon is an iconic Alaska product, but some local leaders want to restrict salmon fishing in 2020 to minimize coronavirus transmission.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://vilda.alaska.edu/digital/collection/cdmg41/id/1020/">Alaska State Archives</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And in Bristol Bay, Alaska, a salmon fishing season that brings in thousands of temporary workers is <a href="https://indiancountrytoday.com/news/it-s-hard-when-you-love-something-xlS49l2N20KZjqumwfzZfQ">set to open in June</a> because the federal government has also deemed commercial fishing “<a href="https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/CISA-Guidance-on-Essential-Critical-Infrastructure-Workers-1-20-508c.pdf">essential critical infrastructure</a>.” Many local Native villages depend on the fishery for income, but have nonetheless pleaded with state regulators to <a href="https://indiancountrytoday.com/news/urgent-calls-to-close-the-massive-bristol-bay-fishery-8lYsGkUeDUyCBW7FMwpSfA?fbclid=IwAR1710u4rQnriq_MgH2ueQxOFtfGiGiH8I2ZdJRCZS9f28Zl-JNkPLpnzZo">cancel the season</a>. The regional hospital has just four beds for possible COVID-19 patients.</p>
<h2>Bold action in Native communities</h2>
<p>Native communities are taking decisive action to reduce the spread of COVID-19. They’re imposing aggressive <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/09/us/coronavirus-navajo-nation.html">quarantine</a> measures like lockdowns, curfews and border closures. Communities are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/mar/18/covidcoronavirus-native-american-lummi-nation-trailblazing-steps">ramping up health care capacity</a> and elder support services, and banishing nontribal members who <a href="https://rapidcityjournal.com/news/local/oglala-sioux-council-banishes-non-member-with-covid-19-from-reservation/article_60b665c3-9d1b-5d48-a576-51774e4fb41a.html">violate travel restrictions</a>.</p>
<p>Other strategies include helping hunters <a href="https://indiancountrytoday.com/news/ammo-fuel-for-hunters-to-feed-others-Ki3zK6du-ky-UogoB9-aNQ">provide traditional foods</a> to their communities, <a href="https://ndncollective.org/indigenizing-and-decolonizing-community-care-in-response-to-covid-19/">mobilizing to support tribal health care workers</a>, and <a href="https://www.ehn.org/coronavirus-native-americans-2645923635.html">linking the pandemic and the climate crisis</a>. Looking ahead to a post-COVID future, we believe one priority should be attending to <a href="http://www.beacon.org/As-Long-as-Grass-Grows-P1445.aspx">front-line environmental justice struggles</a> that center tribes’ sovereignty to act on their own behalf at all times, not just during national crises.</p>
<p>[<em>Get facts about coronavirus and the latest research.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=upper-coronavirus-facts">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter.</a>]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/136225/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephanie Malin receives or has received funding from the National Science Foundation, the Colorado Water Center, the National Institute for Environmental Health Sciences, the Rural Sociological Society, and CSU School of Global Environmental Sustainability.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joshua Sbicca and Lindsey Schneider do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many Native American tribes are reporting high COVID-19 infection rates. State and federal agencies are impeding tribes’ efforts to handle the pandemic themselves.Lindsey Schneider, Assistant Professor of Native American Studies, Colorado State UniversityJoshua Sbicca, Associate Professor of Sociology, Colorado State UniversityStephanie Malin, Associate Professor of Sociology; Co-Founder and Steering Committee Member, Center for Environmental Justice at CSU, Colorado State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.