tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/wa-shark-cull-12321/articlesWA shark cull – The Conversation2022-02-17T05:49:21Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1773572022-02-17T05:49:21Z2022-02-17T05:49:21ZSydney shark attack triggers calls for a cull – but let’s take a deep breath and look at the evidence<p>The fatal <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/feb/17/fatal-shark-attack-sydney-beaches-closed-as-lifeguards-patrol-for-further-sightings">shark attack</a> off Sydney on Wednesday left the city shocked, and triggered questions from a horrified public. Why would a shark just grab a man from the water? And will it strike again?</p>
<p>The incident – Sydney’s first fatal shark attack since 1963 – has prompted debate on what to do next. Some people even <a href="https://twitter.com/Robert44183163/status/1493885115801686018">took to social media</a> to call for <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-10520615/Shark-attack-Sydney-Little-Bay-sparks-calls-shark-cull.html">sharks to be culled</a>.</p>
<p>This is a common community response following unprovoked shark attacks. But killing sharks is highly controversial. And as <a href="https://research.bond.edu.au/en/publications/a-comparison-of-alternative-systems-to-catch-and-kill-for-mitigat">my research</a> has shown, there are many non-lethal alternatives to protect beachgoers from sharks. </p>
<p>As authorities grapple with the best way to respond to this tragedy, it’s worth remembering all shark mitigation measures come with both merits and drawbacks – and none is a silver bullet.</p>
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<img alt="people walk towards beach" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446948/original/file-20220217-13-1cukycs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446948/original/file-20220217-13-1cukycs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446948/original/file-20220217-13-1cukycs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446948/original/file-20220217-13-1cukycs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446948/original/file-20220217-13-1cukycs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446948/original/file-20220217-13-1cukycs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446948/original/file-20220217-13-1cukycs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The incident was Sydney’s first fatal shark attack since 1963.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bianca De Marchii/AAP</span></span>
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<h2>Killing sharks is problematic</h2>
<p>It’s unlikely authorities would ever be able to hunt down the individual shark involved in Wednesday’s fatality. As Macquarie University marine scientist Vanessa Pirotta has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/feb/17/fatal-shark-attack-sydney-beaches-closed-as-lifeguards-patrol-for-further-sightings">noted</a>, sharks travel large distances and the animal is likely to be long gone. </p>
<p>Other times, members of the community call for an area-wide shark cull – and in rare cases a government will oblige.</p>
<p>In Western Australia in 2013, for example, the then Liberal government <a href="https://www.watoday.com.au/national/western-australia/how-was-shark-kill-zones-will-work-20131224-2zvmn.html">announced</a> shark “kill zones” near beaches following a string of attacks. But the measure was scrapped after fierce opposition from the public and environment officials.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-were-opposing-western-australias-shark-cull-scientists-28653">Why we're opposing Western Australia's shark cull: scientists</a>
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<p>Any increased effort to kill sharks is likely to face public and political opposition, for several reasons.</p>
<p>First, sharks pose a low risk to humans. It’s true that globally, the frequency of unprovoked shark bites has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2014.942046">increased</a>, due to factors such as more water users and changes in shark distribution and behaviour.</p>
<p>But the probability of an unprovoked shark bite remains low.</p>
<p>Second, public perception towards sharks is changing. Many people now realise the intrinsic value of sharks and their important role in marine ecosystems.</p>
<p>Given all this, we must keep pursuing non-lethal methods to protect swimmers and surfers from sharks while avoiding environmental damage.</p>
<p>Let’s look at such approaches in more detail.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="sharks swim on reef" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446949/original/file-20220217-25-1i2izfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446949/original/file-20220217-25-1i2izfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446949/original/file-20220217-25-1i2izfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446949/original/file-20220217-25-1i2izfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446949/original/file-20220217-25-1i2izfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446949/original/file-20220217-25-1i2izfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446949/original/file-20220217-25-1i2izfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Many people recognise sharks’ vital role in marine ecosystems.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Aerial surveys</h2>
<p>Aerial surveys involve detecting sharks via a plane, helicopter or unmanned drone, or by people on land.</p>
<p>Their effectiveness can vary depending on how clear, calm or deep the water is, and on wind strength and shark behaviour.</p>
<p>An aircraft with human observers on board can survey a lot of coastline. But an aircraft can spend less than a minute on each beach, limiting the opportunity to locate a shark. </p>
<p>And <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083456">research</a> has shown even in reasonably clear water, overall rates of detection from planes and helicopters is low.</p>
<p>Drones cost less to operate than manned aircraft and are better for surveying a single location. However, battery constraints mean commercially available models can only stay airborne for a limited time.</p>
<p>In future, drones could be tethered to helium balloons or kites to allow for longer-term surveillance. But such technology is still at an early stage.</p>
<p>Surf patrol towers can help lifeguards detect sharks. But they must offer a vantage point <a href="https://doi.org/%2010.1186/s40462-018-0125-5">more than 40 metres</a> above sea level to be suitable for the task - a height well above that normally afforded by existing towers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="lifeguard tower and busy beach" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446954/original/file-20220217-34819-9g4l5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446954/original/file-20220217-34819-9g4l5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446954/original/file-20220217-34819-9g4l5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446954/original/file-20220217-34819-9g4l5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446954/original/file-20220217-34819-9g4l5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446954/original/file-20220217-34819-9g4l5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446954/original/file-20220217-34819-9g4l5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Lifeguard towers are not always high enough to enable shark spotting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Nets and drumlines</h2>
<p>Sharks can be detected by capturing then releasing them. These methods include deploying either mesh nets or “drumlines” – baited hooks that lure sharks.</p>
<p>Shark nets operate at more than 50 NSW beaches in the warmer months. The program releases all live sharks caught in nets, but <a href="https://www.sharksmart.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/856163/Shark-Meshing-2016-2017-annual-report.pdf">more than 80%</a> of large “target” sharks caught in the nets die.</p>
<p>Traditional drumlines, used extensively in Queensland, also historically kill a <a href="https://doi.org/10.2989/%201814232X.2011.572335">significant proportion</a> of sharks. </p>
<p>New <a href="https://www.sharksmart.nsw.gov.au/technology-trials-and-research/smart-drumlines">“SMART” drumlines</a> are designed to kill fewer captured animals. The device issues an alert when an animal is caught, and a contractor unhooks and relocates it.</p>
<p>Over three years of SMART drumline trials in NSW, high levels of live shark releases were reported. But the method requires extra labour expense to ensure rapid response to a capture.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="shark hangs on hook" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446958/original/file-20220217-23-1und25o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446958/original/file-20220217-23-1und25o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446958/original/file-20220217-23-1und25o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446958/original/file-20220217-23-1und25o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446958/original/file-20220217-23-1und25o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446958/original/file-20220217-23-1und25o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446958/original/file-20220217-23-1und25o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Drum lines can kill sharks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Humane Society International</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Area-based deterrents</h2>
<p>Electrical shark deterrents have been investigated over many years. Research shows substantial promise, and Australia is making progress in <a href="https://ocean-guardian.com/">commercialising</a> the technology. </p>
<p>Scientists have investigated using acoustic deterrents such as orca calls and novel sounds to deter sharks. But such methods do not work on all shark species, and the impacts on other animals needs to be considered.</p>
<p>Physical barriers to exclude sharks from a particular area is a longstanding approach to protect bathers. Permanent swimming enclosures have worked in areas protected from exposed ocean conditions, such as Sydney Harbour. </p>
<p>But on ocean beaches, physical barriers must be designed to withstand constant wave energy, including extreme conditions. Previous attempted trials on NSW surf beaches <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-14/second-shark-barrier-trial-scrapped-nsw/7843566">failed</a> as the gear either could not be installed, or was destroyed by the surf. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fatal-shark-attacks-are-at-a-record-high-deterrent-devices-can-help-but-some-may-be-nothing-but-snake-oil-150845">Fatal shark attacks are at a record high. 'Deterrent' devices can help, but some may be nothing but snake oil</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="shark net in water" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446959/original/file-20220217-25-1th8rms.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446959/original/file-20220217-25-1th8rms.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446959/original/file-20220217-25-1th8rms.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446959/original/file-20220217-25-1th8rms.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446959/original/file-20220217-25-1th8rms.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446959/original/file-20220217-25-1th8rms.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446959/original/file-20220217-25-1th8rms.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Shark nets can tear in rough ocean conditions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>No quick fix</h2>
<p>Wednesday’s fatal shark attack has understandably shaken the community and prompted debate. In all this, of course, we must remember that a human life has been lost.</p>
<p>Right now, talk of preventing future attacks will be of little comfort to the victim’s family and friends, eyewitnesses and first responders.</p>
<p>Looking further ahead, no system will ever deter or detect 100% of sharks. But risks can be reduced with well-considered approaches, suited to local conditions. </p>
<p>More research is needed into non-lethal strategies. The cost of various approaches is also an important consideration.</p>
<p>And no matter what system is used to protect beachgoers, it should be accompanied by efforts to educate the public about shark safety. </p>
<p>Tips include avoiding swimming or surfing in low light levels, avoiding beaches near estuaries after heavy rain and flooding, and avoiding places where stranded marine mammals are present – as the sites may attract sharks.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/shark-bites-are-rare-here-are-8-things-to-avoid-to-make-them-even-rarer-173746">Shark bites are rare. Here are 8 things to avoid to make them even rarer</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177357/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daryl McPhee has previously received funding from the NSW, Queensland and WA Governments to investigate unprovoked shark bite and mitigation responses. This article was based on the publication "A comparison of alternative systems to catch and kill for mitigating unprovoked shark bite on bathers or surfers at ocean beaches" in the journal Ocean and Coastal Management which was partly funded by the NSW DPI. Dr McPhee is not currently in receipt of any research or other funding associated with the sharks and shark-human interactions. </span></em></p>As authorities grapple with the best way to respond to the tragedy, it’s worth remembering all shark mitigation measures come with both merits and drawbacks – and none is a silver bullet.Daryl McPhee, Associate Professor of Environmental Science, Bond UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/914792018-02-08T10:02:51Z2018-02-08T10:02:51ZWorld-first genetic analysis reveals Aussie white shark numbers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205456/original/file-20180208-180829-spy0i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Estimating shark numbers is extremely difficult and very contentious.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Elias Levy/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Of all apex predators, the white shark <em>Carchardon carcharias</em> (commonly known as the great white) is perhaps the most fascinating. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-shark-bites-seem-to-be-more-deadly-in-australia-than-elsewhere-85986">potential danger</a> from (<a href="https://theconversation.com/worried-about-shark-attacks-or-terrorism-heres-how-to-think-about-the-real-risk-of-rare-events-74690">very rare</a>) human interaction has embedded the species in our national consciousness. </p>
<p>Debate as to the size and status of the white shark populations across the globe is both vigorous and often contested, and it is fair to say we have never had an accurate picture. Now, for the first time we estimate that the total number of adult sharks across the Australasian region is around 2,210. We’re lacking data on juvenile sharks in one region so it’s difficult to say what the total Australasian population is, but it’s likely to be in excess of 8,000-10,000 animals.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/worried-about-shark-attacks-or-terrorism-heres-how-to-think-about-the-real-risk-of-rare-events-74690">Worried about shark attacks or terrorism? Here's how to think about the real risk of rare events</a>
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<p>CSIRO researchers working with Australian and New Zealand scientists in the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/science/nesp">National Environmental Science Program</a> have used world-first <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/science/nesp">genetic analysis</a> to investigate white shark populations. The results of this project, published on Thursday in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-20593-w">Scientific Reports</a>, are the first estimates of white shark adult population size, trend and survival rates for the Australasian region.</p>
<h2>One fish, two fish…</h2>
<p>The widely used aphorism in marine and particularly fisheries modelling is that counting fish is like counting trees, but you can’t see them and they move around all the time. </p>
<p>Until now, researchers have had to rely on patchy sources, like historical catch data. The various shark control programs do not provide usable data on relative density over time. We do have information on white shark migration and population structure from <a href="https://blog.csiro.au/7000km-and-counting-on-the-tail-of-a-great-white-shark/">electronic tagging</a> and previous genetic studies, but these don’t tell us about shark numbers. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-shark-bites-seem-to-be-more-deadly-in-australia-than-elsewhere-85986">Why do shark bites seem to be more deadly in Australia than elsewhere?</a>
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<p>To address this key problem we worked with colleagues across Australia and New Zealand to use a highly novel method called close-kin mark-recapture, first developed by CSIRO in the late 2000s to monitor <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms13162">southern bluefin tuna</a>.</p>
<p>Close-kin mark-recapture first involves taking a tissue sample from a shark, alive or dead, obtaining a genetic profile of the animal, and than comparing it to all the other sharks and asking: are these sharks related, and if so how are they related?</p>
<p>Due to a number of factors, it is easier to take genetic samples from juvenile white sharks (in the 3.5 to 4m or less range) than from adults. </p>
<p>In the first phase, we compared the genetic data from juvenile white sharks to look for half-sibling pairs – animals who shared either a mother or a father. The half-siblings are the close-kin side of the problem. The chances of finding these pairs in the samples is determined by (a) the size of the adult population, and (b) the survival rate of adult sharks. </p>
<p>Higher numbers of sharks, or sharks with low survival rates, make it less likely to find siblings in the samples. </p>
<p>This linkage between a specific type of relatedness (half brothers or sisters) and the size and survival rate of the adult population is the mark-recapture side of the equation. In traditional wildlife tagging studies, we “mark” an animal in some way (physically or in terms of visual or genetic ID) and try to “recapture” it again sometime in the future. </p>
<p>The mark-recapture principle is exactly the same with this method. The key difference is that a juvenile shark carries the “mark” of its parent within its DNA, which is “recaptured” when you find a half-sibling pair. Find enough of these half-siblings, and you can estimate both adult numbers and survival rates.</p>
<h2>Population</h2>
<p>Currently, we believe there are two main populations of white shark in the Australasian region: the “Eastern” population, which is basically everything to the east of Bass Strait (including New Zealand), and the “Southern-Western” population, which appears to range from west of Bass Strait, around the South Australia and West Australia coasts as far north as Ningaloo Reef.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205448/original/file-20180208-180829-bszlg5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205448/original/file-20180208-180829-bszlg5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205448/original/file-20180208-180829-bszlg5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205448/original/file-20180208-180829-bszlg5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205448/original/file-20180208-180829-bszlg5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205448/original/file-20180208-180829-bszlg5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205448/original/file-20180208-180829-bszlg5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205448/original/file-20180208-180829-bszlg5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CSIRO</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>As part of phase one of the project we looked for half-siblings among 75 Eastern Australasian juvenile sharks and found 20. To give this some context, 75 samples permits 2,775 unique comparisons between animals. So less than 1% of those comparisons were siblings. We estimated that the number of adult sharks to be around 470 (with a range of 280-650), with at least 90% surviving from one year to the next. Given limited data there was no precise information on adult population trend. </p>
<p>The close-kin approach can only tell us about the adult population, however. To extend these estimates to total population size, we need to know something about the survival rate of juvenile sharks. Using data from around 70 juvenile sharks fitted with acoustic emitters, archived under Australia’s <a href="http://imos.org.au/">Integrated Marine Observing System</a>, we estimated that juvenile sharks had an annual survival rate of around 73%. </p>
<p>Combining these juvenile survival estimates with the adult abundance and survival information from the close-kin analyses we estimated there to be around 4,060 (and a range of 2,500-6,750) white sharks in the whole Eastern population.</p>
<p>After obtaining these results from the initial data, we moved onto phase two of the project. We collected and processed more samples to obtain both more data for the Eastern population, and enough samples and half-sibling matches to estimate the adult population size in the Southern-Western region. In the East we now have 214 juvenile samples, and found 73 half-siblings; in the Southern-Western case we now have 175 samples, and found 27 half-siblings. </p>
<p>The revised estimates of adult population size in the East were around 750 (with a range of 470-1,030) and annual survival probabilities of 93%. Revised estimates of total population size in the Eastern region were around 5,460 (with a range of 2,909-12,802). </p>
<p>Our initial estimates of the Southern-Western adult population were around 1,460 (with a range of 760-2,250) and that survival probabilities were very high (in the 90% and above range, as for the East). So these estimates suggest there are almost twice as many adult white sharks in the Southern-Western population relative to the East. </p>
<h2>Are shark populations increasing?</h2>
<p>In Australia white sharks have been protected under the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc">Federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act</a> since 1999. Between 1995 and 1999 a national recovery plan was in effect. protected under various state legislation and subject to a national recovery plan. </p>
<p>We found that in both populations the adult population trend since protection has been essentially flat, with no evidence for a substantial increase or decrease. However, the picture is more uncertain when it comes to estimating population changes for younger white sharks. </p>
<p>White sharks take 12-15 years to mature. Assuming protection of the species reduced the juvenile mortality rate, then any such effect will not be apparent in the adult population until the next 5-10 years.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/not-just-nets-how-to-stop-shark-attacks-without-killing-sharks-69400">Not just nets: how to stop shark attacks without killing sharks</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Balancing the conflicting goals of conservation and human protection is at times difficult and contentious. But, unquestionably, without being able to monitor populations effectively there is no way to resolve these questions. </p>
<p>Now we can monitor juveniles through electronic tagging programs, and keep track of adult populations with the close-kin method, we should finally have solved the problem of how to track the population size and status of this iconic predator.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91479/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research has used genetic analysis in a world-first effort to accurately estimate Australian and New Zealand white shark numbers.Rich Hillary, Principal Research Scientist, CSIRORuss Bradford, Project leader and researcher, CSIROToby Patterson, Senior research scientist, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/891632017-12-18T02:48:18Z2017-12-18T02:48:18ZTide turned: surveys show the public has lost its appetite for shark culls<p>A <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/Sharkmitigation/%7E/media/Committees/ec_ctte/Sharkmitigation/report.pdf">Senate Committee report on shark deterrent measures</a> has, in the words of committee member <a href="https://peter-whish-wilson.greensmps.org.au/sharksandbeachsafety">Senator Peter Whish-Wilson</a>, moved the “shark cull debate into the 21st century”. </p>
<p>The first recommendation of the inquiry is to “immediately replace lethal drum lines” with so-called SMART drum lines and to phase out shark nets.</p>
<p>Yet if the news media are to be believed, these conclusions go against the grain of public opinion, with Western Australia’s spate of shark incidents having spawned previous headlines such as “<a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-04-02/calls-grow-louder-for-shark-culling-in-wa/3926816">Calls grow louder for shark culling in WA</a>”. More recently, a series of incidents in Ballina in northern New South Wales prompted our surfing former prime minister Tony Abbott to weigh in, <a href="https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/former-pm-tony-abbott-calls-for-shark-cull-after-ballina-shark-attack/news-story/342a570b3c494a9b30c119aaa0015aed?nk=e842628baa20f822402ddfb9cd1c2cd3-1513166009">calling on the state government to authorise culls and nets</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sharks-arent-criminals-but-our-fear-makes-us-talk-as-if-they-are-36493">Sharks aren't criminals, but our fear makes us talk as if they are</a>
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</em>
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<p>The question of how much the public really supports policies that kill sharks has been surprisingly difficult to answer. The Senate inquiry noted that while it had been suggested “that lethal measures such as nets are no longer supported … reliably ascertaining community views on matters such as this could be quite difficult”.</p>
<p>Difficult? Yes. But doable. We have surveyed public opinion in Western Australia and Ballina, following shark bite incidents in each place. In fact, over the past five years we have searched high and low for the type of widespread support for lethal policies that is suggested by the tabloid press. It simply is not there, as our findings in the peer-reviewed journals <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12407/epdf">Conservation Letters</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X17302397">Marine Policy</a> show.</p>
<h2>Public opinion in Perth and Ballina</h2>
<p>In <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12407/epdf">fieldwork</a> including phone polling in both Perth and Ballina, as well as face-to-face surveys of local residents, beachgoers, and business owners in Ballina, we consistently found levels of support for lethal policies in the 20-25% range. </p>
<p>This is particularly remarkable in the case of Ballina. As the shire’s mayor David Wright <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/Sharkmitigation/%7E/media/Committees/ec_ctte/Sharkmitigation/report.pdf">told the Senate committee</a>, between 8 February 2015 and July 2016, surfers there “were involved in 9% of the world’s shark attacks and interactions”, with the media dubbing it the “<a href="http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/hack/why-has-ballina-become-the-new-shark-attack-capital-of-australia/7905776">shark attack capital of Australia</a>”.</p>
<p>A large majority of people in both Perth and Ballina viewed shark bites as accidental rather than intentional. While fear of sharks is linked to higher support for lethal policies, fear alone does not cause people to support killing sharks. </p>
<p>Support for lethal policies arises when fear of sharks is combined with the <a href="https://theconversation.com/sharks-arent-criminals-but-our-fear-makes-us-talk-as-if-they-are-36493">misconceived idea that sharks bite people on purpose</a>. In our surveys, respondents who view shark bites to be intentional were more than 2.5 times as likely to support policies that kill sharks.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199152/original/file-20171214-27572-n14tiz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199152/original/file-20171214-27572-n14tiz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199152/original/file-20171214-27572-n14tiz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=679&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199152/original/file-20171214-27572-n14tiz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=679&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199152/original/file-20171214-27572-n14tiz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=679&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199152/original/file-20171214-27572-n14tiz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=853&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199152/original/file-20171214-27572-n14tiz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=853&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199152/original/file-20171214-27572-n14tiz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=853&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>This is strongly related to the <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/Sharkmitigation/%7E/media/Committees/ec_ctte/Sharkmitigation/report.pdf">Senate inquiry’s finding</a> that the belief that “killing ‘rogue’ sharks will solve the problem” remains widespread. This is despite a clear expert consensus that there is “no evidence for anything called a rogue shark”. </p>
<p>As the Department of the Environment and Energy <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/marine/marine-species/sharks">says</a>, “No shark is thought to target humans as prey”, and the vast majority of shark bite incidents “can be attributed to the shark confusing us with its normal prey”.</p>
<p>This view was apparent among the relatively few beachgoers in Ballina who reported supporting lethal policies, with several respondents suggesting that they would only support killing sharks that “had gotten a taste for human flesh”. </p>
<p>Many respondents were also unaware that shark nets are lethal to sharks. Indeed, this is their primary purpose, as the Senate inquiry noted: “It is not intended that the nets create an enclosed area: rather, they are a passive fishing device designed to cull sharks in the area.” </p>
<h2>Understanding overcomes fear</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X17302397">second study</a> looked specifically at the interaction between fear of sharks and the perception that they bite humans intentionally.</p>
<p>We carried out an experiment in the Sydney SEA LIFE Aquarium’s “shark tunnel” – a one-way, U-shaped exhibit that provides perfect conditions for our study. We divided participants into two groups and assigned one group to a treatment to “prime” their emotions at the beginning of the exhibit.</p>
<p>We also surveyed all participants about their feelings about and perceptions of sharks, after viewing the exhibit. This also allowed us to capture both a before and after measurement of fear, from which we could determine whether people’s fear had subsided after seeing sharks’ behaviour at first hand.</p>
<p>We tested two “priming” messages. One called attention to the low probability of being bitten by a shark – we call this our Probability Prime. A second priming message drew “attention to intentionality”. This was our Intentionality Prime and it prompted aquarium visitors to consider sharks’ behaviours. </p>
<p>The Probability Prime, which reflects standard marine education attempts to reduce fear of sharks, failed to do so, consistent with research showing <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-most-likely-to-kill-you-measuring-how-deadly-our-daily-activities-are-72505">humans overestimate low probability risks</a>. Crucially, considering our findings in Ballina and Perth, the Intentionality Prime successfully reduced the public’s fear of sharks. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199167/original/file-20171214-27575-cvh88m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199167/original/file-20171214-27575-cvh88m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199167/original/file-20171214-27575-cvh88m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=711&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199167/original/file-20171214-27575-cvh88m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=711&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199167/original/file-20171214-27575-cvh88m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=711&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199167/original/file-20171214-27575-cvh88m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=894&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199167/original/file-20171214-27575-cvh88m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=894&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199167/original/file-20171214-27575-cvh88m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=894&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">shark fear.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are five take-home messages from our research results:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>There is little blame on the shark. The tide has turned and the public is sophisticated enough to understand that sharks are not intentionally hurting people. </p></li>
<li><p>There is little blame on the government. Governments that feel they need to continue using shark nets or else face the wrath of the public following a shark bite should rework their political calculations.</p></li>
<li><p>The public no longer supports policies that kill sharks. In WA, 75% supported non-lethal options, in Ballina the number was 83% and in the Sydney experiment it reached 85%. </p></li>
<li><p>A Save the Sharks movement has begun, with the public we have polled consistently voicing greater support for conservation approaches above killing sharks. </p></li>
<li><p>Survey respondents believe that governments choose lethal measures to ease public concern, not to make beaches safer. This is a problem for Australia’s democracy; the public believes that policies are being designed to protect governments, not people. </p></li>
</ol>
<p>This last point is arguably the most serious flaw of all in these policies: the continued killing of sharks for political gain.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89163/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Neff received funding from SEA LIFE Trust and Save Our Seas Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Wynter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A Senate committee has recommended an end to sharks culls and nets. According to surveys, the public is on board with the idea of ending policies that are lethal to sharks.Christopher Pepin-Neff, Lecturer in Public Policy, University of SydneyThomas Wynter, Postdoctoral Research Associate, Electoral Integrity Project, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/773992017-06-06T21:34:09Z2017-06-06T21:34:09ZCurious Kids: Do sharks sneeze?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168515/original/file-20170509-20740-88e7iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A shark's nose is chemosensory only, and it doesn’t join up to the back of the throat like ours does.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/leszekleszczynski/15447205451/in/photolist-px1Y1t-7AEZ2k-bMdCJ-Fsd6W-5HxWS-ek4Kv-21JtHU-cTV86-hPj18-WcigB-nbyoWA-GXtnA-9DGyME-6J8zm6-2eQkE-H28kr-9iiHZw-2VJce-rzEF8E-ek4KQ-4WjDVM-SXTa9-Wcig2-okzhU-aCvQE-6AKPRc-6SDamw-21u3i-21tZy-2gotK6-4K2qPB-ewqf-eMc7DJ-4K2qQp-JVfnt-7S3cGe-73boiZ-peS1wL-8auYco-a2QZa-hL3ps-6APYYG-73EmD9-gE6gjW-mGkjW-4Utjxk-2Bjt37-4mJ1cb-RY8Esq-orHiFR">Flickr/Leszek Leszczynski</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This is an article from <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, a new series for children. The Conversation is asking kids to send in questions they’d like an expert to answer. All questions are welcome – serious, weird or wacky!</em> </p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Do sharks sneeze? – Desmond, aged 4, Perth.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p>When an animal sneezes, it’s their way of getting rid of annoying bits and pieces that have floated inside their nose and mouth.</p>
<p>While many animals, including <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fyEajHy8Fzg">humans</a>, <a href="https://youtu.be/gtIz1u8g1F0">elephants</a>, <a href="https://youtu.be/93hq0YU3Gqk">pandas</a> and even <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oGIlaSz9eHE">seals</a>, can sneeze, sharks unfortunately cannot. To be able to sneeze, an animal needs to move air (or water) from the lungs through its nose to the outside. </p>
<p>Sharks have two nostrils (called nares) below their snout that are used for smelling, but they don’t join up to the back of the throat like our nose does, so they can’t sneeze like we do. If something floats into their nares, they might try to shake it out.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171560/original/file-20170531-23681-1bkxgaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171560/original/file-20170531-23681-1bkxgaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171560/original/file-20170531-23681-1bkxgaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171560/original/file-20170531-23681-1bkxgaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171560/original/file-20170531-23681-1bkxgaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171560/original/file-20170531-23681-1bkxgaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171560/original/file-20170531-23681-1bkxgaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171560/original/file-20170531-23681-1bkxgaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shark nostrils are called nares, but they do their breathing through their gills at the back of the mouth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/lwpkommunikacio/14663970488/in/photolist-okNFxo-9NJybd-9NH9LR-8XQBnd-7kRvAK-ck8vcw-tHyeg6-9Nvxqd-CXXxV-9NAqQe-dugcMs-9NFVNX-9Nv8dj-9NEYMC-9NC9uz-4nmqPS-okP83k-9NvF6h-batHzF-6UGb1b-oC2r7v-p3RRp-p3QxL-adqDCb-dthtvX-aCPgav-9NDgMs-6Yz65f-5uJfYR-4nmqP5-4nhn2p-batHBa-batHyZ-4nhmUn-7co5Fo-rLXuC3-4nmqMm-6ADiza-amvWHZ-4RZRhc-4jmHMm-64FHLp-2kbyNw-5uNEcd-7bZkvH-5uJfcn-4KVtqJ-7co7Qb-559aXg-7cjgNR">Flickr/Lwp Kommunikáció</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sharks breathe through the gills at the back of the mouth. Most of their “smelling” is done using a process called chemoreception, which allows sharks to sense tiny pieces of stuff, called molecules, hiding in the water as they pass through their nares.</p>
<p>Sharks can find and recognise these molecules – like parts of blood – that have been released from wounded animals or other prey, because their sense of smell is much better than ours. </p>
<p>Nares are loaded with powerful sensors. Once a shark has locked onto a smell, it can then work out where it came from by swimming towards it and moving its head slightly from side to side. It’s a bit like us following the smell of a freshly baked cake. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171559/original/file-20170531-23660-1sywmg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171559/original/file-20170531-23660-1sywmg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171559/original/file-20170531-23660-1sywmg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171559/original/file-20170531-23660-1sywmg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171559/original/file-20170531-23660-1sywmg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171559/original/file-20170531-23660-1sywmg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171559/original/file-20170531-23660-1sywmg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171559/original/file-20170531-23660-1sywmg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s an exaggeration to say a shark can smell a single drop of blood in the ocean. But they might be able to smell tiny drops of blood in the water from up to five kilometres away.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/elevy/14730820387/in/photolist-orHiFR-86TtTf-7s62o-cfcR4-oJZUAK-FXJoL-7eLhsZ-49GjB8-cfWquS-551zjf-aJA7uv-6SQ6f3-mAQBh-78N7QT-b2dvkB-uAAvu-nNEH67-49GjJK-R6Pe-Vpfrz-kJsJbm-7bXmoE-49Lp8G-4AFffU-4KC2sV-CnoYi-5kStmp-9KKwc-jsEYG-eRDuu-8z3sa5-4VE1N3-bASq9s-bJatC-csBe15-5vUKUf-zzc7Y-4KnYic-j7dMVY-orHaNh-oGazeC-oHVAYR-map2Gv-orHgL8-QmN9g3-orGUyS-8wSLbJ-UPqA7d-5tUai4-orGNVX">Flickr/Elias Levy</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Legend has it that sharks can smell a single drop of blood in the ocean, but that’s an exaggeration. What they <em>can</em> do is detect blood at one part per million, which is similar to detecting tiny drops of blood in the water from up to five kilometres away!</p>
<p>While some have claimed to capture sightings of <a href="https://www.google.com.au/search?q=youtube+shark+nose&oq=youtube+shark+nose&aqs=chrome..69i57j0j69i60l3j0.1979j0j4&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8#q=youtube+shark+sneeze">sharks sneezing on video</a>, it just isn’t physically possible.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ifM3H-oiR6k?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">You might think this shark is sneezing, but trust me – it’s not.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The movement people confuse with sneezing is likely the animal’s attempt at getting rid of unwanted objects from their mouth or stomach area. </p>
<p>Sharks can actually make their stomach stick out of their mouth for brief moments to get rid of things they have eaten that they don’t like, such as tyres, licence plates, fish bones and fish hooks. This is called <a href="http://infinitespider.com/stomach-eversion-in-five-animals/">gastric eversion</a> and it’s a very cool trick.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/eoJdOOYfe4s?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Gastric eversion is where a shark or other animal empties its stomach by making it stick out of their mouth.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Alternatively, a shark stretching its jaws, which they sometimes do after a meal, might be mistaken for a sneeze.</p>
<p>While sharks can’t sneeze like we do, they can smell and they have other great ways of getting rid of unwanted things from inside them.</p>
<hr>
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<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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</figure>
<p><em>Please tell us your name, age, and which city you live in. You can send an audio recording of your question too, if you want. Send as many questions as you like! We won’t be able to answer every question but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/77399/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Williamson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sharks can’t sneeze like we do, but they can do other cool tricks – like making their stomach stick out of their mouth to get rid of unwanted stuff.Jane Williamson, Associate Professor in Marine Ecology, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/716332017-02-12T19:09:34Z2017-02-12T19:09:34ZHow drones can help fight the war on shark attacks<p>Following an <a href="https://taronga.org.au/conservation/conservation-science-research/australian-shark-attack-file">unprecedented series of shark attacks</a> off Australian beaches, the need to find practical solutions is intensifying. </p>
<p>Aerial drones could be an important tool for reducing risk of shark attacks on our beaches within the coming years. Here’s how it would work. Drones would fly autonomously over beaches continuously scanning for sharks with image recognition software. </p>
<p>If a shark is detected, real-time video will be instantly sent to beach authorities, such as lifeguards. If it is a dangerous shark, appropriate action can be taken to ensure public safety, such as sounding alarms and clearing people from the water.</p>
<p>Like other shark bite mitigation measures, this cannot completely eliminate the possibility of a shark attack. However, it could help to reduce the risk to an acceptable level for the majority of beach users.</p>
<p>Importantly, the drone-based approach to shark bite mitigation does not harm sharks or other marine wildlife, such as whales, dolphins, rays and sea turtles, unlike more controversial shark control measures such as mesh nets or baited drum lines.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/iCcMT4r5Mik?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Surfer has a close encounter with a great white shark as seen by a drone.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Testing drones</h2>
<p>As part of the NSW government’s A$16 million <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/sharks/shark-management">Shark Management Strategy</a>, researchers from the NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) and Southern Cross University (SCU) have demonstrated that drones can reliably detect sharks off Australian beaches. </p>
<p>NSW DPI researchers have also compared the costs and benefits of marine wildlife sightings between drones and helicopters, as well as established environmental conditions suitable for drones to provide effective shark detection capabilities.</p>
<p>This summer, a team of SCU and DPI researchers completed an intensive <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NnWhF3D6OxI&feature=youtu.be">drone trial</a> on five important beaches in NSW to verify that drones will work in the long term. As part of the trial, drones performed six 20-minute patrols each morning on each beach for every day of the school holidays. </p>
<p>Researchers monitoring drone footage spotted great white, bull, whaler, mako and hammerhead sharks off NSW beaches. They also saw many dolphins, sea turtles and less dangerous shark species, such as shovel-nosed sharks.</p>
<p>These trials included experiments comparing “people versus machines” by evaluating the utility of automated flight paths and shark recognition software. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tlVNr81KZt8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Drone captures a great white shark cruising the shallows of Northern NSW.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Automating the drone-based approach</h2>
<p>The overall objective of this research is to develop a fully automated drone-based shark surveillance system in the near future.</p>
<p>We envisage that a team of aerial drones could run continuous shark detection missions during the hours when most people are on our beaches.</p>
<p>When required, each drone will automatically take off, patrol for sharks, land itself and charge up again, ready for the next mission. If a drone detects a shark, to can alert beach authorities.</p>
<p>Their response will vary depending on the species of shark detected and its location. This will be immediately apparent from the live video feed and location data they receive. As well as tracking sharks, the drones will also be fitted with sirens and lights to contribute to any emergency actions.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/aIEN3Af17kg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Great white shark off a beach in Northern NSW.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Problems to solve</h2>
<p>There are still at least five major challenges to overcome before establishing a fully functional automated drone-based shark surveillance system. But these could be gradually overcome within the next few years.</p>
<p><strong>Civil aviation regulations</strong></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/got-a-drone-for-christmas-know-the-law-before-taking-to-the-skies-70341">Aviation regulations</a> restrict the use of fully automated drones in most airspace. We could overcome this problem by modifying the law or establishing restricted zones over beaches where drones can fly.</p>
<p><strong>Public safety concerns</strong></p>
<p>We need to minimise the risk of injury as a result of drone failure, by making sure their flight components are failsafe and having flight paths clear of beachgoers. We also need airspace safety systems to ensure that drones are grounded when emergency and other aircraft are in the vicinity.</p>
<p><strong>Public privacy concerns</strong></p>
<p>A drone-based shark surveillance system would require public acceptance. For this, beachgoers need to be aware of the sorts of data being collected by the drones, and to rest assured that this does not breach privacy legislation.</p>
<p><strong>Reliable hardware</strong></p>
<p>Although aerial drones can already automatically take off, fly routes, land and charge themselves, it is not clear how reliably this technology will stand up to the Australian beach environment. To be effective, we will need drones that can reliably function under heavy workloads in coastal conditions. Similarly, data transfer platforms also need to be fast and reliable.</p>
<p><strong>Purpose-designed software</strong></p>
<p>Image analysis software needs to be further developed to automatically detect sharks with a high level of accuracy. Customised software will also need to be developed to coordinate the missions of a team of drones and to ensure seamless video streaming to the portable wireless devices of beach authorities and users.</p>
<p>In terms of the hardware and software challenges, there are a number of research groups racing towards solutions with the goal of commercialising their products. Once an automated drone-based technology for shark bite mitigation is in place, it should be possible to solve issues regarding legislation, safety and privacy.</p>
<p>Given the current rate of technological development and the falling costs of commercially available drones, fully automated drones could be reducing the risk of shark attacks on Australian beaches within five years. However, for many nervous beachgoers, this may not be soon enough.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/71633/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brendan Kelaher receives funding from the NSW Department Primary Industries for two PhD students working on shark projects. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Colefax receives project funding for his PhD from the NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI). He also receives additional work from the NSW DPI.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Butcher works for NSW Department of Primary Industries. He receives funding from the NSW and Commonwealth Governments. He is an Adjunct Associate Professor at Southern Cross University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vic Peddemors receives funding from the NSW Government, the Australian Research Council and the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation (FRDC) on behalf of the Australian Government. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bob Creese does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>LIfeguards could potentially have a new ally in the fight to reduce shark incidents: drones that can spot when a shark swims nearby, and automatically alert authorities.Brendan Kelaher, Associate Professor of Marine Science and Management, Southern Cross UniversityAndrew Colefax, Phd candidate, Southern Cross UniversityBob Creese, Adjunct professor, Southern Cross UniversityPaul Butcher, Adjunct Professor, Southern Cross UniversityVic Peddemors, Shark Biology & Assessment, Sydney Institute of Marine ScienceLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/669852016-10-13T02:32:57Z2016-10-13T02:32:57ZMore shark nets for NSW: why haven’t we learned from WA’s cull?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/141555/original/image-20161013-16253-1w1yw07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hammerheads are the species most caught in NSW's shark nets. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shark image from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>New South Wales Premier Mike Baird has this week announced a plan for a <a href="http://www.news.com.au/national/breaking-news/nsw-shark-attack-victim-drives-to-hospital/news-story/1de5aaeb0e042a9040d7079240d41cab">six-month trial of shark nets</a> off the beaches of northern NSW. This would extend the state’s <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/sharks/management/shark-meshing-bather-protection-program">shark net program</a> from the 51 beaches currently netted between Wollongong and Newcastle. </p>
<p>The announcement was triggered by Wednesday’s shark accident, in which a surfer received minor injuries from a shark bite at Sharpes Beach, Ballina.</p>
<p>The decision marks a turn-around in Premier Baird’s position on sharks. For over a year he has acknowledged the importance of addressing the issue, and has adopted a measured, long-term, non-lethal <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/sharks/management">approach to managing shark hazards</a>. Specifically, the NSW government has, in the last year, allocated funding and resources to non-lethal strategies including surveillance, research and education.</p>
<p>Killing sharks has been highly controversial in Australia in recent years, and in NSW shark nets have been a focus of ongoing, highly polarising debate. </p>
<h2>Three common misunderstandings about shark nets</h2>
<p>The decision to introduce shark nets in the state’s north invites us to revisit some common misunderstandings about this strategy.</p>
<p>First, there is wide misunderstanding about what shark nets are and what they do. The nets used in the <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/sharks/management/shark-meshing-bather-protection-program">NSW Shark Meshing (Bather Protection) Program</a> do not create an enclosed area within which beach goers are protected from sharks. </p>
<p>They are fishing nets, which function by catching and killing sharks in the area. Nets are 150 m long, 6 m deep, and are suspended in water 10-12 m deep, within 500 m of the shore.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/141556/original/image-20161013-16217-169ssjy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/141556/original/image-20161013-16217-169ssjy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/141556/original/image-20161013-16217-169ssjy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141556/original/image-20161013-16217-169ssjy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141556/original/image-20161013-16217-169ssjy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141556/original/image-20161013-16217-169ssjy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141556/original/image-20161013-16217-169ssjy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/141556/original/image-20161013-16217-169ssjy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bondi Beach’s shark net in 2009.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/276029/Report-into-the-NSW-Shark-Meshing-Program.pdf">NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2009</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Second, whether shark nets work is still up for debate. Shark nets have been used in NSW since 1937. Since then, the number of netted beaches, methods for deploying nets, and data collection and record-keeping methods have changed, and data sets are incomplete. </p>
<p>Our use of the beach and ocean has also changed dramatically. There are more people in the water, in new areas, and we’re using the ocean for different activities. At the same time, our observation of sharks and emergency response have improved dramatically. </p>
<p>The suggestion that nets prevent shark accidents is an oversimplification of a complex story, a misrepresentation of both technology and data, and it misinforms the public.</p>
<p>And finally, shark nets cannot be a long-term solution. They are out-dated technology based on outdated thinking, developed 80 years ago. </p>
<p>They go directly against our international responsibility to protect threatened species (under the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/secretariat/about">International Union for the Conservation of Nature</a> and our own <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/epbc">Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act</a>), and our <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/science/soe/2011-inbrief/marine-environment#ib6">national priorities</a> for <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/topics/marine/marine-bioregional-plans/temperate-east">protecting marine environments and species</a>, including several shark species. </p>
<p>We know that shark nets in NSW kill on average <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/276029/Report-into-the-NSW-Shark-Meshing-Program.pdf">at least 275 animals per year (measured between 1950 and 2008)</a>, and that the majority of animals killed pose no threat to people. We can do better than this.</p>
<h2>Learning from the (very) recent past</h2>
<p>Right now we have an opportunity in NSW to learn from recent experiences in Western Australia. In 2012, the WA government, under Premier Colin Barnett, introduced hooked “drumlines” to kill sharks in an attempt to reduce the risk of shark bites. Like this week’s announcement by Premier Baird, that policy change was stimulated by a spike in shark accidents. </p>
<p>The response to the new policy was a highly-polarised debate and <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-02-01/shark-protests-wa-catch-and-kill-perth/5232480">extraordinary public outcry</a>, including two public protests at Perth’s Cottesloe Beach attracting 4,000 and 6,000 people, and protests in eleven other cities around the country, including 2,000 at Sydney’s Manly Beach. </p>
<p>The state’s Environmental Protection Authority received a <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-02-21/record-number-of-submissions-to-epa-over-shark-cull/5274660">record number of 12,000 submissions</a> from scientific and other experts presenting reasons to cease the cull. The WA government heeded the EPA’s recommendation and cancelled the policy. </p>
<p><a href="http://ro.uow.edu.au/sspapers/1859/">Our research</a> with ocean users conducted during this period showed that perspectives are diverse (we surveyed 557 WA-based ocean-users using quantitative and qualitative research methods). </p>
<p>Among people who use the ocean regularly, some strongly oppose killing sharks; others are ambivalent; and a smaller number of people are in favour. People’s views and understandings are nuanced and carefully thought through. </p>
<p>However, within this group, the strategies for managing shark hazards that were most strongly supported were improving public education about sharks, and encouraging ocean users to understand and accept the risks associated with using the ocean. Other widely supported strategies included developing shark deterrents and increasing surveillance and patrols. </p>
<p>The most strongly opposed approaches were those that killed sharks including culling, proactive catch-and-destroy measures, baited drumlines, and shark nets. </p>
<p>In recent years we have been making good progress in Australia on public discussion and investment in more effective and ethical approaches for reducing shark bites. This week’s move to introduce an outmoded technology to the north coast promises to further divide the community.</p>
<p>We should continue to invest in developing new strategies that better reflect our contemporary understanding of marine ecosystems. Perhaps we also need to consider (temporarily) altering the way we use the ocean, avoiding areas of higher-than-usual shark sightings.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/66985/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leah Gibbs does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New South Wales wants to extend its shark net program after a spate of attacks in the north of state.Leah Gibbs, Senior Lecturer in Geography, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/474132015-09-23T02:27:06Z2015-09-23T02:27:06ZState of fear: what should we do about sharks in New South Wales?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95660/original/image-20150922-31495-1pmug7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=480%2C463%2C2223%2C1532&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sharks often bite people less to kill and more as a mistake.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/pacificklaus/20209520308">pacificklaus/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sharks have long been a symbol of the terror of the deep seas and a source of trepidation among Australian beachgoers. But a recent cluster of dangerous encounters with sharks in New South Wales has raised new concerns among the public and <a href="http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/opinion/when-sharks-are-eating-people-its-time-to-cull/story-fni0cwl5-1227477741452">sparked fresh calls for culls</a>.</p>
<p>Fears of more casualties are also changing the way our beaches are being used. Some high schools have reportedly cancelled their surf programs, and several surf lifesaving clubs <a href="http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/high-schools-axe-surf-programs-and-nippers-forced-to-swim-in-lakes-because-of-huge-numbers-of-sharks/story-fni0cx4q-1227523462536">recently announced</a> that they will seek other venues for “Little Nipper” training.</p>
<p>So what’s actually happening with the sharks?</p>
<h2>Shark attacks or shark bites?</h2>
<p>Negative interactions between sharks and people can range from light (small lacerations and stitches required) to severe (large pieces of flesh removed, including limbs). </p>
<p>All are routinely termed “attacks”, but as this emotive word conjures up a perception of maliciousness on the shark’s behalf it is not a very useful description. There is a <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/S13412-013-0107-2">recent move</a> to rename shark attacks as “shark bites”, in the same way that injuries from aggressive dogs on humans are documented, thus lessening the incorrect perception that all interactions with sharks are fatal.</p>
<p>Due to their public interest, there are good data sets on negative interactions with sharks in both Australia and globally that span centuries. Comprehensive data on shark bites, including those in NSW, are collected and compiled in the publicly available <a href="https://taronga.org.au/conservation/conservation-science-research/australian-shark-attack-file/2015">Australian Shark Attack File</a> (ASAF), which was established in 1984 and is held at Taronga Zoo. </p>
<p>ASAF data and <a href="https://taronga.org.au/sites/default/files/downloads/changing_patterns_of_shark_attacks_in_australian_waters.pdf">associated publications</a> do show that shark bites have increased over the past couple of decades, from an average of 6.5 incidents annually from 1990 to 2000, to 15 incidents per year since 2000.</p>
<p>Interestingly, however, while the number of shark bites has recently increased, the number of deaths resulting from the bites remains <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=MF10181.pdf">consistently low</a> (an average of 1.1 people per year over the past 20 years).</p>
<p>Why are fatalities from sharks not increasing in proportion with the increase in shark bites? If sharks were the premeditated killing machines portrayed by the media and entertainment industries, why do most negative shark-human interactions involve only one bite and not the victim being consumed?</p>
<h2>Feeding habits</h2>
<p>Answers lie in the way that sharks feed. Sharks are apex predators that actively hunt their prey, which can include fish, seals and whales. But they are also <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0060797">opportunistic scavengers</a> that feed on dying or dead organisms, as do terrestrial predators such as bears and lions. </p>
<p>It is important to understand this because it means that sharks are not always the hunters they are painted as. A surfer in a wetsuit paddling on a board could be mistaken for sick or dead prey, floating on the water. The shark may give an exploratory bite to assess. Unfortunately such exploratory bites can remove substantial tissue and even limbs in humans, particularly if the shark is over two metres in length, and may thus be fatal.</p>
<p>Data from ASAF support the concept that sharks are not actively hunting humans as prey, and that a bite is more often a “mistake” by the shark. The vast majority of bites occur on a victim’s extremities (legs, arms), consistent with exploratory bites by scavenging sharks. The shark usually disappears after the initial bite. There are no accounts of a person also being bitten when coming to the aid of a bitten victim in the water.</p>
<h2>More people, more encounters</h2>
<p>While the number of negative interactions with sharks has risen this year, there have been previous clusters of interactions in ASAF data. A peak of 74 incidents was documented in the 1930s. Considering the method of reporting at the time, it is highly likely that this number was greater. </p>
<p>While it is easy to assume that today’s increase in negative shark-human interactions is directly related to an increase in the number of aggressive sharks in the vicinity, there are other hypotheses that can explain this pattern. John West, the curator of ASAF <a href="https://taronga.org.au/animals-conservation/conservation-science/researcher-profiles/john-west-dip-aqua-psm">explains</a> that more contact between sharks and people has also resulted from an increase in the number of people and how they use the beach.</p>
<p>The number of incidents and their locations coincide with an increase in the number of people residing in rural coastal areas, particularly in <a href="http://www.sunshinecoastdaily.com.au/news/property-hotspots-central-queensland-northern-nsw/1926702/">northern NSW</a>. There has also been a steady increase in the use of beaches and water activities over past decades, which has resulted in more people being in the water. </p>
<p>People have also extended their time in the water, with an increase in the use of wetsuits. Methods for reporting negative shark interactions have also improved. All such reported interactions attract substantial media attention in recent times, leading to the perception of proportionally more interactions than actually occur.</p>
<p>It is also highly probable that the behaviour of the sharks may have changed and not the number of sharks in the water. Sharks are known to come into shore to follow baitfish, which have been prevalent in the shallow waters of beaches this year. It is difficult to know the probability of this without rigorous scientific data that track the patterns of movements of the sharks.</p>
<h2>To kill, or not to kill</h2>
<p>Following the recent spate of bites this year, controversy exists as to whether beaches in northern NSW should be meshed - which has been known to indiscriminately kill sharks. However, negative shark interactions continue to occur in beaches from Newcastle to Wollongong that are periodically meshed by the <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/info/sharks/meshing">Shark Meshing (Bather Protection) Program</a>. </p>
<p>Since 2005, shark bites have occurred at 13 of the 51 meshed beaches. This should not be too surprising because the nets are only 150 m long and 6 m high, allowing marine organisms to swim over, under and around them. Shark nets are not continuous curtains of net that completely enclose areas for swimming, as in the case of the stinger nets found in northern Queensland. Moreover, they are deployed for only part of the year. </p>
<p>But experience from Western Australia shows that shark culls also <a href="https://theconversation.com/mike-baird-is-right-culling-sharks-doesnt-work-heres-what-we-can-do-instead-46195">do not work</a>. Instead, NSW Premier Mike Baird has announced an A$250,000 shark tagging and surveillance program alongside an international “<a href="http://www.businessinsider.com.au/nsw-premier-mike-baird-is-holding-a-shark-summit-revealing-a-lucky-escape-while-surfing-2015-8">shark summit</a>” to be held this month.</p>
<p>Baird’s more measured and rational approach to beach safety should be welcomed as a valuable addition to a debate so often driven by fear.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/47413/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Williamson has received funding from the Australian Research Council. She is Deputy Chair of the NSW Fisheries Scientific Committee. </span></em></p>A recent cluster of dangerous encounters with sharks in New South Wales has raised new concerns among the public.Jane Williamson, Associate Professor in Marine Ecology, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/467332015-09-01T00:39:58Z2015-09-01T00:39:58ZAerial patrols don’t see all the sharks, but they’re keeping people safe<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93415/original/image-20150831-25717-wof8ek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">White sharks - a threatened species responsible for a number of recent shark encounters. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scubaben/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The recent series of shark bites on the north coast of New South Wales is a politician’s worst nightmare, as the government tries to balance public safety with protecting wildlife.</p>
<p>In response NSW has stayed away from <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3196022/Animal-loving-locals-New-South-Wales-north-coast-Byron-Ballina-Evans-Head-decide-cull-sharks-spate-shark-attacks.html">culling sharks</a> and launched a <a href="https://www.nsw.gov.au/news/sharks-tagged-help-reduce-attacks">new program</a>, run through the Department of Primary Industries, Fisheries, to tag, track and monitor sharks.</p>
<p>However, more research may not necessarily prove to be the answer because good research takes time and large resource allocations to deal with infrequent events – and politicians don’t have the luxury of time.</p>
<p>Instead, we should look at programs that are already working, such as aerial patrols. </p>
<h2>Safe beaches for almost 60 years</h2>
<p>For almost 60 years the <a href="http://www.aerialpatrol.com.au">Australian Aerial Patrol</a> has provided a voluntary, community-funded service spotting sharks over the beaches of the Illawarra and Shoalhaven regions of NSW during the swimming season. </p>
<p>I recall the “shark patrol” over the Wollongong beaches where I grew up almost 50 years ago. I joined as a volunteer four summers ago and enjoy the community service, the challenges of low-altitude flying, and the commitment of volunteers who come from all walks of life. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93411/original/image-20150831-29509-14suz47.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93411/original/image-20150831-29509-14suz47.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93411/original/image-20150831-29509-14suz47.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93411/original/image-20150831-29509-14suz47.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93411/original/image-20150831-29509-14suz47.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93411/original/image-20150831-29509-14suz47.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93411/original/image-20150831-29509-14suz47.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93411/original/image-20150831-29509-14suz47.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Spot the sharks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Duncan Leadbitter</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Recently <a href="https://theconversation.com/mike-baird-is-right-culling-sharks-doesnt-work-heres-what-we-can-do-instead-46195">on The Conversation</a> Jane Williamson argued that aerial patrols have been “discredited” as an effective method of shark patrol. This is based on a New South Wales <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0083456">study</a> from Department of Primary Industries researchers which found that plane-based patrols only see 12.5% of all sharks. </p>
<p>Based on this information in this study, the authors concluded that aerial patrols were ineffective. But this is only one way of looking at aerial patrols. </p>
<h2>A fair way to assess aerial patrols</h2>
<p>The DPI Fisheries also manages the shark-meshing program that operates from Newcastle to Wollongong. In the past one of the program’s <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/276029/Report-into-the-NSW-Shark-Meshing-Program.pdf">objectives</a> was “culling populations of large, aggressive sharks”. Numbers of sharks and other species killed and entangled are collected in the program’s <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/info/sharks/meshing">annual reports</a>. </p>
<p>The DPI has <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/357438/nsw-shark-meshing-prgram.pdf">argued</a> that this program is successful. This is based on outcomes (reduction in fatalities on ocean beaches), not inputs (number of sharks caught). </p>
<p>If the aerial patrol were evaluated on outcomes (number of fatalities or bites), not inputs (number of sharks seen), then it too would have an enviable record. The last fatality in the Aerial Patrol’s region was in 1966 in Jervis Bay after a boat sank. </p>
<p>This outcome suggests that seeing only one shark in eight has merit and is not ineffective, as claimed by the researchers. </p>
<p>We could also expand the performance metrics to include impacts on endangered species. For instance, in 2014-15, <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/571750/shark-meshing-bather-protection-program-2014-15-annual-performance-report.pdf">22 protected species were killed</a> in the state’s meshing program, including white sharks. Aerial patrols clearly have no interaction or impact on threatened species. </p>
<h2>Collaboration is best for bathers</h2>
<p>The Aerial Patrol is not the only source of bather protection operating in the Illawarra and Shoalhaven regions. Some of the more popular beaches have ground-based patrolled areas during the summer swimming season. </p>
<p>According to Surf Lifesaving Association <a href="http://issuu.com/slsnsw/docs/2013-2014_slsnsw_annualreport/89?e=10251725/10008490">statistics</a> there were 148 shark alarms statewide in 2013-14, of which 117 were in the Newcastle to Wollongong region (which would reflect the larger number of patrolled beaches). Seven were in the Illawarra-Shoalhaven region. </p>
<p>Whether these figures are too low or too high hasn’t been evaluated by the DPI Fisheries but for those that are called from the water by life savers I am sure they welcome the warning. </p>
<p>The surf lifesaving providers operate a comprehensive radio network and the Aerial Patrol can radio ground based patrols to get people out of the water and, conversely, the ground patrols can ask the Aerial Patrol to investigate potential shark sightings. </p>
<p>This cross platform collaboration has been happening for decades and may well be why the region has a very low level of interactions between sharks and bathers. The way to deal with low-frequency events is not to remove options but to increase them and encourage collaboration. </p>
<h2>No single solution to the issue</h2>
<p>A variety of alternative methods for protecting bathers have been put forward over the years, such as electrical currents and chemical barriers, but none has been judged to be worthy of trials in NSW. </p>
<p>Meanwhile we now have a tagging program but, as noted CSIRO great white shark expert Barry Bruce <a href="http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/secret-life-of-a-great-white/story-fni0cx4q-1226772287998">stated in 2013</a>: “I would love our research to completely eliminate the risk of a shark attack but no amount of research, tagging or monitoring will ever do that.” </p>
<p>Given the variability in shark numbers and distribution (in time and space) the question of how long it may take to generate usable data remains an open one. More importantly, by whose metrics will this approach be evaluated as being useful?</p>
<p>The state government may wish to consider allocating responsibility for bather protection to the emergency services portfolio and convene a management committee of relevant stakeholders, such as beach safety providers, environmental groups, scientists and policy makers. </p>
<p>A more balanced approach would enable politicians to have access to a suite of actions that could be implemented quickly whilst enabling investment in new approaches to bather protection.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46733/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Duncan Leadbitter is a volunteer observer for the Australian Aerial Patrol. In the 1980s he worked for DPI Fisheries.</span></em></p>More research may not necessarily prove to be the answer to shark attacks. Instead, we should look at programs that are already working, such as aerial patrols.Duncan Leadbitter, Visiting Fellow, Australian National Centre for Ocean Resources and Security, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/461952015-08-17T05:44:58Z2015-08-17T05:44:58ZMike Baird is right, culling sharks doesn’t work – here’s what we can do instead<p>New South Wales is the latest Australian state to hear <a href="http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/opinion/when-sharks-are-eating-people-its-time-to-cull/story-fni0cwl5-1227477741452">calls for sharks to be culled</a>, in response to a spate of fatal and non-fatal incidents.</p>
<p>NSW Premier Mike Baird has implemented a <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-14/nsw-launches-shark-tagging-surveillance-in-wake-of-attacks/6696392">new surveillance program</a>, while resisting calls for a cull on the basis that <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-14/mike-baird-weighs-in-as-shark-alarm-closes-bondi-again/6698876">it doesn’t work</a>.</p>
<p>Put simply, there is no scientific support for the concept that culling sharks in a particular area will lead to a decrease in shark attacks and increase ocean safety. </p>
<p>Western Australia <a href="https://theconversation.com/western-australian-shark-cull-policy-dumped-experts-react-31621">tried culling sharks with baited drum lines</a> last year. The tactic did not improve the safety of swimmers, surfers or divers – one of the reasons why scientists <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-were-opposing-western-australias-shark-cull-scientists-28653">actively opposed the cull</a>. A similar long-standing policy in Queensland has shown <a href="https://theconversation.com/has-queensland-really-saved-lives-by-killing-thousands-of-sharks-23437">little evidence of effectiveness</a>.</p>
<h2>Born survivors</h2>
<p>Sharks have inhabited this planet for more than 400 million years, and have survived five mass extinctions. Earth is now entering its sixth – this time caused by humans – and sharks are at the pointy end, with <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3897121/">90% of the species already considered threatened</a>.</p>
<p>It is not just an issue on NSW’s surf breaks. Humanity’s growing demand for protein has put substantial pressure on oceanic systems, and industrial fishing techniques have have reduced predatory fish populations to <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X13000055">less than 10% of their historic numbers</a>. Sharks are especially vulnerable because of their low reproductive rates, slow growth and delayed rates of maturity. </p>
<p>The Indo-Australasian region is recognised as a hot-spot for global shark biodiversity, and in in this region Australia trumps all, with <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/pid/5960.htm">more than 36% of all known shark species living in Australian waters</a>.</p>
<p>What’s more, sharks play a pivotal role within the ecosystems they inhabit. As apex predators, they maintain community structure and biodiversity by <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01347.x/epdf">regulating predator and prey abundance</a>. Even light fishing pressure such as species-target line fisheries can cause <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01489.x/epdf">dramatic declines</a> in populations of large coastal sharks. Meanwhile, indirect fishing via shark meshing programs can catch a range of targeted and non-targeted species of sharks.</p>
<h2>What would a cull do to sharks and ecosystems?</h2>
<p>Shark culling is best thought of as an indiscriminate method of removing sharks from our coastal ecosystems. The WA and Queensland culls have led to the capture and death of many non-targeted sharks. We also know that many shark species do not cope with capture well – a <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989415000487">recent Australian study</a> found that 100% of hammerheads caught by line fishing will die of stress within an hour of capture. </p>
<p>Similarly, spinner and dusky sharks have very low survival rates within the first few hours of being hooked, and sharks that are hooked and subsequently released do not necessarily survive. </p>
<p>Hooking in the gut is very common. New South Wales’ flagship threatened aquatic species, the <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/species-protection/conservation/what-current/critically/grey-nurse-shark">greynurse shark</a>, will most <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-06-02/critically-endangered-grey-nurse-shark-the-focus-of-dpi-research/6514008">probably die over time</a> if hooked in the gut and then released. Stainless steel hooks do not rust out but become encapsulated in the tissue over time, causing starvation, wasting of the body (known as cachexia), and eventual death.</p>
<p>If we remove sharks as top predators from the ecosystem, the effects will filter down to animals lower down the food chain and cause unexpected changes to ecosystems. We are already seeing such changes in areas where sharks are overfished. </p>
<p>Declines in the number of blacktip sharks in North Carolina in the late 1970s and 1980s caused an increase in the relative abundance of cownose rays and a <a href="http://www.lenfestocean.org/%7E/media/legacy/Lenfest/PDFs/Heithaus_Top_predator_declines_article.pdf?la=en">corresponding decrease in scallops over the ensuing decades</a>. Healthy aquatic ecosystems are typified by a complexity of players in the food chain, and removing such macropredators will result in decreasing ecosystem resilience.</p>
<h2>What can we do instead of culling?</h2>
<p>Indiscriminately culling sharks is dangerous to marine ecosystems, not to mention expensive and futile. We would be far better off allocating resources to achieving a greater understanding of the ecology and behaviour of these large predators. We can increase knowledge of why and where sharks are likely to attack humans by <a href="http://csironewsblog.com/2013/12/17/7000km-and-counting-on-the-tail-of-a-great-white-shark/">tagging sharks and following their movements over time</a>, or through genetic studies that can <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dean_Blower/publication/272820161_Population_genetics_of_Australian_white_sharks_reveals_fine-scale_spatial_structure_transoceanic_dispersal_events_and_low_effective_population_sizes/links/54efb7560cf2495330e286eb.pd">assess effective population sizes</a>. </p>
<p>Current aerial surveys are unlikely to be a successful strategy, however. Scientific analysis has <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0083456">already discredited aerial programs in NSW</a>. Aerial surveys have only a 12.5% success rate in spotting a coastal shark from a fixed-wing aircraft, and a 17.1% success rate in helicopters. As surveys are only done for a few hours per week, and pass over a particular beach in minutes, these patrols can give the public a false sense of security.</p>
<p>Other non-invasive methods of mitigation are currently being developed, including the use of erratic walls of bubbles to deter sharks, and the development of wetsuits and surfboards that sharks are <a href="https://theconversation.com/mick-fanning-changes-his-surfboard-colour-from-yum-yum-yellow-46182">less likely to mistake as prey</a>. </p>
<p>But ultimately, we also need to take personal responsibility, and reduce the likelihood of an attack by not swimming at dawn and dusk, not entering the water at the mouth of estuaries with poor visibility, or in areas of baitfish. After all, even sharks can make mistakes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46195/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Williamson has received funding from the Australian Research Council. She is Deputy Chair of the NSW Fisheries Scientific Committee.</span></em></p>Calls are growing louder for a shark cull in New South Wales. But like in Western Australia, which infamously experimented with culling last year, a NSW cull would harm sharks while failing to protect people.Jane Williamson, Associate Professor in Marine Ecology, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/449102015-07-20T06:22:40Z2015-07-20T06:22:40ZSpectacular shark encounters: Fanning’s close shave reminds us we share the ocean<p>In the wake of the spectacular footage of champion surfer <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-07-19/mick-fanning-clashes-with-shark-in-south-africa-surfing-event/6632214">Mick Fanning’s recent shark encounter</a> in Jeffreys Bay, South Africa, and his good fortune in emerging without physical injury, sharks are back on the radar.</p>
<p>Many people are probably scratching their heads wondering how we can avoid such dangerous incidents. Some have suggested that “shark attack” is on the rise, and therefore that risk is increasing.</p>
<p>But the risk of dangerous interaction with a shark is incredibly low. In fact, a <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2015/07/09/good-news-for-california-beachgoers-the-risk-of-a-shark-attack-has-been-declining-for-decades/">recent study</a> found that in California shark-related fatalities have decreased significantly since 1950.</p>
<p>Collecting statistics on shark incidents is more fraught than it might seem. The <a href="http://www.sharkattackfile.net">Global</a> and <a href="https://taronga.org.au/conservation/conservation-science-research/australian-shark-attack-file">Australian</a> Shark Attack Files collect data on all reported interactions. But “risk” is fiendishly difficult to calculate because we don’t have good data on numbers of people using the ocean or types of activities people undertake. </p>
<p>Terminology adds to the confusion: “shark attack” is highly emotive and often <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/S13412-013-0107-2">misleading</a>. More precise terms like “sighting”, “encounter” and “bite” do more to describe an interaction, develop public understanding of shark behaviour, and reduce the chance of reaction motivated by <a href="https://theconversation.com/sharks-arent-criminals-but-our-fear-makes-us-talk-as-if-they-are-36493">fear</a>.</p>
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<h2>Learning from ocean-users</h2>
<p>Our research recently published in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X15000962">Marine Policy</a> (and previously in <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00049182.2014.899023#abstract">Australian Geographer</a>) focuses on the experiences and attitudes of the people most likely to encounter sharks; that is, ocean users.</p>
<p>We have talked with surfers, ocean swimmers, paddlers, divers, fishers, and others who use the ocean regularly for recreation, professional or volunteer purposes.</p>
<p>Two findings strike most:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Almost 70% of the 557 people surveyed have encountered or sighted a shark while undertaking ocean-based activities. This could be a shark of any species, and includes those listed in Australia as potentially threatening to humans, namely great white, tiger and bull sharks. The lesson here is that most of the time people and sharks co-exist without ill effect.</p></li>
<li><p>The most strongly supported strategies for managing risks associated with shark encounter are those that involve people adapting their behaviour. In particular, improving public education, and encouraging ocean users to understand and accept risks associated with entering the ocean. In contrast, the most strongly opposed strategies are those that involve killing sharks.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>Efforts to manage shark-related hazards by killing sharks, through lethal strategies such as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/western-australian-shark-cull-policy-dumped-experts-react-31621">baited drumlines rolled out in Western Australia last year</a> and the shark nets currently under review in New South Wales, have been met with loud protest. The time seems ripe to reassess how we understand and manage our relationships with sharks.</p>
<p>Although frightening, the footage of Fanning at Jeffreys Bay is a reminder that sharks are present in the oceans, and that the vast majority of interactions between people and sharks end without fatality or injury.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/44910/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leah Gibbs does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Although frightening, the footage of Mick Fanning at Jeffreys Bay is a reminder that sharks are present in the oceans, and that the vast majority of interactions between people and sharks end without fatality or injury.Leah Gibbs, Senior Lecturer in Geography, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/356792014-12-29T21:27:53Z2014-12-29T21:27:53Z2014, the year that was: Environment + Energy<p>Want a single word to sum up environmental affairs in 2014? Let’s go with “heated”. The year began with the realisation that 2013 was <a href="https://theconversation.com/2013-was-australias-hottest-year-warm-for-much-of-the-world-21670">Australia’s hottest ever</a> (and yes, <a href="https://theconversation.com/human-hands-are-all-over-australias-hottest-ever-year-32267">it’s because of us</a>), and ended with the knowledge that the world has probably just lived through the <a href="https://theconversation.com/hot-2014-closes-in-on-top-spot-in-world-temperature-rankings-35046">hottest ever measured globally</a>.</p>
<p>But the heat wasn’t just in the atmosphere; environmental policy provided enough acrimony to keep everyone simmering about something. As the <a href="https://theconversation.com/99-999-certainty-humans-are-driving-global-warming-new-study-29911">certainty over climate science stacked up ever higher</a>, the uncertainty over Australia’s response has grown too.</p>
<p>In July we said <a href="https://theconversation.com/obituary-australias-carbon-price-29217">goodbye to the carbon price</a>, as the Abbott government delivered one of its central pledges to voters. True, the policy was <a href="https://theconversation.com/despite-its-imminent-demise-the-carbon-price-has-cut-emissions-29199">cutting emissions</a>, but it was also politically poisonous throughout its two-year life.</p>
<p>Its replacement, the A$2.5 billion <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/direct-action-plan">Direct Action</a> plan, was <a href="https://theconversation.com/palmer-deal-gives-green-light-to-direct-action-experts-react-33601">finally waved through in October</a>, despite analysts’ <a href="https://theconversation.com/direct-action-policy-still-leaves-loopholes-open-for-big-polluters-25918">reservations</a> about whether the idea of paying polluters to cut greenhouse emissions will actually work. (The government’s other flagship environment policy, the “<a href="https://theconversation.com/another-broken-promise-budget-switches-landcare-for-green-army-26818">Green Army</a>”, has been so low-profile as to be almost AWOL.)</p>
<p>Whisper it, but economic forces might yet morph Direct Action into a <a href="https://theconversation.com/direct-action-could-deliver-a-useful-outcome-carbon-trading-33736">reborn form of emissions trading</a>. Bizarrely, that could leave mining billionaire Clive Palmer, whose <a href="https://theconversation.com/clive-palmer-promises-carbon-tax-repeal-in-a-policy-that-throws-bones-in-all-directions-28475">press conference alongside Al Gore must rate as the year’s most unexpected environmental policy moment</a>, looking like an <a href="https://theconversation.com/audio-qanda-whats-in-and-out-of-palmers-climate-strategy-28497">unlikely climate guru</a> after calling for emissions trading to continue, albeit at a price of zero.</p>
<p>Yet this was all tinkering around the edges in comparison with the blockbuster <a href="https://theconversation.com/us-china-climate-deal-at-last-a-real-game-changer-on-emissions-34148">US-China climate deal</a> unveiled in November, which will see China’s emissions peak in 2030 (and no, that <a href="https://theconversation.com/factcheck-does-the-new-climate-deal-let-china-do-nothing-for-16-years-34239">doesn’t mean they get to do nothing until then</a>). Coming ahead of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/g20-brisbane">Brisbane G20 summit</a> at which Australia had sought to keep climate off the agenda, this was more a blindside than a shirtfront for Prime Minister Tony Abbott.</p>
<p>The move upped the pressure on Australia (and others) to step up at this month’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/julie-bishop-arrives-at-climate-talks-amid-ignominy-for-australia-35108">Lima climate summit</a>. The government pledged <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-200-million-climate-pledge-falls-short-of-its-true-debt-35318">A$200 million to the Green Climate Fund</a>, yet progress on the real task at hand, forging a proper climate treaty at the Paris 2015 summit, remains <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-talks-slouch-towards-paris-as-lima-summit-finally-wraps-up-35478">frustratingly slow</a>.</p>
<p>Domestically, nowhere has the policy uncertainty been greater than in the renewable energy sector, with the government bidding to <a href="https://theconversation.com/planned-cut-to-renewable-energy-target-a-free-kick-for-fossil-fuels-33317">slash the Renewable Energy Target</a> in the wake of <a href="https://theconversation.com/review-calls-for-renewable-energy-target-cuts-what-it-means-29787">Warburton review</a>.</p>
<p>Some organisations decided to take green finance matters into their own hands, with the Australian National University’s decision to divest from seven resources firms <a href="https://theconversation.com/outrage-at-anu-divestment-shows-the-power-of-its-idea-32736">prompting a vicious backlash</a>.</p>
<h2>Coal and coral</h2>
<p>While the current public policy settings have helped the coal industry enjoy huge wins such as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/carmichael-mine-is-a-game-changer-for-australian-coal-29839">game-changing Carmichael mine development</a>, other events showed that the costs of cheap energy <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-real-disaster-at-hazelwood-and-elsewhere-is-brown-coal-itself-31375">aren’t just financial</a>. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/victorias-coal-fire-poses-a-rare-challenge-for-firefighting-23698">Hazelwood mine fire</a> burned for weeks in February and March, <a href="https://theconversation.com/young-and-old-told-to-leave-morwell-south-amid-smoke-fears-23823">severely polluting the town of Morwell</a> and raising <a href="https://theconversation.com/accidents-or-bad-regulation-why-victorias-coal-mines-keep-failing-26376">serious questions about Victoria’s coal industry</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67782/original/image-20141219-31570-10o1p9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67782/original/image-20141219-31570-10o1p9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67782/original/image-20141219-31570-10o1p9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67782/original/image-20141219-31570-10o1p9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67782/original/image-20141219-31570-10o1p9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67782/original/image-20141219-31570-10o1p9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67782/original/image-20141219-31570-10o1p9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67782/original/image-20141219-31570-10o1p9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Would you like dredge spoil with that?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center/Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Great Barrier Reef faces an uncertain future too, as the World Heritage Committee mulls the question of <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-great-barrier-reef-should-not-be-listed-as-in-danger-35602">whether to list it as officially in danger</a> in the wake of January’s decision to allow <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-courting-danger-with-the-great-barrier-reef-20411">millions of tonnes of dredge spoil to be dumped on the reef</a>. The decision was reversed in September, but few issues have prompted more rancour this year.</p>
<p>Elsewhere on the high seas there was a win for Australia on whaling, with The Hague <a href="https://theconversation.com/whaling-in-the-antarctic-japans-scientific-program-illegal-23824">ruling</a> that Japan’s scientific whaling program was against international law. But the long-running battle isn’t quite over – Japan could be back next year with a <a href="https://theconversation.com/japan-could-resume-whaling-this-time-with-the-hagues-blessing-31351">revised whaling plan</a>.</p>
<h2>Jaws of doom</h2>
<p>Great white sharks also earned a reprieve after Western Australia’s government was <a href="https://theconversation.com/western-australian-shark-cull-policy-dumped-experts-react-31621">forced to abandon its controversial shark cull</a>. Not a single great white was killed during the three-month trial cull from January to April, but <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-take-home-messages-from-was-official-shark-cull-numbers-26381">dozens of other sharks were</a>. </p>
<p>Some eastern-staters wondered what all the fuss was about, given that Queensland has targeted sharks for decades – but our analysis showed that <a href="https://theconversation.com/has-queensland-really-saved-lives-by-killing-thousands-of-sharks-23437">this policy doesn’t necessarily work</a>.</p>
<p>Other <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/australian-endangered-species">endangered animals</a> were even less fortunate. This year we bade a sad farewell to the last ever Christmas Island forest skink. <a href="https://theconversation.com/vale-gump-the-last-known-christmas-island-forest-skink-30252">Bye bye, Gump</a>.</p>
<p>But in happier news, the New Guinea big-eared bat made a <a href="https://theconversation.com/lost-bat-species-rediscovered-after-120-years-in-the-wilderness-26062">miraculous return from presumed extinction</a> after 120 years in the scientific wilderness.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67781/original/image-20141219-31573-5l50ny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67781/original/image-20141219-31573-5l50ny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67781/original/image-20141219-31573-5l50ny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67781/original/image-20141219-31573-5l50ny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67781/original/image-20141219-31573-5l50ny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67781/original/image-20141219-31573-5l50ny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67781/original/image-20141219-31573-5l50ny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67781/original/image-20141219-31573-5l50ny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Long time no see.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julie Broken-Brow</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Green gloom</h2>
<p>Perhaps the biggest challenge when summing up a year of environmental news is to avoid being gloomy. Many Australians would describe themselves as concerned about the environment (whether they actually do anything about it is <a href="https://theconversation.com/most-australians-overestimate-how-green-they-really-are-22400">another question</a>), and it’s easy to see why.</p>
<p>With our <a href="https://theconversation.com/redrawing-the-map-could-reveal-ocean-garbage-patch-culprits-31163">oceans full of rubbish</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-we-still-hear-people-joke-about-hitting-cyclists-31214">cyclists copping abuse on talk radio</a>, a Treasurer who’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/sorry-joe-hockey-canberra-is-australias-home-of-wind-farms-26243">offended by wind farms</a>, and not even <a href="https://theconversation.com/surfs-down-climate-change-likely-to-bring-fewer-big-waves-24126">surfing</a> safe from climate change, it can be hard for the anxious environmentalist to know where to turn.</p>
<p>But there is some good news, at least for those who aren’t offended by stereotypes: this year was the year science finally proved that <a href="https://theconversation.com/hug-a-tree-the-evidence-shows-it-really-will-make-you-feel-better-21924">tree-hugging really does make you feel better</a>.</p>
<h2>The most-read Environment + Energy stories of 2014</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/ordering-the-vegetarian-meal-theres-more-animal-blood-on-your-hands-4659">Ordering the vegetarian meal? There’s more animal blood on your hands</a></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/99-999-certainty-humans-are-driving-global-warming-new-study-29911">99.999% certainty humans are driving global warming: new study</a></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/top-five-myths-about-genetic-modification-2664">Top five myths about genetic modification</a></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/vegetarians-cause-environmental-damage-but-meat-eaters-arent-off-the-hook-6090">Vegetarians cause environmental damage, but meat eaters aren’t off the hook</a></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/what-our-love-affair-with-coffee-pods-reveals-about-our-values-30068">What our love affair with coffee pods reveals about our values</a></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/an-insiders-story-of-the-global-attack-on-climate-science-21972">An insider’s story of the global attack on climate science</a></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-get-too-excited-no-one-has-cracked-nuclear-fusion-yet-33132">Don’t get too excited, no one has cracked nuclear fusion yet</a></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/the-pre-holocene-climate-is-returning-and-it-wont-be-fun-27742">The ‘pre-Holocene’ climate is returning – and it won’t be fun</a></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-keep-your-house-cool-in-a-heatwave-21991">How to keep your house cool in a heatwave</a></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/the-grim-story-of-the-snowy-mountains-cannibal-horses-31691">The grim story of the Snowy Mountains’ cannibal horses</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/35679/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Want a single word to sum up environmental affairs in 2014? Let’s go with “heated”. The year began with the realisation that 2013 was Australia’s hottest ever (and yes, it’s because of us), and ended with…Michael Hopkin, Deputy Chief of Staff, The ConversationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/325602014-10-07T03:19:37Z2014-10-07T03:19:37ZResponse to the latest shark bite is fuelled by myth and retribution<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60951/original/pf2qm57s-1412635254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C0%2C3259%2C2218&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Western Australia has killed two great white sharks after a surfer was seriously injured last week.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sharkdiver.com/Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When I used to tell people that I did my PhD on the politics of shark attacks, they would ask, “Is there a politics to shark attacks?” Nobody asks that any more. Now they just say, “Oh, like in Western Australia?”</p>
<p>Those politics have been deployed again in the past week, after surfer Sean Pollard <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-10-02/shark-attack-off-esperance/5785820">lost an arm and his other hand</a> in an incident near Esperance on the state’s south coast. </p>
<p>In response, the Barnett government implemented its “imminent threat” <a href="http://www.dpc.wa.gov.au/Consultation/Documents/Appendix%203%20Guidelines%20for%20fishing%20for%20sharks%20posing%20an%20imminent%20threat.pdf">policy</a>, which calls for the setting of baited drumlines in an area where a shark bite incident has occurred. (The policy, which remains in place despite the <a href="https://theconversation.com/western-australian-shark-cull-policy-dumped-experts-react-31621">demise of the wider shark cull</a>, also allows a shark swimming near a popular beach to be pre-emptively killed.) Two protected great white sharks were <a href="http://www.9news.com.au/national/2014/10/02/14/03/man-loses-both-arms-in-wa-shark-attack">killed</a> as a result. </p>
<p>Yet the exact details of the original incident are far from clear. Pollard said he believed <a href="https://au.news.yahoo.com/a/25163473/shark-victim-tells-of-feeding-frenzy">two bronze whalers</a> were responsible. Meanwhile, scientists who examined his surfboard believe that <a href="https://au.news.yahoo.com/a/25186141/wa-expert-says-white-shark-attacked-surfer">one white shark</a> may have been involved, although they were <a href="http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/About-Us/Media-releases/Pages/Examinations-of-white-sharks-complete-.aspx">unable to confirm</a> whether either of the two sharks that were later killed was responsible.</p>
<h2>Myths and rogues</h2>
<p>The myth that sustains this policy goes something like this: individual large sharks pose a threat because they are territorial. A shark that bites someone is likely to do it again, and even if there is not an incident now, it is better to kill the shark because it may return. </p>
<p>We have heard this logic before … in the movie Jaws. The policy is predicated on a fictional Hollywood myth that “<a href="http://www.perthnow.com.au/news/western-australia/premier-colin-barnett-targets-rogue-sharks-threatening-wa-beachgoers-after-drum-line-policy-is-scrapped/story-fnhocxo3-1227056468863">rogue</a>” sharks will return to an area and pose a threat to beachgoers and surfers. </p>
<p>The story of serial-killing sharks, however, is not the most concerning aspect. The real problem is how this myth serves as a distraction from a bigger issue. </p>
<p>There continue to be serious and fatal shark bites along the Australian coast that are horrific and life-changing for those involved, their loved ones and their communities. It is time for serious efforts to try and reduce the risk of shark bites based on science and common sense beach safety. But the WA government’s imminent threat policy is not a serious effort at shark bite prevention. </p>
<h2>Safety… or revenge?</h2>
<p>WA’s Jaws-style policy is designed to provide public catharsis through retribution, not public safety. The imminent threat policy can be enacted to kill sharks regardless of whether there are any people in the water, or whether the shark was involved in an incident, or whether killing it improves beach safety, or whether the species is protected by law. In short, this is closer to an old-fashioned witch hunt than to sound public policy. </p>
<p>But it gets worse. While we should give WA credit for spending millions of dollars on scientific tags and testing new non-lethal measures, the latest episode led the Department of Fisheries to kill a white shark that had an internal acoustic tag. So the fiction-based policy that doesn’t help beach safety just undermined a scientific program that does. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, the policy also provides a false sense of security by painting a picture of one shark as the issue – the “problem shark”. </p>
<p>How do we improve this situation, both politically and socially? Here are a few ideas:</p>
<p><strong>This is about the people, not the sharks.</strong> </p>
<p>It is important to hit the pause button and remember that this issue has touched communities all over Australia. This year has seen fatal shark bites on Australia’s east coast, involving <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/christine-armstrong-63-dies-on-regular-morning-swim-after-shark-strikes-20140403-361jp.html">Christine Armstrong in Tathra</a> and <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-north-east-wales-29132909">Paul Wilcox in Byron Bay</a>, as well as in the west. After the intensity of these events fades, the difficulty and tragedy will remain and community support for the victims and their families is essential.</p>
<p><strong>This is about the government, not the sharks.</strong> </p>
<p>When it comes to beach safety, governments across Australia need to redirect their focus onto public education and science. The facts are simple. We cannot shark-proof Australia, so public education is the only real way forward. This is a way for WA and the other states to lead and bring people together, rather than setting groups apart with divisive policies. Everyone is in favour of better awareness and education but this remains the missing piece. </p>
<p><strong>This policy could get worse, not better.</strong> </p>
<p>At the moment, the Barnett government appears to support the killing of uninvolved, protected, scientifically tagged great white sharks. One tagged shark has already been killed, and it is possible that things could get even worse from here. With the start of the summer beach season, I expect there will be pressure to begin killing tagged great whites that set off acoustic alarms near beaches. The government has noted that this will not happen, but it is a logical next step in the current thinking. </p>
<p>In all, I hope for a safe, quiet summer with no human-shark encounters. I also hope that science can be used as the basis for public policy. Movie myths make for bad policy and the public deserves better. </p>
<p>The question now is whether the latest tragedy can serve as a tipping point for real shark bite prevention.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/32560/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Pepin-Neff does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When I used to tell people that I did my PhD on the politics of shark attacks, they would ask, “Is there a politics to shark attacks?” Nobody asks that any more. Now they just say, “Oh, like in Western…Christopher Pepin-Neff, Lecturer in Public Policy, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.