tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/airline-emissions-17780/articlesairline emissions – The Conversation2023-10-03T15:17:33Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2145012023-10-03T15:17:33Z2023-10-03T15:17:33ZAirlines are being hit by anti-greenwashing litigation – here’s what makes them perfect targets<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550908/original/file-20230928-29-99x92g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C0%2C4224%2C2822&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Frank Wagner / shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A wave of <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/greenwashing-cases-against-airlines-europe-us-2023-09-13/">anti-“greenwashing” litigation</a> is seeking to hold major players in the aviation industry to account for sensational claims of being sustainable, low-carbon or contributing to net zero. While the industry has faced legal backlash in the past, the dramatic proliferation of these cases may spell disaster for major airlines.</p>
<p>It’s not hard to see why the aviation industry has provoked the ire of climate activists. Flying is responsible for a staggering <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-aviation-industry-must-look-beyond-carbon-to-get-serious-about-climate-change-186947">5% or so of human-induced global warming</a> and its climate impact is still growing at a rate far greater than almost any other sector. </p>
<p>In this context, a profusion of “green flying” and “sustainability” advertising campaigns has turned the industry into an emblematic example of the debate between growth and sustainability.</p>
<h2>Why greenwashing?</h2>
<p>The rise in greenwashing litigation can in part be attributed to the relative ease with which cases can be brought. It’s simply a lot easier to attack an airline’s advertising compared to other activities that might be targeted by strategic climate litigation. </p>
<p>Consumers can use legal mechanisms such as commercial practice or consumer protection regulations, as happened in a recent <a href="https://www.beuc.eu/press-releases/consumer-groups-launch-eu-wide-complaint-against-17-airlines-greenwashing">greenwashing complaint to the European Commission</a> filed by consumer groups in 19 countries against 17 airlines.</p>
<p>It’s an effective form of climate action due to the power exerted by advertising on public perception and social norms. The UN’s <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter10.pdf">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC) has underscored the importance of reducing demand for flying in the first place, something significantly hindered by adverts that downplay its environmental impact.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/eu-unit/issues/climate-energy/46060/ads-for-cars-and-flights-could-cause-twice-as-much-co2-as-spain/">report</a> by Greenpeace and think tank the <a href="https://www.newweather.org/about-us/">New Weather Institute</a> claimed that in 2019 airline advertisements influenced 34 million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent emissions worldwide.</p>
<p>This litigation is also buoyed by the demonstrable falsehoods that riddle the sustainability strategies of these companies. The pillars upon which their net-zero strategies rest vary from the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/travel/2023/04/17/carbon-offsets-flights-airlines/">broadly ineffective</a> to the <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/international/story/54079/great-carbon-capture-scam/">dangerously fraudulent</a> and facilitate growth in a sector in dire need of reduction. </p>
<p>Airlines all rely on some form of carbon offsetting – planting trees, for instance, to “offset” the carbon emitted by the planes – or sustainable aviation fuel or carbon capture and storage, in order to “mitigate” their climate impacts.</p>
<h2>Common litigation strategies</h2>
<p>Thus far, there have been six climate change-related cases brought against major airlines (four in Europe, one in the US and one in Brazil). These cases are buttressed by numerous legal complaints taken through the European Commission or the UK and US advertising standards boards which have already successfully ordered <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/ryanair-adverts-banned-for-making-misleading-co2-emissions-claims-11926471">Ryanair</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/mar/01/airline-green-adverts-banned-uk-lufthansa-asa">Lufthansa</a> and <a href="https://www.standard.co.uk/news/uk/etihad-ads-banned-misleading-environmental-claims-asa-b1073510.html">Etihad</a> to pull ad campaigns.</p>
<p>In each of these three cases, authorities found that terminology like “protecting the future”, “sustainable aviation” or “low-emissions airline” amounted to wilful misleading of consumers and breached advertising regulations.</p>
<p>A recent case taken by Dutch campaigners against <a href="https://www.dutchnews.nl/2023/06/klm-greenwashing-court-case-can-go-ahead-judges-rule/">airline giant KLM</a> is the most daring example yet. Climate action group <a href="https://gofossilfree.org/nl/english/">FossielVrij</a>(Fossil-free) argues that KLM’s “Fly Responsibly” campaign constitutes misleading advertising under EU consumer law. </p>
<p>The group asserts that flying responsibly is impossible at present, and that KLM seeks company growth and increased flight sales, when it should be reducing emissions by reducing the number of flights. <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/dutch-airline-klm-sued-over-greenwashing-ads-2022-07-06/">KLM said</a> its “communications comply with the applicable legislation and regulations”, but has dropped the Fly Responsibly campaign.</p>
<p>Interestingly, this case builds upon a ruling of the <a href="https://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/fossielvrij-nl-v-klm/">Dutch Advertisement Code Commission</a> and indicates the “snowballing” trend inherent in anti-greenwashing litigation, wherein cases rely upon precedent set by previous authorities. With this borne in mind, the recent 19-country complaint by the European Consumer Organisation could provide the strongest foundation to date for future litigation.</p>
<p>Delta Airlines is also facing a <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-06-13/a-greenwashing-lawsuit-against-delta-aims-to-set-a-precedent">class action suit in the US</a>, brought by a California resident who alleges that by marketing itself as a “carbon-neutral” Delta has grossly misrepresented its environmental impact. This points to a growing understanding of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-carbon-offsetting-isnt-working-heres-how-to-fix-it-192131">ineffectiveness of carbon offsetting</a>, a net-zero tactic adopted by almost every major airline. </p>
<p>A Delta <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/may/30/delta-air-lines-lawsuit-carbon-neutrality-aoe">spokesperson</a> said the case is “without legal merit” as the airline has “transitioned its focus away from carbon offsets” towards decarbonising its own activities. European companies should follow this case closely as American-style “class action” litigation will soon be <a href="https://www.allenovery.com/en-gb/global/news-and-insights/publications/a-new-framework-for-eu-class-actions">made possible in the EU</a>.</p>
<h2>Does this litigation have teeth?</h2>
<p>These cases might result in companies simply pulling their green campaign while maintaining their existing corporate framework and growth models. More promisingly, <a href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/publication/impacts-of-climate-litigation-on-firm-value/">recent research</a> suggests that any climate-related case taken against a major emitting company will affect the firm’s value (on average by 0.057% following the filing of a case, and by 1.5% following an unfavourable decision). </p>
<p>In reality, these early cases are merely scratching the surface of what’s possible. Once these cases enter the public conversation, a growing understanding of consumer protection is bound to follow.</p>
<p>In many jurisdictions, such as my home country of Ireland, significant damages can be awarded against companies for misleading advertisement. The UK’s Competition and Markets Authority, which is currently investigating claims of greenwashing in other sectors, will soon be able to <a href="https://www.lewissilkin.com/en/insights/new-era-for-uk-consumer-protection">fine companies 10% of their global turnover</a> for non-compliance.</p>
<p>While anti-greenwashing litigation might not halt the growth of this industry altogether, it is no doubt an invaluable tool. At its most effective, it can stop blatant profiteering from the climate crisis and force the aviation sector to confront the chimera that is green growth.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Calum MacLaren receives funding from the Irish Research Council and the Environmental Protection Agency</span></em></p>Claims of sustainability or low-carbon flying are being challenged in court.Calum Maclaren, PhD Candidate, Climate Litigation, University College DublinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1541822021-02-19T00:03:58Z2021-02-19T00:03:58ZTourism desperately wants a return to the ‘old normal’ but that would be a disaster<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384611/original/file-20210216-17-z2uqum.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=46%2C217%2C3412%2C2084&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With each passing day, the grave future of Earth becomes <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2020.615419/full">more stark</a>. The disruption of COVID-19 has <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-lockdown-had-little-to-no-effect-on-global-temperatures-148129">not been enough</a> to shift the trajectory, nor has it prompted polluting sectors of the economy to reconsider the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0141-x">harms</a> they <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378020307779">inflict</a> on the planet.</p>
<p>Nowhere is this clearer than in the global tourism sector. Before COVID-19, international aviation emissions - already a <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/07/if-airlines-were-a-country-theyd-be-one-of-the-worlds-top-10-greenhouse-gas-emitters/">major contributor</a> to global warming - were forecast to potentially triple between 2015 and 2050. Likewise, <a href="https://www.transportenvironment.org/press/luxury-cruise-giant-emits-10-times-more-air-pollution-sox-all-europe%E2%80%99s-cars-%E2%80%93-study">emissions</a> from the cruise ship industry were also <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14616688.2020.1757748">growing</a>.</p>
<p>The pandemic itself can be <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-is-a-wake-up-call-our-war-with-the-environment-is-leading-to-pandemics-135023">traced back</a> to humanity’s relentless <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-next-global-health-pandemic-could-easily-erupt-in-your-backyard-138861">damage</a> to nature. And mass global tourism is emblematic of this voracious, growth-at-all-costs mentality.</p>
<p>Tourism brings many economic, social and cultural benefits. But it’s time the industry seriously reconsiders its business model, and overall purpose, in a post-pandemic world.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Plane lands at sunset" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384612/original/file-20210216-13-m6vza4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384612/original/file-20210216-13-m6vza4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384612/original/file-20210216-13-m6vza4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384612/original/file-20210216-13-m6vza4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384612/original/file-20210216-13-m6vza4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384612/original/file-20210216-13-m6vza4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384612/original/file-20210216-13-m6vza4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">After COVID, tourism must be done differently.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>We can’t return to normal</h2>
<p>The United Nations is among many voices urging the global tourism industry to address its many sustainability challenges in the wake of COVID-19. </p>
<p>The UN says it recognises tourism’s important role in providing incomes for millions of people. But in a recent <a href="https://unsdg.un.org/resources/policy-brief-covid-19-and-transforming-tourism">policy brief</a>, it said now is the time to “rethink how the sector impacts our natural resources and ecosystems”.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, there’s little evidence that global tourism is looking to transform. For example, the International Air Transport Association is clearly seeking to return to the “old normal”. Its <a href="https://www.iata.org/en/programs/covid-19-resources-guidelines/">resources guide</a> to support airlines during the pandemic and beyond examines ways to restart the industry, but makes no mention of environmental sustainability.</p>
<p>Similarly, the World Travel and Tourism Council’s <a href="https://wttc.org/COVID-19/G20-Recovery-Plan">100 Million Jobs Recovery Plan</a> calls on nations to remove barriers to travel, saying traveller confidence is “critical to the sector’s survival and recovery”. Sustainability rates only a passing a mention.</p>
<p>In Australia, the federal government is passing up opportunities to encourage tourism to reconfigure towards a more sustainable model. For example,
the <a href="https://www.regional.gov.au/regional/programs/building-better-regions-fund.aspx">Building Better Regions Fund</a> offers A$100 million for tourism-related infrastructure projects that mitigate COVID-19’s economic impact. However, sustainability does not form part of the assessment criteria.</p>
<p>The industry’s immediate focus on recovery is understandable. But the lack of a long-term environmental vision is damaging to both the industry and the planet. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Travellers wearing masks" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384606/original/file-20210216-23-l0ybp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384606/original/file-20210216-23-l0ybp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384606/original/file-20210216-23-l0ybp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384606/original/file-20210216-23-l0ybp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384606/original/file-20210216-23-l0ybp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384606/original/file-20210216-23-l0ybp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384606/original/file-20210216-23-l0ybp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The industry is understandably focused on COVID-safe travel, but a long term environmental vision is lacking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Gourley/AAP</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>A job half done</h2>
<p>Pre-COVID-19, the global tourism and travel industry had begun to address some sustainability challenges. </p>
<p>For example, international aviation is seeking to improve global fuel efficiency by 2% each year until 2050. But this target is “aspirational” and even the International Civil Aviation Authority has <a href="https://theconversation.com/flying-blind-global-climate-talks-are-getting-us-nowhere-20583">conceded</a> it was “unlikely to deliver the level of reduction necessary to stabilize and then reduce aviation’s absolute emissions contribution to climate change”.</p>
<p>Current <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02508281.2019.1598042">technological constraints</a> mean decarbonising aviation is <a href="https://theconversation.com/flight-to-greener-aviation-fuel-has-hit-turbulence-heres-why-72749">challenging</a>. An expected future increase in flight demand will only <a href="https://www.unep.org/emissions-gap-report-2020">add to the problem</a>. Globally, <a href="https://www.iata.org/en/pressroom/pr/2017-10-24-01/">7.8 billion passengers</a> are expected to travel in 2036.</p>
<p>What’s more, tourism’s damage to the environment extends far beyond climate change. It adds to <a href="https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sustainable-tourism/tourisms-plastic-pollution-problem">marine plastic pollution</a>, degrades habitat and leads to a <a href="https://www.pce.parliament.nz/publications/pristine-popular-imperilled-the-environmental-consequences-of-projected-tourism-growth">loss of wilderness and natural quiet</a>. The industry’s resurgence must address these and other harms.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/major-airlines-say-theyre-acting-on-climate-change-our-research-reveals-how-little-theyve-achieved-127800">Major airlines say they're acting on climate change. Our research reveals how little they've achieved</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Rubbish on a tourist beach" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384604/original/file-20210216-19-4zgxsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384604/original/file-20210216-19-4zgxsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384604/original/file-20210216-19-4zgxsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384604/original/file-20210216-19-4zgxsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384604/original/file-20210216-19-4zgxsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384604/original/file-20210216-19-4zgxsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384604/original/file-20210216-19-4zgxsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tourism is a big contributor to marine plastic pollution.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A vision for the future</h2>
<p>People travelling outside their normal context are open to new experiences and perspectives. In this way, tourism presents an opportunity to encourage a new <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tbsm22/16/1?nav=tocList">connection with nature</a>.</p>
<p>So what should the future of tourism look like? I and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1759130">others</a> are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1768432">advocating</a> for a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7771910/">more sustainable</a> tourism sector that’s vastly different to what exists now. Travel should be closer to home, slower, and with a positive contribution at its core. In this model, all erosion of natural, cultural and social capital ceases.</p>
<p>Practices under the model (some of which already exist at a small scale) might include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>more travel to <a href="http://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/rebuilding-tourism-for-the-future-covid-19-policy-responses-and-recovery-bced9859/">regional and local destinations</a>, involving shorter distances. Under COVID-19, the trend towards such tourism has already begun. However, communities must be empowered to determine what type of tourism they want.</p></li>
<li><p>travellers paying a conservation-focused levy upon entering a country, such as those imposed in <a href="https://www.mbie.govt.nz/immigration-and-tourism/tourism/tourism-funding/international-visitor-conservation-and-tourism-levy/">New Zealand</a> and <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/botswana-introduces-a-tourist-tax/a-38674173">Botswana</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>the donation of time, money or expertise to support environmental restoration as an integral part of the travel experience. For example, the <a href="https://www.adventurescientists.org">Adventure Scientists</a> initiative shows people with outdoor skills how to collect environmental information as they travel, providing new data for researchers.</p></li>
<li><p>businesses that “give back” by design. For example, <a href="https://www.ghe.co.in/">Global Himalayan Expeditions</a> empowers communities by electrifying remote villages in Ladakh, Kashmir. Trekkers co-finance solar panels and carry them as part of their travel experience.</p></li>
<li><p>ambitious industry standards, which ramp up over time, for sustainable management of environmental, cultural and human resources. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>The UN Sustainable Development Group has <a href="https://unsdg.un.org/resources/policy-brief-covid-19-and-transforming-tourism">suggested</a> other changes, including:</p>
<ul>
<li>a frequent flyer levy</li>
<li>incentives for domestic tourism</li>
<li>restrictions on flight advertising</li>
<li>no more airport expansions in high-income countries</li>
<li>better transport alternatives to aviation.</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/feeling-flight-shame-try-quitting-air-travel-and-catch-a-sail-boat-123349">Feeling flight shame? Try quitting air travel and catch a sail boat</a>
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</em>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Tourists kayaking on a river" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384607/original/file-20210216-21-1gopwcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384607/original/file-20210216-21-1gopwcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384607/original/file-20210216-21-1gopwcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384607/original/file-20210216-21-1gopwcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384607/original/file-20210216-21-1gopwcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384607/original/file-20210216-21-1gopwcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384607/original/file-20210216-21-1gopwcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tourism must refocus towards low-impact tourism, closer to home.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Bouncing back differently</h2>
<p>The above vision for tourism involves great changes. The industry’s focus must shift from growth and profit to “<a href="https://medium.com/activate-the-future/understanding-the-opportunity-of-regenerative-tourism-894136cafd3b">regeneration</a>” – helping to restore the natural world that humans have so badly damaged.</p>
<p>And the transition must happen gradually, to allow tourism-dependent economies and businesses to adjust.</p>
<p>The global tourism industry will persist after COVID-19. But it must be reimagined as, first and foremost, a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14616688.2020.1757748">public good</a> rather than a commercial activity. </p>
<p>And the goal of ecosystem restoration must be at the industry’s core. Planetary health is <a href="https://www.thefuturescentre.org/fos">inextricably linked</a> to our own well-being – and that of the tourism industry. After all, there’s no tourism on a dead planet. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-our-carbon-emission-policies-dont-work-on-air-travel-99019">Why our carbon emission policies don't work on air travel</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/154182/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susanne Becken receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>Given its environmental damage, tourism must seriously reconsider its purpose in a post-pandemic world.Susanne Becken, Professor of Sustainable Tourism and Director, Griffith Institute for Tourism, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1278002020-02-16T18:57:03Z2020-02-16T18:57:03ZMajor airlines say they’re acting on climate change. Our research reveals how little they’ve achieved<p>If you’re a traveller who cares about reducing your carbon footprint, are some airlines better to fly with than others?</p>
<p>Several of the world’s major airlines have announced plans to become “carbon neutral”, while others are trialling new aviation fuels. But are any of their climate initiatives making much difference?</p>
<p>Those were the questions we set out to answer a year ago, by analysing what the world’s largest 58 airlines – which fly 70% of the total <a href="https://airlinegeeks.com/2015/12/28/airline-metrics-available-seat-kilometers/">available seat-kilometres</a> – are doing to live up to their promises to cut their climate impact.</p>
<p>The good news? Some airlines are taking positive steps. The bad news? When you compare what’s being done against the continued growth in emissions, even the best airlines are not doing anywhere near enough.</p>
<h2>More efficient flights still drive up emissions</h2>
<p><a href="https://amadeus.com/en/insights/white-paper/airline-initiatives-to-reduce-climate-impact">Our research</a> found three-quarters of the world’s biggest airlines showed improvements in carbon efficiency – measured as carbon dioxide per available seat. But that’s not the same as cutting emissions <em>overall</em>.</p>
<p>One good example was the Spanish flag carrier Iberia, which reduced emissions per seat by about 6% in 2017, but increased absolute emissions by 7%.</p>
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<p>For 2018, compared with 2017, the collective impact of all the climate measures being undertaken by the 58 biggest airlines amounted to an improvement of 1%. This falls short of the industry’s goal of achieving a <a href="https://www.iata.org/en/policy/environment/climate-change/">1.5% increase</a> in efficiency. And the improvements were more than wiped out by the industry’s overall 5.2% annual increase in emissions. </p>
<p>This challenge is even clearer when you look slightly further back. <a href="https://www.iata.org/en/iata-repository/pressroom/fact-sheets/fact-sheet---industry-statistics/">Industry figures</a> show global airlines produced 733 million tonnes of CO₂ emissions in 2014. Falling fares and more people around wanting to fly saw airline emissions rise 23% in just five years. </p>
<h2>What are the airlines doing?</h2>
<p>Airlines reported climate initiatives across 22 areas, with the most common involving fleet renewal, engine efficiency, weight reductions and flight path optimisation. Examples in <a href="https://amadeus.com/en/insights/white-paper/airline-initiatives-to-reduce-climate-impact">our paper</a> include:</p>
<ul>
<li>Singapore Airlines modified the Trent 900 engines on their A380 aircraft, saving 26,326 tonnes of CO₂ (equivalent to 0.24% of the airline’s annual emissions);</li>
<li>KLM’s efforts to reduce weight on board led to a CO₂ reduction of 13,500 tonnes (0.05% of KLM’s emissions).</li>
<li>Etihad reports savings of 17,000 tonnes of CO₂ due to flight plan improvements (0.16% of its emissions). </li>
</ul>
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<p>Nineteen of the 58 large airlines I examined invest in alternative fuels. But the scale of their research and development programs, and use of alternative fuels, remains tiny.</p>
<p>As an example, for Earth Day 2018 <a href="https://aircanada.mediaroom.com/2018-04-19-Air-Canada-to-Save-160-Tonnes-of-Carbon-on-Earth-Day-through-Innovative-Biojet-Fuel-Project-at-Toronto-Pearson-Airport">Air Canada announced</a> a 160-tonne emissions saving from blending 230,000 litres of “biojet” fuel into 22 domestic flights. How much fuel was that? Not even enough to fill the more than 300,000-litre capacity of just one A380 plane.</p>
<h2>Carbon neutral promises</h2>
<p>Some airlines, including Qantas, are aiming to be <a href="https://www.qantasnewsroom.com.au/media-releases/qantas-group-to-slash-carbon-emissions/">carbon neutral by 2050</a>. While that won’t be easy, Qantas is at least starting with better climate reporting; it’s one of only <a href="https://www.fsb-tcfd.org/tcfd-supporters/">eight airlines</a> addressing its carbon risk through the systematic <a href="https://www.fsb-tcfd.org/">Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures</a> process. </p>
<p>About half of the major airlines engage in carbon offsetting, but only 13 provide information on measurable impacts. Theses include Air New Zealand, with its FlyNeutral program to help restore native forest in New Zealand. </p>
<p>That lack of detail means the integrity of many offset schemes is questionable. And even if properly managed, offsets <a href="https://theconversation.com/flying-home-for-christmas-carbon-offsets-are-important-but-they-wont-fix-plane-pollution-89148">still avoid</a> the fact that we can’t make <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0969699716302538">deep carbon cuts</a> if we keep flying at current rates.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/flight-shame-wont-fix-airline-emissions-we-need-a-smarter-solution-127257">Flight shame won't fix airline emissions. We need a smarter solution</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What airlines and governments need to do</h2>
<p>Our research shows major airlines’ climate efforts are achieving nowhere near enough. To decrease aviation emissions, three major changes are urgently needed. </p>
<ol>
<li><p>All airlines need to implement all measures across the 22 categories covered in <a href="https://amadeus.com/en/insights/white-paper/airline-initiatives-to-reduce-climate-impact">our report</a> to reap any possible gain in efficiency.</p></li>
<li><p>Far more research is needed to develop alternative aviation fuels that genuinely cut emissions. Given what we’ve seen so far, these are unlikely to be biofuels. E-fuels – liquid fuels derived from carbon dioxide and hydrogen – may provide such a solution, but there are challenges ahead, including high costs.</p></li>
<li><p>Governments can – and some European countries do – impose carbon taxes and then invest into lower carbon alternatives. They can also provide incentives to develop new fuels and alternative infrastructure, such as rail or electric planes for shorter trips. </p></li>
</ol>
<h2>How you can make a difference</h2>
<p>Our research paper was released late last year, at a World Travel and Tourism Council event linked to the <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/cop25-79570">Madrid climate summit</a>. Activist Greta Thunberg famously sailed around the world to be there, rather than flying.</p>
<p>Higher-income travellers from around the world have had a disproportionately large impact in driving up aviation emissions. </p>
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<hr>
<p>This means that all of us who are privileged enough to fly, for work or pleasure, have a role to play too, by:</p>
<ol>
<li>reducing our flying (<a href="https://theconversation.com/people-hate-flight-shame-but-not-enough-to-quit-flying-130614">completely</a>, or <a href="https://theconversation.com/flight-shame-flying-less-plays-a-small-but-positive-part-in-tackling-climate-change-125440">flying less</a>)</li>
<li><a href="http://www.offsetguide.org/avoiding-low-quality-offsets/">carbon offsetting</a></li>
<li>for essential trips, only flying with airlines doing more to cut emissions.</li>
</ol>
<p>To really make an impact, far more of us need to do all three.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-explained-how-much-does-flying-contribute-to-climate-change-127707">Climate explained: how much does flying contribute to climate change?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/127800/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susanne Becken is on the Sustainability Advisory Panel of Air New Zealand. Her report, Airline initiatives to reduce climate impact, was co-written with Paresh Pant. This research paper was done in partnership with travel technology company Amadeus.</span></em></p>We analysed what the world’s top 58 airlines – such as American Airlines, British Airways and Qantas – are doing about climate change. Even the best airlines are not doing anywhere near enough.Susanne Becken, Professor of Sustainable Tourism and Director, Griffith Institute for Tourism, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/742062017-03-14T14:16:49Z2017-03-14T14:16:49ZHeathrow 2.0: a ‘sustainable airport’ that pretends no one has to choose between planes and pollution<p>Britain and Europe’s largest airport is not the most obvious target for an eco-friendly rebranding. Yet Heathrow Airport recently unveiled a new sustainability strategy, <a href="http://your.heathrow.com/sustainability/">Heathrow 2.0</a>, to counter growing opposition to its expansion plans.</p>
<p>Both the government and an independent Airports Commission have backed proposals to construct a new third runway at London’s largest airport hub. But the plans remain highly contested, with ongoing concerns about noise pollution, air quality and rising carbon emissions. Heathrow expansion has become an emblematic issue in the <a href="http://londonist.com/2015/07/plane-stupid-protesters-occupy-heathrow-runway">fight against climate change</a>.</p>
<p>At first glance, it is tempting to dismiss the launch of Heathrow 2.0 as yet another attempt at <a href="http://greenwashingindex.com/about-greenwashing/">greenwashing</a>. Indeed, those in favour of the new runway have made sustained efforts to depoliticise the issue ever since the 2010-2015 coalition government declared its ambition to <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/8678282.stm">put the environment and local well-being ahead</a> of Heathrow’s growth. An airport that exists above politics gives the illusion that no one has to choose between planes and pollution.</p>
<p>In fact, the current plans to render its new runway carbon neutral echo the failed policy of “sustainable aviation” under the New Labour government. This strategy was quickly discredited by scientists and environmentalists, because of its <a href="http://www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk/9780719076138/">“cake and eat it” narrative</a>, in which we could fly more and still cope with rising carbon emissions.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"836594560813924353"}"></div></p>
<p>Nonetheless, such arguments pepper <a href="https://your.heathrow.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Heathrow2.0.pdf">Heathrow’s new vision for corporate social responsibility</a>. Much is made of the expected benefits of new technologies and innovations, the role of increased connectivity in creating jobs, the enjoyment we gain from the social benefits of flying, and the commitment to carbon offsetting schemes to address rising emissions. Heathrow 2.0 even aspires to “‘decouple’ aviation growth from climate change” – a key pillar of <a href="http://www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk/9780719076138/">the ideology of sustainable aviation</a>.</p>
<p>Yet Heathrow’s strategy at least engages with the idea of sustainable development, through what it calls “responsibility”. It promises to improve its practices as an employer, committing to a London Living Wage, and it pledges to put an end to human and wildlife trafficking. It wants to produce a “zero-carbon airport” with reduced emissions and “polluter pays” policies. Heathrow 2.0 might even satisfy local demands for better noise protection.</p>
<p>But it’s the detail that really matters. In important respects, the plans lack clarity and ambition. Strategic priorities like a “noise envelope” to cap the overall disturbance emanating from the airport are often stated, but not accompanied with clear targets. Similarly, it is questionable whether locals will be too enthusiastic about targets to reduce late running aircraft after 11.30pm from 330 in 2016 to 270 in 2017. Or whether they will welcome no arrivals before 4.30am without clarity over the agreement to ban night flights from 11pm to 6am.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160711/original/image-20170314-10720-1dqafbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160711/original/image-20170314-10720-1dqafbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160711/original/image-20170314-10720-1dqafbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160711/original/image-20170314-10720-1dqafbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160711/original/image-20170314-10720-1dqafbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160711/original/image-20170314-10720-1dqafbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160711/original/image-20170314-10720-1dqafbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160711/original/image-20170314-10720-1dqafbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Heathrow expansion has angered local residents and climate activists.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dinendra Haria / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Where is the government?</h2>
<p>As Heathrow itself accepts, importantly, the airport cannot deliver on most of the claims it makes. Of course, a carbon neutral airport is a worthy ideal. But it is the flights themselves that cause most carbon emissions and account for much of the noise pollution, while traffic to and from the airport also creates air pollution. Heathrow cannot control or make guarantees about fixing any of this.</p>
<p>Indeed, at the heart of these limits to Heathrow 2.0 is the failure of the May government. The airport is simply trying to fill the void left by Theresa May and transport secretary Chris Grayling, who have abandoned their responsibility to offer policy leadership in this field. </p>
<p>A recent Heathrow report by MPs on the Environmental Audit Committee <a href="https://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/environmental-audit-committee/news-parliament-2015/heathrow-expansion-report-published-16-17/">criticised the government</a> for its lax interpretation of air quality directives, its failure to address local health impacts, its overly ambitious targets for ultra-low emission vehicles, and its absence of detailed plans for road improvements and new rail access to the airport. The committee also criticised the government for watering down proposals for an independent aviation noise authority and for not being clear about how to bridge the gap between theoretical models to reduce emissions and actual policy.</p>
<p>Most concerning is that this absence of leadership betrays the emergence of a new “post-sustainable” aviation, designed to accommodate the challenges of Brexit. Gone are the attempts by the previous government to put climate change before new airports. In their place, the vital justifications and mechanisms for an expansionist agenda are carefully being assembled. </p>
<p>The risk is that green concerns will be pushed further to the margins, as people are increasingly urged to believe that human progress and innovation are enough to meet environmental challenges. In this emerging discourse, the demands of economic growth trump those of the environment and social well-being.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/74206/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Howarth receives funding from the ESRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven Griggs receives funding from Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) and the Association for Public Service Excellence (APSE).
</span></em></p>Those backing Heathrow’s proposed new runway want to depoliticise the issue entirely. But hard choices are inevitable.David Howarth, Professor of Ideology and Discourse Analysis, University of EssexSteven Griggs, Professor in Public Policy, De Montfort UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/727492017-02-27T08:51:38Z2017-02-27T08:51:38ZFlight to greener aviation fuel has hit turbulence – here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156174/original/image-20170209-8649-3lrp8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kristoferb (talk)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When it comes to reducing carbon emissions, one of the biggest hurdles is the world’s addiction to flying. And this is only going to get more intense as developing countries grow bigger middle classes who want to explore the world for business and pleasure.</p>
<p>In the UK, the climate change minister, Nick Hurd, has named transport <a href="https://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/energy-and-climate-change-committee/inquiries/parliament-2015/heat-transport-15-16/">as one of the two biggest environmental challenges</a>. But while the government continues to invest in research and infrastructure for electric vehicles, clear action on addressing carbon dioxide for air transport has been lacking.</p>
<p><a href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.5b01758">Our research</a>in collaboration with Manchester Metropolitan University and Missouri University of Science and Technology has shown that greener aviation fuels could cut not only carbon emissions but also reduce wider air pollution and improve air quality – a key issue in the ongoing debate around Heathrow’s proposed expansion.</p>
<p>The landmark <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-paris-climate-agreement-at-a-glance-50465">2015 Paris Agreement</a> on addressing climate change did not include two sectors – aviation and maritime. This is despite aviation <a href="http://www.atag.org/facts-and-figures.html">accounting for 2% of global carbon dioxide emissions</a>. This figure is <a href="http://aviationbenefits.org/environmental-efficiency/aviation-and-climate-change/">growing by around 3% a year</a>. Attempts to decarbonise the aviation sector have been complicated. </p>
<p>The process has been delayed by governments trying to agree on how to account for emissions – if a Dutch airline takes off in America and lands in Brazil, which country should take the responsibility for those emissions? The good news is that, in the autumn of 2016, the world’s governments came together under the UN’s specialist agency for aviation, <a href="http://www.icao.int/Pages/default.aspx">the ICAO</a> and finally <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-37573434">reached an agreement</a>. But this agreement is still voluntary and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/oct/06/aviation-emissions-agreement-united-nations">allows airlines to “offset”</a> their carbon emissions. </p>
<p>Beyond this, the industry has set itself a <a href="http://www.atag.org/our-activities/climate-change.html">target</a>to achieve carbon-neutral growth by 2020 and to halve emissions by 2050 compared to 2005 levels. This ambition can only be achieved by a combination of efforts including improvements in engine and airframes, such as <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020/en/news/lighter-and-stronger-materials-greener-aircraft">new materials to make aircraft lighter</a>, a more emissions-optimised approach to air traffic management and, crucially, by introducing greener alternatives to jet fuel.</p>
<p>These alternative aviation fuels could offer the UK airline industry <a href="http://www.sustainableaviation.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/SA-Carbon-Roadmap-full-report.pdf">between 15% and 24% reduction in CO2 emissions</a> by 2050. The UK government is starting to take action, including issuing a <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/renewable-transport-fuel-obligation-proposed-changes-for-2017">consultation</a> on whether to increase the obligation it puts on airlines to increase the level of so-called “renewable fuel” used currently. Running in parallel with this has been a consultation on the future growth of Heathrow airport – and, even in this, alternative fuels could play a part both in terms of lower CO2 emissions if alternative fuel use is increase, and because these fuels contain fewer particulates than conventional fuels. </p>
<p>Our research has shown that particulates from air travel could be <a href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.5b01758">reduced by up to 60%</a> by using synthetically produced fuels from feedstocks such as old cooking oil. In simple terms, the oil-baring feedstock can be heated with a catalyst to change its structure and extract the useful chemicals to form a type of fuel that can be used to power jet aircraft.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156203/original/image-20170209-8649-adydju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156203/original/image-20170209-8649-adydju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156203/original/image-20170209-8649-adydju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156203/original/image-20170209-8649-adydju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156203/original/image-20170209-8649-adydju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156203/original/image-20170209-8649-adydju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156203/original/image-20170209-8649-adydju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Airbus 319 burns 640 gallons of fuel per hour.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nordroden</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are, of course, challenges which need to be overcome if the role of alternative aviation fuels in tackling climate change and air pollution is to be realised.</p>
<p>Aviation fuel has not changed substantially since the 1960s. The focus of improvements in the efficiency of engines and airframes has been on the continued improvements to technology to the point where we have a highly optimised system based on the use of traditional fuels. If the industry adopted fuels developed from <a href="https://www.iaa.ie/docs/default-source/misc/beginners-guide-to-aviation-biofuels.pdf?sfvrsn=0">non-conventional sources such as bio-crops</a> this may, in turn, make it possible for the indsutry to make further improvements in engine and airframe technologies based on new fuels. There are three major challenges facing the industry.</p>
<h2>Three challenges</h2>
<p><strong>Safety:</strong> This is the most obvious problem to overcome. The approval process for new fuels is extremely rigorous – airlines will not use fuels unless they know they are completely safe and will not affect the operation and reliability of the aircraft. This process can take several years to complete. To date, only a handful of alternative production routes have been <a href="https://www.faa.gov/news/updates/?newsId=85425">approved</a>and the sector’s experience of dealing with new molecules in the jet fuel is increasing. Better modelling and earlier testing of fuels should help reduce the time, and cost, of this approvals process and efforts such as the US FAA and the <a href="https://ascent.aero/">ASCENT programme</a> which aim to accelerate the approvals process in the future.</p>
<p><strong>Economics:</strong> The technology for producing alternative aviation fuels is still relatively immature and at a small scale which means that the cost remains higher than for fuel from conventional sources. Further research and development – and increasing the scale of production – will address these issues, as will the introduction of regulations which reward and incentivise airlines to use these fuels.</p>
<p><strong>Sustainability:</strong> We need to ensure that the production of alternative fuels works for the environment and people in the regions where these are produced. So, for example, in the case of biofuels, these shouldn’t compete for land with vital food crops. The use of municipal waste or offgases from industrial processes are two alternatives which do not compete with land use are gaining some traction as alternative fuels.</p>
<p>This is an issue that will only get more urgent as more people in developing economies choose to travel by air. We’ve already made a good start – since 2011, more than <a href="http://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/GFAAF/Pages/default.aspx">2,200 commercial flights have used alternative fuels</a>– but this has to be put in a context of more than 100,000 flights being made worldwide each day. </p>
<p>While the current agreement is voluntary, ICAO has managed to create one of the first global agreements to apply to a specific sector on carbon emissions. Industry and academia now need to deliver the advancements – supported, needless to say, by national governments. That will be crucial if we are to see greener skies overhead any time soon.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72749/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Blakey receives funding from the European Union, Innovate UK and Aviation OEMs. </span></em></p>The development of alternative airline fuels needs serious support from national governments if we are going to see greener skies overhead any time soon.Simon Blakey, Senior Lecturer of Mechanical Engineering, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/560322016-03-10T17:00:24Z2016-03-10T17:00:24ZAviation emissions are rising – and industry solutions are just technological myths<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/114633/original/image-20160310-26268-7i2pmh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:C-141_Starlifter_contrail_crop1.png">USAF</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine you are the government’s Minister for Transport: the economy is prospering, global oil prices are falling, and airlines are ordering hundreds of new airliners and investing in infrastructure in order to expand their flight networks. Tourism and the service industry are booming, and the public appetite for cheap air travel appears insatiable. But your government also is committed to radically reducing the greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide, that cause climate change. </p>
<p>It’s an obligation that has huge implications for all sectors of the economy – none more so than the energy-intense transport sector, and particularly aviation. Can technological advances and engineering offer a means to have your cake and eat it? To cut emissions while not interfering with the economic and employment boom generated by the industry – not to mention how popular cheap air travel is with voters.</p>
<p>While the airline industry is quick to reassure that technical solutions, such as improved materials, engines and biofuels, and market-based measures can provide a fix, our <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1361920916000158">research</a> has found these to be examples of “technology myths”. </p>
<p>Most Ministers for Transport would take the low-risk option of the promise of technocratic and market approaches to the problem tomorrow rather than take more direct action today. Industry promises and reassurances offer time to address the attractive opportunities provided by greater mobility and economic growth. Both are key government objectives.</p>
<p>The reality of the effects of rising aviation industry emissions on climate change has been known for decades, yet the industry and its emissions has continued to grow without constraint. Aviation emissions proved too contentious to be dealt with under the <a href="http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php">Kyoto Protocol</a>, and the European Union’s efforts to bring international, non-European aviation emissions into the EU Emissions Trading Scheme were <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/eu%20-airlines-ets-idUSL5N0Z32UM20150617">blocked by the industry</a>.</p>
<h2>The myth of zero-emission flight</h2>
<p>Published in the journal Transportation Research Part D, our <a href="http://authors.elsevier.com/a/1Scvf4rgZiQGsU">study</a> sheds some light on the “promise” of technical solutions through a 20-year examination of how they were reported in the media and the extent to which they were subsequently implemented. We found that new airline industry technology, including airframe, engine and alternative fuel breakthroughs, have been consistently presented by the industry as essential to building an ecologically sustainable aviation industry. </p>
<p>But the discussion of them continues to give credence to <a href="http://repository.tudelft.nl/assets/uuid:74b2d97e-1ccf-412f-a545-6183bc58e9a1/9781614991199.pdf#page=526">the myth of zero-emission flight</a> – shielding the industry from closer scrutiny of its efforts to meet emission targets and improve sustainability practices.</p>
<p>The clearest examples of such myths are solar and electric flight. Last summer, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/impulse-racing-take-the-pilots-out-and-solar-powered-aircraft-get-really-exciting-38541">Solar Impulse 2 solar-powered aircraft</a> attempted to fly around the world. This single-seat aircraft required enough solar cells to cover a wingspan the size of a 500-seater Boeing 747 airliner to generate enough power even to carry its single pilot aloft. Even those involved in the project <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1361920916000158">admit it will never replace current air transportation</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-aircraft-the-future-of-aviation-or-just-wishful-thinking-45817">Electric flight</a> is equally problematic, as it requires a 15-fold increase in the energy density of lithium batteries (power supplied by weight of battery) in order for commercial flight to become possible. While some industry experts claim that this is <a href="http://repository.tudelft.nl/assets/uuid:74b2d97e-1ccf-412f-a545-6183bc58e9a1/9781614991199.pdf#page=526">not beyond the realm of possibility</a>, it’s unlikely to arrive before 2035, and even then a very long aircraft development and fleet replacement process would follow. All this is far too late to avoid dangerous climate change.</p>
<h2>Biofuels are no panacea</h2>
<p>The more viable option of replacing aviation kerosene with biofuels also comes with caveats. The most efficient biofuels reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions by up to 90%, but are inefficient to store and create land use competition with agriculture for crops. Others are more space efficient, but unable to deliver net energy (the energy content of the produced kerosene is lower then the energy required to turn the feedstock into kerosene). </p>
<p>The cost of biofuels is also underestimated. For example, a recent Independent Transport Commission (ITC) <a href="http://www.theitc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/ITC-Aviation-Sustainability-March-2016-complete.pdf">report</a> to the UK government recommended that carbon emissions need not be a show-stopper for further development of Heathrow and Gatwick airports. The report’s claim that biofuels will be commercially viable is reached by comparing the cost of ready-to-use aviation kerosene with the cost of existing biofuel feed stocks such as wood pulp and palm oil. But this is not a useful comparison because no aircraft will ever be able to leave the runway on pure palm oil alone, but must run a blend of fuels.</p>
<p>At the same time, the report states that CO<sub>2</sub> emissions are likely to be mitigated by a 1.6% annual improvement in fuel efficiency and operations – conveniently ignoring the fact that the volume of <a href="http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/cmo/pdf/Boeing_Current_Market_Outlook_2014.pdf">air traffic continues to grow at 5% each year</a>.</p>
<p>The fact remains that aviation, a steadily growing and polluting industry, remains outside major climate agreements such as those <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/international/negotiations/paris/index_en.htm">agreed at the Paris COP21 conference last year</a>. The myth of sustainable aviation remains intact, and the industry ducks regulation once more.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56032/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Peeters receives funding from T&E Brussels for consultancy to assist the International Coalition for Sustainable Aviation (ICSA) and is a member of ICAO/CAEP Working Groups. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stefan Gössling receives funding from various research councils, though not for this research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Higham and Scott Cohen do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The airline industry’s promised technological solutions have not arrived, and they never will.Paul Peeters, Associated Professor Sustainable Tourism and Transport, NHTV Breda University of Applied SciencesJames Higham, Professor of Tourism , University of OtagoScott Cohen, Senior Lecturer in Tourism, University of SurreyStefan Gössling, Professor, Research Coordinator for the Centre for Sustainable Tourism, Western Norway Research InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/457212015-08-06T04:33:28Z2015-08-06T04:33:28ZA carbon tax for South Africa: why a pragmatic approach makes sense<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/90865/original/image-20150805-22491-h6jx13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Major emitters of fossil fuels in South Africa are opposed to a carbon tax. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The furore over the carbon tax in South Africa that is playing itself out both in public and behind closed doors is leading to an <a href="http://mg.co.za/article/2015-06-18-big-business-stalls-crucial-carbon-tax">impasse</a>. General responses to the carbon tax have tended to be overly dramatic. For example, major emitters and users of fossil fuels say it will abruptly kill their businesses. Those in favour believe that it will lower our dependence on fossil fuels and hold economic benefits in the future.</p>
<p>These views have come to the fore in submissions by various stakeholders to the Davis Commission, which is reviewing the general tax system in the country. Industry has made its position clear: it does not want a carbon tax and <a href="http://www.fin24.com/Economy/SA-needs-choice-before-carbon-tax-says-official-20150429">probably never will</a>. </p>
<p>However, certain parts of government, like the National Treasury, alternative energy producers and environmentalists see the importance of the carbon tax as a way of pricing an environmental externality.</p>
<p>South Africa has a structural issue when it comes to electricity production. The country is totally dependent on a single producer of electricity, state-owned <a href="http://www.eskom.co.za/Pages/Landing.aspx">Eskom</a>, which derives 90% of its electricity from <a href="http://www.energy.gov.za/files/electricity_frame.html">coal</a>.</p>
<h2>Some sensible approaches</h2>
<p>There are positives and negatives that should be acknowledged. </p>
<p>If the carbon tax is used as a blunt instrument it will most likely do more harm than good. There are mitigation strategies. </p>
<p>In the first phase of implementation there could be a low-level of the tax and - given all the exemptions that are being offered, including offsets - the carbon tax’s effect would be <a href="http://www.thecarbonreport.co.za/the-proposed-south-african-carbon-tax/">small</a>.</p>
<p>A carbon tax with <a href="http://www.rff.org/rff/Documents/RFF-CCIB-02.pdf">revenue recycling</a> is also possibly a better option. A carbon tax purely imposes penalties and is unlikely to win over firms and <a href="http://www.igem.insightworks.com/docs/244/part1chap8.pdf">consumers</a>. Revenue recycling allows carbon taxes to be used to either support technology shifts or cushion those who are likely to be most affected. </p>
<p>Some industries are likely to adjust better than others as some industries can easily adjust to new technologies or optimise their systems. Others will find it harder as investments in existing technology may still be at the start or in the middle of their full utilisation lifespan.</p>
<p>The effect of costs which have already been incurred in an asset that is already locked in the production system will make it expensive to switch to another technology without losing <a href="http://www.holisticpolitics.org/GlobalWarming/ConservativeCase.php">competitiveness</a>. In highly competitive industries the switch over to cleaner technologies cannot happen without some assistance. It is simply not true to suggest that all industries and and consumers will be affected alike.</p>
<p>It makes more sense to upwardly adjust carbon pricing measures with improvements in implementation performance as more low carbon technologies or energy carriers are introduced into the grid system. This should be also accompanied by developing the ability of consumers to participate in distributed generation. Such flexibility makes it easier to switch to cleaner energy sources.</p>
<h2>Why timing matters</h2>
<p>The carbon tax has the danger of being viewed as another form of tax. In addition, South Africa already has a sort of carbon tax in the electricity <a href="http://www.fin24.com/Budget/Some-taxes-fuel-electricity-levies-to-rise-20150225">levy</a>. The levy is an environmental levy; it is a price put on emissions that come from using coal to generate electricity.</p>
<p>It is probably not a good idea to introduce new forms of levies and taxes during periods of slow growth. Generosity towards contributing more taxes and levies tends to be constrained across the board and not just with large firms at such times. The South African economy has only averaged a growth rate of 3.1% from 2000-2014 over the past five years and <a href="http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/economic-survey-south-africa.htm">more</a>. The country is in an economic cycle that needs counter-cyclical spending where government has to lead fiscal spending to boost economic growth. </p>
<h2>International obligations</h2>
<p>South Africa has international obligations to deal with its high emissions profile. A carbon tax or pricing would not only signal the country’s commitment but also that it is mobilising domestic resources to reduce carbon emissions. </p>
<p>The country should also make every effort in securing long-term sources of climate finance from the international community. International climate finance is <a href="https://www.environment.gov.za/sites/default/files/docs/financing_climate_change.pdf">available</a> to support scaling cleaner energy solutions. </p>
<p>South Africa should work in anticipation of a move by the world’s major economies and its key trading partners to introduce some form of international carbon pricing <a href="http://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/pricing-carbon">regime</a>. It is reasonable to assume this is several years away. </p>
<p>South Africa, like other countries, would take a long time to adjust to new conditions. The proposed carbon tax’s aim is to allow systemic adaptation to this eventuality within the global trading scene. Failure to abide by any new global regime would lead to the country facing penalties, in the same way that airlines are already being <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/may/15/eu-airline-emissions-tax-success">threatened</a> with the European Union’s emission taxes for air travel.</p>
<h2>Pragmatism should prevail</h2>
<p>The aim of a carbon tax is to disincentive future carbon intense investments. It will also encourage the investment world to start pricing this as a risk factor in the way they make future investment decisions and capital allocations. A new class of climate friendly investment opportunities would grow with time and this is good for economic diversification.</p>
<p>The priorities for South Africa should be:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>The current electricity levy should be converted to a carbon tax as it is already in place. The conversion of the levy into an emissions or carbon tax is at least a way of establishing a long term carbon price and will start giving some level of certainty to various economic agents that they need to absorb once the grace period is over.</p></li>
<li><p>Some time should be given for adjustments to the introduction of the tax.</p></li>
<li><p>The focus must be put on reviving the economy and changing the energy mix both at utility scale and at the distributed level to allow consumers to switch to other energy sources. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>And finally, carbon tax should be more closely aligned with the implementation of an integrated resource <a href="http://www.energy.gov.za/IRP/irp%20files/IRP2010_2030_Final_Report_20110325.pdf">plan</a> that diversifies the energy mix in such a way that our carbon intensity declines over time. </p>
<p><em>Manisha Gulati, an energy economist, at WWF-SA contributed to the article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/45721/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Saliem Fakir is affiliated with WorldWide Fund for Nature</span></em></p>The general response to carbon tax is not a positive one, but it may be something South Africa will need to accept.Saliem Fakir, Lecturer in sustainability and energy , Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/428752015-06-10T17:21:20Z2015-06-10T17:21:20ZObama’s use of regulation to make environmental policy: not unusual and not illegal<p>It’s a big few weeks at the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA issued a regulation clarifying its authority to regulate bodies of water throughout the <a href="http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/0/62295CDDD6C6B45685257E52004FAC97">country</a>. This week it issued an “<a href="http://epa.gov/otaq/documents/aviation/aircraft-ghg-pr-anprm-2015-06-10.pdf">endangerment finding</a>,” a precursor to a regulation governing carbon emission from <a href="http://thehill.com/business-a-lobbying/243984-turbulence-ahead-for-epa-on-airplane-pollution-cuts">aircrafts</a>. There is also a plan to raise fuel efficiency standards on <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/31/business/energy-environment/epa-proposal-will-put-bigger-trucks-on-a-fuel-diet.html">trucks</a>. And within the next week or two, the Supreme Court will issue a ruling regarding whether the EPA unreasonably refused to <a href="https://theconversation.com/justices-debate-benefits-and-costs-of-epa-mercury-power-plant-rule-39551">consider costs</a> when issuing its recent standard on mercury emissions from power <a href="http://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/michigan-v-environmental-protection-agency/">plants</a>.</p>
<p>But while it is a big few weeks, it is not an unusual few weeks for the Obama Administration EPA. The mercury, aircraft emission and clean water regulations are all examples of major policy initiatives taken by the executive branch of the government during this administration. </p>
<p>President Obama said in 2014 that in the wake of Congressional gridlock, he would use his “<a href="http://www.cbsnews.com/news/obama-i-will-use-my-pen-and-phone-to-take-on-congress/">pen and phone</a>” to make policy without Congress. In no policy area (save perhaps immigration) has that been more evident than in environmental policy.</p>
<h2>Common playbook</h2>
<p>Not surprisingly, President Obama’s opponents have reacted strongly to the policy-making through regulation. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/epas-clean-water-rule-whats-at-stake-and-what-comes-next-42466">clean water rule</a> was described as an “<a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2015/may/27/epa-expands-powers-over-land-use-bid-control-water/?page=all">egregious power grab</a>.” Republican senators unhappy with EPA attempts to regulate greenhouse gases have spoken of the need to “rein in” the executive branch. </p>
<p>However, two of the premises behind these attacks are at best questionable. The first is that the Obama Administration emphasis on regulation is unprecedented, and the other is that issuing regulations is an unchecked exercise of executive power.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/84402/original/image-20150609-10717-r2zuz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/84402/original/image-20150609-10717-r2zuz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/84402/original/image-20150609-10717-r2zuz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84402/original/image-20150609-10717-r2zuz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84402/original/image-20150609-10717-r2zuz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84402/original/image-20150609-10717-r2zuz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84402/original/image-20150609-10717-r2zuz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84402/original/image-20150609-10717-r2zuz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">EPA administrator Gina McCarthy (laughing on left) is a key figure in implementing Obama administration environmental policy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/whitehouse/15179057075/in/photolist-6ypeRo-87WrTQ-p8jCQB-87TcYc">The White House/flickr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The use of executive power by a president to get his wishes, particularly in a second term, is extremely <a href="http://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/the-administration/225675-in-his-second-term-is-obama-weak-or-strong">common</a>. </p>
<p>Every two-term president since Franklin Delano Roosevelt has been confronted by a Congress with at least one house controlled by the opposition party in his second term. This severely constrains the ability of the president to affect domestic policy through legislation. As such, sometime around their second inauguration, presidents typically switch from a “legislative presidency” where they advocate for new laws in Congress, to an “<a href="http://www.regblog.org/2013/01/21/21-coglianese-administrative-president/">administrative presidency</a>” where they use their executive powers to enact their policy preferences. </p>
<p>Increasingly, that has meant using regulation as a policy tool. Statutes passed in the 1960s and 1970s gave the president considerable ability to set policy through regulation. The Supreme Court has repeatedly <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/531/457/case.html">upheld</a> the constitutionality of this delegation of power to the president from Congress. </p>
<p>Hence, all presidents from Carter through Obama have issued hundreds of significant regulations, and presidents all pick up the pace of regulating as their time in office grows <a href="http://mercatus.org/research/midnight-regulations">short</a>. </p>
<h2>Long and winding road</h2>
<p>The second questionable idea behind cries of an imperial presidency is the thought that somehow it is easy to issue a regulation without public input. Nothing could be farther from the truth. </p>
<p>First, regulations must be issued pursuant to a statute passed by Congress. If parties burdened by a regulation think that the agency doesn’t have the right to issue the regulation, you can be certain that they will challenge the regulation in court. If you want to blame someone for regulations from the Obama Administration, blame the many Congresses that passed – and the many presidents that signed – statutes giving regulatory agencies their authorities.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/84581/original/image-20150610-6804-p2ywv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/84581/original/image-20150610-6804-p2ywv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/84581/original/image-20150610-6804-p2ywv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84581/original/image-20150610-6804-p2ywv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84581/original/image-20150610-6804-p2ywv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84581/original/image-20150610-6804-p2ywv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84581/original/image-20150610-6804-p2ywv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84581/original/image-20150610-6804-p2ywv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The EPA “endangerment finding” is the first step toward regulating carbon emissions from airplanes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/dsleeter_2000/5081622399/in/photolist-8K3Dii-btX2XX-9sqAQC-eTSNyy-8K3AJH-9XMscG-94kdEX-anKT8R-ynBN7-o9WQZk-9snvTz-e8YH9c-9sqrnW-9sqvLL-9sqq5y-khfHbe-9oD4ck-khA4sE-CpTk-8K6FjN-khhtXY-7rj5mR-kfNPgQ-oHL5PH-c2mbYo-khfJ1a-6MCy8F-7911Wb-4yGwL2-9XJzk8-rjjG3J-gp6jVm-nD7oFh-rh5Zad-9XJzhR-pKH5Hd-9x1yyy-4J2AUL-4cXXV5-4J2AFA-dMPHkE-gYc2ys-rLgLVQ-r2yMzB-4TLstm-ppMvX-gYcRwv-q3ev8j-8rGcVa-8rGd46">dsleeter_2000/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Federal agencies (except in emergency conditions) must also accept and consider public comment before issuing a regulation. </p>
<p>While there is some <a href="thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/crime/236336-did-atf-delay-the-bullet-ban-because-of-public-outcry">debate</a> over whether agencies adopt public comments (most research shows that they modify their regulations but <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3542627?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">rarely</a> make wholesale changes) agencies are required to write responses to comments explaining why they did not make the changes requested. Otherwise commenters have grounds for a lawsuit.</p>
<p>When a regulation is finalized, the other two branches of government get another crack at it. Congress can pass a <a href="http://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/lawmaker-news/239189-the-congressional-review-act-rarely-used-and-almost-always">law</a> to overturn the rule, although that law will need to be signed by the president or passed over his veto. </p>
<h2>Enduring device</h2>
<p>Any regulation of significance, particularly from the EPA, usually ends up as the subject of a lawsuit where judges can determine whether the action taken by the agency was arbitrary or capricious. </p>
<p>Supporters of regulation often bemoan how long it takes to complete the regulatory process. Much of this length comes from intents to make the process <a href="http://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/the-administration/242468-why-does-it-take-so-long-to-issue-a-regulation">accountable</a> to the public. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/84405/original/image-20150609-10747-husfia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/84405/original/image-20150609-10747-husfia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/84405/original/image-20150609-10747-husfia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84405/original/image-20150609-10747-husfia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84405/original/image-20150609-10747-husfia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84405/original/image-20150609-10747-husfia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84405/original/image-20150609-10747-husfia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/84405/original/image-20150609-10747-husfia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Next up from EPA: higher mileage standards for trucks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/davebloggs007/14450980474/in/photolist-o1Z42L-7x1XbH-dxz1uf-6DnqRD-aqtYNJ-hcUEyS-f67bRf-pwbek7-nCN9xH-r64t4A-q9jfUW-5s2k16-qqcoic-rAKNZN-qWe3on-rQ8KoP-2isaW-ecjf3M-24AUs6-7cN3GW-7efazc-kAj5Zx-ipmqR5-2sT75-36aDn-baqDwv-re8wyj-rd3Su7-ecECnS-qxP9rT-eb7HWC-fnThir-9eywMa-dkGmAU-wuHUH-nQXgDS-e9cmMj-8SBfD6-9r9SYB-9pFarq-jXDQD-9KGcFj-9pBWhB-76VPC-5s6QpN-3EChQx-eNMQgx-a1U2on-bN756r-2SxiQ2/">davebloggs007/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Once a regulation has run the gauntlet of the regulatory process and has been upheld by the courts, it is an enduring policy-making device. </p>
<p>Contrary to some perceptions, a new president cannot come in and reverse his or her predecessor’s regulations on day one. The new president could sign a law overturning a previous regulation, but that is also true of overturning a law that has been passed by an earlier Congress. Otherwise, the new president must begin a new regulatory process to overturn a regulation, and (s)he quickly learns that overturning a regulations is as hard as issuing one.</p>
<p>For dealing with climate change, the Obama Administration would have preferred a carbon tax or a “<a href="http://www.epa.gov/captrade/">cap and trade system</a>” to the regulatory solutions that will come out in the months ahead. But those would have required new laws from a Congress that is not very good at passing laws. The regulatory solutions are a second-best solution, but if they are upheld by the courts, they will be an enduring and significant one.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/42875/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stuart Shapiro does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The EPA said it will regulate emissions from airplanes – the latest in a string of environmental and climate regulations Obama has used to bypass the Republican-led Congress.Stuart Shapiro, Associate Professor and Director, Public Policy Program, Rutgers UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.