tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/animal-disease-26446/articlesAnimal disease – The Conversation2023-10-19T11:57:12Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2156672023-10-19T11:57:12Z2023-10-19T11:57:12ZBird flu in South Africa: expert explains what’s behind the chicken crisis and what must be done about it<p><em>An outbreak of <a href="https://www.woah.org/en/disease/avian-influenza/">avian flu</a> – a highly contagious viral infection that affects wild birds as well as poultry – <a href="https://www.nicd.ac.za/avian-influenza-outbreak/">has hit poultry farms in South Africa</a>. Two different strains are causing outbreaks in the country – A(H5N1) and influenza A(H7N6). A specialist in poultry health, Shahn Bisschop, answers some questions put to him by The Conversation Africa.</em></p>
<h2>What strain has broken out in South Africa?</h2>
<p>The outbreak caused by a highly pathogenic (HPAI) strain of H7N6 avian influenza is causing the most concern at present. The strain was <a href="https://www.news24.com/fin24/companies/bird-flu-super-infectious-sa-strain-emerges-in-mpumalanga-20230627">first confirmed in chickens</a> near Delmas north of Johannesburg at the beginning of June 2023.</p>
<p>This virus is a novel mutation of a strain which originated from wild birds at or near the location of the original outbreak. </p>
<p>The strain is well-adapted to chickens – it infects them easily and replicates effectively in them, in preference to other avian species – and spreads very easily between birds and farms. An <a href="https://sapa.jshiny.com/jdata/sapa/outbreaklanding/">estimated</a> 10 million have become infected while 6 million died from the H7N6. A further 1.7 million died from H5N1 earlier in the year.</p>
<p>The conventional control measures (collectively known as biosecurity) have been less effective than usual in limiting the spread of the disease. The main measures taken on poultry farms include strictly limiting human and vehicle movement. People entering farms will typically take further measures to limit disease transmission such as showering, changing clothes and disinfecting footwear when moving between different parts of the farm. </p>
<p>Because wild birds are associated with the spread of avian flu, measures are taken to ensure they are completely excluded from all chicken sheds. </p>
<h2>What’s new this time?</h2>
<p>For at least the past nine years, HPAI H5 viruses of the 2.3.4.4 clade <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41421-023-00571-x">have been spread across the globe</a> principally by wild bird migrations and infect a range of avian and mammalian species. The first recorded cases caused by viruses belonging to this clade were reported in South Africa in 2017. A second outbreak occurred in 2020. It was anticipated that the next outbreak would probably also be caused by these viruses and indeed the first reported cases of HPAI in 2023 in the coastal regions were associated with H5 strains.</p>
<p>Local experts are working on the theory that the present outbreak of H7N6 HPAI <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/avian-in-birds.htm">was created</a> when a low pathogenicity AI (LPAI) virus circulating without causing disease in wild birds underwent a mutation to become an HPAI strain adapted to causing serious disease in chickens. This mutation occurred locally. </p>
<p>Mutation from LPAI to HPAI has been described in poultry in various parts of the world but was considered less likely than the return of the H5 clade 2.3.4.4 viruses previously encountered.</p>
<h2>What’s in place and what’s missing</h2>
<p>Avian influenza is a “controlled disease”. That means it’s placed under strict government control with the aim of eradication as quickly as possible when outbreaks are detected. All outbreaks on farms are immediately reported to the state veterinary service, which takes responsibility for the disease. </p>
<p>The protocol for HPAI control is that all affected farms are placed under strict quarantine and all surviving birds are destroyed and disposed of as quickly as possible in order to limit the further spread of the disease.</p>
<p>But there are weaknesses in the system. </p>
<p>The biggest is that the state veterinary services don’t have sufficient resources to manage the outbreaks effectively.</p>
<p>Secondly, because the state doesn’t compensate farmers for their losses, they have difficulty getting farmers to comply with orders to cull. This has meant that outbreaks have spread out of control. Infected birds have been moved off infected farms for sale – taking the disease with them.</p>
<p>Farmers in the EU and US are compensated when culling happens. This used to be the case in South Africa but no longer happens.</p>
<p>As a result, South Africa has struggled to contain HPAI outbreaks. In<a href="https://www.nicd.ac.za/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/NICD-Avian-influenza-FAQ_final1-1.pdf"> 2017</a> and <a href="https://rr-africa.woah.org/en/immediate-notifications-in-africa/">2020/21</a> the outbreaks gradually slowed and eventually stopped. </p>
<p>HPAI outbreaks tend to be seasonal. In Europe, they occur principally in winter months. In South Africa, there is a similar but less clear trend to more cases in the winter and fewer in summer. This may be related to reduced viral survival in hotter summer weather.</p>
<h2>Are there new approaches to consider?</h2>
<p>New and innovative thinking is needed to deal with the reality on the ground in South Africa.</p>
<p>One possible solution is the introduction of appropriate vaccines. This would reduce the losses associated with outbreaks and would slow the spread of the disease between farms. Like all vaccines, they can’t prevent birds from becoming infected but they can manage the level of infection and spread. But they can’t eradicate the disease. </p>
<p>But there are limited options in terms of available vaccines. And South Africa would need to ensure that the vaccines registered for use in the country were effective against the local strain. If vaccines are poorly matched to outbreak strains, they won’t be effective.</p>
<p>All of this will take time, even with the best effort of government and industry. </p>
<h2>Does the strain pose a risk to people? What should consumers should be aware of?</h2>
<p>The South African Poultry Association <a href="http://www.poultrydiseases.co.za/750-2/">has made it clear</a> that poultry products are safe for consumption. It has been <a href="https://www.up.ac.za/research-matters/news/post_2991581-up-researchers-weigh-in-on-bird-flu-outbreak">collaborating with the University of Pretoria</a> to make sure poultry products are indeed safe. Together with leading scientists they have sequenced the current field strain of H7 avian influenza virus. In <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10302261/">a recent paper </a> scientists reported that none of the amino acid markers were present that afford the virus the ability to bind to mammalian cells.</p>
<p>This shows that infection of humans with the current virus is highly unlikely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215667/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shahn Bisschop does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New and innovative thinking is needed to deal with the reality on the ground in South Africa.Shahn Bisschop, Senior lecturer, specialist poultry veterinarian, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2047742023-05-17T12:40:51Z2023-05-17T12:40:51ZVaccines using mRNA can protect farm animals against diseases traditional ones may not – and there are safeguards to ensure they won’t end up in your food<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525981/original/file-20230512-28-6v7puj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3008%2C2008&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Vaccines help protect farm animals from various diseases.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/veterinarian-and-pigs-royalty-free-image/512631046">dusanpetkovic/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While effective vaccines for COVID-19 should have heralded the benefits of mRNA vaccines, <a href="https://theconversation.com/misinformation-is-a-common-thread-between-the-covid-19-and-hiv-aids-pandemics-with-deadly-consequences-187968">fear and misinformation</a> about their supposed dangers circulated at the same time. These misconceptions about mRNA vaccines have recently spilled over into worries about whether their use in agricultural animals could expose people to components of the vaccine <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2023/02/15/fact-check-false-claim-mrna-vaccines-food-supply/11218991002/">within animal products</a> such as meat or milk.</p>
<p>In fact, a number of states are drafting or considering legislation outlawing the use of mRNA vaccines in food animals or, at minimum, requiring their labeling on animal products in grocery stores. <a href="https://legislature.idaho.gov/sessioninfo/2023/legislation/H0154/">Idaho introduced a bill</a> that would make it a misdemeanor to administer any type of mRNA vaccine to any person or mammal, including COVID-19 vaccines. A <a href="https://www.house.mo.gov/Bill.aspx?bill=HB1169&year=2023&code=R">Missouri bill</a> would have required the labeling of animal products derived from animals administered mRNA vaccines but failed to get out of committee. <a href="https://www.azleg.gov/legtext/56leg/1R/summary/H.HB2762_020823_LARA.DOCX.htm">Arizona</a> and <a href="https://wapp.capitol.tn.gov/apps/BillInfo/Default.aspx?BillNumber=SB0099&GA=113">Tennessee</a> have also proposed labeling bills. <a href="https://www.oklahomafarmreport.com/okfr/2023/04/21/mike-deering-corrects-false-accusations-of-cattle-industry-using-mrna-vaccines/">Several other</a> <a href="https://www.texasagriculture.gov/News-Events/Article/7596/Commissioner-Miller-Statement-on-mRNA-Vaccines-in-Livestock">state legislatures</a> are discussing similar measures.</p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=yTZZQ3QAAAAJ&hl=en">researcher who has been making vaccines</a> for a number of years, and I started studying mRNA vaccines before the pandemic started. My research on using <a href="https://portal.nifa.usda.gov/web/crisprojectpages/1027610-novel-mrna-vaccine-technology-for-prevention-of-bovine-respiratory-syncytial-virus.html">mRNA vaccines for cattle respiratory viruses</a> has been referenced by social media users and anti-vaccine activists who say that using these vaccines in animals will endanger the health of people who eat them.</p>
<p>But these vaccines have been shown to reduce disease on farms, and it’s all but impossible for them to end up in your food.</p>
<h2>Traditional animal vaccine approaches</h2>
<p>In food animals, <a href="https://www.merckvetmanual.com/pharmacology/vaccines-and-immunotherapy/types-of-vaccines-for-animals">several types of vaccines</a> have long been available for farmers to protect their animals from common diseases. These include inactivated vaccines that contain a killed version of a pathogen, live attenuated vaccines that contain a weakened version of a pathogen and subunit vaccines that contain one part of a pathogen. All can elicit good levels of protection from disease symptoms and infection. Producing these vaccines is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17892154/">often inexpensive</a>.</p>
<p>However, each of these vaccines <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4939-3389-1_1">has drawbacks</a>. </p>
<p>Inactivated and subunit vaccines often do not produce a strong enough immune response, and pathogens can quickly mutate into variants that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.697839">limit vaccine effectiveness</a>. The weakened pathogens in live attenuated vaccines have the remote possibility of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fve%2Fvev005">reverting back</a> to their full pathogenic form or mixing with other circulating pathogens and becoming new vaccine-resistant ones. They also must be grown in specific cell cultures to produce them, which can be time-consuming.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/mvA9gs5gxNY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Each type of vaccine has pros and cons.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13567-018-0560-8">several pathogens</a> – such as porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus, foot and mouth disease virus, <a href="https://theconversation.com/bird-flu-is-killing-millions-of-chickens-and-turkeys-across-the-us-180299">H5N1 influenza</a> and African swine fever virus – for which all three traditional approaches have yet to yield an effective vaccine.</p>
<p>Another major drawback for all three of these vaccine types is the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tvjl.2007.11.009">time it takes</a> to test and obtain federal approval to use them. Typically, animal vaccines take <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.vaccine.2020.05.007">three or more years</a> from development to licensure by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Should new viruses make it to farms, playing catch-up using traditional vaccines could take too long to contain an outbreak. </p>
<h2>Advantages of animal mRNA vaccines</h2>
<p>All cells use <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-mrna-the-messenger-molecule-thats-been-in-every-living-cell-for-billions-of-years-is-the-key-ingredient-in-some-covid-19-vaccines-158511">mRNA, which contains the instructions</a> to make the proteins needed to carry out specific functions. The mRNA used in vaccines encode instructions to make a protein from a pathogen of interest that immune cells learn to recognize and attack. This process builds <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-long-does-protective-immunity-against-covid-19-last-after-infection-or-vaccination-two-immunologists-explain-177309">immunological memory</a>, so that when a pathogen carrying that same protein enters the body, the immune system will be ready to mount a quick and strong response against it.</p>
<p>Compared to traditional vaccines, mRNA vaccines have several advantages that make them ideal for protecting people and farm animals from both emerging and persistent diseases.</p>
<p>Unlike killed or subunit vaccines, mRNA vaccines increase the buildup of vaccine proteins in cells over time and train the immune system using conditions that look more like a viral infection. Like live attenuated vaccines, this process fosters the development of <a href="https://medicine.wustl.edu/news/what-makes-an-mrna-vaccine-so-effective-against-severe-covid-19/">strong immune responses</a> that may build better protection. In contrast to live attenuated viruses, mRNA vaccines cannot revert to a pathogenic form or mix with circulating pathogens. Furthermore, once the genetic sequence of a pathogen of interest is known, mRNA vaccines can be <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/moderna-designed-coronavirus-vaccine-in-2-days-2020-11/">produced rather quickly</a>.</p>
<p>The mRNA in vaccines can come in either a form that is structurally similar to what is normally found in the body, like those used in COVID-19 vaccines for people, or in a form that is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41434-020-00204-y?">self-amplifying, called saRNA</a>. Because saRNA allows for higher levels of protein synthesis, researchers think that less mRNA would be needed to generate similar levels of immunity. However, a COVID-19 saRNA vaccine for people developed <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/curevac-covid-19-vaccine-records-only-48-efficacy-final-trial-readout-2021-06-30/#">by biopharmaceutical company CureVac</a> elicited less protection than traditional mRNA approaches.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/veterinary-biologics/product-summaries/Vet-Label-Data/d611b51a-9eca-4d56-9556-dcc61fb96d5f">Merck’s Sequivity</a> is currently the only saRNA vaccine licensed for use in animals, and it is available by prescription to protect against swine flu in pigs.</p>
<h2>Persistance of mRNA vaccine components</h2>
<p>All mRNA vaccines are made in the laboratory using methods that were <a href="https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2021/the-long-history-of-mrna-vaccines">developed decades ago</a>. Only recently has the technology advanced to the point where the body doesn’t immediately reject it by activating the antiviral defenses intrinsic to each of your cells. This rejection would occur before the immune system even had the chance to mount a response.</p>
<p>The COVID-19 mRNA vaccines used in people <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acscentsci.1c00197">mix in modified nucleotides</a> – the building blocks of RNA – with unmodified nucleotides so the mRNA can hide from the intrinsic antiviral sensors of the cell. These modified nucleotides are what allow the mRNA to persist in the body’s cells <a href="https://theconversation.com/no-covid-vaccines-dont-stay-in-your-body-for-years-169247">for a few days</a> rather than <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-2836(73)90119-8">just a few hours</a> like natural mRNAs.</p>
<p>New methods of delivering the vaccine using <a href="https://theconversation.com/nanoparticles-are-the-future-of-medicine-researchers-are-experimenting-with-new-ways-to-design-tiny-particle-treatments-for-cancer-180009">lipid nanoparticles</a> also ensure the mRNA isn’t degraded before it has a chance to enter cells and start making proteins.</p>
<p>Despite this stability, mRNA vaccines do not last long enough within animals after injection for any component of the vaccine to end up on grocery store shelves. Unlike for human vaccines, animal vaccine manufacturers must determine the <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/vet_biologics/publications/pel_4_9.pdf">withdrawal period</a> in order to obtain USDA approval. This means any component of a vaccine cannot be found in the animal prior to milking or slaughter. Given the short lifespan of some of the agriculture animals and intensive milking schedules, withdrawal periods often need to be very short.</p>
<p>Between the mandatory vaccine withdrawal period, flash pasteurization for milk, degradation on the shelf and the cooking process for food products, there could not be any residual vaccine left for humans to consume. Even if you were to consume residual mRNA molecules, your gastrointestinal tract will <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matt.2021.12.022">rapidly degrade them</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525996/original/file-20230512-24902-28dwi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Dairy cows lined up for milking" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525996/original/file-20230512-24902-28dwi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525996/original/file-20230512-24902-28dwi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525996/original/file-20230512-24902-28dwi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525996/original/file-20230512-24902-28dwi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525996/original/file-20230512-24902-28dwi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525996/original/file-20230512-24902-28dwi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525996/original/file-20230512-24902-28dwi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Withdrawal periods are intended to ensure no component of the vaccine is present in the animal’s body before milking or slaughter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/dairy-cows-ready-for-milking-royalty-free-image/1267197465">kolderal/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Several mRNA vaccines for use in animals <a href="https://portal.nifa.usda.gov/web/crisprojectpages/1027610-novel-mrna-vaccine-technology-for-prevention-of-bovine-respiratory-syncytial-virus.html">are in</a> <a href="https://www.genengnews.com/topics/drug-discovery/bayer-partners-with-biontech-to-develop-mrna-vaccines-drugs-for-animal-health/">early stages</a> <a href="https://www.porkbusiness.com/news/industry/genvax-technologies-secures-65-million-advance-novel-vaccine-platform">of development</a>. Merck’s USDA-licensed Sequivity does not use the modified nucleotides or lipid nanoparticles that allow those vaccine components to circulate for slightly longer periods in the body, so long-term persistence is unlikely.</p>
<p>Like in people, animal vaccines are <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/vet_biologics/publications/memo_800_202.pdf">tested for their safety and effectiveness</a> in clinical trials. Approval for use from the <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/veterinary-biologics/CT_Vb_licensed_products">USDA Center for Vaccine Biologics</a> requires a modest level of protection against infection or disease symptoms. As with all animal vaccines, future mRNA vaccines will also need to be fully cleared from the animal’s body before they can be used in animals for human consumption.</p>
<h2>mRNA vaccines for more farm animals</h2>
<p>Whether mRNA vaccines will displace other vaccine types for livestock is yet to be determined. The <a href="https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/how-much-could-covid-19-vaccines-cost-the-u-s-after-commercialization/">cost of manufacturing these vaccines</a>, their need to <a href="https://www.vox.com/21552934/moderna-pfizer-covid-19-vaccine-biontech-coronavirus-cold-chain">kept very cold and warm up before use</a> to avoid degradation, and the efficacy of different types of mRNA vaccines all still need to be addressed before large-scale use can take place. </p>
<p>Traditional vaccines for food animals have <a href="https://pressbooks.umn.edu/vetprevmed/chapter/chapter-4-vaccines-and-vaccinations-production/">protected them against many diseases</a>. Limiting the use of mRNA vaccines right now would mean losing a new way to protect animals from pesky pathogens that current vaccines can’t fend off.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204774/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Verhoeven received funding from Merck and USDA. Those funding are now expired.</span></em></p>While mRNA vaccines are designed to last longer in the body than mRNA molecules typically would, they are also tested to ensure they are eliminated from livestock long before milking or slaughter.David Verhoeven, Assistant Professor of Vet Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, Iowa State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1889612022-08-18T12:39:34Z2022-08-18T12:39:34ZA dog has caught monkeypox from one of its owners, highlighting risk of the virus infecting pets and wild animals<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479727/original/file-20220817-13-4dzbth.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C105%2C5034%2C3213&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A dog in Paris has become the first case of a pet contracting monkeypox from its owners.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/bearded-man-kissing-a-white-bull-terrier-dog-royalty-free-image/1187471630?adppopup=true">Cavan Images via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A dog in Paris has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01487-8">caught monkeypox from one of its owners</a>, both of whom were infected with the virus, according to a scientific paper published on Aug. 10, 2022. This is the first case of a dog contracting the monkeypox virus through direct contact with skin lesions on a human. </p>
<p>I am a veterinary <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Amy-Macneill">pathologist and virologist who has been working with poxviruses</a> for over 20 years. I study how these viruses evade the immune system and am working on modifying poxviruses to prevent infection as well as treat other diseases, including cancer.</p>
<p>With monkeypox spreading in humans throughout the world, my colleagues and I have begun to worry about the increased risk of monkeypox spreading from humans to animals. If monkeypox spreads to wildlife species in the U.S. and Europe, the virus could become endemic in these places – where it <a href="https://doi.org/10.2217/17460913.2.1.17">has historically been absent</a> – resulting in more frequent outbreaks. The report of the infected dog shows that there is a decent chance these fears could become a reality.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479729/original/file-20220817-18153-g5jxhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A microscope image of a bunch blue circles in a brown-colored cell." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479729/original/file-20220817-18153-g5jxhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479729/original/file-20220817-18153-g5jxhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479729/original/file-20220817-18153-g5jxhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479729/original/file-20220817-18153-g5jxhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479729/original/file-20220817-18153-g5jxhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=648&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479729/original/file-20220817-18153-g5jxhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=648&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479729/original/file-20220817-18153-g5jxhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=648&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The monkeypox virus – the blue circles in this image of an infected cell – is a poxvirus similar to smallpox and cowpox and can easily infect many different species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Monkeypox_Virus_(52103767506).jpg#/media/File:Monkeypox_Virus_(52103767506).jpg">NIAID/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A species-jumping virus</h2>
<p>Monkeypox is a poxvirus in the same family as variola – the virus that causes smallpox – and cowpox viruses and likely evolved in animals before jumping to humans. Monkeypox causes painful lesions in both humans and animals and, in rare cases, can be deadly. Researchers have found the monkeypox virus in several species of <a href="https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2007.76.757">wild rodents</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0716">squirrels</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2554549/pdf/bullwho00229-0139.pdf">primates</a> in Africa, where the virus is endemic. Monkeypox does not need to mutate or evolve at all to be able to <a href="https://doi.org/doi.org/10.3390/v14020388">infect many different species</a>. It can easily spread from animals to people and back again.</p>
<p>Though there is a fair bit of research on monkeypox, a lot more work has been done on cowpox, a similar zoonotic poxvirus that is endemic in Europe. Over the years, there have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(85)92299-8">several reports</a> of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1404.070817">cowpox infection spreading</a> from <a href="https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1505.090235">animals to humans in Europe</a>.</p>
<h2>From people to animals</h2>
<p>Until recently, most monkeypox infections occurred in specific areas of Africa where some wildlife species act as reservoirs for the virus. These outbreaks are usually contained quickly through isolation of infected individuals and vaccinating people around the infected individual. The current situation is very different though. </p>
<p>With nearly <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/response/2022/world-map.html">40,000 cases globally</a> as of Aug. 17, 2022 – and more than 12,500 cases in the U.S. alone – monkeypox is now widespread within the human population. The risk of any one person transmitting the virus to an animal – particularly a wild one – is small, but the more people are infected, the greater the chances. It’s a numbers game.</p>
<p>There are a number of ways viruses can transfer from animals to people – called spillover – and <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-covid-19-infecting-wild-animals-were-testing-species-from-bats-to-seals-to-find-out-151467">from people back to animals</a> – called spillback. Since monkeypox is most easily spread through direct skin-to-skin contact, it is a bit more difficult to transmit between species than COVID-19, but certainly possible.</p>
<p>The case of the dog in Paris provides a clear example of how cuddling or being close to a pet can spread the virus. Previous studies on poxviruses like monkeypox have shown that they can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2011.0671">stay active in fecal matter</a>. This means that there is a risk of wild animals, likely rodents, catching it from human waste.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479733/original/file-20220817-17-4121by.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A grey rat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479733/original/file-20220817-17-4121by.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479733/original/file-20220817-17-4121by.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479733/original/file-20220817-17-4121by.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479733/original/file-20220817-17-4121by.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479733/original/file-20220817-17-4121by.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479733/original/file-20220817-17-4121by.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479733/original/file-20220817-17-4121by.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There are a number of species that host monkeypox in Africa – like this gambian rat. Monkeypox can spread from humans to many other animals, including dogs and likely cats and other species of rodents.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cricetomys_gambianus_as_a_captive_pet.jpg#/media/File:Cricetomys_gambianus_as_a_captive_pet.jpg">Louisvarley/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The monkeypox virus is also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-020-0706-0">present in saliva</a>. While more research needs to be done, it is potentially possible that an infected person could discard food that would then be eaten by a rodent. </p>
<p>The chances of any one of these events happening is extremely low. But I and other virologists worry that with more people becoming infected, there is a greater risk that rodents or other animals will come into contact with urine, feces or saliva that is contaminated with the virus. </p>
<p>Finally, there is the risk of people giving monkeypox to a pet, which then passes it on to other animals. One case study in Germany described an outbreak of cowpox that was caused when someone took an infected cat to a veterinary clinic and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcpa.2017.12.003">four other cats were subsequently infected</a>. It is feasible that an infected household pet could spread the virus to wild animals somehow.</p>
<h2>How to help</h2>
<p>One of the key reasons that the World Health Organization was able to eradicate smallpox is that it only infects people, so there were no animal reservoirs that could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2005.11.009">re-introduce the virus to human populations</a>.</p>
<p>Monkeypox is zoonotic and already has several animal reservoirs, though these are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0007791">currently limited to Africa</a>. But if monkeypox escapes into wild animal populations in the U.S., Europe or other locations, there will be always be potential for animals to spread it back to humans. With this in mind, there are a number of things people can do to reduce the risks with regard to animals.</p>
<p>As with any infectious disease, be informed about the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-monkeypox-a-microbiologist-explains-whats-known-about-this-smallpox-cousin-183499">signs and symptoms of monkeypox</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-does-monkeypox-spread-an-epidemiologist-explains-why-it-isnt-an-sti-and-what-counts-as-close-contact-188130">how it is transmitted</a>. If you suspect you have the virus, contact a doctor and isolate from other people.</p>
<p>As a veterinarian, I strongly encourage anyone with monkeypox to protect your pets. The case in Paris shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01487-8">dogs can get infected from contact with their owners</a>, and it is likely that many <a href="http://doi.org/10.1086/505880">other species</a>, including cats, are susceptible, too. If you have monkeypox, try to have other people take care of your animals for as long as lesions are present. And if you think your pet has a monkeypox infection, be sure to contact a veterinarian so they can test the lesion and provide care when needed.</p>
<p>Even though monkeypox has been <a href="https://theconversation.com/monkeypox-is-now-a-national-public-health-emergency-in-the-u-s-an-epidemiologist-explains-what-this-means-188335">declared a public health emergency</a>, it is unlikely to directly affect most people. Taking precautionary steps can protect you and your pets and will hopefully prevent monkeypox from getting into wildlife in the U.S., too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188961/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Macneill does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The monkeypox virus can easily spread between humans and animals. A veterinary virologist explains how the virus could go from people to wild animals in the US – and why that could be a problem.Amy Macneill, Associate Professor of Veterinary medicine and Virology, Colorado State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1739512022-02-01T17:32:17Z2022-02-01T17:32:17ZWhy monkeys attack sick members of their troop – and don’t socially distance at all<p>Life in the wild can be tough, and sometimes animals don’t have the luxury of taking time out when they are sick. That’s certainly the reality of life for vervet monkeys living in Southern Africa, even though parasites and viruses are an ever-present <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3050629/">component of animal life</a>.</p>
<p>We know how people respond to infection. Loss of appetite and staying in bed or resting are some of the ways we adapt to being unwell. Being less active and eating less frees up energy to fight the infection – even digesting food uses energy. This behaviour may help us recover and is a key component of our survival.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I wanted to understand more about how monkeys respond to illness, and how a disease travels within and between animal groups. This is essential if we are to tackle the huge impact that infection can have on monkey population survival. While the causes of infection have been the <a href="https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198565857.001.0001/acprof-9780198565857">focus of much attention</a>, until now we knew very little about the social consequences of infection in these monkeys. </p>
<p>For over ten years our international team of researchers have studied the behaviour and physiology of <a href="https://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/vervet-monkey">wild vervet monkeys</a> living in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. They live in large social troops – up to 40 monkeys per troop – and previous research has shown that they are routinely exposed to a <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.191078#d3e2732,%20https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ajpa.23962,%20https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2656.12329">range of environmental stressors</a> such as extreme heat and drought, as well as competition for food.</p>
<p>In our <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/118/44/e2107881118">most recent study </a> of three groups of wild vervet monkey, we examined the effect of getting sick on individual vervet monkey’s social status.</p>
<h2>How we studied fever</h2>
<p>As with humans, when a monkey gets an infection, they can get feverish. </p>
<p>We implanted <a href="https://www.star-oddi.com/products/data-loggers/temperature-logger-implant-livestock-animals">miniature data loggers</a> - narrow cylinders about 3cm long – into each monkey’s abdomen and recorded core body temperature inside the stomach every five minutes. That allowed us to document for the first time the occurrence of fever in a wild monkey population. </p>
<p>After the study period, we returned to take the loggers out, with the help of a team of vets from the University of the Witwatersrand. We needed to do this to get the data, and obviously also for the sake of the monkeys.</p>
<p>In our study group of 59 vervet monkeys, we detected 128 fevers in 43 monkeys over seven years. Feverish monkeys reached an average (mean) daily body temperature of about 39°C, with the highest body temperature on record being nearly 42°C. Fevers lasted between two and 20 days.</p>
<p>At the same time, we kept a detailed account of the monkeys’ behaviour and social interactions. Just like us, they lose their appetite and spend more time resting. But they can’t stay out of action for too long. Even sick monkeys need to keep up with their troop if they are to keep themselves out of reach of predators, such as cheetah, jackal and caracal (a wild cat). Monkeys also rely on their group mates to help <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003347216302858">fight off neighbouring troops</a> as they compete for food, water and sleep sites. </p>
<h2>The risk of attack</h2>
<p>In addition to the behavioural consequences of fever, we were able to show, for the first time, a hidden and previously unrecognised cost of social interactions – feverish monkeys were attacked while they were down. </p>
<p>Within a monkey troop, competition is rife – monkeys battle for food, status and mates. Although it’s unclear if a monkey knows that one of their troop is sick, they do recognise the weakened state of their troop mate, perhaps because they are out of sorts or are less responsive to more subtle exchanges of dominance. </p>
<p>Some individuals seemed to use this to their advantage.</p>
<p>We discovered that when monkeys were feverish they were twice as likely to be attacked by one of their group mates and six times more likely to become injured as a result. Sick animals were targeted with aggression when they were least able to fight back, potentially improving the attacker’s social status, access to resources, or position in the troop. </p>
<p>We saw a particularly unusual sequence of events in one of our troops of 25 monkeys. </p>
<p>Female vervets live in relatively stable hierarchies. But when Brie, the alpha female, fell ill she was subjected to a torrent of abuse from the troop’s beta female, Tyvara. Over seven days, Brie was attacked by her on 12 occasions and received four different injuries. Needless to say, Brie’s alpha dominance status was no more and she slipped down the hierarchy. </p>
<p>Bystanders also seemed to benefit from the weakened status of a sick individual, in this case by manoeuvring up the hierarchy, and these fever-induced social interactions are likely to have important long-term social and fitness consequences for the individuals involved. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-orangutan-mothers-help-their-offspring-learn-173959">How orangutan mothers help their offspring learn</a>
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<p>But that’s not all. The feverish monkeys spent just as much time grooming, or being groomed, by other group members even though they were sick. While it might seem common sense to avoid other sick individuals, our findings suggest that social engagement probably reflects a trade-off between the propensity to get infected by a contagious individual and the social value and other benefits that the relationship affords – such as the ability to cope in <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.12329">difficult environments</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003347217300362?via%3Dihub">successfully raise offspring</a>. Or perhaps monkeys simply don’t know that their troop mates are ill or could pass them a nasty illness. </p>
<p>The response of vervet monkeys to infection suggests that the spread of disease among the troop is likely. Now we have seen that there is a cost of being sociable when feverish, where vulnerable individuals are open to attack, perhaps we should turn our attention to the question of the impact of social integration among monkeys on the spread of disease within and between groups.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173951/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research was funded by Faculty research grants from the University of the Witwatersrand, a Claude Leon Fellowship awarded to Richard McFarland, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Discovery grants to Peter Henzi and Louise Barrett, a Canada Research Chair award to Louise Barrett, National Research Foundation of South Africa grants to Andrea Fuller, Robyn Hetem, Peter Henzi and Duncan Mitchell, a Carnegie Corporation of New York grant to Andrea Fuller, and a Harry Oppenheimer Fellowship to Duncan Mitchell.</span></em></p>Why social interaction isn’t always a good thing for primates, especially for individuals with a fever.Richard Mcfarland, Senior Lecturer in Evolution and Social Behaviour, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1138462019-03-28T18:10:34Z2019-03-28T18:10:34ZDeadly frog fungus has wiped out 90 species and threatens hundreds more<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266273/original/file-20190328-139341-1bs2rtv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Mossy Red-eyed Frog is among hundreds of species threatened with extinction at the hands of chytrid fungus.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jonathan Kolby/Honduras Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Center</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It started off as an enigma. Biologists at field sites around the world reported that frogs had simply disappeared. Costa Rica, 1987: the golden toad, missing. Australia, 1979: the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=1909">gastric brooding frog</a>, gone. In Ecuador, Arthur’s stubfoot toad was last seen in 1988.</p>
<p>By 1990, cases of unexplained frog declines were piling up. These were not isolated incidents; it was a global pattern – one that we now know was due to chytridiomycosis, a fungal disease that was infecting and killing a huge range of frogs, toads and salamanders. </p>
<p>Our research, <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.aav0379">published today in Science</a>, reveals the global number of amphibian species affected. At least 501 species have declined due to chytrid, and 90 of them are confirmed or believed extinct.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/where-did-the-frog-pandemic-come-from-14259">Where did the frog pandemic come from?</a>
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<p>When biologists first began to investigate the mysterious species disappearances, they were at a loss to explain them. In many cases, species declined rapidly in seemingly pristine habitat.</p>
<p>Species declines typically have obvious causes, such as habitat loss or introduced species like rats. But this was different.</p>
<p>The first big breakthrough came in 1998, when a team of Australian and international scientists led by Lee Berger <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/95/15/9031.short">discovered amphibian chytrid fungus</a>. Their research showed that this unusual fungal pathogen was the cause of frog declines in the rainforests of Australia and Central America.</p>
<p>However, there were still many unknowns. Where did this pathogen come from? How does it kill frogs? And why were so many different species affected?</p>
<p>After years of painstaking research, biologists have filled in many pieces of the puzzle. In 2009, researchers discovered <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/326/5952/582">how chytrid fungus kills frogs</a>. In 2018, the Korean peninsula was pinpointed as the <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/360/6389/621">likely origin</a> of the most deadly lineage of chytrid fungus, and human dispersal of amphibians suggested as a likely source of the global spread of the pathogen.</p>
<p>Yet as the mystery was slowly but surely unravelled, a key question remained: how many amphibian species have been affected by chytrid fungus? </p>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10393-007-0093-5">Early estimates</a> suggested that about 200 species were affected. Our new study reveals the total is unfortunately much larger: 501 species have declined, and 90 confirmed or suspected to have been killed off altogether.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266281/original/file-20190328-139371-1nbfup0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266281/original/file-20190328-139371-1nbfup0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266281/original/file-20190328-139371-1nbfup0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266281/original/file-20190328-139371-1nbfup0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266281/original/file-20190328-139371-1nbfup0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266281/original/file-20190328-139371-1nbfup0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266281/original/file-20190328-139371-1nbfup0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266281/original/file-20190328-139371-1nbfup0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The toll taken by chytrid fungus on amphibians around the world. Each bar represents one species; colours reveal the extent of population declines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scheele et al. Science 2019</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Devastating killer</h2>
<p>These numbers put chytrid fungus in the worst league of invasive species worldwide, threatening similar numbers of species as <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/113/40/11261">rats and cats</a>. The worst-hit areas have been in Australia and Central and South America, which have many different frog species, as well as ideal conditions for the growth of chytrid fungus. </p>
<p>Large species and those with small distributions and elevational ranges have been the mostly likely to experience severe declines or extinctions.</p>
<p>Together with 41 amphibian experts from around the world, we pieced together information on the timing of species declines using published records, survey data, and museum collections. We found that declines peaked globally in the 1980s, about 15 years before the disease was even discovered. This peak coincides with biologists’ anecdotal reports of unusual amphibian declines that occurred with increasing frequency in the late 1980s.</p>
<p>Encouragingly, some species have shown signs of natural recovery. Twelve per cent of the 501 species have begun to recover in some locations. But for the vast majority of species, population numbers are still far below what they once were.</p>
<p>Most of the afflicted species have not yet begun to bounce back, and many continue to decline. Rapid and substantial action from governments and conservation organisations is needed if we are to keep these species off the extinct list.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/saving-amphibians-from-a-deadly-fungus-means-acting-without-knowing-all-the-answers-81739">Saving amphibians from a deadly fungus means acting without knowing all the answers</a>
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<p>In Australia, chytrid fungus has caused the decline of 43 frog species. Of these, seven are now extinct and six are at high risk of extinction due to severe and ongoing declines. The conservation of these species is dependent on targeted management, such as the recovery program for the iconic <a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-endangered-species-southern-corroboree-frog-16189">corroboree frogs</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266282/original/file-20190328-139345-16omz5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266282/original/file-20190328-139345-16omz5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266282/original/file-20190328-139345-16omz5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266282/original/file-20190328-139345-16omz5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266282/original/file-20190328-139345-16omz5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266282/original/file-20190328-139345-16omz5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266282/original/file-20190328-139345-16omz5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266282/original/file-20190328-139345-16omz5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The southern corroboree frog: hopefully not a disappearing icon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Corey Doughty</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Importantly, there are still some areas of the world that chytrid has not yet reached, such as New Guinea. Stopping chytrid fungus spreading to these areas will require a dramatic reduction in the global trade of amphibians, as well as increased biosecurity measures.</p>
<p>The unprecedented deadliness of a single disease affecting an entire class of animals highlights the need for governments and international organisations to take the threat of wildlife disease seriously. Losing more amazing species like the golden toad and gastric brooding frog is a tragedy that we can avoid.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113846/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Benjamin Scheele receives funding from the Threatened Species Recovery Hub of the Australian Government’s National Environmental Science Program</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Claire Foster receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Australian Government</span></em></p>Chytrid fungus has caused declines in 501 amphibian species, according to a new analysis. Most of the damage happened in the 1980s, before the fungus itself was even discovered.Benjamin Scheele, Research Fellow in Ecology, Australian National UniversityClaire Foster, Research Fellow in Ecology and Conservation, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/961372019-03-06T14:40:29Z2019-03-06T14:40:29ZWhy warthogs are useful in figuring out how bovine TB spreads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262193/original/file-20190305-48417-1gl07c2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Warthogs are believed to be potential hosts of bovine TB. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Tuberculosis is not just a human disease. Cattle also contract a similar type of bacteria, called bovine tuberculosis. Evidence suggests that it can be <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23587372">transmitted</a> from cattle to humans as well as wildlife and vice versa.</p>
<p>Bovine tuberculosis has been well studied <a href="https://www.tbfacts.org/bovine-tb/">in cattle</a>. This is particularly true in Europe where the disease was very prevalent during the 19th and 20th centuries. It’s estimated that the agricultural sector, globally, has a total loss of more than <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/100/13/7877">US$3 billion annually</a> due to bovine tuberculosis. In the UK more than 39 000 cattle were slaughtered after testing positive for the disease <a href="https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN06081">in 2016</a>.</p>
<p>The disease made its way into Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries through the importation of cattle from the <a href="http://www.sun.ac.za/english/Inaugurallectures/Inaugural%20lectures/InauguralLectureProfMiller.pdf">UK, Europe and Australia</a>. Now wildlife, like lions and wild dogs which prey on potentially infected animals, such as buffalo and warthogs, have also become infected.</p>
<p>But only a few studies have investigated the effect its had on Africa’s wildlife populations. This is starting to change, as the disease’s impact on vulnerable and endangered species like <a href="https://africageographic.com/blog/more-than-half-of-southern-krugers-lions-may-have-tb/">lion</a>, <a href="https://www.pressreader.com/south-africa/the-mercury/20160920/281659664511702">rhino</a> and <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2019.00018/full">elephants with human TB</a> are coming under the spotlight. </p>
<p>Lions potentially become infected through eating infected animals and rhino may become infected through environmental spillover, when sharing their grazing with infected animals such as buffalo. </p>
<p>There’s also a new focus on the disease and warthogs, animals that are believed to be potential hosts of <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/news/case-warthog-disease">bovine TB</a>. I set out to study the role these tusked mammals play when it comes to <a href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/tbed.12856">disease prevalence</a> and to find out their susceptibility to bovine TB. </p>
<p>I found that warthogs have a high disease prevalence in bovine TB endemic regions and that they are susceptible to the disease in the wild. This is important information that will help us to develop effective disease management strategies to reduce and control the spread of bovine TB in South Africa. </p>
<h2>Why warthogs?</h2>
<p>Putting a number to the warthog population size in South Africa is difficult, but the estimate in 2016 was 22 250. This number means that they aren’t in any way <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/41768/0">threatened</a>. It also means, they’re an important species when it comes to studying infectious diseases such as bovine TB. </p>
<p>Warthogs are also useful in studying the dynamics of this disease as they’re free-roaming. This means that they aren’t kept in by barriers, like fences, and can move freely between parks, reserves and farm land. This potentially increases their chances of contact with livestock and humans. </p>
<p>To begin my research I first had to be able to accurately determine which individuals were infected and which ones weren’t. I did this by evaluating tests that were developed for other species and then optimised and modified them to develop new diagnostic tests for warthogs. An example was the Quantiferon assay used in humans that we modified to be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165242718300916">used in warthogs</a>.</p>
<p>One of my newly <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165242716302136">developed tests</a> was used to investigate the disease prevalence from historically banked warthog samples. This allowed me to study the extent of the disease in warthog populations. Thus allowing the description of some key risk factors of the disease in warthogs.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/tbed.12856">high prevalence</a> of the disease, in some cases higher than 60%, suggests that warthogs are either prone to infection through contact with other infected species, or that they are spreading the disease within their own populations. </p>
<p>My research suggests that the answer is probably something in between the two scenarios. This is because warthogs are frequently seen scavenging on carcasses of other animals, such as buffalo, which are a potential source of infection. In addition, their burrowing behaviour allows for close contact between individuals in a confined spaces which increases the risk of transmission. I have, however, not been able to show yet that warthogs secrete (spread) the disease in to their ecosystem.</p>
<p>I also found that <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/tbed.12856">adult warthogs were at a higher risk</a> of having the disease, than either sub-adults or juveniles. There are two possibilities for this: </p>
<p>1) adults have been exposed for a longer period of time; or,</p>
<p>2) younger individuals may die before being tested.</p>
<p>Both these scenarios could increase the risk of spreading the disease to other species indirectly. On the one hand there’s a greater chance of an animal spreading the disease if they have it for a long time. On the other if they succumb to the infection as juveniles, scavengers may become infected who ingest the infected carcass.</p>
<h2>Understanding and implications</h2>
<p>A deeper dive into the information we’d gathered showed us that warthogs can be used as disease sentinels. Sentinel species are used to monitor the spread of a disease, and its presence or absence. Using sentinels is useful because it means that we don’t need to resort to testing valuable or endangered animals which can be risky.</p>
<p>Warthogs are a perfect sentinel species for a number of reasons. There are lots of them, they’re highly susceptible, they survive the disease and with the help of my new test, have easily detectable signs of infection. </p>
<p>This means that warthogs are an important species in managing the disease. </p>
<p>The next steps will be to determine whether warthogs transmit the disease to other species or does transmission stop at an individual level.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/96137/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eduard Roos received funding from the South African Medical Research Council as well as the National Research Foundation of South Africa, SARChI Animal TB grant and Scarce Skills bursary during this study. The content is the sole responsibility of the author and does not necessarily represent the official views of the funders. </span></em></p>Warthogs are an important species in managing bovine TB.Eduard Roos, Postdoctoral Scientist, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/916982018-02-14T14:24:36Z2018-02-14T14:24:36ZWhite nose syndrome is killing millions of bats via a contagious fungus – here’s how to stop it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206367/original/file-20180214-174977-lbi6cn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/governmentofalberta/22414730957">Government of Alberta/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A dangerous fungus has been sweeping across North America with devastating consequences. In the past decade, between 5m and 7m bats in the US and Canada have been wiped out as a result of the fungal disease known as white nose syndrome, which alters their behaviour in potentially deadly ways. But the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-02441-z">latest research</a> shows there might be hope for researchers trying to battle the disease, following the discovery that UV light appears to destroy the fungus’s DNA.</p>
<p>White nose syndrome is caused by the fungus <em>Pseudogymnoascus destructans</em>, which grows on the bats’ muzzles (hence the name) and other hairless body parts including wings, and <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1741-7007-8-135">causes skin lesions</a>. <em>P. destructans</em> is psychrophilic, meaning it thrives in cold temperatures between 4°C and 20°C. This means it affects bats during hibernation.</p>
<p>The itchy, painful lesions cause infected bats to repeatedly wake from hibernation, leaving them confused and causing them to display <a href="http://www.batcon.org/our-work/regions/contact-bci/usa-canada/white-nose-syndrome">highly unusual behavior</a>, such as flying outside during daylight in nearly freezing temperatures. The cold, lack of food and abnormal activity leads to bats depleting their winter fat reserves, and starving, dehydrating or freezing to death. As a result, the disease can kill between <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/2010/100113/full/463144a.html">90% and 100%</a> of bats in affected hibernating colonies.</p>
<p>Out of the 47 bat species native to the US and Canada, over half rely on hibernation for survival. <a href="https://www.whitenosesyndrome.org/about/bats-affected-wns">Nine of these species</a> (including two endangered and one threatened) already show symptoms of white nose syndrome. <em>P. destructans</em> has also been found in another six species (including one endangered) that don’t yet show symptoms. The little brown bat (<em>Myotis lucifugus</em>), once the most common bat in North America, is now predicted to face <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/329/5992/679">regional extinction</a>.</p>
<p>Bats normally live a long time and produce only a single pup each year, so affected species are unlikely to recover quickly. Not only is this bad for biodiversity, but it could also have a serious economic impact on humans. In temperate regions, bats eat up to 600 insects a night and so provide a vital pest-control service for North American farmers, effectively worth <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/332/6025/41">US$3.7 billion a year</a>.</p>
<h2>How did this bat-astrophe come about?</h2>
<p><em>P. destructans</em> has probably co-existed with bats in Eurasia for <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-02441-z">millions of years</a>. As a result, these bats have evolved defences against the fungus. So in this part of the world, despite the occasional mild outbreak of white nose syndrome, the disease <a href="http://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/fulltext/S0169-5347(11)00192-3">doesn’t significantly impact entire groups of bats</a>. But when <em>P. destructans</em> was introduced to the previously unexposed American bats, the effects were disastrous.</p>
<p>White nose syndrome was discovered in North America <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/323/5911/227">in 2006</a>. We know that the fungus was most likely spread by human activity because the North American fungus is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982215000792">almost genetically identical</a> to some of the samples found in Europe. Also, bats don’t migrate between the two continents and some of the distances between contaminated caves in the US are longer than the flying range of affected bats. On top of that, the first reports of white nose syndrome came from a <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/16/8/10-0002_article">popular tourist cave near Albany, New York</a>. So the fungus probably spread via contaminated clothing and caving equipment from tourists visiting affected areas.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206369/original/file-20180214-175001-nyeuec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206369/original/file-20180214-175001-nyeuec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206369/original/file-20180214-175001-nyeuec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206369/original/file-20180214-175001-nyeuec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206369/original/file-20180214-175001-nyeuec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206369/original/file-20180214-175001-nyeuec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206369/original/file-20180214-175001-nyeuec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Checking for white nose syndrome.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/wildlife-biologist-checking-wings-big-brown-797424433">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since then, white nose syndrome has become one of the most severe wildlife diseases ever recorded. Yet there may literally be a light at the end of the tunnel. A <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-02441-z">research team from the US Forest Service</a> has discovered that <em>P. destructans</em> is extremely sensitive to ultra-violet light, particularly to UV-C light that kills germs but doesn’t cause skin cancer. They found that moderate doses of UV-C light killed over 99% of the fungus, and that even low doses killed 85%.</p>
<p>The effect is so potent because UV light destroys the fungus’s DNA, and, unlike <a href="https://bmcgenomics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2164-15-6">related fungi</a>, <em>P. destructans</em> can’t repair the damage. Further tests are on the way to check whether UV light causes any damage to the bats themselves. But the fact that UV-C light has already been used in treatments of <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2008.08549.x/abstract;jsessionid=DACFFB496B5103A02CDAC89BD89CB96F.f01t02">other fungal infections</a> in mammals means the discovery is very promising.</p>
<p>Managing wildlife diseases can be difficult and expensive. Think of how hard it would be to apply fungicide skin cream to tens of thousands of bats hanging from the top of a cave. But shining a simple hand-held UV-C light source on them would be much easier. So this research could have huge implications for protecting North American bats.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91698/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanna M. Bagniewska does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Ultra-violet (UV) light can destroy a fungus that’s devastating the animals in North America.Joanna M. Bagniewska, Teaching Fellow in Zoology and Ecology, University of ReadingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/876932017-12-21T19:05:20Z2017-12-21T19:05:20ZWhy we shouldn’t be so quick to demonise bats<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198419/original/file-20171210-27698-svxxy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Justin A. Welbergen</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australian health authorities regularly issue <a href="http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/news/Pages/20171106_00.aspx">public reminders</a> not to touch bats because they can host Australian Bat Lyssavirus (ABLV). This type of health education is necessary because it reduces human exposure to bat-borne diseases. However, subsequent <a href="https://tenplay.com.au/channel-ten/the-project/extra/season-9/bitten-by-bats">sensationalist media reporting</a> risks <a href="http://www.geelongadvertiser.com.au/news/geelong/bats-shot-and-strung-up-on-fence-near-winchelsea/news-story/dcc6f74cb83539a1096d8c0b6e6b7516">demonising bats</a>, which <a href="https://theconversation.com/not-in-my-backyard-how-to-live-alongside-flying-foxes-in-urban-australia-59893">increases human-wildlife conflict</a> and <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/WR/WR16061">poses barriers to conservation</a>. </p>
<p>Bats are remarkable native creatures of key ecological and economic importance. We urgently need more matter-of-fact style reporting around the risks of bat-borne diseases to avoid <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5157637/Charters-Towers-Queensland-terrorised-bats.html">vilification</a> and <a href="http://www.maitlandmercury.com.au/story/3921612/somebody-has-tried-to-burn-the-bats-photos-video-poll/">persecution</a> of these unappreciated mammals.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-defence-of-bats-beautifully-designed-mammals-that-should-be-left-in-peace-40851">In defence of bats: beautifully designed mammals that should be left in peace</a>
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<h2>Australia’s weird and wonderful bats</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198128/original/file-20171207-28942-eabi2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198128/original/file-20171207-28942-eabi2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198128/original/file-20171207-28942-eabi2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=786&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198128/original/file-20171207-28942-eabi2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=786&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198128/original/file-20171207-28942-eabi2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=786&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198128/original/file-20171207-28942-eabi2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=987&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198128/original/file-20171207-28942-eabi2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=987&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198128/original/file-20171207-28942-eabi2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=987&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Face of an eastern tube-nosed fruit bat (or ‘Shrek bat’), a solitary bat with long tubular nostrils that are thought to prevent fruit juices from running up its nose.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Justin Welbergen</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Australia has <a href="http://ausbats.org.au/species-list/">81 bat species</a>, from nine families. They comprise the second-largest group of mammals after marsupials (159 species). They range in size from the little-known <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_pipistrelle">northern pipistrelle</a> that weighs less than three grams and ranks amongst the smallest bats in the world, to the <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/18715/0">black flying-fox</a> that can weigh more than a kilogram and is among the world’s largest.</p>
<p>Bats play many different roles in Australian ecosystems. The <a href="http://bie.ala.org.au/species/urn:lsid:biodiversity.org.au:afd.taxon:df5d47f0-2353-4c8f-aacf-f134b16f261d#overview">southern myotis</a> or “fishing bat”, for example, has long toes that it uses to rake up small fish and invertebrates from rivers, lakes and ponds. The <a href="http://bie.ala.org.au/species/urn:lsid:biodiversity.org.au:afd.taxon:ba541de4-bf0d-470d-a9dc-d7897315678f">golden-tipped bat</a> delicately plucks spiders from their webs, while the <a href="https://bie.ala.org.au/species/urn:lsid:biodiversity.org.au:afd.taxon:cfde8627-a67c-451d-8835-ac65f6d16ac6">ghost bat</a> feeds on large insects, rodents, birds, and even other bats. These are examples of “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbat">microbats</a>” — species that use <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_echolocation">echolocation</a> to find their way in darkness and detect prey. </p>
<p>Australia is also home to nine “megabats” — species that rely on large eyes and a keen sense of smell to find pollen, nectar, or fruit. The <a href="http://bie.ala.org.au/species/urn:lsid:biodiversity.org.au:afd.taxon:25eecbc3-df68-422f-aa30-3c8a3f988488">common blossom bat</a>, for example, is a mouse-sized fruit bat with a very long tongue for feeding on nectar; the <a href="http://bie.ala.org.au/species/urn:lsid:biodiversity.org.au:afd.taxon:106ad138-3cbb-4a4e-b23a-c6a728729b62">eastern tube-nosed fruit bat</a> is a solitary bat with long tubular nostrils that are thought to prevent fruit juices from running up its nose; and the <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/18758/0">little red flying fox</a> is adapted for long-distance flight, travelling thousands of kilometres across the Australian landscape in search of food.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198095/original/file-20171207-31542-al9ths.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198095/original/file-20171207-31542-al9ths.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198095/original/file-20171207-31542-al9ths.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198095/original/file-20171207-31542-al9ths.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198095/original/file-20171207-31542-al9ths.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198095/original/file-20171207-31542-al9ths.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198095/original/file-20171207-31542-al9ths.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198095/original/file-20171207-31542-al9ths.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A selection of Australia’s bat diversity (Top row from left: grey-headed flying-fox; orange leaf-nosed bat; common blossom bat; southern myotis; Bottom row: golden-tipped bat; eastern horseshoe bat; common sheath-tailed bat; ghost bat)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Justin Welbergen (grey-headed flying-fox, eastern horseshoe bat); Nicola Hanrahan (ghost bat); Bruce Thomson (golden-tipped bat); Steve Parish & Les Hall for remainder of species</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Bats are largely nocturnal and inconspicuous, except for those flying-foxes that sometimes appear in large numbers in urban environments where they can be cause for <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/2017/12/11/12/36/charters-towers-fruit-bat-flying-fox">much frustration and conflict</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/not-in-my-backyard-how-to-live-alongside-flying-foxes-in-urban-australia-59893">Not in my backyard? How to live alongside flying-foxes in urban Australia</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>All bats are vulnerable to a range of human threats, including the clearing of foraging areas and the loss or disturbance of roosts. Thirteen of Australia’s bat species are now listed as “threatened” under our national conservation legislation. Australia’s most recent extinction was a bat: the <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2147477-christmas-islands-only-echolocating-bat-has-gone-extinct/">Christmas Island pipistrelle</a> winked out of existence forever in 2009 following a <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00239.x/full">sluggish federal government response</a> to calls for urgent conservation action. </p>
<h2>Why are bats important?</h2>
<p>Bats are important in two ways. First, each species <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1617138117300742">has its own value</a> as a part of Australia’s natural and cultural heritage. They are fragile creatures, but tough enough to survive and thrive in the harsh Australian bush — if they are given the chance.</p>
<p>Second, microbats provide valuable <a href="https://theconversation.com/bringing-scientific-rigor-to-ecosystem-services-38817">ecosystem services</a> because many are voracious predators of insects, <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/332/6025/41.summary?sid=dbe8e87b-5670-4848-96c6-94c9c5d17c8c">including many agricultural and forestry pests</a>. Megabats, meanwhile, provide <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1991.tb00352.x/abstract">long-distance pollination and seed-dispersal services</a>, helping to maintain the integrity of Australia’s increasingly fragmented natural ecosystems.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198096/original/file-20171207-31528-63fz6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198096/original/file-20171207-31528-63fz6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198096/original/file-20171207-31528-63fz6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198096/original/file-20171207-31528-63fz6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198096/original/file-20171207-31528-63fz6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198096/original/file-20171207-31528-63fz6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198096/original/file-20171207-31528-63fz6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198096/original/file-20171207-31528-63fz6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bats such as the grey-headed flying-fox (left) and the Christmas Island flying-fox (right) provide expensive pollination services for free.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Justin Welbergen (left); Carol de Jong (right)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Australian bat lyssavirus</h2>
<p>Some Australian bats are hosts for <a href="https://tinyurl.com/yav4dbw2">Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV)</a> that can cause a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/lyssaviruses">rabies-like disease</a> in humans and potentially pets. Since its discovery in 1996, there have been three human deaths from ABLV in Australia.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198099/original/file-20171207-31570-mry073.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198099/original/file-20171207-31570-mry073.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198099/original/file-20171207-31570-mry073.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198099/original/file-20171207-31570-mry073.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198099/original/file-20171207-31570-mry073.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198099/original/file-20171207-31570-mry073.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198099/original/file-20171207-31570-mry073.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198099/original/file-20171207-31570-mry073.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Image of Australian bat lyssavirus. The finger-like projections are the virus, as it is shown budding off from a cell.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Electron Microscopy Unit, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, CSIRO</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The virus is rare, and its prevalence among bats is thought to be less than 1%. But it is more common among sick, orphaned, or injured bats – that are in turn more likely to end up in hands of the public.</p>
<p>A rabies vaccine has been around <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/111/34/12273.full#ref-1">since the time of Louis Pasteur</a>, and when combined with proper wound management and prompt medical care, is <a href="http://www.who.int/wer/2010/wer8532.pdf?ua=1">very effective in preventing the disease</a>. Rabies vaccine that is given after exposure to ABLV, but before a person becomes unwell, can still prevent the disease. But once a person develops the disease there is no effective treatment. </p>
<h2>“No touch, no risk”</h2>
<p>As long as we do not touch bats we are not at risk. Yet despite this simple message, many people still <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3908316/">handle sick or injured bats</a>, even though this is the <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0005227">major cause of potential exposures to ABLV</a>.</p>
<figure> <img src="http://media.giphy.com/media/26u8yeQvbOSVXhilq/giphy.gif"><figcaption>Christopher Todd.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Humans are not exposed to ABLV when bats fly overhead or feed or roost in gardens. Bat urine and faeces are not considered to be infectious, and tank or surface water contaminated with these substances is also not a threat.</p>
<p>The primary ABLV transmission route is through bites or scratches, bringing infected bat saliva into direct contact with the eyes, nose or mouth, or with an open wound. Therefore, the best protection by far is to avoid handling bats.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198100/original/file-20171207-31539-r93i3v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198100/original/file-20171207-31539-r93i3v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198100/original/file-20171207-31539-r93i3v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198100/original/file-20171207-31539-r93i3v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198100/original/file-20171207-31539-r93i3v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198100/original/file-20171207-31539-r93i3v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198100/original/file-20171207-31539-r93i3v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If scratched or bitten, wash thoroughly with soap and water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Arlington County</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If you do get scratched or bitten by a bat, the <a href="http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/ohp-rabies-consumer-info.htm">Australian Department of Health recommends</a> that you immediately wash the wound thoroughly with soap and water for at least five minutes, apply an antiseptic with antiviral action, and seek medical attention.</p>
<p>Prevention is better than cure, so people should never handle bats (or other wildlife) unless they are trained, vaccinated, and wearing appropriate protective gear. If you find an injured or sick bat, the best thing to do is to contact your local wildlife agency or veterinarian.</p>
<h2>Reporting without the demonisation</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198155/original/file-20171207-5071-1l8g4fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198155/original/file-20171207-5071-1l8g4fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198155/original/file-20171207-5071-1l8g4fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198155/original/file-20171207-5071-1l8g4fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198155/original/file-20171207-5071-1l8g4fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198155/original/file-20171207-5071-1l8g4fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198155/original/file-20171207-5071-1l8g4fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Internet Archive Book Images/flickr</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Bats already have a <a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-319-25220-9_18.pdf">dark reputation</a> in folklore, myths, and modern culture. This is exacerbated by negative media attention following <a href="http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1071/WR16061">public health warnings</a> and <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mam.12110/full">health research</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-bats-dont-get-get-sick-from-the-deadly-diseases-they-carry-55012">Why bats don't get get sick from the deadly diseases they carry</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We strongly encourage a more matter-of-fact style of reporting around the risks from bat-borne diseases. You are <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/3303.02016?OpenDocument">much more likely to be killed by lightning or by falling out of bed</a> than by a bat. </p>
<p>Granted, the risks posed by bat-borne diseases are relatively new to most of the public, but more <a href="http://publications.rzsnsw.org.au/doi/abs/10.7882/AZ.2017.002?code=rzsw-site">nuanced framing</a> can effectively support both public health and wildlife conservation goals. So while you remember to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=21&v=b7nocIenCYg">slip-slop-slap</a>, be <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3DoAigtIkGI">croc-wise</a> and <a href="https://www.facebook.com/ParksandWildlifeNT/photos/a.313195945407342.73560.271324366261167/958845904175673/?type=3">snake aware</a>, and <a href="https://australianmuseum.net.au/spiders-in-the-house-and-garden">wear gloves when gardening</a>, you should also add “don’t touch bats” to your common-sense repertoire.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87693/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Justin Welbergen receives funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kyle Armstrong has received funding from the Australian Biological Resources Study and the Hermon Slade Foundation for work on bats. He also works as a private consultant. </span></em></p>We need balanced media reporting about bat-borne diseases to help avoid vilification of Australia’s under-appreciated creatures of the night.Justin A. Welbergen, President of the Australasian Bat Society | Senior Lecturer in Animal Ecology, Western Sydney UniversityKyle Armstrong, Past president of the Australasian Bat Society | South Australian Museum, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/798392017-06-27T00:17:47Z2017-06-27T00:17:47ZExplainer: what is tularemia and can I catch it from a possum?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175311/original/file-20170623-27895-1f3iigw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Researchers have found Australia's first confirmed case of tularemia in a ringtail possum.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ajmercer/32679911522/in/photolist-RMP69o-oC3qcJ-RXKhRy-dVBpdS-3UYTXm-T6S4VQ-kFHQJ-S4cWfh-7xqsgX-5xHo8C-7xufu9-adVg4f-pJMqBa-bx5P4R-pszuEX-pGVvfE-jD35N-6E4QZJ-EBMP-6RLJN9-6v1WVL-7zy4rn-96goTR-8mNMRn-4ykwEU-pGVB55-oNaqJ3-7xqsjK-8g8KDP-d9CKLy-oNayQJ-pGVFRu-TiZ4E6-uXUNoW-uYANP4-8mRVL9-ehdB64-7vCpS-2RK8D9-2RK8Dh-4Hw4zY-8mNNkT-gTWjjq-kJxHCh-7vCwg-8mNNca-4dFDPs-5bKk6-zpDRii-5XD8RS">Andrew Mercer/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Tularemia is a disease that affects humans and other animals. It is caused by infection with the bacterium <em>Francisella tularensis</em> and is commonly spread by biting insects or by direct contact with an infected animal.</p>
<p>Human infection is less common than infection in small animals like rabbits and rodents. But it is important human cases are recognised and diagnosed quickly because without appropriate treatment the disease can be life-threatening.</p>
<p>Our team has recently <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/23/7/16-1863_article">confirmed its presence</a> in Australia in samples taken from ringtail possums who died in two outbreaks in early 2000.</p>
<p>While this is clearly a newly identified risk to public health, it’s important to recognise how rare the disease is and how well the infection responds to treatment.</p>
<h2>How is it transmitted to humans?</h2>
<p>Tularemia is a “zoonotic disease”, an animal disease that can be transmitted to humans. The most common way someone might be infected is by being directly exposed to an infected animal through a bite or scratch, or even handling infected tissue, like when hunters skin animals.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Further reading: <a href="https://theconversation.com/first-hendra-now-bat-lyssavirus-so-what-are-zoonotic-diseases-12444?sr=1">First Hendra, now bat lyssavirus, so what are zoonotic diseases?</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Human infections can also occur indirectly from an animal through a biting insect vector, like ticks or deer flies. So, a fly might feed on an infected animal then also bite a human, transferring the bacterium via its mouth parts. </p>
<p>Humans can also catch the disease from animals by coming into contact with environmental sources such as water or soil that have been contaminated by an infected carcass. The bacteria might then infect humans through the eye, or an open wound, or even if digested from contaminated food.</p>
<h2>How rare is tularemia in humans?</h2>
<p>Fortunately, human cases of tularemia are relatively rare and appear to be limited to the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/tularemia/resources/whotularemiamanual.pdf">Northern Hemisphere</a>. Yet, even in the US, where the disease is well described, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/tularemia/statistics/index.html">human cases rarely exceed 100-200 a year</a>.</p>
<p>Australia has long been considered tularemia-free. So, it was surprising when, in 2011, two human cases <a href="http://www.news.com.au/breaking-news/rabbit-fever-health-alert/news-story/ea1f4c9e5a36a47de8fa46fb67c76b2a">were reported</a> in Tasmania after exposure to ringtail possums. </p>
<p>While diagnostic tests on the patients’ samples suggested an infection with the bacterium, no samples were obtained from the offending possums to corroborate the unusual infection. </p>
<p>More importantly, researchers couldn’t grow and isolate the bacteria from any of the patients’ samples. Follow-up surveys of native animals in the area failed to detect the organism. So, the story of tularemia in Australia had, until recently, remained somewhat of a mystery.</p>
<h2>How can I protect myself?</h2>
<p>While our study has confirmed the presence of tularemia in Australia and identified ringtail possums as a reservoir for the disease, no-one knows if it’s present in other wildlife along the east coast.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Further reading: <a href="https://theconversation.com/bites-and-parasites-vector-borne-diseases-and-the-bugs-spreading-them-24072?sr=9">Bites and parasites: vector-borne diseases and the bugs spreading them</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>So, to <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/animal/humans/tularaemia">minimise the chances of infection</a>, take care when handling sick, distressed or dead animals. Similarly, when travelling in an area with ticks or other biting insects, wear protective clothing and repellents. </p>
<h2>How do I know if I’m infected?</h2>
<p>In humans, tularaemia symptoms <a href="http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/tularemia.aspx">can vary</a> but typically depend on how someone was exposed. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175315/original/file-20170623-25170-nkbx2r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175315/original/file-20170623-25170-nkbx2r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175315/original/file-20170623-25170-nkbx2r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175315/original/file-20170623-25170-nkbx2r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175315/original/file-20170623-25170-nkbx2r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175315/original/file-20170623-25170-nkbx2r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175315/original/file-20170623-25170-nkbx2r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175315/original/file-20170623-25170-nkbx2r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An ulcer forms at the site of infection, like this one on someone’s hand.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tularemia_lesion.jpg">CDC Public Health Image Library/Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The most common form of disease in humans is known as <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/tularemia/signssymptoms/index.html">ulceroglandular tularemia</a>, which develops after an infected animal or insect bites or wounds you. As the name suggests, you develop a sudden fever, an ulcer forms at the site of infection, and the lymph glands near the wound swell.</p>
<p>Another and perhaps more serious form of the disease is <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/tularemia/signssymptoms/index.html">pneumonic tularemia</a>. This can occur when you breathe in bacteria from contaminated dust or aerosols, and your lungs become infected. Symptoms include cough, chest pain and difficulty breathing, and can be difficult to treat.</p>
<h2>Yes, it can be treated</h2>
<p>While infection can potentially cause severe disease and can kill, timely treatment with commonly available antibiotics should clear the infection. However, it is important the disease is correctly diagnosed as the most effective antibiotics (such as streptomycin) are often different to those used to treat other bacterial skin or wound infections.</p>
<p>There have been no reported cases of humans infecting other humans. While being exposed to someone infected with tularemia might pose some risk, the rarity of the cases and the effectiveness of antibiotic treatments to control the infection minimise this.</p>
<h2>Looking to the future</h2>
<p>What our study highlights more than anything is the need to investigate wildlife disease to understand potential risks to our environment and our own health. </p>
<p>So, we plan to conduct further surveys of animal and tick-borne diseases to explore undiscovered pathogens that may affect public health or impact our native animal populations.</p>
<p>We are also applying the same technology used to confirm the presence of tularemia in Australian wildlife for the first time to investigate other cold cases of the animal disease world – neglected and undiagnosed animal diseases.</p>
<p>We do this using a powerful technique called “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2949280/">RNA-Seq</a>”, short for RNA sequencing, to analyse samples. With RNA-Seq, there’s no need to know what diseases might be present; researchers sequence <em>all</em> the genetic material in the sample, whether it has come from a host such as a human or animal, or from an infecting organism such as a virus, bacteria, or parasite. </p>
<p>This “metagenome” data is then pieced together and compared to databases containing genome data from previously sequenced pathogens.</p>
<p>Through these studies, we hope to reveal the full diversity of pathogens present in our native wildlife, and particularly, those that sit at the human-animal interface, a fault line that allows microbes to flow from one host to another. Most novel emerging diseases are spill-overs from zoonotic sources, so this research is critical for human health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79839/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John-Sebastian Eden receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council and the University of Sydney. </span></em></p>Tularemia is an animal disease that can be transmitted to humans. While it can be fatal, it is rare in Australia and can be treated with antibiotics.John-Sebastian Eden, NHMRC early career fellow, Faculty of Science, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/725072017-03-01T15:00:17Z2017-03-01T15:00:17ZFighting the Democratic Republic of Congo’s goat plague<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/158705/original/image-20170228-29933-swv2b6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Goat plague affects domestic and wild small ruminants</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr/Jacob Ott</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Small ruminant farming in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) accounts for more than 72% of household incomes yet it’s under threat from a disease known as ‘goat plague’, or peste des petits ruminants. The Conversation Africa’s Samantha Spooner asked Ahadi Birindwa about the plague and what’s being done to stop it.</em></p>
<p><strong>What is the ‘goat plague’ and how widespread is it?</strong></p>
<p>Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) or ‘goat plague’ is an acute viral disease that affects domestic (sheep, goats) and wild (springbok, gazelles and impala) small ruminants. These are animals that bring up food from their stomach and chew it again. </p>
<p>It’s one of the most damaging animal diseases, affecting small ruminants in <a href="https://www.jscimedcentral.com/VeterinaryMedicine/veterinarymedicine-3-1060.pdf">almost</a> 70 countries in Africa, the Middle East and parts of Asia. PPR <a href="http://www.vethelplineindia.co.in/ppr-control-in-goat-a-guide-for-animal-health-service-providers/">has a high</a> morbidity, or incident, (80-90%) rate and mortality (50-80%) rate. It’s more severe in young animals, those with poor nutrition and concurrent parasitic infections. </p>
<p>It causes $1.5 - 2 billion in losses <a href="http://www.fao.org/news/story/it/item/282397/icode/">each year</a> in regions that are home to over 80% of the world’s sheep and goats. The disease is not zoonotic – in other words it doesn’t affect people. But
it <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-ak136e.pdf">affects</a> food security and the <a href="http://www.oie.int/for-the-media/press-releases/detail/article/new-initiatives-by-the-oie-and-its-partners-to-improve-animal-and-public-health-in-africa/">livelihoods</a> of the poorest small-scale holder farmers. As a result it’s among the priority diseases <a href="http://web.oie.int/RR-Europe/eng/Regprog/docs/docs/GF-TADs%20Europe%20-%20Action%20Plan%202012-2016%20-%20Final%20draft%20(clean).pdf">indicated</a> in a global framework dedicated to the control of trans-boundary animal diseases.</p>
<p><strong>How is the virus spread? How contagious is it?</strong></p>
<p>Transmission of PPR is achieved by either direct contact with infected animals, or through breathing or contact with saliva. There have also been documented cases of <a href="http://www.roavs.com/pdf-files/Issue-6-2014/312-317.pdf">transmission</a> through the handling of contaminated animal products. </p>
<p>Because it’s so contagious, <a href="http://www.rr-africa.oie.int/docspdf/en/2012/SADC_PPR_STRATEGY.pdf">about</a> one million goats and 600,000 sheep in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) are at risk of contracting the disease. This <a href="http://www.rr-africa.oie.int/docspdf/en/2012/SADC_PPR_STRATEGY.pdf">represents</a> a quarter of goats and two-thirds of sheep throughout the entire country. Prevalence is <a href="http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/150317/icode/">particularly</a> high in eastern DRC. </p>
<p>Reports <a href="http://www.sadc.int/files/7413/5542/4349/PPR_Strategey.pdf">show</a> that the DRC has been infected with goat plague since 2008. <a href="http://www.rr-africa.oie.int/docspdf/en/2012/SADC_PPR_STRATEGY.pdf">Between</a> 2010 - 2012, it caused the death of almost 120,000 small ruminants. The annual direct loss – the value of dead sheep and goats – is <a href="http://www.rr-africa.oie.int/docspdf/en/2012/SADC_PPR_STRATEGY.pdf">estimated</a> at $5.3 million. </p>
<p><strong>Where in the country are animals most affected?</strong></p>
<p>Animals are most affected in the eastern part of the country, the South Kivu region. At 65% of the goat and sheep population, <a href="https://www.sadc.int/documents-publications/show/SADC%20Control%20Strategy%20for%20Peste%20de%20Petit%20Ruminants%20">prevalence</a> is high. Especially in Shabunda (56.5%), Mwenga (54%), Fizi (40.8%) and Kalehe (20.3%) territories. <a href="http://www.rr-africa.oie.int/docspdf/en/2012/SADC_PPR_STRATEGY.pdf">Some cases</a> have also been reported in the West. </p>
<p>As the disease is a trans-boundary disease, there’s a concern that it will spread to neighbouring counties as well as countries such as Rwanda and Burundi which have never had reports of it before. </p>
<p>There’s therefore a need for proper diagnostic, control and surveillance at a national and international level. </p>
<p><strong>How important is small livestock farming in the Democratic Republic of Congo?</strong></p>
<p>Goats and sheep are the animals of choice for around 80% of farmers. Goats are <a href="https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/2016%20Final%20DRC%20CSI.pdf">known as</a> the “poor-man’s cow” in the DRC, contributing more than 72% to the household income. Goats and sheep are the animal of choice for around 80% of farmers.</p>
<p>Goats are popular because they cost less so families use them to build herds, they are a good source of milk, fibre, skin and meat and they provide organic manure. They also have cultural and social importance as they, along with cattle, are used at wedding ceremonies.</p>
<p>However, despite their importance, DRC’s small ruminant population has <a href="http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#country/250">gone down</a> from 5.7m in 1998 to 4.4m in 2014. The disease is a major contributor to this. </p>
<p><strong>What steps are being taken to eradicate the disease?</strong></p>
<p>The research project I am working on looks at the control, surveillance and eradication of goat plague in the DRC. </p>
<p>So far I’m looking at the status of the disease. I have collected samples (blood, tissues, swabs and serum) from both infected and uninfected goats and sheep in areas that have experienced outbreaks. </p>
<p>As a result I have been able to diagnose and characterise the virus strains that are circulating in the DRC. I have also been able to establish sero-epidemiology - that is the prevalence of non-vaccinated animals that have antibodies against the disease. This has enabled me to create a map of high risk areas and identify major risk factors related to the disease. </p>
<p>All of these will help with the design of a control, vaccination and surveillance strategy. The next step will be to establish an information centre, vaccines, a surveillance program and post vaccination evaluation. Other research that’s needed is that on vaccines - to help identify genes that are resistant to the disease with a view to create a locally adapted breed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72507/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ahadi Birindwa is affiliated with Université Evangélique en Afrique and receives funding from BecA-ILRI and Ruforum. He consults with the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock in DRCongo. </span></em></p>As the goat plague is a trans-boundary disease, there’s concern that it will spill over into neighbouring countries such as Rwanda and Burundi.Ahadi Birindwa, Lecturer, Université Evangélique en AfriqueLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/684492016-11-10T19:10:02Z2016-11-10T19:10:02ZBritish red squirrels are suffering from an outbreak of medieval leprosy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145413/original/image-20161110-21844-e010qp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For many people, leprosy brings to mind Biblical stories of diseased people cast out from society. It’s a condition that today is largely found in developing countries, whereas in other, mostly Western nations it’s a pestilence of the past that was eradicated decades ago. But recent research has shown the disease not only persists in Britain but, perhaps more alarmingly, is also being carried by one of our best loved and most endangered native mammals, the red squirrel.</p>
<p><a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/354/6313/702">The study by researchers</a> at the University of Edinburgh and EPFL in Switzerland found red squirrels from England, Scotland and Ireland were infected with leprosy. In particular, a group from Brownsea Island on the south coast of England had a strain of the disease virtually identical to one that infected humans in the middle ages.</p>
<p>So could it be that leprosy was never entirely eradicated from Britain but instead has lingered on in wildlife reservoir hosts in isolated areas? Possibly, but the whole picture is more complex, not least because of the history of the red squirrel in the British Isles. Understanding what’s going on could help us in our efforts to protect and regrow the red squirrel population.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.who.int/topics/leprosy/en/">Leprosy is an infectious disease</a> caused by bacteria that can persist in the body for years without causing symptoms but can eventually lead to skin lesions, eyesight problems and nerve decay. This can cause sufferers to lose the ability to feel pain and so repeatedly damage parts of their body (leading to the myth that leprosy causes limbs to drop off).</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145414/original/image-20161110-25070-q4t963.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145414/original/image-20161110-25070-q4t963.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145414/original/image-20161110-25070-q4t963.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145414/original/image-20161110-25070-q4t963.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145414/original/image-20161110-25070-q4t963.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145414/original/image-20161110-25070-q4t963.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145414/original/image-20161110-25070-q4t963.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Is it safe to come out?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The disease seems to cause <a href="http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/content/177/8/206.2.full">similar symptoms in red squirrels</a>, with individuals commonly exhibiting alopecia, swollen eyes, ears and digits. How serious a problem the leprosy is for British red squirrels has still to be fully investigated, although high numbers of animals sampled in this study tested positive for the disease. Given the plight of the species, which have gone from a population of millions <a href="http://www.rsne.org.uk/threats">to just 120,000</a> in a few centuries, it cannot be good.</p>
<p>The new research, <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/354/6313/702">published in the journal Science</a>, compared genetic sequence data from diseased squirrels with those taken from contemporary human cases from Mexico and the skeletons of leprosy victims from medieval Europe. The results show that the leprosy in the squirrels was caused not only by the classic bacteria <em>Mycobacterium leprae</em> (long thought to be the sole causative agent of leprosy), but also by the more recently discovered <em>Mycobacterium lepromatosis</em>.</p>
<p>The <em>M leprae</em> strain found on Brownsea Island seems to be almost identical to that of medieval victims from England and Europe. This suggests the disease has persisted in British wildlife long after its eradication from the human population. Using genetic analysis, the researchers also showed the British and Irish strains of <em>M lepromatosis</em> had a common ancestor just 200 years ago. By comparison, they separated from the strain found in Mexico 27,000 years ago. This suggests the disease may have actually been imported to Ireland when conservationists first tried to reintroduce red squirrels to the country from Britain <a href="http://www.irelandswildlife.com/history-red-squirrel-ireland/">in the 19th century</a>.</p>
<h2>Isolated from humans</h2>
<p>The reason leprosy has continued in red squirrels while being effectively eradicated from the human population could be the result of the changing nature of our interactions with the animals since the middle ages. Red squirrels are no longer hunted for food or fur but their numbers have <a href="http://www.rsne.org.uk/threats">declined dramatically</a> thanks to habitat destruction, other diseases such as squirrelpox and the spread of grey squirrels. Red squirrels are now largely extinct from their former ranges in England and Wales, with core populations <a href="http://www.snh.gov.uk/about-scotlands-nature/species/mammals/land-mammals/squirrels/">located in Scotland</a>.</p>
<p>This decline means red squirrels are now protected by law in both the UK and Ireland. Legal protection, if implemented properly, limits the amount of contact we have with a species and so can reduce our negative impact on it. But this reduced contact also means we know less about the diseases of that species and so could help explain why the rediscovery of leprosy is such a surprise.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145416/original/image-20161110-21844-ru7zdf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145416/original/image-20161110-21844-ru7zdf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145416/original/image-20161110-21844-ru7zdf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145416/original/image-20161110-21844-ru7zdf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145416/original/image-20161110-21844-ru7zdf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145416/original/image-20161110-21844-ru7zdf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145416/original/image-20161110-21844-ru7zdf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">As if I didn’t have enough to worry about.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Humans are a selfish species at heart and so the focus of our fight against disease is generally limited to those pathogens that threaten our own health or our economy. This means we tend to be oblivious to the risks from diseases among species we have limited interaction with.</p>
<p>This is even more likely if we associate the disease with a specific species, especially through its name or our understanding of its history. Over the past 30 years, we have been caught unawares by <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-infection/article/bovine-tuberculosis-in-southern-african-wildlife-a-multi-species-hostpathogen-system/FDD788BEF42F7A440876622EA90E79ED">bovine tuberculosis in African lions</a>, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0378113595000186">canine distemper virus in Siberian seals</a> <a href="http://mbio.asm.org/content/4/4/e00410-13.short">and tigers</a>, and leprosy in <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190962283702069">North American armadillos</a>.</p>
<p>What this latest study shows is that we should be more prepared to expect the unexpected when it comes to disease surveillance. We owe it to ourselves, and the animals we manage, to broaden our horizons and our understanding of disease dynamics in all species.</p>
<p>Comprehensive disease screening would help us reduce the chances of accidentally introducing pathogens into a new species or area when moving animals around for conservation reasons. Better understanding of the disease threats our squirrels face could also help us develop bespoke conservation strategies. For example, we could tailor captive breeding programmes to the levels of genetic diversity needed to bolster natural resistance to disease. Hopefully studies like this will help us secure the long-term future of this charismatic little mammal.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68449/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Harrison does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Some have a strain that is almost identical to one that infected humans in the middle ages.Stephen Harrison, Lecturer in Animal Science, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/573942016-04-28T12:36:27Z2016-04-28T12:36:27ZBritain faces a migration issue: European rescue dogs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120504/original/image-20160428-28053-auw6d7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For the last four years, Britain has been experiencing an influx of immigrants that has gone largely unnoticed. Social media and a change in the law are helping drive a growing trend for dogs being brought to the UK from mainland Europe for rehoming. But while these dogs are certainly in need of help, they bring with them the potential for new diseases and increased housing pressures for those already in the country.</p>
<p>After the need for quarantine was removed in 2000, bringing a single dog from mainland Europe required a six-month screening process that ended in a blood test. But in 2012, the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/take-pet-abroad/overview">UK’s regulations</a> were brought in line with the rest of Europe and dogs are now free to travel on a pet passport in the form of an implanted microchip linked to evidence of their rabies vaccinations and tapeworm treatments. Recent amendments have also removed the need to treat against fleas and ticks. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"723594756698324992"}"></div></p>
<p>This opening of the borders has led to a trend for dogs being rehomed in the UK from countries such as <a href="http://www.dogwatchuk.com/overseas-dogs/">Greece, Romania and Spain</a>. In part, this has been driven by social media, which has provided a platform for European rescue organisations to <a href="https://www.facebook.com/straysofgreece/?fref=ts">publicise stories</a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/ELI-For-Animals-496899697021160/?fref=ts">of their dogs</a> and to help raise funds and find homes for them. This allows the rescue centres to arrange transport and appropriate paperwork to bring the dogs to the UK for rehoming. </p>
<p>Conditions in <a href="http://www.vier-pfoten.org/en/projects/stray-animals/sac-romania/shocking-video-reveals-appalling-conditions-in-romanian-dog-shelters/">European shelters</a> are often well below the standards of UK rehoming centres. Local authority shelters <a href="http://www.yourlocalguardian.co.uk/news/11121155.Dogs_rescued_from_Romanian__hell_hole__brought_to_England/?ref=var_0">in Romania</a>, for example, put more animals to sleep than those in the UK and private shelters have little funding to pay for much beyond food and veterinary care. Those dogs remaining on the streets face a daily challenge to find food, fight disease and survive. The number of street dogs provides a self-sustaining population and control of populations raises <a href="http://www.vetwork.org.uk/abc.htm">welfare concerns</a>.</p>
<p>The trend for dogs coming over from Europe has divided the dog-owning community in the UK. Some argue that dogs have no concept of borders and so animal lovers should try to help them, <a href="http://www.galgonews.com/2014/08/rescue-dogs-from-europe-to-rehome-in-the-uk-or-not.html">no matter their origin</a>.</p>
<p>Foreign animals can often provide an easier way for UK residents to adopt a dog because of the strict rehoming policies of UK-based charities that often conflict with would-be owners’ lifestyles, such as the minimum age of their children and the <a href="http://www.horseandhound.co.uk/forums/archive/index.php/t-541122.html">number of hours they work</a>. Overseas shelters can also offer different breeds of dog to the ones available in the UK, which tend to be determined by current trends.</p>
<p>On the other hand, importing stray dogs from Europe costs money that could be used to help more unwanted UK dogs. The influx of dogs for rehoming will inevitably impact on the number of homes available for UK rescue dogs. And easier movement of dogs into the country increases the risk of new diseases arriving with them.</p>
<h2>Increasing disease risk</h2>
<p>In the last few months, a largely unheard-of tick-borne disease has landed on <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/pets/news-features/outbreak-in-essex-dogs-of-a-serious-disease-imported-from-contin/">UK shores</a>. <a href="http://forestvets.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Info-Babesiosis.pdf">Babesiosis</a> is spread through tick bites and has already led to the <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2016/mar/16/tick-borne-disease-babesiosis-kill-dogs-spread-uk-essex">death of a dog</a>. Although there is no evidence to prove that this disease was brought over by a dog looking for a home rather than a pet returning from its holiday, allowing more European dogs into the country clearly means there is a greater risk. The relaxation of the pet travel scheme rules in 2014, <a href="http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/content/178/7/172.1.full">removing the need for tick treatment</a>, has not helped.</p>
<p>The sad reality is that although rehoming an individual can save a dog’s life or improve its welfare, we need to look at the bigger picture. A cultural shift is needed to stem the flow of stray dogs from Europe by dealing with the street dog problem, reducing unwanted breeding, and encouraging more people to rehome these animals in their own countries.</p>
<p>The Pet Travel Scheme does facilitate this rehoming but a periodic review of the <a href="http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/content/176/26/672">risk of disease transmission</a> to UK dogs needs to be implemented, alongside an evaluation of the potential impact of the removal of routine tick treatment. Without this chance in attitude, the most we can hope for is to rehome a small minority of dogs. </p>
<p><em>This article was amended to clarify that the Pet Travel Scheme replaced quarantine requirements ended in 2000 not 2012</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57394/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anne Carter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Social media has fuelled a trend for foreign dogs being rehomed in the UK, hampering domestic rescue efforts and increasing disease risks.Anne Carter, Lecturer in Animal Biology, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/574322016-04-10T20:02:06Z2016-04-10T20:02:06ZFrogs v fungus: time is running out to save seven unique species from disease<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117929/original/image-20160408-23917-hjcpjs.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Northern Corroboree frog is among seven species at grave risk from fungal disease.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael McFadden</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the late 1970s in southeast Queensland, a silent killer arrived on Australian shores. The victims were our unique frogs, with the first to fall being the remarkable <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=1909">gastric brooding frog</a>, last seen in 1981.</p>
<p>More than three decades on, we know that the killer was a disease called <a href="http://www.amphibiaweb.org/chytrid/chytridiomycosis.html">chytridiomycosis</a>, caused by <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285385704_History_and_recent_progress_on_chytridiomycosis_in_amphibians">amphibian chytrid fungus</a>. </p>
<p>This fungus is responsible for the presumed extinction of a further five Queensland frog species, and the decline and disappearances of many local populations across Australia’s entire east coast and tablelands, including species that were once widespread and common. Globally, hundreds of amphibian species have also <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10393-007-0093-5">suffered major declines or are now considered to be extinct</a> as a result of this disease.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117889/original/image-20160407-16275-tgdf7z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117889/original/image-20160407-16275-tgdf7z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117889/original/image-20160407-16275-tgdf7z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117889/original/image-20160407-16275-tgdf7z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117889/original/image-20160407-16275-tgdf7z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117889/original/image-20160407-16275-tgdf7z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117889/original/image-20160407-16275-tgdf7z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scanning Electron Microscope image of infected frog skin with fungal tubes poking through skin surface.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo Lee Berger</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a study published in <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/WR15071.htm">Wildlife Research</a>, we and our colleagues identify seven more Australian frogs that are at immediate risk of extinction at the hands of chytrid fungus, including the iconic Corroboree frogs (both southern and northern species), Baw Baw frog, spotted tree frog, Kroombit tinker frog, armoured mist frog and the Tasmanian tree frog. We predict that the next few years may provide the last chance to save these species.</p>
<p>While the six already extinct Queensland species all declined rapidly after the arrival of chytrid, declines in southern regions have been slower. Chytrid is yet to arrive in areas of Tasmania’s <a href="http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/index.aspx?base=391">Wilderness World Heritage Area</a>, although the consequences are likely to be just as severe. </p>
<p>Our work aimed to prioritise frog conservation efforts across Australia, identifying the species most at risk of chytrid, and therefore most in need of urgent action. Worryingly, we found that five of the seven high-risk species that we identified lack a sustained and adequately funded monitoring program to protect them. </p>
<p>In addition to the seven species at immediate risk of extinction, we identified a further 22 that are at moderate to low risk. We also assessed the adequacy of current conservation efforts for all of these species, and found that most recovery efforts rely on the goodwill of individuals and are poorly resourced.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117942/original/image-20160408-23638-1rgwmni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117942/original/image-20160408-23638-1rgwmni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117942/original/image-20160408-23638-1rgwmni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117942/original/image-20160408-23638-1rgwmni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117942/original/image-20160408-23638-1rgwmni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117942/original/image-20160408-23638-1rgwmni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=650&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117942/original/image-20160408-23638-1rgwmni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=650&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117942/original/image-20160408-23638-1rgwmni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=650&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A healthy Tasmanian tree frog.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is possible to manage the threat posed by chytrid fungus, but rapid action is urgently needed. We have identified six critical management actions that are required to prevent further extinctions of Australian frogs and call for an independent management and research fund to address the imminent threat.</p>
<p>The seven species at high risk require proactive recovery programs. Critical management actions may include: broad-scale surveys; intensive monitoring; precise risk assessment; the development of husbandry techniques for the establishment of assurance colonies; re-introductions and or translocations; and new management strategies to maintain wild populations. </p>
<p>Australia initially led the world in efforts to identify and manage chytrid fungus, which was <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/node/14584">listed</a> as a “key threatening process” by state and federal governments in 2002 </p>
<p>In 2006, a <a href="http://www.amphibians.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Australian-chytrid-threat-abatement-plan.pdf">plan was drawn up</a> to combat the disease, delivering more research funding and resulting in greatly improved biosecurity measures and increased understanding of the fungus. </p>
<p>In 2012 the plan was reviewed, and a revised plan that incorporates recent research developments now <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/resource/draft-threat-abatement-plan-infection-amphibians-chytrid-fungus-resulting-chytridiomycosis">awaits approval</a>. But action is required to manage the impact of the fungus, and disappointingly there has been no funding allocated to implement the new plan.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117943/original/image-20160408-23649-xxx61e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117943/original/image-20160408-23649-xxx61e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117943/original/image-20160408-23649-xxx61e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117943/original/image-20160408-23649-xxx61e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117943/original/image-20160408-23649-xxx61e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117943/original/image-20160408-23649-xxx61e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117943/original/image-20160408-23649-xxx61e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117943/original/image-20160408-23649-xxx61e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Blink and you’ll miss them: the armoured mist frog (left) and waterfall frog.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Robert Puschendorf</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The past decade has also seen <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-has-nature-become-a-niche-issue-16198">major cuts</a> in both state and federal government resources for wildlife conservation. State agencies have disbanded dedicated recovery teams and there has been a shift away from single species conservation measures in an effort to maximise limited funding. This is despite the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc">obligations set out in legislation</a> to conserve individual threatened species. These cuts have severely undermined frog conservation efforts.</p>
<p>These frogs should not be allowed to go the same way as the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=64383">Christmas Island pipistrelle</a>, which could <a href="https://theconversation.com/threat-of-extinction-demands-fast-and-decisive-action-7985">arguably have been saved</a> if the federal government had heeded scientists’ warnings. </p>
<p>On a positive note, management interventions have saved the critically endangered <a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-endangered-species-southern-corroboree-frog-16189">Southern Corroboree Frog</a> from extinction for now, but it remains threatened by chytrid fungus and requires ongoing management and research. Without swift action, government support and the dedicated efforts of many individuals, this species would undoubtedly already be gone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57432/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Benjamin Scheele is employed by funding from the Australian Research Council to conduct research to mitigate the impact of disease on amphibian biodiversity. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lee Berger receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Taronga Zoo, and the NSW Office of Environment and Heritage. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lee Skerratt has a honorary appointment with the University of Melbourne and works for James Cook University. He receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Taronga Zoo and the NSW Office of Environment and Heritage for research to mitigate the impact of chytridiomycosis on biodiversity. He is a member of Wildlife Health Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Newell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Chytrid fungus has already wiped out six species of Australian frogs since the disease arrived in the 1970s. Without urgent action, seven more are facing extinction.David Newell, Lecturer, School of Environment, Science & Engineering, Southern Cross UniversityBenjamin Scheele, Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Ecology, James Cook UniversityLee Berger, Senior Research Fellow, James Cook UniversityLee Francis Skerratt, Principal Research Fellow, One Health Research Group, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.