tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/child-sexual-exploitation-41966/articlesChild sexual exploitation – The Conversation2023-09-27T16:30:53Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2140992023-09-27T16:30:53Z2023-09-27T16:30:53ZChanging the age of consent is not the solution to protecting young people from unhealthy relationships with adults<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550056/original/file-20230925-29-mfdtt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6240%2C4154&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/teenage-girl-around-whom-there-darkness-2165240799">Pandagolik1/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Comedian and actor Russell Brand has been accused of abuse, including sexual assault and rape, by four women. <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/russell-brand-rape-sexual-assault-abuse-allegations-investigation-v5hxdlmb6">The allegations</a> – <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=psFiwFI_VQo&ab_channel=Reuters">which Brand denies</a> – include the sexual assault of a woman who says she was in a relationship with Brand when she was 16 and he was in his 30s. </p>
<p>The alleged victim, known as Alice, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2023/sep/20/calls-grow-to-reassess-age-of-consent-laws-after-russell-brand-allegations">has suggested</a> that a discussion should take place around changing the age of consent to protect young people from older adults. One option, which she raises, is that a staggered approach would allow sexual relationships between people aged 16-18 but would prohibit older adults from having sex with young people in this age group. </p>
<p>This, on face value, appears to be an approach that might work – and it’s incredibly important that we have these conversations about how to protect young people. But unfortunately, changing the age of consent alone may be too simplistic a solution for a complex problem.</p>
<h2>What the law says</h2>
<p>The current <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/42/contents">age of consent</a> dates back to 1885, when it was <a href="https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/private-lives/relationships/overview/sexualbehaviour19thcentury/#:%7E:text=A%20press%20campaign%20on%20the,of%20young%20women%20from%20vice">raised to 16 from 13</a> after a campaign by the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (now the NSPCC). The law states that anyone who is 16 or over can take part in legal sexual activity – mutual masturbation, oral sex and penetrative sex. The legal age of consent for sex between men was lowered from 18 to 16 in 2000 via the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/44/notes#:%7E:text=This%20reduction%20is%20from%2018,and%2017%20in%20Northern%20Ireland.">Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act</a>.</p>
<p>However, there are <a href="https://learning.nspcc.org.uk/child-protection-system/children-the-law#:%7E:text=Additional%20protection%20up%20to%20the,in%20line%20with%20safeguarding%20procedures.">other legal protections</a> in place for young people aged under 18. Additional legislation states that it is illegal to photograph or video under 18s taking part in sexual activity, pay for sex from them, or take part in sexual activity with them if in a position of trust or a member of their family. </p>
<p>Cases of <a href="https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/rape-and-sexual-offences-chapter-6-consent">child sexual exploitation</a> also consider a child to be someone aged under 18. In some cases, a young person over the age of 16 may be considered to <a href="https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/rape-and-sexual-offences-chapter-6-consent">not have been able</a> to give consent. </p>
<p>But despite the presence of these protective elements in law for those under the age of 18, sexual abuse of young people is still widespread. What’s more, in cases of sexual exploitation, often complex and well-planned grooming has taken place beforehand, making it hard for the young person to realise that they are being exploited. A change in the age of consent would not stop this kind of grooming happening to young people under 18. It simply won’t work.</p>
<h2>Understanding healthy behaviour</h2>
<p>Raising the age of consent also runs the risk of asserting more control over the bodies of young people and removing their agency. If, as has been suggested, sexual relationships between people aged 16-18 is permissible, but is not allowed between this age group and older adults, young people having sex may run into issues when the older teen in a relationship turns 19. This approach risks criminalising healthy sexual behaviour. </p>
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<img alt="Girl talking to her mother" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550237/original/file-20230926-23-vnghh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550237/original/file-20230926-23-vnghh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550237/original/file-20230926-23-vnghh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550237/original/file-20230926-23-vnghh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550237/original/file-20230926-23-vnghh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550237/original/file-20230926-23-vnghh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550237/original/file-20230926-23-vnghh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Young people should be able to talk about sex and relationships without fear of shame.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-mother-her-cute-teenage-daughter-639567613">Olimpik/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>There are a number of steps that certainly should be taken to help young people. One is good <a href="https://theconversation.com/sex-education-review-controversial-proposals-risk-failing-young-people-202182">relationships and sex education</a> that equips young people with the knowledge to better recognise an abusive or potentially abusive scenario – when they are being taken advantage of or are being put in an unsafe situation. </p>
<p>This education should include <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college-social-sciences/social-policy/publications/a-students-guide-to-what-you-dont-know.pdf">input from young people</a>: we need to listen to them and the solutions that they suggest as they are the experts on what they need.</p>
<p>Another is to create environments – at schools, at home, at youth clubs and other places – where young people can talk about relationships and sex without shame. Speaking out about abuse is notoriously difficult for young people because they worry they will be judged or that speaking to someone will lead to negative consequences. Safe spaces for these conversations need to be created. </p>
<p>The allegations against Brand have brought societal issues to the forefront that have been in the background for many years. This, in itself, is not a bad thing. We need to consider why toxic behaviour and imbalanced relationships go ignored and unnoticed in society. It is useful to remember that candid and open conversations about how to protect young people from abuses, grooming and exploitation can only be a good thing.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214099/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sophie King-Hill receives funding from ESRC. </span></em></p>A staggered age of consent has been suggested, which would make it illegal for adults to have sex with under-18s.Sophie King-Hill, Associate Professor at the Health Services Management Centre, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1983942023-02-08T21:03:53Z2023-02-08T21:03:53ZTo prevent child sexual abuse, we need to change our thinking — and stop exploitation before it happens<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508946/original/file-20230208-16-ag4mjm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3498%2C2534&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Talking for Change is a government-funded national program that aims to prevent child sexual abuse. It provides an anonymous national helpline and treatment options for anyone concerned about their attraction to children.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every year, thousands of children are victims of sexual abuse in Canada. The impacts of abuse can be long-lasting, with <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2Fajph.91.5.753">psychological</a> and physical consequences for victims, and significant <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.02.020">economic impacts</a> on our society. </p>
<p>Recent research has shown a troubling rise in online sexual offences and abuse against children in Canada, particularly during the pandemic.</p>
<p>In a 2022 report, Statistics Canada found the number of online sexual offences against children reported to police had tripled compared to the previous six-year period. Statistics Canada compiled <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2022001/article/00008-eng.htm">research from 2014</a> — the year when Canadian cybercrime data first began to be compiled nationwide — to 2020.</p>
<p>The numbers paint a worrisome picture. According to the research, police-reported incidents of online child sexual exploitation and abuse climbed to 9,441 in 2020 from 3,080 incidents in 2014 — a three-fold increase.</p>
<p>Statistics Canada reports that in 2020, the first year of the pandemic, the rate of online child sexual abuse material (CSAM) reported to police grew to 101 incidents per 100,000 population — a 35 per cent increase from 2019. </p>
<p>The rate of online sexual offences against children, which include luring a child and distributing images without consent, also grew. In 2020 there were 30 incidents per 100,000 population, a 10 per cent increase over the previous year.</p>
<h2>The urgent need for prevention</h2>
<p>But we know these numbers don’t even come close to telling the full story. Sadly, many experiences of childhood sexual abuse go unreported. Around <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/85-002-x/2017001/article/14698-eng.pdf?st=-Zyf7J47">93 per cent of childhood sexual and physical abuse experiences are not reported</a> to the police or child protective services for a host of reasons, as Statistics Canada acknowledges in its study.</p>
<p>The increase in reported abuse and exploitation online is likely only the tip of the iceberg. But these rising incidence numbers underscore the dire need to do more to prevent child sexual abuse in Canada. It is critical that we take action to intervene early, providing individuals at risk for offending with support through an anonymous helpline, as well as therapy, to prevent abuse.</p>
<p>It also underscores that traditional ways of stopping child sexual abuse may not be enough to prevent child sexual abuse from happening.</p>
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<p>Historically in Canada, counselling programs for individuals who are concerned about their sexual interest in children are only made available <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/889043/canada-home-to-advanced-sex-offender-treatment-programs/">after abuse has already happened</a>. People who have committed a sexual offence <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809338545">can change their behaviour</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2017.8">Appropriate treatment</a> is effective at reducing sexual re-offending, and there are ways to make treatment as effective as possible.</p>
<p>But intervening after a child is hurt is intervening too late, especially when prevention is possible.</p>
<h2>Talking for Change</h2>
<p>To make a difference in preventing child sexual abuse in Canada, it’s essential to acknowledge that child sexual abuse is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/003335491412900303">public health problem</a> that requires a public health solution, including various prevention strategies.</p>
<p>I recently led the development of a program focused on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2019.1703232">stopping child sexual abuse before it happens</a>. <a href="https://talkingforchange.ca/">Talking for Change</a>, launched in August 2021 at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, is the first government-funded national program that provides treatment options and anonymous support to youth and adults who are concerned about their sexual interest in children, their risk to sexually abuse a child or their use of child sexual abuse material.</p>
<p>With the support of a team of psychologists, psychotherapists, social workers and academics, the program provides an anonymous national helpline for anyone concerned about their attraction to children or who are worried about engaging in online or offline offending involving a child. </p>
<p>Talking for Change also provides therapy directly and leverages an extensive referral network to offer suggestions for fee-for-service therapy outside the jurisdictions where coverage is provided. The program’s free therapy service is provided only to people who do not have current legal involvement for a sexual offence, who want to remain offence-free and who are ready to take the next step in identifying themselves to receive service. </p>
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<img alt="Close-up rear view of young man in streaming on videocall on a tablet" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508947/original/file-20230208-31-izs242.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508947/original/file-20230208-31-izs242.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508947/original/file-20230208-31-izs242.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508947/original/file-20230208-31-izs242.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508947/original/file-20230208-31-izs242.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508947/original/file-20230208-31-izs242.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508947/original/file-20230208-31-izs242.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The free therapy service provided by Talking for Change is offered only for people who do not have current legal involvement for a sexual offence, who want to remain offence-free and who are ready to take the next step in identifying themselves to receive service.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>While the helpline is national, the (often virtual) therapy program is currently available in Ontario, Atlantic Canada, Québec, Nunavut and Yukon, with plans to expand to additional provinces. </p>
<p>Over the past 18 months, our team has received more than 250 contacts from individuals seeking counselling or information to prevent child sexual abuse. We provided them with a safe space to talk. We listened and communicated, <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/sah0000154">without judgment or stigma</a>. We helped them realize they are not alone and that they are not doomed or destined to offend. </p>
<p>Most importantly, we developed strategies to prevent them from hurting anyone.</p>
<h2>International prevention efforts</h2>
<p>Talking for Change is not the only prevention program. In the United Kingdom, Ireland and the United States, the program <a href="https://www.stopitnow.org/">Stop it Now!</a> provides similar prevention through an anonymous helpline. </p>
<p>In Germany, the <a href="https://www.troubled-desire.com/">Troubled Desire</a> program aims to provide prevention techniques through self-guided digital intervention. Early data indicates that prevention programs are a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-022-01375-8">promising technique to reduce child sexual abuse</a>.</p>
<p>In fact, an <a href="https://www.stopitnow.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/stop_it_now_evaluation_summary.pdf">assessment study of the United Kingdom’s “Stop it Now!”</a> program showed that there is a clear demand for confidential helplines providing information, advice, support and guidance to people concerned about preventing child sexual abuse. </p>
<p>This includes people concerned about their own thoughts or actions as well as individuals concerned about a child or adult’s behaviour or a child who may be at risk. </p>
<p>The study found that: </p>
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<p>“the helplines can provide cost effective, quality advice and support to protect children directly, and to prompt behaviour change in adults and strengthen protective factors which can reduce the risk of offending.”</p>
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<h2>Breaking the silence</h2>
<p>Child sexual abuse is such a dark and taboo subject that it may be difficult for many people to extend the focus beyond the victims and try to understand what leads someone to offend against a child or to use child sexual abuse material. </p>
<p>People may prefer not to think about it, and find it easier to avoid difficult conversations. Sadly that means the problem may continue to grow worse in the silence.</p>
<p>The people we counsel in the Talking for Change program often tell us that they wish they didn’t have these feelings or urges. And they tell us that they do not want to hurt anyone, and that in many cases they want to help prevent child abuse in Canada.</p>
<p>Talking for Change has only begun to scratch the surface of this problem. But we’re confident, based on the impact we’ve made in our first year, that prevention is not only possible, it’s happening.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198394/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ainslie Heasman works for the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH). </span></em></p>There is a dire need to prevent child sexual abuse in Canada. It is critical to intervene early, and provide those at risk for offending with support through an anonymous helpline, as well as therapy.Ainslie Heasman, Clinical Forensic Psychologist, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, and Adjunct Professor, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Ontario Tech UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1882482022-08-09T13:32:54Z2022-08-09T13:32:54ZSexual exploitation by UN peacekeepers in DRC: fatherless children speak for first time about the pain of being abandoned<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478265/original/file-20220809-16-1erds8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=59%2C62%2C1095%2C697&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A UN peacekeeper on patrol as a resident gathers wood in the Beni region of eastern DRC in 2014.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://dam.media.un.org/CS.aspx?VP3=DamView&VBID=2AM94SK77VV2&PN=1&WS=SearchResults&RW=1440&RH=789">UN Photo/Sylvain Liechti</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>My father left my mother while she was pregnant – she gave birth when he had already left. People call me “daughter of a bitch”. They disturb and hurt me so much. They say they will chase me because I am a foreigner. I am suffering.</p>
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<p>These are the words of Emma* – a 13-year-old girl from Beni, a city in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) near its border with Uganda. Emma’s mother Grace* was still in school when she met and became involved with a Uruguayan soldier working in DRC as a United Nations peacekeeper. When Grace got pregnant, ‘Javier’ promised his support and told her not to worry. Grace was under the impression they would get married and start a family.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/un-peacekeeping-missions-how-they-work-and-the-challenges-they-face-187382">UN peacekeeping missions: how they work and the challenges they face</a>
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<p>Yet only a few weeks later, Javier returned to Uruguay and was never heard from again. Unable to cover the costs of pregnancy and childbirth, Grace was deeply affected by his leaving. To provide Emma with food, clothes and shelter, she was compelled to exchange sex with peacekeepers from the nearby UN base for small amounts of money or items like bread, milk and soap. She has yet to receive any support from the father or his military, and is unable to meet her daughter’s longer-term needs including her education. </p>
<p>In spite of the pain her abandonment has caused, Emma says she wants nothing more than for her father to return and improve her circumstances:</p>
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<p>I feel hurt when I see UN agents passing by because other children have their fathers, but I don’t have mine. I would like to tell my father to think about me, wherever he is. He should know that I don’t have a family. If my mother dies, who will raise me?</p>
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<p>Emma’s story is far from unique – both according to <a href="https://www.unsea.net/publications">our research</a> and the UN’s own <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/drc-monuc-sexual-exploitation-and-abuse-end-assignment-report">internal reports</a>. However, this is the first time that children of UN peacekeepers have spoken directly about the impact of abandonment on their lives and families. </p>
<p>Their stories corroborate our previous interviews with the mothers of <a href="https://theconversation.com/they-put-a-few-coins-in-your-hands-to-drop-a-baby-in-you-265-stories-of-haitian-children-abandoned-by-un-fathers-114854">peacekeeper children in Haiti</a>. In both countries, UN personnel left impregnated women and young girls to raise children in deplorable conditions, with most receiving no financial assistance.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/they-put-a-few-coins-in-your-hands-to-drop-a-baby-in-you-265-stories-of-haitian-children-abandoned-by-un-fathers-114854">'They put a few coins in your hands to drop a baby in you' – 265 stories of Haitian children abandoned by UN fathers</a>
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<p>Our findings in DRC are based on <a href="https://www.unsea.net/publications">2,858 interviews with Congolese community members</a>, including 60 in-depth interviews with victims of sexual misconduct who conceived children with peacekeepers, and 35 interviews with children who were born as a result. The research, which dates back to 2018, implicates UN personnel from 12 countries, the majority of whom were Tanzanian and South African. Mothers said these absent fathers held roles ranging from soldiers, officers and pilots to drivers, cooks, doctors and photographers.</p>
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<p><strong><em>This story is part of Conversation Insights</em></strong>
<br><em>The Insights team generates <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/insights-series-71218">long-form journalism</a> and is working with academics from different backgrounds who have been engaged in projects to tackle societal and scientific challenges.</em></p>
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<p>According to our research, the youngest girl to have been impregnated by a UN peacekeeper was just ten years old. One in every two mothers were under the age of 18 when they conceived. In this interview, a 16-year-old mother recalls being trafficked by her family, and impregnated, at the age of ten:</p>
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<p>I was very young – just ten years old. I realised later on that I was sold out by my aunt. The men were buying beer in the pub to share it with me. When I was drunk, they profited from unwanted sexual acts. Every morning my aunt gave me milk, bread, food and water to recover from all the lost energy. (Mother, 16)</p>
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<h2>‘Rape capital of the world’</h2>
<p>Fuelled by extremely high levels of poverty, displacement and a lack of effective judicial systems, DRC has the <a href="https://conduct.unmissions.org/sea-data-introduction">highest number of allegations</a> of UN peacekeeper-perpetrated sexual exploitation and abuse of any country in the world (about a third of all such allegations since the turn of the century). Yet no systematic research on paternity claims linked to Monusco (the current UN mission in DRC, which took over from the previous mission in 2010) has existed until now.</p>
<p>DRC is the epitome of a war-torn country with a <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A64216-2005Mar24.html">thriving peacekeeping sex economy</a>. Years of colonialism, oppression by national and international regimes, power struggles and corruption have left indelible scars. Security remains highly volatile due to fighting between more than 130 armed groups. In recent weeks, there have been a number of violent protests against <a href="https://theconversation.com/un-peacekeeping-missions-how-they-work-and-the-challenges-they-face-187382">UN peacekeeping forces</a> in eastern DRC, with protesters calling for the UN to withdraw from the area. In one such incident, ten people are <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-62303247">reported to have been killed</a>. It is against this backdrop that US Secretary of State Antony Blinken <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/08/08/dr-congo-blinken-visit-tests-us-support-democracy-rights">is visiting</a>. </p>
<p>Sexual violence has become a defining feature of this conflicted region. Descriptions that dub DRC the “<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/08/28/what-do-rebels-think-about-sexual-violence-in-congo-we-asked-them/">rape capital of the world</a>” and “<a href="https://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/real-life/true-stories/democratic-republic-of-congo-the-worst-place-in-the-world-to-be-a-woman/news-story/e8ee02223f7ab6003314c77d70923fc8">the worst place in the world to be a woman</a>” reflect how the conflict-related violence has normalised rape and sexual exploitation by civilian perpetrators, humanitarian workers and UN peacekeepers. </p>
<p>Our interviews reveal that the majority of women and girls in DRC who had sexual relations with peacekeepers – whether willingly or forced – were living in extreme poverty. We heard a number of accounts of girls and women having been raped by one or more peacekeepers, sometimes while begging for humanitarian assistance. One participant who said she had been gang-raped by UN peacekeeper personnel at the age of 13 described heavy stigmatisation for not being able to identify her child’s father:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>People started wondering where this little girl got her pregnancy from. They laughed so much at me. They said, “Look at her who has been raped, she has a white child.” Many people laughed at me. I felt so insulted, all of this hurt me so much. (Mother, 25)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>While peacekeeping missions are credited with a crucial role in protecting human rights in conflict, the risk of peacekeepers exploiting or abusing those most in need of protection calls the legitimacy and morality of deploying missions into question.</p>
<p>More than 97,000 peacekeepers from over 120 countries currently serve in <a href="https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/where-we-operate">12 peacekeeping operations</a> around the world. Despite it being the duty of all UN personnel to protect and “do no harm”, sexual wrongdoings committed against local civilians, primarily young girls, have been reported wherever missions were put in place.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477673/original/file-20220804-18-q2mcqj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477673/original/file-20220804-18-q2mcqj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477673/original/file-20220804-18-q2mcqj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477673/original/file-20220804-18-q2mcqj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477673/original/file-20220804-18-q2mcqj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477673/original/file-20220804-18-q2mcqj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477673/original/file-20220804-18-q2mcqj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">UN peacekeeper-perpetrated sexual exploitation and abuse allegations in DRC, compared with the rest of the world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The presence of peacekeepers has repeatedly been associated with a rapid increase in sex trafficking and brothels near military bases, child prostitution, the exchange of sex for goods or food, the creation and distribution of pornographic films, growing harassment and catcalling in the streets, and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV.</p>
<p>A UN peacekeeping spokesperson said: “Over the past five years, we have taken action to prevent these wrongs, investigate alleged perpetrators including military contingents, and hold them accountable including through repatriation. We have strengthened our policies and protocols, and our joint investigative capacities with member states. We continue to publicly report on allegations as we receive them and on the status of these allegations in our public database. Personnel have been separated from the organisation, and no one who has been the subject of a substantiated investigation into sexual misconduct can be rehired within the system.” <em>(See fuller response at the end of the article.)</em></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/circles-of-impunity-why-sexual-violence-by-humanitarians-and-peacekeepers-keeps-happening-169404">Circles of impunity: why sexual violence by humanitarians and peacekeepers keeps happening</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>As of August 4 2022, the <a href="https://conduct.unmissions.org/sea-data-introduction">public database of misconduct allegations in UN field missions</a> has logged 426 allegations of sexual misconduct that implicate peacekeepers in fathering children, dating back to 2007. Only 44 of these allegations have been substantiated, with the large majority of claims (302) remaining “pending”.</p>
<p>Our work in Haiti and DRC reveals that UN babies were conceived in a wide range of sexual relations, from rape and precarious “survival sex” (sex granted in return for food and protection) to dating and longer-term relationships that blur the lines between overt abuse, consent and more nuanced forms of exploitation. Most mothers described the context of their children’s conception as “transactional”, centred around the exchange of food, money, clothing or other items in return for sex:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I lived miserably before he started sending me money and solving my problems. He put me in conditions to love him. He didn’t force me. He promised to marry me and give the dowry to my family. He confirmed that he would take me to his country and wanted to have a lot of children with me. I found myself believing him, it sounded true. I didn’t see that he was telling lies. I had nothing at this point. (Mother, 23)</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Child's drawing of a family" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477647/original/file-20220804-22-380qrc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477647/original/file-20220804-22-380qrc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477647/original/file-20220804-22-380qrc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477647/original/file-20220804-22-380qrc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477647/original/file-20220804-22-380qrc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477647/original/file-20220804-22-380qrc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477647/original/file-20220804-22-380qrc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">To include children as young as six in the research, interview methods included asking participants to draw their families.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Voices of peacekeeper children</h2>
<p>The earliest documentation of “peacekeeper babies” emerged during the UN presence in <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/world/uns-legacy-of-shame-in-timor-20060722-ge2rns.html">Timor-Leste</a> and west Africa, where peacekeepers were said to have impregnated local women and girls, then abandoned them without any form of child support. Following <a href="https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Media/Publications/UNIFEM/217_chapter05.pdf">these reports</a>, further evidence emerged in relation to a number of other peacekeeping operations including in Cambodia, the Central African Republic, Haiti and DRC.</p>
<p>While the issue of sexual misconduct by peacekeepers has attracted significant academic and public attention, there has been much less attention paid to the children born as a result. For our DRC <a href="https://www.unsea.net/democratic-republic-of-congo-1">research project</a>, we collected a wide range of stories from Congolese community members of all ages about the circumstances of their interactions with peacekeepers. </p>
<p>Participants were not prompted to talk about sexual exploitation and abuse, and could share any experiences they wanted. Their narratives were audio-recorded by trained Congolese research assistants in communities surrounding six UN bases in eastern DRC. To include children as young as six in the research, we used child-appropriate interview methods – for example, by asking them to draw their families or comment on photographs of peacekeepers and Congolese children.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477856/original/file-20220805-5517-gw7j3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477856/original/file-20220805-5517-gw7j3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477856/original/file-20220805-5517-gw7j3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477856/original/file-20220805-5517-gw7j3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477856/original/file-20220805-5517-gw7j3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477856/original/file-20220805-5517-gw7j3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477856/original/file-20220805-5517-gw7j3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A tablet with questions for one of the project’s interviewees.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>None of the peacekeeper children were in contact with their fathers when the interviews took place, and many did not know their fathers’ names or whereabouts. The majority had been told that their father left around the time of pregnancy or birth, yet few knew about the circumstances of their conception or abandonment:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Since I was born, I have never had the chance to learn anything about him apart from hearing that I have one. I have never heard his voice, not even once. (Child, 13)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>All expressed frustration about the lack of material support from their fathers, indicating that even the youngest participants saw their insufficient access to resources as unjust and directly linked to their father’s absence:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I remember my mother but I know nothing about my father. This is the reason why I am always hungry. If he was living with me, I wouldn’t be hungry. (Child, 10)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Most salient was the sense of a missing purpose or direction in life. Not knowing their roots and family history left a void regarding self-worth and social conscience:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I never go to school. I have no food support and even when I do get food, I start thinking about my mother who is living abroad and my father who I have never seen. I feel meaningless in a household where I can’t be around my parents. When I think of the deep poverty I’m in, I feel much despair. (Child, 13)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Maternal networks often provided them with only limited care and attention due to their illegitimate conception and the related stigma. The deprivation of parental relationships and material possessions led some to <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10826-022-02293-2">consider themselves orphans</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>My mother delivered me, she left and abandoned me when I was two months old. She dropped me off at my grandparents. When they call my mother to ask for money, she often doesn’t pick up the phone. I don’t think she considers me her child any longer. She abandoned me and my two brothers. (Child, 14)</p>
<p>I am like an orphan. Monusco should remember us who were left here in Kisangani. We are considered orphans. (Child, 13)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>A handful of peacekeeper children gave accounts of maltreatment by their mothers that made them question their right to exist:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>[My mother] never talks to me in a friendly way. She says I have no value at all, for I’m not like her other children. When she says that, I feel it’s better to take a knife, stab myself and die once and for all. I feel very upset, for I have no support from my relatives. (Child, 13)</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Voices of abandoned mothers</h2>
<p>In 2019-2020, we published the first empirical research addressing sexual exploitation and abuse-related pregnancies in Haiti. Asking 2,500 Haitians what it’s like to be a woman or girl living in communities that host peacekeepers, colleagues <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/sabine-lee-720578">Sabine Lee</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/susan-bartels-451542">Susan Bartels</a> discovered that sexual misconduct and child abandonment were a widespread concern among those interviewed. Their research brought forth the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S019074092032048X">stories of mothers</a> who were struggling to survive, let alone care for an infant after being exploited, abused or “blindsided” by peacekeepers. </p>
<p>In our subsequent DRC research, <a href="https://gh.bmj.com/content/6/10/e006631.info">1,182 (42%) of all interviews</a> were found to be about peacekeeper-fathered children – compared with only <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13533312.2019.1698297">10% of stories</a> in Haiti. This suggests that paternity cases may be more common in DRC, and also that in Haiti some other issues, such as peacekeepers <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/9/4974/htm">introducing cholera to the region</a>, were of particular concern to the women and girls interviewed.</p>
<p>In the early 2000s, peacekeeping in the DRC became notorious for <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/world/comprehensive-strategy-eliminate-future-sexual-exploitation-and-abuse-united-nations">allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse</a>. The mass allegations associated with this mission, including the operation of <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/UnitedNations/story?id=489306&page=1">sex rings and paedophile networks</a>, implicated peacekeepers from almost all contingents and groups of personnel (military, police and civilian).</p>
<p>Similar to other countries where the arrival of peacekeepers coincided with a rise in child prostitution, in the DRC underage sex work rose to <a href="https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/pdf/no_one_to_turn_to_1.pdf/">unprecedented levels</a>. Although illegal, an extensive sex economy emerged with children (“<em>kidigo usharatis</em>” [little prostitutes]) as young as six <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2005/03/21/congos-desperate-one-dollar-un-girls/26b5e610-d9ed-42e1-909a-03b2e061377d/">selling sex for survival</a>.</p>
<p>The shame and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13031-020-00320-x/metrics">social stigma</a> of sexual exploitation and abuse-related pregnancies has denied some mothers the ability to return to their families, homes and villages, preventing them from pursuing their education or careers, and having a traditional family of their own:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I am not married for I was a victim of sexual violence. I’m unoccupied, no job, no business to make money, to meet my child’s needs like powder soap, sandals and so on. My family cannot support me because they have no means, they are destitute. Currently we are starving. (Mother, 16)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Many mothers, regardless of whether or not they consented to sexual relations, were already in precarious life situations. Raising children fathered and abandoned by peacekeepers substantially weakened their economic security:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>That guy from Monusco is living peacefully with his wife and children while my house is leaking and the sheets are overused. Basically, he destroyed my life when getting me pregnant. He deceived me and now my life is crammed with suffering [and] impending hardships. (Mother, 36)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Having to cover the expenses of maternity and childcare, some found themselves in a downward spiral of further social rejection as extreme poverty led them to re-engage in sex-work to meet their child’s basic needs. Some mothers reported having several children from different peacekeepers:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I didn’t care what was right or wrong. I was willing to do whatever in return for food. My worries were to find clothes for the child. I was living far from my family, I stopped going to school and willingly became a prostitute. Men gave me money which helped a lot. I gave birth to the first child, then the second. (Mother, 21)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Due to local customs of sexual exclusivity, bride value is dependent on virginity and girls who are known to have had sex before marriage struggle to maintain their societal status. Mothers of peacekeeper children faced prejudice for being perceived as promiscuous, HIV positive and disrespecting traditional gender roles – often regardless of their age or whether the sex was consensual:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Because of this child, my life is dark. No man will ever intend to marry me. They call me a Beninese’s wife. My reputation is ruined. When people learn that you were once friends with a guy from Monusco, they start despising you and talking ill of you. It is not easy to find another man-friend if you have been deceived by one of them. (Mother, 36)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Many mothers reported feeling responsible for their children’s difficult socio-economic circumstances, like they were passing their own hardship down to their children:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>People in the community gossip much about my life. Some say that I broke my marriage promise because of a foreigner who is the reason I am now a desperately poor woman … I sometimes wonder whether I should kill myself or my child, but I guess I just need to hold on and bear the consequences of my decisions. If his father returns, we can get our dignity back. (Mother, 43)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Observing peacekeeper children’s social and economic deprivation led to additional guilt in mothers who blamed themselves for being a neglectful parent:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The child asks every day, who is my father? Where does he live? What’s his nationality? All this leads to remorseful life, a child should know. She asks, how shall I see him? And then answers for herself, there is no way to see him. The neighbours constantly make fun of her saying that she is the ‘daughter of a white’. My friends were even bringing different kinds of poison in order to kill her. Because of this she only stays here in the compound, she is ashamed. (Mother, age unknown)</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477649/original/file-20220804-12-si94dz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477649/original/file-20220804-12-si94dz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477649/original/file-20220804-12-si94dz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477649/original/file-20220804-12-si94dz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477649/original/file-20220804-12-si94dz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477649/original/file-20220804-12-si94dz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477649/original/file-20220804-12-si94dz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Most peacekeeper children drew a nuclear family that did not match their actual situation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Desire to be reunited</h2>
<p>When asked to <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10826-022-02293-2">draw their family</a>, the majority of peacekeeper children drew a nuclear family with an underlying structure that did not match their family’s actual situation. Several peacekeeper children were explicit about the drawing being an expression of their desire to be reunited with their fathers:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The drawing means that I want to have the father and mother in our house. (Child, 7)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Participants of all ages discussed the possibility of searching for their fathers to make this imagined family a reality. Almost all anticipated that financial contributions would result from reconciling with their fathers:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I want him to come rescue me from poverty. I would show him that I have no clothes, no food, no body lotion. I would ask him to give me money for school fees. With him present, I would be proud to tell people that I have a father. Other children who are living with their parents must be living well, I think. (Child, 13)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The identities of peacekeeper children were typically well known, and even the youngest interviewees felt judgement from their communities due to the circumstances of their conception. Stigma was manifested in a range of experiences, from teasing and bullying to overt discrimination, abuse and neglect:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Some people say I am different because my father left when I was a baby. Some are amazed to see I am still alive. When I hear people gossiping about me and my father – a father I haven’t even seen – it hurts my heart so much, I start weeping right away. (Child, 14)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These comments support the representation of peacekeeper children as an “<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13031-020-00320-x/metrics">out-group</a>” in their communities. Conceived by foreigners, these children carry stigma due to their different looks and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11013-022-09772-7/metrics">inter-ethnic background</a>. They reported being humiliated or ridiculed on the grounds of not being Congolese, being “white” or “foreign”, or otherwise singled out for their ethnic heritage. Some of the most recurrent insults directed towards peacekeeper children were “daughter/son of a bitch”, “bastard” or “illegitimate”.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The child is discriminated everywhere he goes. He is insulted as a ‘son of a bitch’. They say he isn’t worth it to be alive. (Mother, 20)</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477670/original/file-20220804-23-yvr1i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477670/original/file-20220804-23-yvr1i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=719&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477670/original/file-20220804-23-yvr1i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=719&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477670/original/file-20220804-23-yvr1i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=719&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477670/original/file-20220804-23-yvr1i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477670/original/file-20220804-23-yvr1i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477670/original/file-20220804-23-yvr1i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Author Kirstin Wagner with UN-emblazoned toy helicopters and trucks on sale in eastern DRC.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Barriers to justice</h2>
<p>The standard period of duty for UN peacekeepers is six to nine months, making it highly improbable that peacekeepers are in the host state when their children are born. Bound by agreements between the UN and member states, the UN’s role in advancing paternity claims is limited to coordinating and facilitating them. Instead of offering compensation through the UN, assistance protocols refer accountability to assailants and their home countries, emphasising the individual liability of perpetrators. However, member states are often unwilling or unable to cooperate, letting many allegations go unresolved.</p>
<p>To date, no information concerning successful child support has been made public, raising the question of whether any mothers are regularly receiving support. While a <a href="https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news/2021/3/12/UN-peacekeeper-ordered-to-pay-child-support-to-Haitian-mother">landmark legal decision</a> was reached in Haitian courts in 2021 – ordering a Uruguayan peacekeeper to pay support for a child he fathered and abandoned in 2011 – a clear mechanism for enforcing this ruling through the national legal system of the peacekeeper’s home state has (to my knowledge) not yet been established.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477675/original/file-20220804-17-56m92g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477675/original/file-20220804-17-56m92g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477675/original/file-20220804-17-56m92g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477675/original/file-20220804-17-56m92g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477675/original/file-20220804-17-56m92g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477675/original/file-20220804-17-56m92g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477675/original/file-20220804-17-56m92g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chart summarising acknowledged UN peacekeeper-related paternity claims since 2010.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The UN’s zero-tolerance policy bans almost all sexual relations between peacekeepers and local civilians, deeming them exploitative or abuse due to the context (conflict, poverty, displacement) in which they occur. Yet our data shows this blanket ban on sexual relations is ineffective and that there are no accessible and worthwhile complaint pathways for victims. The <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12142-021-00652-y">lack of prosecution and effective legal responses</a> to offences – depicted by our research in both Haiti and the DRC – demonstrates that peacekeepers can not only get away with sexual misconduct, they can father and abandon children without facing consequences.</p>
<p>Of the 26 mothers we interviewed who had contacted UN peacekeeping authorities in DRC to report a paternity case, the majority indicated their complaint had been ignored or rejected. While a fifth described undergoing an initial investigation or legal case, no interviewee had been awarded legal compensation.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I went to Monusco when the child was four years old. I asked them to help me be in touch with the father as I was burdened with the child’s responsibilities and charges all by myself. They asked me to come back after one month to get some food. They gave me rice, beans, cooking oil; the next month they did likewise. In the third year, they chased me away and asked me to open a case somewhere … I understood that there was no support and decided to stay at home. (Mother, 28)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Some participants detailed that UN officials violated their right to information about how to take legal action, reinforcing the widely shared notion that the UN had no interest in holding peacekeepers accountable for fathering children:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I tried to speak to Monusco officials and requested that they look for the father in his country, but my effort was unsuccessful. I went to the place where women who are left with children go to expose their problem to a woman working for the UN. When I went there, I saw no reaction. In fact, they didn’t do anything. It is hard to understand (interviewee cries). (Mother, age unknown)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Mothers who gave accounts of an initial investigation often described poor follow-up and mismanagement of their cases, lengthy delays and non-compliance with promised next steps. In some instances, illegal processes and corruption were considered to have led to victims not being treated according to UN guidance. One mother described the doctor who conducted her child’s DNA test having been bribed. In several instances, allegations of sexual misconduct and childbirth were said to have been swept under the carpet:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The officials at Monusco did not answer, they did not do anything – as if they were silently backing up the actions of this man. Luckily, the superior of my husband was relocated, and they brought in a new chief to the mission. When my parents presented the case to him, he pressed my husband to pay charges. We found out the former gentleman was corrupt. (Mother, age unknown)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>And when credible evidence was found that substantiated an allegation, the repatriation of implicated peacekeepers interfered with participants’ chances of being supported, since it removed the alleged offender from Congolese jurisdiction and thus prosecution in the host state. In one example, a woman reported a Bangladeshi peacekeeper to his superiors. she told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I explained to them how their soldier had abused me and got me pregnant without providing any care … When I came back to present my arguments, they revealed that he was sent back to South Africa because I had reported him. I learned that he was reshuffled to South Africa without listening to what I had to say. I decided it was better to drop the matter since it was already entangled with discrimination and scorn. (Mother, 35)</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>A heavy burden</h2>
<p>Both our research and the <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/drc-monuc-sexual-exploitation-and-abuse-end-assignment-report">UN’s internal reports</a> demonstrate that the group of children who have been fathered and abandoned by peacekeepers in DRC is significant and will continue to grow. The UN could and should play an important role in facilitating communication with fathers and educating peacekeeper children about their rights.</p>
<p>Our work in DRC, for the first time, has provided peacekeeper children with the opportunity to tell their stories and help shape responses to their unique situation. Currently, many of these children are excluded from participating in society and are disproportionally disadvantaged.</p>
<p>Peacekeepers, who are expected to act more ethically than local warring factions, lose their legitimacy as facilitators of peace when they engage in sexual misconduct and child abandonment. The betrayal of the host state’s trust is compounded when the UN fails to care for the victims and their children.</p>
<p>Academic researchers have <a href="https://jilc.syr.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Blau_Macro_Complete20170321.pdf">highlighted</a> the benefits of mandatory DNA testing for all peacekeeping personnel prior to their deployment, to provide evidence in any future cases of alleged rape or paternity claims. So far, however, only one member state, South Africa, has begun gathering DNA samples from troops prior to deployment. In late 2021, it <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pfZM21dH1Bg">dispatched a team to DRC</a> to gather samples from mothers and their children to facilitate the resolution of existing claims. But even in instances of positive tests, obtaining legal recognition of the identity of the father and a settlement for support is <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13533312.2014.938581">anything but straightforward</a>.</p>
<p>The UN has, though, taken some important steps towards better supporting mothers and children in recent years. This includes the establishment of the <a href="https://www.un.org/preventing-sexual-exploitation-and-abuse/content/office-victims-rights-advocate">Office of the Victims’ Rights Advocate</a> and the <a href="https://www.un.org/preventing-sexual-exploitation-and-abuse/content/trust-fund">Trust Fund for Victims</a>, which aims to provide specialised services to victims, such as educational support for children born of exploitation or abuse.</p>
<p>While these welcome advances are starting to show some effect, the UN acknowledges major gaps with regard to legal reparations – especially paternity and child support that deny children such as Emma a happy childhood, and might perpetuate intergenerational cycles of poverty, stigma and abuse. Resolutions and disciplinary measures may be becoming more comprehensive, but allegations continue to be levelled and the damage left behind remains unrepaired:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We are carrying a heavy burden raising abandoned children without any means. The other mothers – there are so many – are also sitting on a mountain of problems. They do nothing and are in very critical situations. We have all become like street children. We really do need some help. (Mother, 35)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>*<em>All names have been changed to protect participants’ anonymity.</em></p>
<hr>
<h2>UN response</h2>
<p>The UN acknowledged that “despite clear gains in the UN’s response to incidents of sexual exploitation and abuse”, allegations implicating UN personnel continue to emerge, including in peace operations. It said that among these were historical allegations, which its staff on the ground were working to uncover. A spokesperson said it was disturbing that cases continued to surface but that “over the past five years, we have taken action to prevent these wrongs, investigate alleged perpetrators including military contingents, and hold them accountable including through repatriation. </p>
<p>"We have strengthened our policies and protocols, and our joint investigative capacities with member states. We continue to publicly report on allegations as we receive them and on the status of these allegations in our public database. Personnel have been separated from the organisation, and no one who has been the subject of a substantiated investigation into sexual misconduct can be rehired within the system.”</p>
<p>The UN said that the first victims’ rights advocate was appointed five years ago to lead efforts promoting the rights and dignity of victims alongside dedicated advocates on the ground. “They ensure victims receive medical, psychosocial and legal support, support them during UN and member state investigations, and support them to pursue paternity and child support claims.” It said that “while the UN does not compensate the victims financially, projects financed by the Trust Fund in Support of Victims of Sexual Exploitation and Abuse have allowed them to upgrade their skills so they can engage in income generating activities, enabling them to rebuild their lives … We know that much more must be done and we continue to step up our efforts”.</p>
<p>“The secretary-general’s most recent report on <a href="https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3964674?ln=en">special measures for protection from sexual exploitation and abuse</a> acknowledges the disturbing fact that many paternity/child support claims relating to peacekeeping personnel remain unresolved. Their resolution is the joint responsibility of the UN and member states to ensure that the fathers’ parental obligations can be realised. These are complex cases, usually involving several jurisdictions with differing legal frameworks. The UN is committed to working with member states to find a solution to this challenge.” </p>
<p>It said the UN secretary-general “urges troop and police-contributing countries with paternity claims pending for six months or more to take clear steps to facilitate their resolution, including by addressing substantive and procedural legal obstacles. He has also asked the victims’ rights advocate to facilitate the provision of basic assistance and support, including food, schooling and medical and psychosocial care, to the mothers and children. He has instructed the victims’ rights advocate, in collaboration with other UN entities, to develop a reinvigorated strategy to address these claims.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>For you: more from our <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/insights-series-71218?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK">Insights series</a>:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/they-put-a-few-coins-in-your-hands-to-drop-a-baby-in-you-265-stories-of-haitian-children-abandoned-by-un-fathers-114854?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK">‘They put a few coins in your hands to drop a baby in you’ – 265 stories of Haitian children abandoned by UN fathers
</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/embracing-uncertainty-what-kenyan-herders-can-teach-us-about-living-in-a-volatile-world-174075?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK">Embracing uncertainty: what Kenyan herders can teach us about living in a volatile world</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/trophy-hunting-will-not-save-africas-lions-so-the-uk-ban-on-imports-is-a-positive-step-for-wildlife-conservation-185907?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK">Trophy hunting will not save Africa’s lions – so the UK ban on imports is a positive step for wildlife conservation
</a></em></p></li>
</ul>
<p><em>To hear about new Insights articles, join the hundreds of thousands of people who value The Conversation’s evidence-based news. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/the-daily-newsletter-2?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK"><strong>Subscribe to our newsletter</strong></a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188248/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Bartels and Sabine Lee were co-investigators of this research and recipients of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada grant (# 435-2017-1289) that funded it. Kirstin Wagner received funding from a University of Birmingham Global Challenges studentship. </span></em></p>DRC has the highest number of allegations of sexual abuse by UN peacekeepers – yet no systematic research on the claims of their abandoned children has existed until now.Kirstin Wagner, Research Fellow, Psychology, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1671072021-09-02T20:09:31Z2021-09-02T20:09:31ZHow the world’s biggest dark web platform spreads millions of items of child sex abuse material — and why it’s hard to stop<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419032/original/file-20210902-14-1a4z44w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=80%2C0%2C4808%2C3254&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Child sexual abuse material is rampant online, despite <a href="https://www.blog.google/around-the-globe/google-europe/using-ai-help-organizations-detect-and-report-child-sexual-abuse-material-online/">considerable efforts by</a> big tech companies and governments to curb it. And according to reports, it has only become <a href="https://www.weprotect.org/library/impact-of-covid-19-on-child-sexual-exploitation-online/">more prevalent</a> during the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>
<p>This material is largely hosted on the anonymous part of the internet — the “darknet” - where perpetrators can share it with little fear of prosecution. There are currently a few platforms offering anonymous internet access, including <a href="https://geti2p.net/en/">i2p</a>, <a href="https://freenetproject.org/index.html">FreeNet</a> and <a href="https://www.torproject.org/">Tor</a>. </p>
<p>Tor is by far the largest and presents the biggest conundrum. The open-source network and browser grants users anonymity by encrypting their information and letting them escape tracking by internet service providers. </p>
<p><a href="https://theintercept.com/2015/11/12/edward-snowden-explains-how-to-reclaim-your-privacy/">Online privacy advocates</a> including Edward Snowden have championed the benefits of such platforms, claiming they protect free speech, freedom of thought and civil rights. But they have a dark side, too.</p>
<h2>Tor’s perverted underworld</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://support.torproject.org/">Tor Project</a> was initially developed by the US Navy to protect online intelligence communications, before its code was publicly released in 2002. The Tor Project’s developers have acknowledged the potential to misuse the service which, when combined with technologies such as <a href="https://www.getmonero.org/">untraceable cryptocurrency</a>, can help hide criminals. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-the-dark-web-46070">Explainer: what is the dark web?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Tor is an overlay network that exists “on top” of the internet and merges two technologies. The first is the onion service software. These are the websites, or “onion services”, hosted on the Tor network. These sites require an onion address and their servers’ physical locations are hidden from users. </p>
<p>The second is Tor’s privacy-maximising browser. It enables users to browse the internet anonymously by hiding their identity and location. While the Tor browser is needed to access onion services, it can also be used to browse the “surface” internet. </p>
<p>Accessing the Tor network is simple. And while search engine options are limited (there’s no Google), discovering onion services is simple, too. The <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-50150981">BBC</a>, New York Times, ProPublica, Facebook, the CIA and Pornhub all have a verified presence on Tor, to name a few.</p>
<p>Service dictionaries such as “The Hidden Wiki” list addresses on the network, allowing users to discover other (often illicit) services.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419033/original/file-20210902-13-1ws3uhq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Hidden Wiki main page screenshot." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419033/original/file-20210902-13-1ws3uhq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419033/original/file-20210902-13-1ws3uhq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=834&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419033/original/file-20210902-13-1ws3uhq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=834&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419033/original/file-20210902-13-1ws3uhq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=834&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419033/original/file-20210902-13-1ws3uhq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1048&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419033/original/file-20210902-13-1ws3uhq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1048&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419033/original/file-20210902-13-1ws3uhq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1048&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Hidden Wiki main page.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Child sex abuse material and abuse porn is prevalent</h2>
<p>The number of onion services active on the Tor network is unknown, although the Tor Project estimates about 170,000 active addresses. The architecture of the network allows partial monitoring of the network traffic and a summary of which services are visited. Among the visited services, child sex abuse material is common. </p>
<p>Of the <a href="https://metrics.torproject.org/userstats-relay-country.html">estimated</a> 2.6 million users that use the Tor network daily, <a href="https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/iet-ifs.2015.0121">one study</a> reported only 2% (52,000) of users accessed onion services. This suggests most users access the network to <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/117/50/31716.full.pdf">retain their online privacy</a>, rather than use anonymous onion services. </p>
<p>That said, the same study found from a single data capture that about 80% of traffic to onion services was directed to services which did offer illegal porn, abuse images and/or child sex abuse material.</p>
<p>Another <a href="https://dsimg.ubm-us.net/envelope/385643/510233/The%20Truth%20About%20The%20Dark%20Web.pdf">study</a> estimated 53.4% of the 170,000 or so active onion domains contained legal content, suggesting 46.6% of services had content which was either illegal, or in a grey area. </p>
<p>Although scams make up a significant proportion of these services, cryptocurrency services, drug deals, malware, weapons, stolen credentials, counterfeit products and child sex abuse material also feature in this dark part of the internet.</p>
<p>Only about 7.5% of the child sex abuse material on the Tor network is <a href="https://cj.msu.edu/_assets/pdfs/cina/CINA-White_Papers-Liggett_Commercial_Child_Sexual_Abuse_Markets_Dark_Web.pdf">estimated to be</a> sold for a profit. The majority of those involved aren’t in it for money, so most of this material is simply swapped. That said, <a href="https://www.europol.europa.eu/activities-services/main-reports/internet-organised-crime-threat-assessment-iocta-2020">some services have started</a> charging fees for content. </p>
<p>Several high-profile onion services hosting child sex abuse material have been <a href="https://www.vice.com/en/article/4xezgg/australian-dark-web-hacking-campaign-unmasked-hundreds-globally">shut down</a> following extensive cross-jurisdictional law enforcement operations, including The Love Zone website in 2014, PlaypEn in 2015 and Child’s Play in 2017.</p>
<p>A recent effort led by German police, and involving others including Australian Federal Police, Europol and the FBI, resulted in the shutdown of the illegal website <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boystown_(website)">Boystown</a> in May. </p>
<p>But one of the largest child sex abuse material forums on the internet (not just Tor) has evaded law enforcement (and activist) takedown attempts for a decade. As of last month it had 508,721 registered users. And since 2013 it has hosted over a million pictures and videos of child sex abuse material and abuse porn.</p>
<p>The paedophile (eroticisation of pre-pubescent children), haebephile (pubescent children) and ephebophile (adolescents) communities are among the early adopters of anonymous discussion forums on Tor. Forum members distribute media, support each other and exchange tips to avoid police detection and scams targeting them.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.weprotect.org/">WeProtect Alliance</a>’s 2019 <a href="https://www.end-violence.org/sites/default/files/paragraphs/download/Global%20Threat%20Assessment%202019.pdf">Global Threat Assessment report</a> estimated there were more than 2.88 million users on ten forums dedicated to paedophilia and paraphilia interests operating via onion services. </p>
<h2>Countermeasures</h2>
<p>There are huge challenges for law enforcement trying to prosecute those who produce and/or distribute child sex abuse material online. Such criminal activity typically falls across multiple jurisdictions, making detection and prosecution difficult.</p>
<p>Undercover operations and novel online investigative techniques are essential. One example is targeted “hacks” which offer law enforcement back-door access to sites or forums hosting child sex abuse material.</p>
<p>Such operations are facilitated by <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/cybercrime/the-budapest-convention">cybercrime</a> and <a href="https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/organized-crime/intro/UNTOC.htmll">transnational organised crime</a> treaties which address child sex abuse material and the trafficking of women and children.</p>
<p>Given the volatile nature of many onion services, a focus on onion directories and forums may help with harm reduction. Little is known about child sex abuse material forums on Tor, or the extent to which they influence onion services hosting this material.</p>
<p>Apart from coordinating to avoid detection, forum users can also share information about police activity, rate onion service vendors, share sites and expose scams targeting them.</p>
<p>The monitoring of forums by outsiders can lead to actionable interventions, such as the successful profiling of active offenders. Some agencies have explored using undercover law enforcement officers, civil society, or NGO experts (such as from the <a href="https://www.weprotect.org">WeProtect Global Alliance</a> or <a href="https://www.ecpat.org">ECPAT International</a>) to promote self-regulation within these groups.</p>
<p>While there is a lack of research on this, reformed or recovering offenders can also provide counsel to others. Some sub-forums seek to offer education, encourage treatment and reduce harm — usually by focusing on the legal and health issues associated with consuming child sex abuse material, and ways to control urges and avoid stimuli. </p>
<p>Other contraband services also play a role. For instance, onion services dedicated to drug, malware or other illicit trading usually ban child sex abuse material that creeps in. </p>
<p>Why does the Tor network allow such abhorrent material to remain, despite extensive opposition — sometimes even from those within these groups? Surely those representing Tor have read complaints in the media, if not <a href="https://www.protectchildren.ca/pdfs/C3P_SurvivorsSurveyFullReport2017.pdf">survivor</a> reports about child sex abuse material.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-darknet-a-wild-west-for-fake-coronavirus-cures-the-reality-is-more-complicated-and-regulated-137608">The darknet – a wild west for fake coronavirus 'cures'? The reality is more complicated (and regulated)</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167107/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Roderic Broadhurst has received funding for a variety of research projects on cybercrime and darknet markets from the Australian Research Council, Australian Institute of Criminology, Korean institute of Criminology and, the Australian Criminology Research Council. Since April 2019 he has served on the Australian Centre to Counter Child Exploitation Research Working Group. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Ball does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>One study found 80% of darknet traffic on Tor went to sites hosting unmoderated porn and child sex abuse material.Roderic Broadhurst, Emeritus Professor, Australian National UniversityMatthew Ball, Laboratory Coordinator at the Australian National University's Cybercrime Observatory, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1537222021-02-19T13:03:41Z2021-02-19T13:03:41ZNew research shows parents are major producers of child sexual abuse material<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385175/original/file-20210218-20-t561wi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1000%2C667&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Child sexual abuse material — images and videos of kids being sexually abused — is a growing international problem. Almost <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/07/us/online-child-sexual-abuse.html">70 million reports of this material</a> were made to US authorities in 2019. That figure rose still further in 2020, as the COVID pandemic drove children and adults to spend <a href="https://www.end-violence.org/sites/default/files/paragraphs/download/COVID-19%20and%20its%20implications%20for%20protecting%20children%20online_Final%20%28003%29.pdf">more time online</a></p>
<p><a href="https://www.interpol.int/en/News-and-Events/News/2020/INTERPOL-report-highlights-impact-of-COVID-19-on-child-sexual-abuse">Police and online safety agencies</a> have been sounding the alarm that online sex offenders are seeking to capitalise on the increased online presence of children, tricking and blackmailing kids into creating abuse images and videos. Parents are being called on to be <a href="https://www.afp.gov.au/news-media/media-releases/predators-exploiting-kids-online-during-virus-second-wave">especially vigilant</a>.</p>
<p>However, the sad fact is that online exploitation begins at home for many kids, and in those cases their parent is the last person who can be trusted to keep them safe. <a href="https://protectchildren.ca/pdfs/C3P_SurvivorsSurveyFullReport2017.pdf">One study of 150 adult survivors</a>, who indicated they had appeared in sexual abuse material as children, found 42% identified their biological or adoptive/stepfather as the primary offender. More than two-thirds of such images appear to have been <a href="https://protectchildren.ca/en/resources-research/child-sexual-abuse-images-report/">made at home</a>. </p>
<p>Parental abusers are especially <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1077801213476459">difficult to detect</a>. They have constant access to their victims and almost total control over them. Children abused by a parent are the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/car.2280?casa_token=dBi9LIyy7NEAAAAA%3AQDoRh_ePW5aXdI_vVJsT_OCHKO1tpbHB21_8T2mc7HD3CzVCLsmvBLfP1BbO4qvJqU4cT1dfxcLNYcF0yg">least likely group to tell anyone</a>, and the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0145213418301510?casa_token=lBSqdEqxsGEAAAAA:xLbq9nPk8ZB3-S05pneKrqJfxCly1Wgoim_N1uGf581ksLkzh503VmG9UjE_0PX0vIoxj8NtQGs">shame and fear caused by victimisation</a> makes it extremely difficult to speak out.</p>
<p>However, there is <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.607.1933&rep=rep1&type=pdf">long-standing concern</a> that parental perpetrators of child sexual abuse material have been overlooked as governments have instead focused on online threats outside the family. </p>
<h2>Our study</h2>
<p>The aim of our <a href="https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi616">world-first study</a> was to identify the circumstances in which parental figures (including biological, step and adoptive parents) produce sexual abuse material of their children in Australia. </p>
<p>We also provided recommendations on how to increase the chances of law enforcement and agencies catching abusers. </p>
<p>Our research team developed a database of 82 cases in which Australian parents or parental figures were charged with sexual abuse material offences against their children, as reported in media or legal databases from 2009 to 2019. Our team included academics in criminology, child welfare and law as well as a detective sergeant and a forensic paediatrician who specialise in such cases and provided front-line expertise. </p>
<h2>What did we find?</h2>
<p>Parental production of child sexual abuse material is a gendered form of abuse. Men were offenders in 90% of cases, and girls were victims in 84% of cases. Boys were victimised in one-fifth of cases, with multiple children abused in some cases.</p>
<p>The victim’s biological father (58%) or stepfather (41%) were most likely to be the offender. However, the victim’s biological mother was involved in 28% of cases, most often as a co-offender.</p>
<p>In eight of the 82 cases, the mother was the sole perpetrator. In these cases, the woman appeared to be producing this material of her children at the request of male acquaintances. In 22% of cases, there were multiple perpetrators involved in the face-to-face abuse, such as both parental figures, other relatives or acquaintances. </p>
<p>The victims were young, with more than 60% under the age of nine. In the 58 cases for which we had information about how the abuse was detected, only 20% of victims told anyone about the abuse. Self-blame, guilt, trauma and confusion about their feelings towards the abuser(s) were common among victims and were barriers to speaking out.</p>
<p>Three typical profiles of offending by parental figures emerged from our study:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>the biological paternal offender who forms adult relationships and has children of his own to exploit</p></li>
<li><p>the step- or de facto parental offender who forms a relationship with a woman and exploits her children or seeks to obtain children by some other means (such as surrogacy)</p></li>
<li><p>the biological mother who produces sexual abuse material of her children at the behest of her partner or men with whom she is acquainted.</p></li>
</ol>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-it-take-victims-of-child-sex-abuse-so-long-to-speak-up-46412">Why does it take victims of child sex abuse so long to speak up?</a>
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<h2>What does this mean?</h2>
<p>Our study highlights that parental offenders are often highly premeditated in their abuse and exploitation of their children, which supports <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Organised-Sexual-Abuse/Salter/p/book/9781138789159">survivors’ descriptions of parental offenders</a>. The offenders in our study were capable of maintaining adult romantic relationships and an otherwise “normal” facade.</p>
<p>The study has several implications for policy and practice.</p>
<p>First, sexual abuse prevention and online safety education programs can’t assume parents are protective. These programs should sensitively address the problem of abuse, exploitation and image-making by family members. </p>
<p>Second, some perpetrators groom and manipulate potential partners to gain access to children. Community education could help people identify the warning signs when an offender is trying to groom someone in a romantic relationship.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/child-sex-abuse-survivors-are-five-times-more-likely-to-be-the-victims-of-sexual-assault-later-in-life-142384">Child sex abuse survivors are five times more likely to be the victims of sexual assault later in life</a>
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<p>Third, people with concerns their partner might be accessing child sexual abuse material need to be able to access non-stigmatising support and advice. Services such as <a href="https://www.partnerspeak.org.au/">PartnerSPEAK</a> are crucial not only to support people partnered with offenders, but to promote early intervention in the offending and the protection of children.</p>
<p>Fourth, child protection and criminal justice interventions in sexual abuse often depend upon the child’s disclosure. However, this group of severely abused children were very unlikely to disclose. This finding underscores the need to alert protective adults to non-verbal signs of abuse.</p>
<p>The sexual exploitation of a child by a parent is a profound violation of trust. As Australia and other jurisdictions scale up efforts to prevent child sexual abuse before it occurs, we can’t overlook the ways that some perpetrators use their homes and families to exploit their children and create sexual abuse material. </p>
<p>As 2021 Australian of the Year <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-01-26/grace-tame-australian-of-the-year-speech-in-full/13091710">Grace Tame</a> said, as she accepted the award in the name of all survivors of child sexual abuse:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Just as the impacts of evil are borne by all of us, so too are solutions borne of all of us.</p>
</blockquote>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dissociative-identity-disorder-exists-and-is-the-result-of-childhood-trauma-85076">Dissociative identity disorder exists and is the result of childhood trauma</a>
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<p><em>If this article has raised any issues for you, please contact 1800 RESPECT through their toll-free national counselling hotline or <a href="https://www.1800respect.org.au/">online</a>. You can also find support through <a href="https://www.lifeline.org.au/">Lifeline</a> on 13 11 14. The <a href="http://www.blueknot.org.au/">Blue Knot Foundation</a> provides telephone counselling for survivors of childhood trauma on 1300 657 380.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153722/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Salter receives funding from the Australian Institute of Criminology.</span></em></p>A study of child sexual abuse material survivors found 42% were abused by their father or stepfather, meaning abuse prevention and education services can’t assume all parents protect children in their care.Michael Salter, Scientia Associate Professor of Criminology, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1300992020-01-20T15:49:23Z2020-01-20T15:49:23ZAsian grooming gangs: how ethnicity made authorities wary of investigating child sexual abuse<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310687/original/file-20200117-118347-k9slp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lonely-girl-city-danger-159177017">Shutterstock/tommaso79</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the UK, the debate around so-called Asian grooming gangs and the sexual threat they pose to vulnerable white girls shows no sign of abating. A leaked report produced by the <a href="https://www.policeconduct.gov.uk/">Independent Office for Police Conduct</a> (IOPC) has upheld a complaint made by a father whose daughter had been missing for a week. He said a police officer told him that <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/01/18/rotherham-police-did-not-do-enough-protect-girls-abuse-asian/">Rotherham “would erupt”</a> if it came out that Asian men were habitually having sex with underage white girls. </p>
<p>The five-year investigation conducted by the IOPC, codenamed Operation Lindon, has produced a highly critical report. It states that the South Yorkshire police were scared to take action against a group of Asian men who were sexually abusing a young girl for fear of triggering unrest in the Asian community and being branded racist. Instead, they did little to disrupt the gang and safeguard the vulnerable victim and other young girls, even though they knew they were being subjected to horrendous sexual abuse. </p>
<p>South Yorkshire police has <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/police-chief-we-ignored-sex-abuse-of-children-hgrhc358v">accepted the findings</a> of the report and said it has been developing a “far deeper understanding” of child sexual exploitation since 2014. It will now await the full and final report, which will focus on the actions of its former senior command team and whether it deliberately turned a blind eye to what it knew was happening. </p>
<p>This is something the media has been suggesting for many years due to the explosive mix of sex, race and excessive political correctness. The Times has even claimed there was a “<a href="http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/uk/crime/article2863058.ece">conspiracy of silence on UK sex gangs</a>”. The leaked IOPC report came just days after yet another <a href="https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/paedophile-grooming-gang-left-roam-17562300">scathing report</a> was published, this time in Manchester, about the abject failure of the police and children’s services to protect vulnerable young girls from Asian grooming gangs there.</p>
<h2>Cultural sensitivities</h2>
<p>In 2011 Jack Straw, the former home secretary, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-12142177">suggested</a> there was a cultural element to the then new phenomenon of “grooming gangs” and suggesting some men of Pakistani origin see white girls as “easy meat”. The former Blackburn Labour MP spoke out after two Asian men who abused girls in Derby were given indeterminate jail terms. At the time, he was quickly shouted down and labelled a racist. It was even suggested that his comments were an attempt to influence a pending Oldham by-election. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/blamed-for-being-abused-an-uncomfortable-history-of-child-sexual-exploitation-82410">Blamed for being abused: an uncomfortable history of child sexual exploitation</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>Despite the continuous flow of cases – other examples were in <a href="https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/all-about/rochdale-grooming-scandal">Rochdale</a>, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-oxfordshire-46945043">Oxford</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/jun/10/report-evidence-of-huddersfield-grooming-ring-not-followed-up">Huddersfield</a>) – the public is constantly being reminded that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/nov/11/84-per-cent-of-grooming-gangs-are-asians-we-dont-know-if-that-figure-is-right">it is not just Asian men</a> who commit “on-street” child sexual exploitation. </p>
<p>Clearly this type of sexual exploitation is not exclusive to Asian/Pakistani men. Nevertheless, given the severity of these offences and long term impact they have on young people’s lives, it is important to question whether there are cultural elements influencing how perpetrators see young white girls.</p>
<p>As a criminologist and former senior detective I have interviewed numerous second generation Asian-Pakistani men convicted of grooming and sexually abusing young vulnerable white girls. The majority claimed they were innocent and put forward theories of how the government, police, judges and witnesses had conspired to wrongly convict them. It was also clear that they did not see their victims as children and therefore did not consider themselves to be sex offenders. </p>
<p>An example of this mindset was the leader of the Rochdale grooming gang, Shabir Ahmed, who <a href="https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/rochdale-grooming-white-jury-appeal-11959904">failed to overturn his convictions</a> at the European Court of Human Rights by claiming an all-white jury was part of a conspiracy to scapegoat Muslims. During his trial Ahmed repeatedly accused the judge, the jury, and the police of being part of a racist conspiracy against Muslims and said: “It’s all white lies.” The story (focusing on the victims in this case) was subsequently made into the BBC drama Three Girls.</p>
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<p>Many of the offenders I have spoken to were also involved – or on the fringes of – low-level crime, most commonly drug dealing and theft. They tended to lack victim empathy and had a habit of trying to taint victims by suggesting they lied about their age or were already drug addicts and/or sexually promiscuous.</p>
<p>The victims of child sexual exploitation in these cases were targeted because they were considered “available” by their circumstance and behaviour: they were in care, truanting from school, drinking alcohol, taking drugs, staying out late at night or being overtly sexual. The vast majority of victims were underage white girls. Their perceived availability and vulnerability led the perpetrators to believe, rightly, that these girls were unlikely to tell anyone what was happening to them. </p>
<p>When it comes to child sexual exploitation, grooming takes on a series of behaviours designed to ensure secrecy, increase victim compliance, build rapport and avoid detection. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0964663906066613">Extensive research</a> tells us that these tactics make sexual abuse much <a href="https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?q=(Bennett+%26+Donohue,+2014)&hl=en&as_sdt=0&as_vis=1&oi=scholar">more likely</a>. </p>
<h2>Abandoned victims</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-51093159">Review</a> after <a href="https://www.nscb.org.uk/sites/default/files/Final%20JSCR%20Report%20160218%20PW.pdf">review</a> has found that there is a tendency by almost all protection agencies to to essentially leave these vulnerable girls to suffer and let the criminals continue their offending. One of the reasons for this is the issue of the ethnicity of the perpetrators.</p>
<p>As a criminologist I believe all criminals should be defined by their actions and punished accordingly. But it is necessary and relevant for society to discuss the ethnicity of perpetrators and victims and how this influences specific crimes.</p>
<p>It is not racist to do this, just as it is not racist to say that the majority of men on the UK sex offenders register for sexual crime <a href="https://fullfact.org/crime/what-do-we-know-about-ethnicity-people-involved-sexual-offences-against-children/">are white</a>. It is also important to remember that black and minority ethnic children and young people are <a href="https://www.csepoliceandprevention.org.uk/sites/default/files/cse_guidance_bame.pdf">victims of sexual exploitation</a>, too.</p>
<p>But in May 2019 it was estimated that there were at least <a href="https://hansard.parliament.uk/lords/2019-05-14/debates/349FA275-CB65-45C0-87C7-EE16D1FD1B0A/GroomingGangs">73 grooming gangs</a> operating in the UK. The inability of South Yorkshire Police and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/mar/24/police-serious-case-review-exploitation-girls-in-bristol">other forces</a> to act professionally and speak openly and plainly about the ethnicity of on-street child abusers is a significant factor in why these horrific offences have gone undetected for so long and it remains a significant factor today.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130099/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graham Hill does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The fear of ‘racial tension’ has been at the heart of many botched police inquiries into child sexual abuse.Graham Hill, Visiting research fellow, School of Law, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1249332019-10-30T14:49:06Z2019-10-30T14:49:06ZAirbnb must face the facts: human trafficking and modern slavery happen in rented accommodation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299434/original/file-20191030-17930-1kkzwqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C6000%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Without a trace. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-sitting-on-bed-room-light-735366892?src=vBvNkwMo405w22ux4_ubLQ-1-5">Yupa Watchanakit/Shutterstock. </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Researchers estimate that there are <a href="https://www.brookes.ac.uk/about-brookes/news/combat-project-aims-to-tackle-hotel-industry-s-role-in-human-trafficking/">1.1m victims</a> of human trafficking across Europe. <a href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/01/1029912">According to the UN</a> almost one-third of human trafficking victims globally are children. Cases of forced criminality, prostitution and labour are <a href="https://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/what-we-do/crime-threats/modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking">a major issue</a> for the hospitality industry, as it’s thought that more than <a href="https://www.brookes.ac.uk/about-brookes/news/combat-project-aims-to-tackle-hotel-industry-s-role-in-human-trafficking/">93,000 sex slaves and 4,500 labour slaves</a> are exploited in European hotels each year. </p>
<p>Hotels, motels, hostels and bed and breakfasts have long coordinated with organisations including the <a href="http://ethics.unwto.org/en/content/protect-children-campaign">UNWTO World Tourism Network on Child Protection</a>, <a href="https://www.ecpat.org.uk/">Every Child Protected Against Trafficking (ECPAT)</a> and the <a href="https://www.tourismpartnership.org/blog/itp-launches-principles-on-forced-labour/">International Tourism Partnership (ITP)</a> to address modern slavery and human trafficking. Organisations in the hospitality industry are <a href="https://www.antislavery.org/what-we-do/past-projects/staff-wanted-initiative/">running awareness campaigns</a>, <a href="https://www.brookes.ac.uk/microsites/combat-human-trafficking/the-toolkit/toolkit-material/?langtype=2057">building toolkits</a>, <a href="https://www.ecpatusa.org/blog/hotel-anti-trafficking-posters">displaying signs</a> and <a href="https://www.ahla.com/issues/human-trafficking">training staff</a> on what to look for and how to respond – as well as coordinating with <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/594970e91b631b3571be12e2/t/59c9b6bfb07869cc5d792b8c/1506391761747/NoVacany_Report.pdf">law enforcement</a> and anti-trafficking organisations. </p>
<p>Yet reports of <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-england-kent-48343959/on-the-front-line-in-the-fight-against-the-county-lines-drug-trade">gang-related drug dealing</a> and “<a href="https://uk.reuters.com/article/airbnb-trafficking/exclusive-airbnb-vows-to-tackle-sex-trafficking-in-rental-homes-idUKL8N1Q6597">pop-up brothels</a>” in accommodation rented online have added a new dimension to these issues. Sharing economy platform Airbnb now has <a href="https://press.airbnb.com/update-on-the-airbnb-community/">7m listings in more than 100,000 cities</a>, making it larger than the eight biggest hotel groups combined. As the company readies for its initial public offering (IPO) in <a href="https://press.airbnb.com/airbnb-announces-intention-to-become-a-publicly-traded-company-during-2020/">2020</a>, the legal grey areas in which its hosts operate are escalating concerns about transparency and accountability – especially in relation to human trafficking and modern slavery. </p>
<h2>Accountability on Airbnb</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.airbnb.co.uk/help/article/1379/responsible-hosting-in-the-united-kingdom">Airbnb’s position</a> is that it has “no control over the conduct of hosts and disclaims all liability”. Hosts <a href="https://digitalcommons.law.msu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1256&context=king">bear responsibility</a> for abiding by the laws in their own countries, and by the standards set out by the company itself. But <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13032917.2017.1283634">my own research</a> into Airbnb has found that, in practice, the question of responsibility goes far beyond who is legally liable. </p>
<p>According to Airbnb, hosts are responsible for meeting legal requirements in their countries – such as <a href="https://www.airbnb.co.uk/help/article/1522/responsible-hosting-in-dubai">collecting tax</a> or installing <a href="https://www.airbnb.co.uk/help/article/2478/what-should-i-know-about-fire-and-carbon-monoxide-safety-when-i-travel">fire or carbon monoxide monitors</a> and adhering to <a href="https://www.airbnb.co.uk/terms/nondiscrimination_policy">anti-discrimination</a> laws. In practice, this means <a href="http://www.benedelman.org/publications/airbnb-guest-discrimination-2016-09-16.pdf">discrimination</a> is permitted if regulations <a href="https://www.wired.co.uk/article/airbnb-china-uyghur-muslim">allow</a>, are absent or do not <a href="https://www.nolo.com/legal-encyclopedia/does-the-federal-fair-housing-act-apply-your-rental-property.html">apply</a> to smaller owner-occupied buildings. Indeed, Airbnb in the US is immune to discrimination lawsuits due to its <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/02/technology/federal-judge-blocks-racial-discrimination-suit-against-airbnb.html">terms of use</a>. </p>
<p>What’s more, some self-identified hosts on host forums appear confused regarding their obligation to adhere to – or their rights to ignore –<a href="http://www.frmjournal.com/news/news_detail.airbnb-lets-may-be-unsafe-due-to-lack-of-regulation.html">compliance</a> issues such as <a href="https://airhostsforum.com/t/collecting-airbnb-occupancy-tax-strategies/28604">tax collection</a>, <a href="https://airhostsforum.com/t/accessible-category-in-listing-is-useless-or-is-it-me/24122">guest accessibility</a> and <a href="https://airhostsforum.com/t/is-it-discrimination-if-i-say-i-dont-accept-anyone-under-the-age-of-18/6039/2">age discrimination</a>, given that most are not licensed accommodation providers. </p>
<p>Local, regional and national authorities often lack the will or the resources to <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/inside-airbnbs-guerrilla-war-against-local-governments/">fight</a> or <a href="https://www.irishtimes.com/business/personal-finance/why-the-new-airbnb-regulations-are-unlikely-to-work-1.3929969">enforce</a> existing regulations or innovate <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14649357.2019.1599612">new laws</a> to catch up with the latest developments. </p>
<h2>Risky business</h2>
<p>On Airbnb, it only takes a few clicks to make a booking, and the use of key lockboxes, smart locks and keypads has reduced the need for face-to-face interactions between hosts and guests. Airbnb’s former global head of trust and risk management, Nick Shapiro, <a href="https://medium.com/@AirbnbCitizen/taking-a-modern-approach-to-combating-modern-slavery-227db96d732b">explained that</a> the company applies risk analysis by trawling through photos on the platform, to check for signs of exploitation. But it remains unclear how guests not on regulatory, terrorist or sanctions watch lists can be identified as risky, or at risk. </p>
<p>Background screening and risk analysis is only carried out in the US and, in general, Airbnb hosts receive no education on how to spot exploitation and trafficking. Indeed, on <a href="https://community.withairbnb.com/t5/Help/Use-of-Airbnb-for-Sexual-Trafficing/m-p/626236#M146479">independent forums</a> hosts display a variable degree of understanding regarding their responsibilities – and Airbnb’s – in relation to modern slavery and human trafficking. </p>
<p>In 2019, <a href="https://www.wttc.org/about/media-centre/press-releases/press-releases/2019/we-have-an-opportunity-to-halt-human-trafficking/">Airbnb joined</a> a World Travel & Tourism Council task force on trafficking. Yet by and large, Airbnb does not coordinate with bodies such as ECPAT, join global campaigns or raise awareness among hosts or guests. There are calls for Airbnb to ensure that hosts around the world undertake training to recognise signs of children at risk, and <a href="https://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/what-we-do/crime-threats/modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking">report incidents to police</a>. </p>
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<p>Hiring practices within the Airbnb ecosystem can also result in exploitation. For example, property management companies <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1294194">often hire women of colour and migrant women</a> to clean houses. Often, these women are vulnerable, earn a low income and lack labour rights – they tend not to be unionised, as trade unions are unwilling to support a model which can increase the overall cost of rents and eats into <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/22/business/economy/labor-unions-amazon.html">the number of full-time hospitality jobs</a>. </p>
<p>While many businesses across the hospitality industry have made reforms and <a href="https://www.antislavery.org/what-we-do/past-projects/staff-wanted-initiative/">been involved in campaigns</a> to identify practices that lead to exploitation, no official Airbnb global programme currently exists across all the countries it operates in.</p>
<h2>Making change</h2>
<p>The European Union <a href="https://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-19-3990_en.htm">has already demonstrated</a> that it can push Airbnb for change in relation to consumer protections. And the company has shown that it can exercise control over hosts to meet regulations, by making <a href="https://www.airbnb.co.uk/help/article/2509/in-what-areas-is-occupancy-tax-collection-and-remittance-by-airbnb-available">bilateral agreements</a> with tourism authorities to collect various taxes. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, other companies in the sharing economy are raising the bar: ride-sharing platforms <a href="https://www.uber.com/newsroom/fighting-human-trafficking/">Uber</a> and <a href="https://blog.lyft.com/posts/2019/1/18/helping-raise-awareness-to-prevent-human-trafficking">Lyft</a> recently announced that they would teach drivers how to spot traffickers and their victims in some regions. So there is clearly scope for action on the issues of trafficking, exploitation, slavery and discrimination, by platforms such as these. </p>
<p>The lead up to Airbnb’s IPO provides an opportunity to pressure-test the company’s resolve to increase its transparency and accountability throughout the 191 countries it operates in. Measures could include releasing registers of hosts to authorities, increasing transparency through annual reporting, signing the <a href="http://www.thecode.org/about/">code of conduct</a> for the Protection of Children from Sexual Exploitation in Travel and Tourism and adding pictures of Airbnb properties to databases that help police track down traffickers. </p>
<p>It’s time for Airbnb to follow the <a href="http://www.respect.international/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Sex-Trafficking-in-the-Tourism-Industry-Carolin-L-et-al.-2015.pdf">hospitality sector</a>, and take a more proactive stance against modern slavery and human trafficking.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124933/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael O'Regan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Airbnb now has 7m listings in more than 100,000 cities, making it larger than the eight biggest hotel groups combined.Michael O'Regan, Senior Lecturer in Events and Leisure, Bournemouth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1182942019-09-13T09:25:15Z2019-09-13T09:25:15ZTeenagers are vulnerable too – how social workers are trying new ways to keep them safe<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291812/original/file-20190910-190044-apchvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/527458141?src=PekvdNxxj02ampw4sWkbfw-1-5&size=medium_jpg">Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the past four decades the child protection system in England has increasingly <a href="https://www.basw.co.uk/system/files/resources/basw_24144-4_0.pdf">concentrated on preventing</a> the abuse and neglect of young children in their homes. In response to multiple government inquiries, such as those following the killing of eight-year-old <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2062590.stm">Victoria Climbié</a> and 17-month-old, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-11626806">Peter Connelly</a> (known as “Baby P”), the focus has been to reduce risk and prevent the abuse and neglect of young children by those looking after them.</p>
<p>But with this focus on younger children and the harm posed by parents and carers, the system largely stopped considering risks that young people, particularly teenagers, face when they leave their front door. This has left teenagers under-protected. </p>
<p>Young people have been groomed and sexually abused by adults across towns and cities throughout the UK in <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-43400336">high-profile</a> cases of child sexual exploitation. Reports are also emerging of teenagers exploited by criminal gangs who use them as drug runners or to move money between different areas of the country along what are <a href="https://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/what-we-do/crime-threats/drug-trafficking/county-lines">known as “county lines”</a>. </p>
<p>Teenagers exploited in this way are often victim to physical, emotional and sexual abuse as a form of control or punishment and are frequently trafficked to areas far away from their family and friends.</p>
<h2>The bigger picture</h2>
<p>When it comes to safeguarding – protecting children’s rights and promoting their well-being – adolescents require a different response to younger children and to adults. Across the UK there are many well-respected approaches to safeguarding young people from harm that happens outside the home, such as the long-established <a href="https://noknivesbetterlives.com/info/about-us/">No Knives, Better Lives</a> in Scotland, which has contributed to a significant reduction in knife crime. </p>
<p>In England, <a href="https://www.rip.org.uk/assets/_userfiles/images/general/News%20images/Safeguarding%20during%20adolescence-Briefing_Jan19_v3.pdf">two recent approaches</a> gaining attention include “contextual safeguarding” and “complex safeguarding”. Both of these bring together social workers and traditional child protection agencies, such as the police and healthcare professionals, with other less traditional groups, such as taxi licensing and public transport companies, to help keep children safe. </p>
<p>Contextual safeguarding has been initially piloted in the London borough of <a href="https://www.communitycare.co.uk/2019/03/25/contextual-safeguarding-new-way-identifying-need-risk/">Hackney</a>, led by researcher Carlene Firmin from the University of Bedfordshire. It considers the places that children and young people go to outside their home and the relationships they make as opportunities for interventions. So this makes parks, public transport and schools all part of a possible intervention, moving away from focusing solely on the young person and the boundaries of their family life. For example, this means <a href="https://vimeo.com/200856011">including the staff</a> at the local fast food restaurant in a child’s intervention plan, if this location is where they are at risk of exploitation or abuse.</p>
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<p>Complex safeguarding, which is being developed in Greater Manchester using <a href="http://www.itsnotokay.co.uk/professionals/act/">evidence from ongoing research</a>, takes a slightly different approach. It shifts the focus from what is going wrong in the young person’s life and the risks they face, to how young people and those around them – including social workers, other agencies and their family – can collaborate to promote their wider well-being. This approach has been shown to <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1553596/KEEPING_SAFE_FULL_RESEARCH_REPORT_2019_ENG.pdf">improve outcomes</a> for young people. </p>
<p>Take the example of a teenage boy who is struggling to fit into his new school – and his behaviour at school and at home is becoming challenging. In an attempt to fit in, he frequently meets his peers at the local bus station. But at the bus station he is threatened and coerced into passing packages of money between drug dealers and storing weapons at his house. Traditional interventions may have focused solely on his behaviour and what he and his parents can do to change it – including stopping him from going to the bus station. He may also have been treated as a criminal. </p>
<p>A complex or contextual safeguarding approach would instead focus on a spectrum of his needs. This may include helping him access positive activities and hobbies to nurture his overall well-being and increase opportunities to make healthier friendships. They may also include ensuring the bus station is well lit and that its CCTV system is working. They could also include working with his parents to help educate them about child exploitation. </p>
<h2>Working with parents</h2>
<p>Part of the problem with the current system is that it principally relies on parents and carers and their actions to stop the abuse. But this isn’t always effective if the harm happens outside of the house and outside of their control. A shift is needed so that the child protection system facilitates professionals to work with parents rather than overtly questioning their actions and holding them entirely responsible. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.csacentre.org.uk/documents/evidence-review-by-sara-scott-and-di-mcneish-dmss-research/">Centre of Expertise on Child Sexual Abuse</a> has published research showing how parents of sexually exploited children can become isolated through trauma and stigma, and how professionals can help them recover and build new support networks. Organisations such as <a href="https://paceuk.info/?gclid=Cj0KCQjwgLLoBRDyARIsACRAZe6yXy_4V0Q-0zfvyrC4ECskrU8qMtO4VDu048YA80RlxzGWKwlS2G8aAjOvEALw_wcB">Parents Against Child Exploitation</a> not only provide support to parents, they also highlight how parents can play a crucial role in safeguarding their children from exploitation and abuse outside the home. </p>
<p>Considering the whole picture of a young person’s life, including what happens at home, the context of their abuse and the perpetrators doing the abusing, as well as their overall well-being, is a key part of these approaches. All of these are essential if we are to stop blaming victims. When harm happens outside the home, plans and interventions must address the spaces, places and people that young people interact with. Successful plans also focus on the young person’s overall well-being and not just the risks they face.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118294/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Marsh works for the Centre of Expertise on Child Sexual Abuse, where his role is to support the translation of research on to practice. </span></em></p>For decades, those working in social care focused on the risks children face in their family home. But what about when they leave the front door?Nick Marsh, PhD Researcher - Safeguarding Young People, University of East LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1035492018-09-26T10:01:05Z2018-09-26T10:01:05ZChild protection investigations can silence children and offer impunity to abusers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237918/original/file-20180925-149970-14hmy9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?u=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.shutterstock.com%2Fgatekeeper%2FW3siZSI6MTUzNzkwOTY5NCwiYyI6Il9waG90b19zZXNzaW9uX2lkIiwiZGMiOiJpZGxfNjcxNTM3MDExIiwiayI6InBob3RvLzY3MTUzNzAxMS9tZWRpdW0uanBnIiwibSI6MSwiZCI6InNodXR0ZXJzdG9jay1tZWRpYSJ9LCJtT0d1c3k5dTQzV1I2OEhaNTNwSmZWckJGM1kiXQ%2Fshutterstock_671537011.jpg&pi=33421636&m=671537011&src=zrPePSD5ivmqfCy8tL_Uxg-1-92">Veja/shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The child protection investigation system in the UK is not fit for purpose. Despite high profile child abuse cases in Rochdale, Rotherham and Telford, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/feb/22/child-victims-of-violent-and-sexual-crimes-not-being-taken-seriously">lessons</a> are not being learned and the failings of those investigations are being repeated.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.iicsa.org.uk/reports">Interim Report</a> of the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse found that two thirds of adults do not feel comfortable discussing sexual abuse, even with those they know and trust. It is not surprising then that children have difficulties disclosing and talking about sexual abuse when they experience it. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9783319938233">My research</a> – which examined a wide collection of children’s experiences of child protection investigations – found that the system itself exacerbates this issue by creating overly formal situations (such as investigative interviews) which children find intimidating and difficult to understand. </p>
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<h2>Vulnerability and confusion</h2>
<p>The majority of children do not know what to expect when child protection services begin to intervene in their lives. The first realisation that they are the subject of an investigation often comes when social workers and police officers arrive to conduct an initial interview. This can be the most emotionally challenging period of the investigation. It is when children feel most vulnerable as they have no clear idea of what is going on or what might happen as a result of the interview. </p>
<p>They can also find the subsequent child protection process confusing and this is mainly due to a lack of information and a lack of control over it.</p>
<p>High profile child abuse enquiries such as those in <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iJ-E1uRNMsQ">Rochdale</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90_bRx6fBfs">Rotherham</a> have emphasised the need to put children, rather than adults, at the centre of child protection work and for children to be actively included in the inquiry. </p>
<p>But the existing child protection system relies on components which can silence children by causing fear and intimidation during processes which are supposed to encourage participation. For example, police officers and social workers frequently turn up unannounced at school or home to conduct video interviews with sexually abused children for use in court. </p>
<p>Children feel particularly unprepared for this, as they may be asked to discuss events which they have previously found unmentionable and in breach of social taboos. They may not have the vocabulary to describe their abuse adequately and have difficulty recalling details that they do not attach the same significance to as their interviewers – such as precise dates and surroundings. </p>
<h2>Grace’s story</h2>
<p>One of my research participants, “Grace” (not her real name), was 15 when she became the subject of a child protection investigation. “Grace”, now aged in her early 20s, had been sexually abused by her stepfather and had been removed from the family home while the investigation took place. She found the police interview so distressing that she was unable to participate fully or provide the details required for a prosecution. She said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It was intimidating … she (the police officer) was asking for really specific times and dates so … because it had been (over) like a long period of time, I couldn’t specify exactly what had happened, exactly when. So I got really stressed out about that and I started panicking and getting really worried … she was really pressing with the questions and it was a lot of pressure so I kept crying a lot and I wouldn’t give proper answers…</p>
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<p>As a result, the police dropped charges against “Grace’s” abuser and she was later returned to live with him. </p>
<h2>Another story</h2>
<p>“Jayden” (not his real name) was 12 when he became the subject of a child protection investigation in relation to the sexual abuse of himself and his ten-year-old brother by a male babysitter. He had experienced learning and behavioural difficulties over many years and was attending a special school. My interviews with “Jayden” revealed that he had very little understanding of the child protection process.</p>
<p>For “Jayden”, now in his late teens, the investigative interview represented a situation that he felt he had little control over as he did not understand the language used by the police officer and social worker. They did not adapt this to suit his developmental level and neither did they allow for his slower processing of information.</p>
<p>“Jayden” also voiced strong objections to the interview being recorded, which was possibly linked to his experiences of abuse. Despite this, he was not made aware of the purpose of the recording and he was not offered the choice to take part in the interview without it being recorded. The unintended result of this complex set of circumstances was that he felt restricted to the point of silence and withdrew from the process.</p>
<p>Enabling children to talk about their experiences of sexual abuse through meaningful participation in these investigations is essential if abusers are not to be granted impunity and children are to be protected from further abuse. This means ensuring that all children undergoing child protection interventions have access to independent advocacy from the outset of the investigation.</p>
<p>Trained advocates can help children to understand the questions that are asked of them, the process of the child protection investigation and the implications for their lives in ways that are appropriate to their age and development. Helping “Grace” and “Jayden” to participate in this way may have resulted in very different outcomes for them and their abusers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/103549/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mandy Duncan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Despite high profile child abuse cases in Rochdale, Rotherham and Telford, lessons are not being learned and the failings of those investigations are being repeated.Mandy Duncan, Senior Lecturer in Education, Staffordshire UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/985962018-08-20T10:31:47Z2018-08-20T10:31:47ZYou don’t have to look far to find human trafficking victims<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231968/original/file-20180814-2918-htsqai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children are especially vulnerable to sex traffickers</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many people think that human trafficking means kidnapping and moving victims across state or national borders. </p>
<p>After working with human trafficking victims as a forensic nurse and now while teaching at Texas A&M University’s College of Nursing, I know that this often is not the case. </p>
<p>I have found that many perpetrators find, entice and sell their victims <a href="https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2016/259066.htm">right in their own backyards</a>. </p>
<p>Victims are often hidden in plain sight, leading everyone from police to health professionals to miss clues to their plight and vastly underestimate the scope and economics of human trafficking.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I once missed one of those victims. That led us to change the way we work.</p>
<h2>Becoming aware</h2>
<p>As the manager of a busy, urban forensic nursing program for 16 years, I oversaw the care and treatment of thousands of children annually who were suspected of being abused. I thought I understood the many intricacies of child abuse. </p>
<p>I was proven wrong when a Texas <a href="https://www.dfps.state.tx.us/child_protection/">Child Protective Services</a> caseworker told me we failed to identify a victim of human trafficking. </p>
<p>After taking a deep breath, I begged him to share what we missed and how we could improve the lives of these vulnerable and traumatized children.</p>
<p>The program in which I was then working consisted of extremely experienced and highly trained registered nurses who specialized in the care and treatment of children suspected of being sexually or physically abused or neglected. </p>
<p>We worked with children from over 20 Texas counties. Each nurse on the team routinely saw 200 children or more per year. We were one of the most experienced pediatric forensic nursing team in the state, with one of the best child abuse pediatricians as our medical director. </p>
<p>If we could miss the subtle signs of human trafficking, anyone could. </p>
<h2>Trading in humans</h2>
<p>Here is what happened: One of our expert forensic nurses examined “Zena,” a very young teenage girl who was sexually assaulted by two men. </p>
<p>The nurse provided care, collected evidence and discharged Zena, sending her home with a parent. This forensic nurse made all of the mandated reports to Child Protective Services and law enforcement. </p>
<p>Several months later, Zena was back in our emergency department, accompanied by law enforcement and CPS. After they rescued Zena from a room where she was to perform sex acts on several adult men, she was identified as a victim of human trafficking.</p>
<p>Human trafficking, according to scholars <a href="https://socialwork.utexas.edu/directory/busch/">Noël Bridget Busch-Armendariz</a>, <a href="https://www.ncat.edu/faculty/mnsonwu.html">Maura Nsonwu</a> and <a href="https://www.stedwards.edu/directory/employees/laurie-c-heffron">Laurie Cook Heffron</a>, “includes the victimization of adults and children <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Human_Trafficking.html?id=Pg4sDgAAQBAJ">in the commercial sex industry and forced labor</a>.” </p>
<p>Trafficking’s definition under <a href="https://www.state.gov/j/tip/laws/61124.htm">federal law</a> also includes the “recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, obtaining, patronizing or soliciting a child under 18 years of age for the purpose of a commercial sex act.” </p>
<p>Sex traffickers, formerly known as “pimps,” use violence, or the threat of violence, lies and coercion to lure victims, especially children, into the commercial sex industry.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.state.gov/j/tip/laws/61124.htm">Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000</a> made the trafficking of persons a federal crime. The legislation enabled states to prosecute traffickers, buyers of sex – “johns” – and those who profit from the crime of trafficking, including businesses or people who facilitate the illegal process. </p>
<p>Men, women and children can be trafficked. But children are especially vulnerable, with those who run away or are thrown out of their home especially at risk.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.missingkids.com/home">The National Center for Missing and Exploited Children</a>, a private, nonprofit group supported in part by the federal government, received more than 25,000 runaway reports in 2017 and estimate 3,500 were <a href="http://www.missingkids.com/keyfacts">“likely victims of child sex trafficking</a>.” </p>
<h2>Eyes opened</h2>
<p>When I asked my CPS caseworker and friend to explain how we could have identified Zena on her first visit to our emergency department, he answered, “You should have asked how she met those two men.” </p>
<p>It turns out that Zena’s mother sold her. </p>
<p>If the forensic nurse would have asked her specifically how she met the men, I believe Zena would have shared her story. </p>
<p>The atrocities done to Zena shook our team to the core, but we felt we could learn from this and work to identify any future victims. We decided to educate ourselves.</p>
<p>We worked with our medical director and attended conferences and meetings with law enforcement, CPS, federal and state prosecutors, and nonprofit organizations. </p>
<p>The training worked: In the years before Zena, I cannot recall any trafficking victims who were identified by our team. The year after Zena, we saw 14 children suspected of, or identified as, trafficking victims. </p>
<p>Since then, Texas Gov. Greg Abbott created <a href="https://gov.texas.gov/organization/cjd/childsextrafficking">a child sex trafficking team</a> within his office. Our forensic team was invited to assist the governor’s child sex trafficking task force. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231970/original/file-20180814-2903-1rjx0jy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231970/original/file-20180814-2903-1rjx0jy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231970/original/file-20180814-2903-1rjx0jy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231970/original/file-20180814-2903-1rjx0jy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231970/original/file-20180814-2903-1rjx0jy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231970/original/file-20180814-2903-1rjx0jy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231970/original/file-20180814-2903-1rjx0jy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231970/original/file-20180814-2903-1rjx0jy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The Texas attorney general’s office distributes this poster about human trafficking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://texasattorneygeneral.gov/images/human_trafficking/red_flags_for_human_trafficking_sex.jpg">Texas Attorney General</a></span>
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<h2>Health care for trafficked victims</h2>
<p>Our hospital’s work reflects the growing understanding that health care professionals can intervene and potentially rescue human trafficking victims. </p>
<p>Researchers Laura J. Lederer and Christopher A. Wetzel <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280947812_The_Health_Consequences_of_Sex_Trafficking_and_Their_Implications_for_Identifying_Victims_in_Healthcare_Facilities">found</a> that 88 percent of the human trafficking survivors interviewed had contact with a health care professional while they were being trafficked, mainly in emergency departments. That means emergency department physicians and nurses have a unique opportunity to intercede. </p>
<p>Health care professionals have the advantage of being able to speak with patients alone and not alert the trafficker. Asking non-leading questions and using trauma-informed techniques can create an environment where victims feel they can disclose the abuse they experienced at the hands of their buyers and traffickers.</p>
<p>Questions about the victim’s safety, and that of other persons, should always be asked if health care professionals believe trafficking is happening.</p>
<p>Children who disclose having sex with multiple people over short periods of time, who are homeless or who show up with a non-relative that does not want to the leave the child alone should all be suspected of being trafficked.</p>
<h2>Education helps identification</h2>
<p>Zena will always be on my mind. My health care colleagues can learn from her. Early intervention can rescue children from chronic sexual assaults, physical abuse, prevent drug addiction, and lifelong mental health problems. </p>
<p>Health care facilities across the country should be aware that there can be remarkable results from education about trafficking. In the graduate human trafficking course I now offer, two students were able to identify two trafficking victims, who were subsequently rescued. </p>
<p>During a recent conference I host, a probation officer realized that one of her probationers was being trafficked. She was able to help her with the education she received at the conference. </p>
<p>This work can be emotionally exhausting. But my colleagues and I have seen immediate results for some trafficked victims and that keeps me working. I want to prevent further abuse like Zena suffered from occurring again – in my backyard and beyond.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98596/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurie Charles MSN, RN, SANE-A, SANE-P is affiliated with International Association of Forensic Nurses as a member.
The College of Nursing has received funding from the Texas Attorney General for contracted projects for deliverables from our program (as Co-Investigator).</span></em></p>Human trafficking victims can be hidden in plain sight, as one hospital found. That can lead health professionals and the public to miss clues to their plight. But education can change that.Laurie Charles, Clinical Assistant Professor, Registered Nurse, Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner, Texas A&M UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/927882018-04-09T15:37:15Z2018-04-09T15:37:15ZCategorising child abusers as online or offline doesn’t help protect victims<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213443/original/file-20180405-95689-14nx0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hooded-computer-hacker-stealing-information-laptop-594726908">PORTRAIT IMAGES ASIA BY NONWARIT/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>How an online child abuser is classified by researchers is primarily based on the <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1079063210384275">intended location of sexual climax</a> – online or offline. Offenders driven by fantasy intentions are seen as only having contact with children in the virtual world – using the internet for sexual activities such as exhibitionism, voyeurism, masturbation and cybersex. Contact-driven offenders meanwhile are seen to use the internet as a medium to engage minors in physical sex. </p>
<p>However, our research into these two types of internet-initiated child sexual offenders has found these definitions are problematic. And that our lack of understanding about the behaviour of adults who abuse minors via the internet means that the laws protecting children exploited purely online is lagging behind those who are abused offline.</p>
<p>Offenders who commit non-contact sexual deviations offline (for example, voyeurism, exhibitionism and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frotteurism">frotteurism</a>) often also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19924524">commit contact sexual deviations</a> – such as rape and sexual coercion – too. So perhaps it is not so easy to distinguish offenders based on online fantasy and offline contact behaviour. In fact, there may be an overlap between these crimes.</p>
<h2>Virtual contact crime</h2>
<p>We recently completed <a href="https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1Wl82X18YDkMp">an extensive and systematic review</a> of all the relevant published studies that examined the behaviour of offenders who sexually exploited children online. Our aim was to determine whether a true distinction can be made between fantasy and contact-driven offenders and, if so, to identify the communicative and behavioural tactics that separate the two groups. </p>
<p>Our review shows that it is not always possible to verify where, or even if, sexual climax was reached. Patterns of online fantasy behaviour, such as <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1079063215612442">online masturbation</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0145213414004360">arousal</a>, were reported in studies examining both fantasy and contact-driven interactions. This suggests that groomers’ sexual gratification occurs with or without the intent to meet offline. </p>
<p>In addition, there were cases in which talk of offline contact was used to support the online fantasy, making it difficult to determine the true intent of the person. And so, to strictly define them as either fantasy or contact driven is misleading. </p>
<p>The behaviour of child sexual exploitation offenders <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13552601003698644">can escalate online</a>, particularly when combined with <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222563344_Emotion_and_self-control">masturbation</a>. So it is unclear whether intent or detection prevents online sexual fantasies from developing offline. </p>
<p>Importantly, the fantasy/contact distinction does not consider the existence of <a href="https://jhu.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/internet-sexual-solicitation-of-children-a-proposed-typology-of-o">mixed offenders</a>, who commit both online and offline sexual abuse.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213444/original/file-20180405-189798-18eqpbz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213444/original/file-20180405-189798-18eqpbz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213444/original/file-20180405-189798-18eqpbz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213444/original/file-20180405-189798-18eqpbz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213444/original/file-20180405-189798-18eqpbz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213444/original/file-20180405-189798-18eqpbz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213444/original/file-20180405-189798-18eqpbz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In danger.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/little-girl-sitting-dark-playing-laptop-447296563?src=uHHU2p7zclILpoHjG2QRLA-1-2">Halfpoint/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Evidently, there is no neat distinction to be made between fantasy and contact-driven individuals. Though we did not find any communicative or behavioural patterns that separated the groups, it is clear both fantasy and contact-driven offenders use technology as an enabler for sexual abuse. </p>
<p>They achieve contact with victims in the virtual environment with the aim of sexual gratification. Fantasy-driven individuals incorporate talk of offline contact within interactions, and contact-driven individuals engage in online sexual activities. This indicates that abuse can occur both online and offline, as minors become <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.920.5933&rep=rep1&type=pdf">cyber-victims</a> through various methods of online exploitation such as <a href="http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/Society/documents/2003/07/17/Groomingreport.pdf">cyber-rape</a> (the aggressive coercion of victims into sexual behaviour on line). </p>
<h2>Redefining online exploitation</h2>
<p>Instead of using the fantasy and contact distinction, we think that the European Online Grooming Project’s <a href="http://natcen.ac.uk/media/22514/european-online-grooming-projectfinalreport.pdf">three category system</a> – of “intimacy seeking”, “adaptable” and “hypersexual” groomers – is a much better fit. The distinction between these categories is primarily based on the nature of the relationship, not the intent for online/offline sexual gratification. </p>
<p>“Intimacy seeking” groomers focus on developing a relationship, introducing sexual content slowly. They consider the “relationship” to be consenting and intimate. “Adaptable” groomers focus less on the relationship and more on the risk of being detected. They change their approach to match the victim and engage in both online and offline sexual behaviours. Finally, the “hypersexual” group introduce sexual content very quickly (sometimes in seconds), with the intent of immediate sexual gratification. Talk of offline contact and relationship building is limited here, and these individuals are often in possession of child and extreme adult pornography. </p>
<p>Just as adults that are sexually attracted to children vary in the degree of their sexual desires, so to does the extent to which they act upon them. Our findings provide empirical support that offline contact is not needed for victimisation to occur, which is why we need to continue working to clearly distinguish types of offenders. Doing so will help make better, more informed decisions in several areas, such as police investigations and victim empowerment</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92788/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>How online child abusers are categorised is stopping the proper protection of victims.Laura Broome, PhD Researcher in Psychology, Swansea UniversityCristina Izura, Associate Professor of Psychology, Swansea UniversityNuria Lorenzo-Dus, Professor of English Language & Applied Linguistics, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/943342018-04-04T11:16:54Z2018-04-04T11:16:54ZWhy the age of sexual consent continues to be a worldwide challenge<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213145/original/file-20180404-189830-1ao3x2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/arrested-teenager-boy-drug-trafficking-criminal-1060623818?src=gOC2QVlWE9yEl6jL4Kravg-1-66">shutterstock/MIAStudio</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>France is <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/france-consent-age-sex-15-rape-new-law-children-minister-marlene-schiappa-a8237226.html">considering changing</a> its legal age of consent so that sex before the age of 15 is automatically considered rape after <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/french-man-11-year-old-girl-consensual-sex-abuse-montmagny-a8209586.html">recent child sex cases</a> raised serious concerns. At the moment, prosecutors have to prove that the underage sex was non-consensual to obtain a rape conviction. </p>
<p>The change is being proposed as a way to <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-41966245">tackle issues with the laws</a> in France that mean if no violence or coercion has taken place or been proved, offenders can only be charged with sexual abuse and not rape. In fact, sentences of this nature are the same for sexual assaults of minors and non-minors.</p>
<p>The debate around the age of consent is still as relevant and as serious as it ever was. In the UK, the age of consent is 16. But in Germany and Italy it is 14, whereas in Turkey the <a href="https://www.ageofconsent.net/continent/europe">age of consent is 18</a>. Yet, if we consider that <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/peter-g-tatchell/age-of-consent_b_4314619.html">one in three teenagers</a> are having sex before the age of 16, does that mean the age of consent needs to be considered again in the UK? </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"971177383830196226"}"></div></p>
<h2>Children and the law</h2>
<p>It is an issue that emerges <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/sep/14/revised-uk-child-sexual-consent-guidelines-provoke-backlash">time and time again in the UK</a> and it always remains at deadlock. But does UK law ensure that our children are always on the edge of being a “sex offender”?</p>
<p>In the UK, under the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/42/contents">Sexual Offences Act 2003</a>, it is illegal to engage in sexual activity with someone under the age of 16. In some cases, it may be a defence to say that it was reasonable that there was a belief that the person was 16 or over. But, ordinarily, a “sex offender” is likely to be imprisoned for around five years if someone was under 18 at the time. The sentence increases to ten years to life if the offender <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/libertycentral/2010/apr/15/teenagers-law-human-right-consensual-sex">is over 18 at the time of the offence</a>.</p>
<p>In effect, it does not matter what your age is. But if you have sex with someone under 16, you become a sex offender. That is despite half of all UK teenagers <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/peter-g-tatchell/age-of-consent_b_4314619.html">having their first sexual experience</a> by the age of 14, according to the National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles. So is it right to see <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/peter-g-tatchell/age-of-consent_b_4314619.html">young people hauled before the courts</a>, convicted and put on a sex offenders register alongside adult rapists and paedophiles?</p>
<p>This is the reality but the law is there for a reason – to protect the vulnerable and less experienced. Although this does not always happen. The NSPCC says five child sex offences are <a href="https://www.nspcc.org.uk/what-we-do/news-opinion/child-sex-offences-uk-record-rise/">reported every hour</a>. It is no surprise then that people have expressed concerns that some sex offenders would see any change in the law on consent as an opportunity to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/apr/09/labour.immigrationpolicy">focus their sexual intentions</a> on young teenagers. The worry is it could lead to an increase in abuse cases and increasing pressure to have sex at a younger age.</p>
<p>Some are concerned that it might lead to a further increase in STI rates and unwanted pregnancies (the UK has some of the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/jul/18/how-uk-halved-teenage-pregnancy-rate-public-health-strategy">highest rates of teenage pregnancies</a> in Western Europe). </p>
<p>There are wider issues relating to the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/letting-children-be-children-report-of-an-independent-review-of-the-commercialisation-and-sexualisation-of-childhood">sexualisation of childhood</a> and the culture that we live in. Can we not just let children be children? </p>
<p>There is also the issue of education – or lack of it – in schools and at home relating to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/healthcare-network/2015/mar/24/sex-education-uk-teenagers-pregnancy-sexually-transmitted-infections">sexual consent and behaviour</a>. So lowering the age of consent is not necessarily the answer. </p>
<h2>A confusing global picture</h2>
<p>While 16 remains the average age of consent in Europe and beyond, there are dramatic differences globally. This ensures there are confused messages about when it is right to have sex or not. In some countries, you have to be married before you have any sexual relations (Iran, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia). In other countries, you can have sex from the age of 11 (Nigeria) and quite a few countries allow the age of consent to be 13, <a href="https://www.ageofconsent.net/world">including Japan and Niger</a>. For many, for the age of consent to be so low is unthinkable. But it may reflect the traditions, religion, culture and history of a particular country. </p>
<p>Perhaps the laws of consent need to be more flexible and realistic to ensure that young people are protected. At the same time, there must be an appreciation that many reach sexual maturity quicker than others and therefore are able to make choices about their own bodies. For example, in Canada, while the age of consent is 16, <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/confused-messages-an-emotive-debate-reignites-about-the-uk-s-age-of-consent-8945535.html">the legislation is constructed</a> in such a way that older sexual predators would be prosecuted rather than young teenagers who might be in established relationships, even if they have not quite reached the age of 16. This also alleviates some of the pressure associated with having sex at a younger age.</p>
<p>The issue of consent is an emotive one that may never be fully resolved. But it is an important issue for people of all ages. France is having that debate once again. Perhaps it is time the UK joined in?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94334/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Richards does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>France is having a debate over the age of sexual consent. Perhaps it is time the UK joined in.Michael Richards, Lecturer in Applied Health and Social Care, Edge Hill UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/841702017-10-19T13:22:21Z2017-10-19T13:22:21ZWe analysed online groomers’ conversations to find out how deceptive they really are<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/190496/original/file-20171016-30957-uzigm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Being lied to?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/teen-girl-excessively-sitting-computer-laptop-535639165?src=t2LiNRuoOslS2QZjcSI7Lw-1-30">Burdun Iliya/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The online world can be an exciting place for children. But internet-related sex crimes against children and young people are reported an average of <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/cyber-child-sex-offences-increase-half-nspcc-uk-children-charity-a7765666.html">15 times per day</a> in England and Wales alone.</p>
<p>Researchers looking into how online groomers work have <a href="https://ac.els-cdn.com/S2211695816300095/1-s2.0-S2211695816300095-main.pdf?_tid=6885b13c-b3e6-11e7-bab7-00000aab0f26&acdnat=1508318964_d80b158428b6a763880cce80ec42abd6">found that</a> gaining victims’ trust is a key part of engaging them in sexually explicit behaviour. During this process, groomers hide their main intention, to sexually abuse the victim, by <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-paedophiles-speak-to-children-online-66243">developing a friendly and personal relationship</a> with them. </p>
<p>Though you might expect that they deceive and lie to encourage their victims to go along with their plans, the truth is that, generally, online groomers are not as overtly deceptive as we might assume. Groomers’ use of <a href="https://ac.els-cdn.com/S1054139X04001715/1-s2.0-S1054139X04001715-main.pdf?_tid=db8564f0-b3e8-11e7-9a15-00000aacb35f&acdnat=1508320016_fc59d5b3acbf538a11fb43e677c2acfb%20/%20http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1054139X13003364?via%3Dihub">identity deception</a> – deception around age, location and appearance – is fairly low (5-33%), and some identity deceptions have actually been found to <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15564886.2013.873750">reduce the likelihood</a> of groomers meeting offline with victims. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/190562/original/file-20171017-5066-18adpro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/190562/original/file-20171017-5066-18adpro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/190562/original/file-20171017-5066-18adpro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/190562/original/file-20171017-5066-18adpro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/190562/original/file-20171017-5066-18adpro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/190562/original/file-20171017-5066-18adpro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/190562/original/file-20171017-5066-18adpro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Criminal intent.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-criminal-intentions-desktop-computer-on-656050543?src=t2LiNRuoOslS2QZjcSI7Lw-2-96">Sander van der Werf/Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Deception and lies</h2>
<p>Our research looks deeper into the language used by online groomers. We analyse real chat logs against key linguistic indicators of deception – emotional expression, pronoun use and cognitive complexity – to find out just how deceptive they really are.</p>
<p>When people lie they tend to use words that are emotional. Negative words, like alone, angry, or blame, represent an unconscious feeling of guilt and anxiety, as well as a lack of concern over the development of the social relationship. But lying does not always make people feel guilty, it can also make them excited or proud, which is reflected in the use of positive emotion words, such as awesome, beautiful or best. These words are particularly important during trust development, and are often used to appear convincing and “sell” the interaction.</p>
<p>Lying is a cognitively complex task. When telling the truth, more detailed abstract information can be provided without thinking too much. Liars tend to <a href="http://www.albany.edu/%7Ezg929648/PDFs/Newman.pdf">use concrete terms</a> that can be experienced perceptually – like seen, felt, heard – to enable them to focus on their deceit. For example, responding to the question “what are you doing?” in a abstract way would be to say “it’s a nice day so I decided to walk rather than get the bus” compared to the concrete response “walking home”.</p>
<p>Pronoun use is another key deceptive marker and gives insight into where the communicator focuses their attention. Those who use the first person-singular pronouns I, me and mine, tend to be more honest, self-aware and “own” their story. For example, “I am too old for you but I just thought I would talk to you”. Second person pronouns – you, you’ll – represent dishonesty, interpersonal distance and deflection of blame: “you tell me what you like best?” or “told you, it’s up to you, want you to feel good.”</p>
<p>Finally, first person plural pronouns (we, our, us) are considered to represent honesty and a shared identity. <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/28/books/review/the-secret-life-of-pronouns-by-james-w-pennebaker-book-review.html">Research has shown</a> that using “we” to include “you” and “I” recognises that specific people are part of the same group. This is important for groomers as they attempt to isolate victims from their social network, by creating a new group identity that exists only between the two of them.</p>
<h2>Honesty</h2>
<p>When we applied these deceptive indicators to 64 online grooming conversations, totalling around 150,000 words, we found something quite surprising: groomers do not follow a clear pattern of deception. Judgement of their own behaviour appears to be positive and focuses on developing the relationship. There were signs of honesty in the use of abstract language and attention on themselves – that is to say the I, me and mine – but also signs of deception seen in high frequencies of “you” terms and positive affect words (love, beautiful), and low use of “we”.</p>
<p>Examining the strength of the emotional words, we found that groomers use either strongly positive (happiness, fantastic) or negative (rape, harm) words as opposed to neutral terms (shy, challenge). So underneath the positive drive there are signs of a more implicit feeling of negativity.</p>
<p>One important factor to consider here is how the anticipation of future events – be it sexual activity online or offline – limits the groomers’ ability to explicitly lie to their victim. We know that groomers employ a <a href="https://www.ceop.police.uk/Documents/ceopdocs/CEOP_TACSEA2013_240613%20FINAL.pdf">“scattergun” approach</a> to find victims, contacting dozens if not hundreds online to increase their chance of success. This also limits their ability to lie, as maintaining this level of deception would be an impossible task. </p>
<p>However, there are signs of a more deep-rooted form of deception: deception of the victim and possibly themselves about their true goals. For no matter whether the “relationship” is truthful or deceptive, the outcome can be viewed no other way than as the sexual abuse of a minor.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84170/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cristina Izura receives funding from ESRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laura Broome does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Finding out how ‘real’ the relationship is between online groomers and their child victims.Laura Broome, PhD Researcher in Psychology, Swansea UniversityCristina Izura, Associate Professor of Psychology, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/834782017-10-17T14:51:48Z2017-10-17T14:51:48ZWhat happened when we showed a film about ‘lover boy’ sex trafficking to a group of teenagers<p>How does it feel to be trafficked for sex? Dehumanised, broken and invisible: that’s what people who’ve been through it have told me. And it’s what I wanted to convey when I began creating a digital project called <a href="https://vimeo.com/229111705">The Crossing</a> in 2015, in collaboration with the producer Colin Burrows and patron Emma Thompson. </p>
<p>The Crossing tells the story of a trafficked girl told from a first person point of view, a fictionalised account based on a composite of girls’ experiences drawn from case study research for the project. It has been adapted to be displayed on multiple types of platform, from a single screen to a film with surround sound, and an interactive version. </p>
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<p>The girl in the film hopes to make a better life for herself and ultimately make her family proud. Once trafficked, she is caught in a spiral of violence and abuse. Even when she escapes, she cannot go home because of the shame she feels she’s brought to her family. As one survivor described it during our research, it is like the “body being separated from the soul”. </p>
<p>The film gradually unfurls into an exploration of the trust created by some men’s use of the <a href="https://www.highspeedtraining.co.uk/hub/methods-of-human-trafficking/">“lover boy”</a> technique. These men use a number of tactics to isolate a victim from their families and communities, often using romance and the promise of a better life – often abroad. Once their victim is isolated, the men use violence, blackmail and threaten the girl’s <a href="https://www.government.nl/topics/human-trafficking/romeo-pimps-loverboys">family</a>.</p>
<p>“Lover boys” exploit the hope, frustration and dreams of young people to fuel a <a href="http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_243201/lang--en/index.htm">multi-billion dollar</a> trafficking industry. The technique – also known as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-boyfriend-model-of-abuse-is-not-restricted-to-grooming-gangs-82599">“boyfriend model”</a> – was highlighted by police after a recent child sex exploitation trial in Newcastle. </p>
<h2>‘Completely engulfed’</h2>
<p>Though created for a wide audience, we have begun showing The Crossing to under 18-year-olds – <a href="http://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/publications/national-referral-mechanism-statistics/2017-nrm-statistics/824-modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking-national-referral-mechanism-statistics-april-to-june-2017/file">those</a> most vulnerable to the “lover-boy” <a href="https://www.government.nl/topics/human-trafficking/romeo-pimps-loverboys">techniques</a>. </p>
<p>In 2016, we showed the multiscreen project via 13 interconnecting screens to a group of 20 teenagers in the <a href="https://www.anglia.ac.uk/arts-law-and-social-sciences/ruskin-gallery">Ruskin Digital Gallery</a> in <a href="https://www.anglia.ac.uk/arts-law-and-social-sciences/ruskin-gallery/the-crossing">Cambridge</a>. The group, aged 14 and 15, were asked if they could identify with any elements of this story. One girl said: “I feel like it would be tempting to follow the ‘lover boy’”, while another said she could understand “wanting more to do and risking things for a chance at something better.” </p>
<p>The visual images in the film represent narrative elements or fragments of the girl’s story – depicting her invisibility in a city where life carried on around her. It was filmed using slow motion techniques, drones and projections to create a sense of heightened reality that places the viewer within the girl’s body. The students were given bluetooth headphones to personalise their experience within the gallery – listening to a soundscape underpinned by the girl’s breathing. This created an intense and at times disturbing response from the teenagers. </p>
<p>“What struck me was the impact of the sound, putting somebody in the mind and body of someone who is trafficked,” one boy said. “I felt as if her heartbeat was mine. I felt completely engulfed,” said one girl, while another described it as feeling “very personal, like she was talking to me.” </p>
<h2>Beware of ‘lover boys’</h2>
<p>It can be very difficult to know the impact of films such as these, but some of the responses we got showed how it had it opened the mind of these teenagers mind to the dangers of trafficking and exploitation. “I didn’t think people went willingly,” one girl explained, “and I thought it was all people getting shoved into unmarked vans and sold off.” Another girl said: “The film made me feel extremely angry, frustrated, sad and disgusted. Also a small sense of relief that this issue is being recognised and there are people to help. But annoyed that it goes under the radar so easily.”</p>
<p>One of the most striking responses from these young people to the audiovisual experience came from a boy of 15:</p>
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<p>The most powerful elements for me were the images of the girl with her clothes off. It made me uncomfortable as usually it would be attractive but given the circumstances, it was just wrong.</p>
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<p>The film was <a href="http://www.ahrc.ac.uk/research/readwatchlisten/features/research-in-film-awards-2016-best-research-film-of-the-year/">shortlisted</a> for AHRC Best Research Film of the Year 2016, and an interactive version is now being developed to help show young people how and why it was made. We’re also working with local schools in Cambridge to deliver the project as part of their studies in the coming months.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83478/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shreepali Patel does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Crossing tells the story of a girl who had been trafficked using the ‘lover boy’ technique.Shreepali Patel, Director, StoryLab Research Institute, Anglia Ruskin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/824102017-08-17T10:18:48Z2017-08-17T10:18:48ZBlamed for being abused: an uncomfortable history of child sexual exploitation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181987/original/file-20170814-12098-r8dyp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Class and race have long played a role in the way victims of abuse are treated. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">via shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the northern English town of Newcastle, 17 men and one woman were convicted of abusing <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-40879427">22 girls</a> in early August 2017. All the men were of Asian origin. The ethnic origin of the victims has not been officially disclosed, but it is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/aug/09/newcastle-sex-grooming-network-operation-shelter">understood</a> that the majority of them were white and working class. </p>
<p>Responding to the conviction, a former director of the Crown Prosecution Service, Lord Macdonald, <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/newcastle-child-sex-ring-asian-men-underage-white-girls-sex-abuse-racist-crime-lord-macdonald-cps-a7885571.html">said</a> that they suffered a “profoundly racist crime”. The solicitor general, Robert Buckland, then <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/08/11/asian-gangs-must-handed-longer-sentences-targeting-white-girls/">argued</a> that grooming gangs like this should get longer sentences if there is evidence of racial hostility. </p>
<p>Yet, the experiences of these victims – and those involved in several other recent similar cases – reflect a long history of British authorities ignoring the complaints of working-class girls and blaming them for their abuse.</p>
<p>The Newcastle verdicts were the latest in a series of court actions – following a high-profile case in the town of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/apr/08/rochdale-grooming-case-10-men-sentenced-to-up-to-25-years-in-jail">Rochdale</a>, Greater Manchester, where hundreds of teenagers were subject to serious sexual abuse, between 2005 and 2013 by organised grooming gangs, including rape. The testimonies of three of these girls proved vital in the eventual, but shamefully late, prosecutions of some of the men involved in the Rochdale ring. </p>
<p>Similar gangs were found to be operating in many more towns and cities across the country and high-profile cases, the majority involving Asian men, followed in <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-37873340">Rotherham</a>, <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-oxfordshire-39466980">Oxford</a> and other towns. </p>
<p>These cases have triggered several enquiries into policing and safeguarding practices that posed very uncomfortable questions. How was it possible for systematic abuse on such a scale to have gone unchallenged for so long? And why had so many agencies failed in their duty to protect the children involved – especially when so many of them were already on child protection registers?</p>
<h2>Guilty of ‘poor lifestyle choices’</h2>
<p>One answer to this lies in deep-seated attitudes towards the girls involved.
Those who reported what was happening <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/nov/20/rochdale-child-abuse-case">were often disbelieved or dismissed</a>, their status as victims denied. In effect, they were cast as partly culpable for their own abuse. </p>
<p>Another answer lies in the framing of organised child abuse as child prostitution. Some of the girls concerned were themselves arrested on prostitution-related charges. In a cruel and unbelievable irony, <a href="http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/rochdale-grooming-story-sex-abuse-13043853">these included</a> conspiracy to engage with sexual activity with a child. It was this view – that these child victims were either fully fledged offenders or at the very least guilty of making poor lifestyle choices – that paralysed professionals and prevented them from taking action.</p>
<p>A recent BBC series called <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b08rgd5n">Three Girls</a>, focused on the Rochdale cases. The central character – a sexual health worker and whistleblower called Sara Rowbotham – was portrayed by actress Maxine Peake as one of the few officials to challenge that view. In a powerful scene, she assures the father of one of the girls that his daughter is not a prostitute, despite being described as one by her social worker: “Because there’s no such thing as a child prostitute. What there is, is child abuse.”</p>
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<p>In the wake of these scandals, there has been a step change in the way these kind of cases are handled. Most police forces and social services now have strategies to combat what is now termed “child sexual exploitation” and no longer talk in terms of child prostitution. But why has this taken so long, given that – as historical <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Gender_Justice_and_Welfare.html?id=7Rg2yPseYQcC&redir_esc=y">research</a>, including my own work, has highlighted – efforts to end ‘child prostitution’ in Britain date back well over a century?</p>
<h2>Victorian child sex laws</h2>
<p>In 1885, a journalist named W T Stead revealed the shocking extent of London’s child sex trade, calling <a href="http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo3684336.html">for new measures</a> to end the “sale, purchase and violation of children”. In a series of articles, he described the girls involved as “<a href="https://www.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://www.attackingthedevil.co.uk/images/part2_p.1.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.attackingthedevil.co.uk/pmg/tribute/mt2.php&h=1009&w=755&tbnid=dWSNttzftvOT_M:&tbnh=160&tbnw=119&usg=__Bbq5yU6sr3lIjpjdGdOYpADTgb0=&vet=10ahUKEwjQ84KCjdfVAhWrLMAKHZLtChkQ_B0IfDAK..i&docid=dn7QuOy2ZFYvJM&itg=1&client=firefox-b-ab&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjQ84KCjdfVAhWrLMAKHZLtChkQ_B0IfDAK">the maiden tribute to modern Babylon</a>” – or innocents sacrificed on the altar of Victorian sexual “double standards”. Building on earlier campaigns against child prostitution spearheaded by organisations such as the <a href="http://www.childrenshomes.org.uk/LA/">Ladies’ Association for the Care of Friendless Girls</a>, the ensuing public scandal around Stead’s articles contributed to the passing of the <a href="http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/private-lives/relationships/overview/sexualbehaviour19thcentury/">1885 Criminal Law Amendment Act</a>. This raised the age of consent for girls from 13 to 16, after which sex with a girl under 16 became a form of abuse liable to prosecution.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181993/original/file-20170814-27094-1fek813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181993/original/file-20170814-27094-1fek813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=814&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181993/original/file-20170814-27094-1fek813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=814&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181993/original/file-20170814-27094-1fek813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=814&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181993/original/file-20170814-27094-1fek813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1023&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181993/original/file-20170814-27094-1fek813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1023&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181993/original/file-20170814-27094-1fek813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1023&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">To the Victorians, prostitution was the ‘great social evil’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AThe_Great_Social_Evil%2C_Punch_1857.jpg">By John Leech (1857 Punch Magazine 33:114) via Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
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<p>But this important reform had little impact on public and professional attitudes. Young victims of abuse continued to be removed from their families and placed in moral rescue homes or church penitentiaries, some certified by the state as “special reformatories”. It was they, not the perpetrators, who were judged to require reform. </p>
<p>Prosecutions were rare. These girls were also separated from other vulnerable children because of fears that they would corrupt them. Some of these rescue homes were <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SxdaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false">formally reserved</a> for “girls with moral contamination and knowledge of evil”. Some 20th-century “approved schools” for young offenders and those in need of protection continued to be set aside as “treatment schools” for girls who had been sexually active or found to have a sexually transmitted infection. This continued into the 1940s. The message here was clear: sexually active girls were trouble, even if they were victims of abuse.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, the child sex trade continued. And the children involved continued to be cast as culpable for their involvement in it, even by many of those who had been newly employed to protect them. Women police officers, for example, were hired during and after World War I to develop new approaches to young offenders and victims. They routinely blurred these lines in ways that would have lasting consequences, not least in contributing to the professional paralysis that has underpinned Britain’s most recent child sexual exploitation scandals.</p>
<p>One of the first women to join the Metropolitan Police, Lilian Wyles, <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SxdaCwAAQBAJ&q=page+39#v=onepage&q=39&f=false">wrote</a> in her memoirs about her experiences of dealing with so-called “juvenile prostitution” in the 1930s and 1940s. She recalled one wartime case involving a “pretty, well-built” ten-year-old girl who “had discovered that she could earn money by hanging around the back doors of public houses and accosting half-drunk men as they came out”. She goes on that the girl “had marked down a disused air-raid shelter to which she would take these men who she had invited to assault her”. Wyles describes how “the small procuress” then gathered together and “coached” a small group of young girls to do the same, taking a substantial cut of their two shilling fee.</p>
<p>The idea that a ten-year-old could be held fully responsible for this situation stands as a tragic testament to the fact that 60 years after Stead’s intervention, girls like her were not seen as victims by either the public or by professionals. As recent <a href="http://www.historyandpolicy.org/projects/project/historical-child-sex-abuse">investigations</a> into historical sexual abuse have all too clearly shown, it was attitudes like this that allowed other serial abusers such as the TV celebrity Jimmy Savile to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/media/2014/jun/26/jimmy-savile-sexual-abuse-timeline">continue</a> to exploit vulnerable girls and boys.</p>
<h2>The ‘colour’ problem</h2>
<p>In addition to Lord Macdonald’s view that the latest Newcastle case was a “profoundly racist crime”, there has been speculation about why the authorities did not intervene more quickly in Rochdale, Newcastle and elsewhere. Some have suggested the authorities did not want to be seen to be “targeting” the Asian community in neighbourhoods where racial tensions were often already running high. </p>
<p>But historical examples suggest that this lack of intervention might be linked not only to professionals’ views of certain kinds of girls but to certain kinds of “mixed-race” relationships. In the past, poor white girls’ association with migrant men was often read as evidence of their “wayward” lifestyles.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/182253/original/file-20170816-32632-334dfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/182253/original/file-20170816-32632-334dfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/182253/original/file-20170816-32632-334dfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182253/original/file-20170816-32632-334dfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182253/original/file-20170816-32632-334dfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182253/original/file-20170816-32632-334dfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1134&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182253/original/file-20170816-32632-334dfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1134&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182253/original/file-20170816-32632-334dfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1134&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Wedding of Canton Kitty, from the book East in the West.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.thcatalogue.org.uk/">Tower Hamlets Local History Library and Archives. All rights reserved.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 1896, London City Missionaries involved in welfare work around the East End docks <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303924525_Race_Delinquency_and_Difference_in_Twentieth_Century_Britain">complained</a> that girls they knew as “Canton Kitty”, “Calcutta Louisa” and “Lascar Sally” were “turning parts of the city into perfect pest-spots” through “the commingling of the worst vices of East and West”. Three decades on, a <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-6443.2008.00336.x/full">report</a> in 1930 by social researcher Muriel Fletcher investigated Liverpool’s “colour problem” and concluded that there were four types of girl who “consorted” with “coloured men”. She listed these as those who already had an illegitimate child, those who were “mentally weak”, those already working as prostitutes, and young women looking for adventure. Fletcher recommended that special rescue homes be set up for them and their “half caste” illegitimate children.</p>
<p>Writing in the 1950s, sociologist Michael Banton <a href="http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/221821">explored</a> this theme further in his study of Stepney’s “coloured quarter” in the east end of London. He reported that the young white women living there and frequenting “coloured cafes” were known locally as “utilities” because of the sexual services they “offered” to migrant men. Banton believed that they “almost always [had] a family background of deprivation and rejection” and were “personally unstable [with] no settled residence”. </p>
<p>By no means all these young women were victims of abuse. But some were and their needs went unmet. While accounts by social scientists such as Banton were pioneering and helped pave the way for later studies of multicultural communities, they also contributed to a lasting stigmatisation of these young white women and their lifestyles.</p>
<p><a href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmselect/cmhaff/68/68i.pdf">Investigations</a> into child sexual exploitation rings in Rochdale and elsewhere suggest that the girls involved were effectively demonised by many agencies. They were <a href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmhansrd/cm121113/debtext/121113-0003.htm">viewed</a> by many in the police and social services as ‘chaotic’, cast as unruly, unreliable and unwilling to accept advice or support offered.</p>
<p>The UK has been trying to end child sexual exploitation and abuse since at least the 1880s. These efforts have foundered – in part because we have struggled for so long to see the young girls involved as victims with rights and needs and frequently failed to prosecute perpetrators. There is still a long way to go. </p>
<p><em>This article was updated on August 18 to correct that Rochdale is in Greater Manchester, not South Yorkshire.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82410/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pamela Cox receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council and the Leverhulme Trust. </span></em></p>For over a century, British authorities have ignored the exploitation of working-class girls.Pamela Cox, Professor of Sociology, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.