tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/classroom-teachers-16179/articlesClassroom Teachers – The Conversation2017-05-04T20:08:26Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/765692017-05-04T20:08:26Z2017-05-04T20:08:26ZTeachers shouldn’t have to manage behaviour issues by themselves – schools need to support them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167837/original/file-20170504-5995-m9qd9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's not always easy disciplining students.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most teachers will tell you that disciplining students is one of the toughest parts of their job. In fact, <a href="http://www.bass.edu.au/files/1113/5966/8129/Sullivan_BaSS__Punish_Them_or_Engage_Them_Technical_Report.pdf">53% of teachers are stressed because of students’ behaviour</a>. So what happens when teachers have tried everything and nothing seems to work? </p>
<p><a href="http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2356&context=ajte">New research</a> shows that teachers shouldn’t be left to manage discipline by themselves. It is more effective if staff are supported by the school and teachers work together to resolve student behaviour issues.</p>
<h2>What happens in the classroom?</h2>
<p><a href="http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2356&context=ajte">Our research</a> examined teachers’ perceptions of student behaviour in the classroom. The behaviours were grouped into three different types:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Low-level disruptive </p></li>
<li><p>Disengaged</p></li>
<li><p>Aggressive / antisocial behaviours.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>The research found that low-level disruptive and disengaged student behaviours occur frequently in classrooms. Teachers find these behaviours among the most difficult to manage.</p>
<p>Aggressive and violent behaviour in students is less common, but when it does happen <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Promoting-Early-Career-Teacher-Resilience-A-socio-cultural-and-critical/Johnson-Down-Le-Cornu-Peters-Sullivan-Pearce-Hunter-Day-Lieberman/p/book/9781138817388">teachers are often left feeling shocked and vulnerable</a>.</p>
<p>Understanding the nature of these different behaviours can guide schools to think about how they prevent them and respond in more nuanced and effective ways.</p>
<h2>What influences student behaviour?</h2>
<p>It is important to understand there are many <a href="http://www.bass.edu.au/index.php/download_file/view/50/109/">contextual factors that influence student behaviour</a>.</p>
<p>At the classroom level, teachers make many decisions that impact on student behaviour. For example, decisions about the physical layout (such as table layout, accessible pathways, access to resources), routines, class content (including how learning activities are designed) and teacher actions all affect student behaviour. </p>
<p>At the school level, staff beliefs about children can strongly guide what is considered “acceptable” ways of treating students. The school policies, the community and the architecture of the school can all impact on student behaviour.</p>
<h2>Why can’t teachers be solely responsible for behaviour?</h2>
<p>There is no simple resolution for problematic behaviour, and it is not possible to apply a blanket approach to all circumstances. This makes discipline in schools very complex.</p>
<p>Schools obviously need to be engaging and safe for students to learn. However, there is often a great focus on what happens in the classroom. This means teachers are often left to work with students in isolation and manage student behaviour issues by themselves. </p>
<p>When an issue becomes difficult to manage, teachers are often left with little choice but to remove the offending student from the learning environment.</p>
<p>A more <a href="http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-0628-9_11">helpful and sustainable approach</a> is for all the teachers who teach a specific student who is misbehaving or disengaged to discuss the best ways to approach the issue. The means that teachers are working together, rather than being left alone to deal with a problem that they are struggling to manage. </p>
<h2>What can schools do?</h2>
<p>Complex behaviours require complex solutions, and teachers know this. In a <a href="http://www.bass.edu.au/files/1113/5966/8129/Sullivan_BaSS__Punish_Them_or_Engage_Them_Technical_Report.pdf">survey</a>, teachers indicated that they think the three main ways to improve student behaviour are:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>establishing smaller classes</p></li>
<li><p>providing more opportunities for teachers to help each other with student behaviour problems</p></li>
<li><p>providing more staff training and development on ways to manage student behaviour.</p></li>
</ol>
<h2>How to tackle problematic behaviour</h2>
<p>A <a href="http://www.bass.edu.au/files/1914/1565/8195/Framework_for_Humane_Behaviour.pdf">study</a> that looked at how schools develop policies and practices to prevent behaviour problems found the following methods effective:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>School leaders should support teachers to solve the problem collaboratively, rather than simply solving it for them. </p></li>
<li><p>Often problem student behaviour is deferred to school leaders to resolve. This is problematic because the leader would be building a good relationship with that student instead of the teacher. This can be done better. For example, when a student is presenting challenging behaviour and the situation has escalated to the point where the teacher needs support, a colleague can take over teaching the class so the teacher can meet with the student to solve the problem.</p></li>
<li><p>When students appear disengaged, staff work in collaboration with students to support the professional learning needs of teachers and develop engaging learning environments.</p></li>
<li><p>Teachers focus on building meaningful relationships with students early in the year and then maintaining them. Students who feel that teachers care for them are more willing to engage in the learning activities.</p></li>
<li><p>Staff are committed and have support to enable them to follow up with students the day after if there has been an issue with behaviour. Teachers utilise behaviour management approaches that engage the student rather than punitive approaches that lead to alienation. </p></li>
<li><p>School leaders adopt a case management approach that ensures students with ongoing behaviour issues are always on the agenda. This case management approach involves a team of staff to find collaborative solutions. </p></li>
<li><p>Providing support to a case management team allows teachers to seek timely support from experts like psychologists, especially for students who exhibit challenging behaviour. </p></li>
<li><p>Schools provide time for teachers to call parents as soon as possible, rather than when they have time. This allows personal contact to discuss issues, rather than just informing parents of issues. One secondary school called this “beat the child home with a phone call to parents”.</p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76569/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Sullivan receives funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC). The research reported here was funded by an Australian Research Council Linkage Project (LP110100317) and financial and/or in-kind support was also provided by: the Department for Education and Child Development South Australia; Catholic Education South Australia; Association of Independent Schools South Australia; South Australian Secondary Principals Association; Association of Principals of Catholic Secondary Schools, South Australia; South Australian Primary Principals Association; and South Australian Catholic Primary Principals Association. She is Board Chair and Director of the Media Centre for Education Research Australia, and Executive member and Communications Coordinator for the Australian Association for Research in Education.</span></em></p>Leaving teachers to deal with challenging behaviour on their own can be unproductive and stressful.Anna Sullivan, Associate Professor of Education, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/740192017-04-11T01:51:24Z2017-04-11T01:51:24ZThe sound of inclusion: Why teachers’ words matter<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164489/original/image-20170407-3845-u88bp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=451%2C0%2C6125%2C3922&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Language matters in every class: English, math, history and science.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/classroom-learning-mathematics-students-study-concept-395032942">Rawpixel / Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There isn’t just one way to sound like a scientist, or to sound like a scholar. Scientists and scholars come from a wide variety of backgrounds and speak in different ways, in different accents, dialects and languages.</p>
<p>In classrooms across the U.S., students do too. No student (or teacher) leaves their language patterns at the door when they enter a classroom – even classes like math and science, where language is often seen as secondary.</p>
<p>For the past decade, as professors who study the role of language and culture in education, we’ve been working to help educators understand these dynamics across all subject areas. As the U.S. student population continues to <a href="http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/You-May-Also-Be-Interested-In-landing-page-level/Organizing-a-School-YMABI/The-United-States-of-education-The-changing-demographics-of-the-United-States-and-their-schools.html">rapidly diversify along cultural and linguistic lines</a>, the demographics of the teacher population remain stable at <a href="https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/2426481/the-state-of-teacher-diversity.pdf">roughly 82 percent white and predominantly female</a>. </p>
<p>How can educators make sure that teaching and learning in their diverse classrooms is effective and equitable? </p>
<p>Understanding how and why culture and communication matter in all areas of education – <a href="https://aaas.confex.com/aaas/2017/webprogram/Session15094.html">from science to the humanities</a> – is a critical starting point.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162721/original/image-20170327-3273-39j7c9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162721/original/image-20170327-3273-39j7c9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162721/original/image-20170327-3273-39j7c9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162721/original/image-20170327-3273-39j7c9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162721/original/image-20170327-3273-39j7c9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162721/original/image-20170327-3273-39j7c9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162721/original/image-20170327-3273-39j7c9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students from Higher Achievement (Richmond) tour the biology labs at William & Mary.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Anne Charity Hudley</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>When students don’t sound the same</h2>
<p>Students who speak differently can face a number of challenges at school.</p>
<p>Studies have found that at all levels of education, instructors often <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X035008030">favor students who sound like themselves</a> and can be biased against those who don’t. Educators might form negative assumptions about a student’s intelligence and ability based simply on how he or she talks, which can result in <a href="https://www.routledge.com/English-with-an-Accent-Language-Ideology-and-Discrimination-in-the-United/Lippi-Green/p/book/9780415559119">lowered expectations, stereotyping and discrimination</a>. Teachers sometimes also send messages, whether consciously or unconsciously, that a student’s language is <a href="http://thenewpress.com/books/skin-that-we-speak">wrong, dumb or out of place</a> at school.</p>
<p>For instance, consider what one mother told us about an interaction she witnessed in her son’s first grade classroom. One of the boys, who is African-American, was playing a game and realized he didn’t have the materials he needed. He raised his hand and said to the teacher, “I don’t got no dice.” His teacher immediately responded, “Joshua, we speak English in this class!” The mother was appalled and felt that this experience could discourage Joshua from speaking up at school.</p>
<p>When students absorb and internalize such messages, they can experience what linguist <a href="http://www.ling.upenn.edu/%7Ewlabov/home.html">William Labov</a> called “<a href="http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/1083.html">linguistic insecurity</a>” – feelings of anxiety and apprehension that can take root even at an early age.</p>
<p>These negative experiences with language and communication in the classroom can have a direct impact on students’ academic achievement. As early as kindergarten, students who come to school speaking in similar ways as their teachers are more likely to get ahead, whereas those who speak differently are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00744.x">more likely to fall behind</a>. These language-based educational inequalities <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Dialects-at-School-Educating-Linguistically-Diverse-Students/Reaser-Adger-Wolfram-Christian/p/book/9781138777453">disproportionately affect</a> African-American students and other students of color, English language learners and students who come from a social class or regional background that is different from that of their teacher.</p>
<p>As Joshua’s mother said to us, “There must be a better way to respond.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164491/original/image-20170407-7394-1veadu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164491/original/image-20170407-7394-1veadu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164491/original/image-20170407-7394-1veadu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164491/original/image-20170407-7394-1veadu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164491/original/image-20170407-7394-1veadu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164491/original/image-20170407-7394-1veadu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164491/original/image-20170407-7394-1veadu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What happens when a teacher doesn’t sound the same as her students?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-children-raised-their-hands-multi-248169208?src=tULU8tJbWtCpYFTX-XRsEw-1-73">Gagliardi Images / Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Putting language into the equation</h2>
<p>For the past decade, we’ve worked not only as <a href="https://charityhudleymallinson.com/book/">scholars</a> but as <a href="https://charityhudleymallinson.com/professionaldevelopment/">teacher trainers</a> as well. Some of our professional development workshops are geared toward a particular group of educators: those who teach K-12 science, technology, engineering and mathematics, also known as STEM.</p>
<p>In 2011, we began a <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=1050938">three-year study</a> with 60 K-12 STEM educators in Maryland and Virginia to explore how language can affect teaching and learning for STEM students, particularly for African-American youth. The teachers were eager to learn, but also to share experiences from their own classroom teaching about <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11422-016-9743-7">the role that language can play in STEM</a> – whether it’s answering a word problem in math, reading an engineering text or writing a lab report.</p>
<p>One of the biggest challenges is that, in STEM, word problems, questions, texts and directions often contain unfamiliar terms, both technical and nontechnical. In fact, nontechnical words can <a href="https://www.mheducation.co.uk/openup/chapters/0335205984.pdf">often be as problematic</a> as the more specialist terms of science. “It’s kind of like learning a language twice,” a geometry teacher said, because “the vocabulary can be so intense.”</p>
<p>And it’s not just vocabulary that matters; everyday classroom communication plays an important role, too. “We all use language,” one STEM teacher recognized, “whether it’s in the directions we give or the handouts we use.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164494/original/image-20170407-3845-u0kwxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164494/original/image-20170407-3845-u0kwxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164494/original/image-20170407-3845-u0kwxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164494/original/image-20170407-3845-u0kwxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164494/original/image-20170407-3845-u0kwxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164494/original/image-20170407-3845-u0kwxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164494/original/image-20170407-3845-u0kwxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Though STEM teachers receive little training when it comes to teaching and using language, communication is a vital part of every classroom.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/students-working-together-digital-tablet-build-432874750">DGLimages / Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What can we do right now?</h2>
<p>How can teachers make an immediate difference in their classes? For educators who want to know how to take this information and apply it directly to their teaching, there are relevant, accessible materials.</p>
<p><a href="https://languageandlife.org/">The Language and Life Project</a>, out of North Carolina State University, hosts a number of videos and podcasts about language.</p>
<p>In addition to <a href="https://charityhudleymallinson.com/">a comprehensive website</a>, we created a series of <a href="http://www.doetest.virginia.gov/instruction/english/literacy/language_culture.shtml">webinars</a> about the role of language in teaching and learning across the disciplines, as well as a <a href="https://baltimorelanguage.com/language-variation-in-the-classroom-podcast/">podcast</a> in which educators themselves describe how this information positively impacted their teaching and their relationships with students.</p>
<p>These materials can help teachers learn how to respond to students who speak differently, avoid cultural and linguistic bias on tests and design culturally supportive curricula.</p>
<p>In the course of our research, we also created a free iOS app (“<a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/valuable-voices/id1145710477?mt=8">Valuable Voices</a>”) for educators. The app provides a year of monthly classroom-ready exercises and activities, adaptable for elementary through high school students. One exercise introduces students to the concept of language change by analyzing the linguistic innovations of William Shakespeare. Another activity invites students to explore “linguistic landscapes,” or the language found in public places and spaces around them.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164493/original/image-20170407-31640-721tfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164493/original/image-20170407-31640-721tfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164493/original/image-20170407-31640-721tfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164493/original/image-20170407-31640-721tfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164493/original/image-20170407-31640-721tfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164493/original/image-20170407-31640-721tfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164493/original/image-20170407-31640-721tfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">With the right tools, teachers can incorporate language and culture into any classroom.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/97aGY8">World Bank Photo Collection / flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Language matters</h2>
<p>Good teaching relies on effective communication, whether it’s in English class, biology class or any subject in between. The words that teachers and students use, their meanings and their intentions are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00405849509543675">central to classroom interactions and dynamics</a>. Ensuring that students, peers and teachers from diverse backgrounds understand and communicate respectfully with each other is often just as important as helping students understand the material in their textbooks. </p>
<p>Language matters – not just for fostering mutual respect, but for making sure that every student has an equal opportunity to succeed.</p>
<p>As one high school algebra teacher who participated in our study pointed out:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Spending time showing students how their language is respected, and allowing them to have the skills to analyze different ways of speaking and writing, creates a classroom where we celebrate what we can each bring to our learning environment.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Simply put, she said, “It’s worth our time.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/74019/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christine Mallinson has received funding from the National Science Foundation under Grant #1050938/1051056 and the University of Maryland-Baltimore County, via a UMBC Dresher Center Summer Faculty Research Fellowship (2013–2014), a UMBC Special Research Assistantship/ Initiative Support award (2010–2011), and a UMBC Alex Brown Center for Entrepreneurship Course Initiative Grant (2008), as well as from the UMBC Office of the Vice Provost for Research and the College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences Office of the Dean. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anne Charity Hudley receives funding from the State Council of Higher Education in Virginia (SCHEV) Capstone English Project, Senior English Academy, and Visible Leaders grants; the QEP Mellon Initiative at the College of William & Mary; the College of William & Mary Community Studies Professorship, the William and Mary Class of 1952 Professorship, the National Science Foundation grants BCS-105105 and SES- 0930522, The Jessie Ball DuPont Charitable Foundation, the Bank of America Charitable Foundation Grant, the College of William and Mary and many generous individual donors to the William and Mary Scholar Undergraduate Research Experience. She is a volunteer with The Democratic Party of Virginia.</span></em></p>In English and science alike, every student and teacher brings his or her own language patterns to class. But how can educators make sure that language bias doesn’t harm student achievement?Christine Mallinson, Associate Professor of Language, Literacy, and Culture, University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyAnne Charity Hudley, Associate Professor of Education, English, and Linguistics, William & MaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/447852015-07-27T04:36:41Z2015-07-27T04:36:41ZImproving student teachers’ in-school experiences is a smart investment<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/89031/original/image-20150720-12527-1utm3t8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">South African teachers must operate in extremely varied socioeconomic conditions. Their practical training in schools needs to prepare them for this reality.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Nic Bothma</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For some student teachers, the compulsory practical period they spend in a school before qualifying is the highlight of their degree. </p>
<p>During this practicum period, which accounts for about 25% of student teachers’ time during their degree, they observe practising teachers and teach their own lessons. They get involved in school life. They experience the joys and tribulations of working with young people. </p>
<p>It can also be a stressful and negative time. Student teachers may receive inadequate mentoring and support or see other teachers acting as less than positive role models. These student teachers can become demoralised and even give up on the profession entirely. </p>
<p>Enrolments into teacher education programmes have significantly increased in recent years. But <a href="http://www.cde.org.za/teacher-supply-and-demand-2013-2025/">research suggests</a> that teacher shortages are still looming in some school phases and disciplines. How can the practicum period become such a universally positive experience that the profession doesn’t lose teachers where they are needed most?</p>
<h2>Creating new criteria</h2>
<p>Schools in South Africa operate in <a href="https://theconversation.com/private-vs-public-schools-its-not-a-simple-numbers-game-41899">hugely varied</a> socioeconomic and educational conditions. <a href="http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=lSvVL6UWSQ4%3D&tabid=628&mid=2065">Teacher education</a> must prepare student teachers for all of these contexts. </p>
<p>Many student teachers use their placement time to market themselves for a future post. Placements in different kinds of schools will ensure that young, enthusiastic teachers apply for positions across the social and geographical spectrum. </p>
<p>But the reality is that not all schools can offer the same quality of teaching and learning to their own pupils, nor the same quality of mentoring to student teachers. It becomes necessary, then, to identify criteria that universities can use for student teacher placements.</p>
<p>Research by the Department of Higher Education and Training has outlined what these criteria might be. The researchers interviewed school authorities, university academics and provincial departments of education in five of the <a href="http://www.southafrica.info/about/geography/provinces.htm#.VazrJvmqqko">country’s nine provinces</a> to create this list of criteria. </p>
<p>1) leadership and vision - includes characteristics like a positive ethos, a culture of teaching and learning and a caring, welcoming environment;</p>
<p>2) professionalism - this manifests in teachers who share knowledge and skills and are willing to learn;</p>
<p>3) functionality - includes a good work ethic and ethos, good internal and external channels of communication and an infrastructure which ensures that teaching can actually happen; </p>
<p>4) good teaching and learning - knowledge of the curriculum, positive learning outcomes and practices and processes that support learning; and,</p>
<p>5) resilience - the ability to prepare student teachers for different contexts and, most importantly, a commitment to ongoing teacher, pupil and student teacher growth. </p>
<p>This list offers a good starting point for selecting schools where student teachers can be placed. But the promotion of positive and diverse school experiences for student teachers also depends on factors beyond the school gates.</p>
<h2>Room for improvement</h2>
<p>Many schools complain that university education faculties don’t sufficiently communicate their expectations about student teachers’ responsibilities. They also don’t always explain what is required from the teachers who will act as mentors. </p>
<p>Where communication does exist, it very rarely offers opportunities for genuine and sustained dialogue between teachers and university lecturers. </p>
<p>They have no chance to discuss things like the purpose and design of the teacher education programme or how to judge the professional competence of a novice teacher. This minimises the chance for teacher education to combine insights from theory and practice in mutually productive ways.</p>
<p>Schools and universities have a strong, impressive history of being willing to support student teaching. But a range of broader policies and strategies could facilitate even more positive relationships between schools and universities. This will ultimately help to promote diverse experiences for student teachers.</p>
<p>These policies could include <a href="http://www.equaleducation.org.za/content/2013/09/26/New-draft-norms-and-standards_12-September-2013.pdf">norms and standards</a> for proper school infrastructure and interventions designed to improve the levels of safety and security in all communities.</p>
<p>Time must be set aside in the crowded school timetable for mentor teachers to meet with student teachers rather than the often rushed way in which such engagements happen.</p>
<p>Designated funding for transport and student accommodation would also enable students to travel beyond the comfort zones of their own neighbourhoods, or the neighbourhood of the - usually urban - university. </p>
<p>We need novice teachers to feel supported and enthusiastic about the professional path they have chosen. They have to appreciate the complexity of teaching and understand what it takes to be a teacher in urban, rural, rich or poor contexts. </p>
<p>By building the capacity of schools and universities across the spectrum to engage actively and positively in teacher preparation, we will be making an essential contribution to a quality education system for all in our country. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Author’s note: This article is based on research commissioned by the Department of Higher Education and Training as part of a national strategy to improve the quality of education in the country. The full report – Teaching and learning together: the establishment of Professional Practice schools in South Africa – can be obtained from Abigail Nkoe on Nkoe.A@dhet.gov.za.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/44785/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maureen Robinson has received grant funding from the Department of Higher Education and Training to conduct the research reported on here. No personal funds were accrued to the researchers. </span></em></p>There are a number of ways to improve the experience that student teachers have while completing their compulsory practical period in a school.Maureen Robinson, Dean, Faculty of Education, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/426242015-06-23T04:42:16Z2015-06-23T04:42:16ZBeing seen as well as heard can transform children’s lives<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/84852/original/image-20150612-1481-11qpyop.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children need to get involved in classroom decisions that affect them, rather than just answering questions when prompted to do so.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Thomas Mukoya /Reuters</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Children thrive when they are allowed to get involved in making decisions and given space to ask questions about things that concern them. They <a href="http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/Putting_Children_at_the_Centre_final_%282%29_1.pdf">learn</a> to communicate well and believe in themselves. This is particularly true in a classroom setting.</p>
<p>The concept of participation is multi-dimensional and has been interpreted in many different ways. At its simplest, participation is about allowing children to get involved in making decisions that affect their own lives. For instance, this will involve the teacher giving children a say in how one area in a classroom should be set up. </p>
<p>But some teachers and other adults still believe that children should be seen rather than heard. Children are not encouraged to ask questions in class, or are urged to respond only to a teacher’s instructions. </p>
<h2>How teachers view participation</h2>
<p>In South Africa, <a href="http://www.southafrica.info/services/education/edufacts.htm#02">Grade R</a> – also known as the reception year – is the entry year into the foundation phase of primary schooling. Children are four or five when they enter Grade R.</p>
<p>There is a great deal of research which shows <a href="http://magazine.good.is/articles/why-early-childhood-education-matters">how valuable</a> early childhood education is to overall learning and development. As with many countries’ school systems, the major focus in South Africa is on ensuring that children can be promoted to the following grade. This means that even in Grade R there is little or no emphasis on child participation. Instead, teachers are trying to prepare their young learners for entry into Grade 1.</p>
<p>Part of my research was into how Grade R teachers understood child participation and how – or if – it was implemented in their classrooms. Five Grade R teachers who worked at public and independent (private) schools in the Western Cape province were interviewed. </p>
<p>It was found that teachers’ beliefs about child participation are not standardised and universal. They are socially, culturally and contextually constructed. The context in which teachers grow up and their own memories of childhood have a bearing on their ideas on childhood, images of children and their notions of child participation. </p>
<p>It’s not just teachers who are reluctant to prioritise child participation. Some student teachers at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology told me they viewed child participation as a challenge or problem. They were worried that if they let children get more involved, discipline would suffer, especially in overcrowded classrooms. There are <a href="http://www.childrencount.ci.org.za/indicator.php?id=6&indicator=44">supposed to be</a> 40 learners per teacher in primary schools, but <a href="http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Overcrowding-at-6-000-schools-20080113">in reality</a> that figure is often far higher. </p>
<p>Most student teachers have also never seen what active child participation looks like during their teaching practice sessions. They struggle to imagine how it could be productive or constructive.</p>
<h2>Children love to take charge</h2>
<p>The children I observed showed the highest levels of participation during <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2014/06/how-finland-keeps-kids-focused/373544/">free play time</a>, which is when they are given the chance to choose what they’d like to play with, and where.</p>
<p>They showed great agency, shaping their own agendas and displaying strong levels of assertiveness. They proved to be skillful negotiators and, through imaginative play, displayed strong levels of agency. </p>
<p>As soon as teachers were present, though, the adults took on an instructive role, made decisions and expressed their opinions. The teachers didn’t see the value of and the rich meanings that emanated from the children’s participation.</p>
<p>Initially I hoped to talk to children about what they liked and disliked and what they were doing, but this proved to be difficult. This has led me to think about new ways of researching <em>with</em> children in future endeavours.</p>
<h2>Where to from here</h2>
<p>This research makes it clear that a paradigm shift is needed. Teachers need to listen to their young learners and value their opinions. Children must have the space to make decisions about issues that affect them. These imperatives are already <a href="http://www.unicef.org/crc/files/Rights_overview.pdf">enshrined</a> in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, of which South Africa is a signatory.</p>
<p>If this paradigm shift occurs it will enhance learning and this can ultimately help shape a new citizenry. It will also bring South Africa into line with the approaches of countries like <a href="https://www.msd.govt.nz/documents/about-msd-and-our-work/publications-resources/archive/2003-involving-children.pdf">New Zealand</a>, Australia, the <a href="http://www.participationworks.org.uk/about-us">UK</a> and Portugal. They are all serious advocates of listening to children and subscribe to ways of teaching that encourage participation.</p>
<p>This can only happen if teachers are trained to improve their approach to teaching. They must learn what child participation actually means and how to invite it into their classrooms. It’s also important that parents embrace the concept of participation and come to understand how it can help their children to learn and develop.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/42624/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Naseema Shaik received funding from the National Research Foundation for the research discussed here.</span></em></p>At its simplest, participation is about allowing children to get involved in making decisions that affect their own lives and their own learning experiences.Naseema Shaik, Lecturer, Language in Education, Cape Peninsula University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/394212015-04-17T10:13:52Z2015-04-17T10:13:52ZIs your kid having fun reading? Here are some tips<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/78116/original/image-20150415-31684-1a8jb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Reading for pleasure helps kids in a number of ways</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&searchterm=reading%20kids&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=116522560">Girl Image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Not being able to read is a problem but so is not liking to read. </p>
<p>Reading for pleasure has been linked to growth across many domains, including greater <a href="http://jlr.sagepub.com/content/36/1/1.full.pdf+html">reading confidence, gains in general knowledge and insights</a> that help disrupt <a href="http://www.dailytexanonline.com/2015/02/09/guests-wear-ponchos-sombreros-and-construction-gear-at-border-patrol-fraternity-party">negative stereotypes</a>. Engagement with books <a href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/novel-finding-reading-literary-fiction-improves-empathy/">not only improves social relationships but also builds empathy</a>.</p>
<p>However, with the current focus on tests and scores even at pre-K, kindergarten and first-grade levels, the tendency is to care more about ability than enjoyment. </p>
<p>The truth is, for most part, they are coupled together.</p>
<p>As former classroom teachers, we recognize how reading for pleasure builds not only reading skills but also leads to personal development. Our research has only confirmed this belief. </p>
<h2>Children are not reading for pleasure</h2>
<p>We know a large number of kids are unable to reach the basic proficiency level in reading. </p>
<p>According to the 2013 data of the <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/">National Center for Education Statistics</a>, often called the <a href="http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/subject/publications/main2013/pdf/2014451.pdf">nation’s report card</a>, 32% of fourth graders and 22% of eighth graders were reading below the basic level of proficiency. </p>
<p>Pressures of testing have not helped. Instead, they have taken the joy out of reading.</p>
<p>Over the last 13 years, there has been an increase in the number of <a href="http://www.ecs.org/clearinghouse/01/03/47/10347.pdf">states</a> that have enacted legislation on retention (or holding back a year) policies for students who do not meet literacy standards, with 32 states and Washington DC now requiring reading tests in elementary school. </p>
<p>In many Texas elementary schools, kids’ literacy scores are publicly posted. <a href="http://ismychildready.org/testing-tips">Parents are given goals and advice</a> on how to <a href="http://smartsclub.net/top-ten-strategies-to-improve-your-staar-scores/#.VS_dABPF8Yc">increase score</a>. As a result, the scope of what gets taught <a href="http://neatoday.org/2014/09/02/the-testing-obsession-and-the-disappearing-curriculum-2/">narrows</a> down. </p>
<p>Such pressures haven’t quite helped improve <a href="http://jte.sagepub.com/content/51/5/384.shor">learning</a>. In fact, parents report high anxiety and nervousness levels in their children as a result of testing. These pressures have an impact on teaching as well. </p>
<p>Teachers have been <a href="http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ818685">found</a> to teach to the tests, foregoing development of reading comprehension and more holistic reading habits. </p>
<p>Reading for pleasure could actually make a difference. Evidence suggests that kids who are highly engaged with books <a href="http://jlr.sagepub.com/content/36/1/1.full.pdf+html">perform better</a> on school measures, because they learn to enjoy reading.</p>
<h2>Make reading a fun, social activity</h2>
<p>So, how could we get our kids to enjoy reading? </p>
<p>Here are some ideas based on <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2vhQAwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA403&dq=affect+and+reading+engagement&ots=lVe9wypeeP&sig=javI6CnVyaG1V0MQXgGpHBPqpXE#v=onepage&q=affect%20and%20reading%20engagement&f=false">our survey of reading research</a> on how to get started with young children, new readers and even experienced but disengaged readers. </p>
<p>To <a href="http://link.springer.com.ezproxy.lib.utexas.edu/article/10.1023/A%3A1021253319248">draw young children</a> into reading, try <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15326985ep3202_2#.VSVxYxPF8Yd">building routines</a> for reading together like before bed or after bath time.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/78117/original/image-20150415-19648-wld9pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/78117/original/image-20150415-19648-wld9pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78117/original/image-20150415-19648-wld9pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78117/original/image-20150415-19648-wld9pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78117/original/image-20150415-19648-wld9pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78117/original/image-20150415-19648-wld9pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78117/original/image-20150415-19648-wld9pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You could help develop a love for reading in your kids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&searchterm=reading%20kids&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=143450008">Parent image via www. shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Making reading a social activity can also help engage young readers. So read with other family members, such as older siblings.</p>
<p>Young readers also enjoy reading the same stories over and over, and referring to characters during the day helps to build connections and literate lives.</p>
<p>For new or disengaged readers, a good place to start is by <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15326985ep3202_2#.VSVxYxPF8Yd">reading to them</a> at least as much as they read to you. </p>
<p>When they are reading to you, remember that reading aloud at home should be about pleasure rather than accuracy; don’t correct more than a couple of words as they read. </p>
<p>You may also want to make space for them to tell you stories from the pictures; that is an important reading skill too. </p>
<p>Like with young readers, read favorite books over and over again. Repeated readings help readers recognize words quickly and automatically. </p>
<p>Find urgent reasons for reading, like signs, recipes, or directions for putting a toy together. </p>
<p>Remember, all books are good books, even if they don’t seem sophisticated. Kids will get bored and move on eventually. </p>
<h2>Work towards reading for pleasure</h2>
<p>When children are not reading as might be expected for their grade, it can be really hard on their confidence and identities as readers. It might also lead to concern amongst parents about their child.</p>
<p>In a society that is increasingly being built on an idea-driven economy, at least paying attention and working towards enjoyment and pleasure of reading - not just the ability to read - may help in other areas of social and school life.</p>
<p>So, make reading about enjoyment, not about the technicalities of testing.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39421/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michiko Hikida is affiliated with the American Education Research Association and the Literacy Research Association.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Keys Adair does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When kids read for pleasure they build empathy and improve social relationships. Here’s how you could inculcate a love for reading in your kids.Michiko Hikida, PhD Student at University of Texas, The University of Texas at AustinJennifer Keys Adair, Assistant Professor of Early Childhood Education, The University of Texas at AustinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.