tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/cloud-technology-39169/articlesCloud technology – The Conversation2019-09-17T04:25:01Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1233592019-09-17T04:25:01Z2019-09-17T04:25:01ZApple Arcade and Google Stadia aim to offer frictionless gaming, if your NBN plan can handle it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292734/original/file-20190917-19059-xioc33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C21%2C2035%2C1339&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Google's Stadia will be available through the Google Chrome web browser, on smartphones, smart televisions, tablets, and through Chromecast.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stadia_Cloud_gaming_Gamescom_Cologne_2019_(48605890597).jpg">dronepicr/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Two of the biggest tech companies in the world, Apple and Google, are launching cloud-based gaming services this year. </p>
<p>Apple Arcade, due for release in two days, will ultimately go head-to-head with Google’s Stadia when the latter launches in November. And both will also be battling a surprising foe: friction.</p>
<p>In this context, “friction” means anything that increases inconvenience for the user. Friction makes you take extra steps, think more than necessary, or work harder to get the service you want. In designing a gaming platform, friction is bad. </p>
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<p>Both companies will attempt to reduce friction by using <a href="https://azure.microsoft.com/en-au/overview/what-is-cloud-computing/">cloud technology</a> to store digital resources and services on their own servers, and deliver them to clients through the internet. </p>
<p>The game files will thus be stored and shared in much the same way that documents or photos are currently handled via DropBox, Google Drive, and Apple’s iCloud.</p>
<p>Specifically, Apple Arcade will use a model called “infrastructure as a service”. As long as you have an Apple device, you can play hundreds of games at any time, from any location, including offline (once you’ve downloaded the game). </p>
<p>This model outsources the problem of data storage to remote data centres around the world. The user’s device remains responsible for the operating system, maintenance of the software (such as <a href="https://www.techopedia.com/definition/24537/patch">patches</a> and graphics drivers) and real-time processing of data.</p>
<p>Google Stadia is planning to use a slightly different model, called “platform as a service”. This means Google will take care of all the maintenance and processing requirements too, so the user’s device acts only as a receptacle for hosting the application and user data.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292149/original/file-20190912-190031-15mafrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292149/original/file-20190912-190031-15mafrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292149/original/file-20190912-190031-15mafrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292149/original/file-20190912-190031-15mafrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292149/original/file-20190912-190031-15mafrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292149/original/file-20190912-190031-15mafrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292149/original/file-20190912-190031-15mafrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292149/original/file-20190912-190031-15mafrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Google’s Stadia has a ‘platform as a service’ model which requires the user to maintain only certain aspects of data and the application on their device.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Laura Bernheim / Author provided</span></span>
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<h2>Budget-friendly gaming?</h2>
<p>Both services will use a flat rate, monthly subscription model to let users play a multitude of games that would otherwise cost hundreds, if not thousands, of dollars. </p>
<p>For Apple Arcade all games are included in this fee, but you need suitable Apple hardware. </p>
<p>Ambitiously, Google’s Stadia promises to eradicate the limitation of hardware cost. Google will handle the hardware requirements, software processing and maintenance. </p>
<p>Instead of needing an expensive PC with the latest hardware and software, or dedicated gaming console, Stadia users simply need an inexpensive computing device such as a phone, Chromecast, or smart TV. All of the heavier processing requirements will be handled by Google, and the games simply beamed to your device. </p>
<p>However, unlike Apple Arcade, Stadia requires payment for individual games (neither of the services will have in-app purchases requiring additional payment).</p>
<p>When it comes to mobility, both Stadia and Apple Arcade will offer gameplay across multiple devices, from any location with all progress saved. </p>
<p>Sounds great right? What could possibly be the downside of these services?</p>
<p>We should heed culture critic Neil Postman’s <a href="https://mcluhangalaxy.wordpress.com/2012/03/04/neil-postman-on-technologys-faustian-bargain/">warning regarding technology</a>:</p>
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<p>New technology is a kind of Faustian bargain. It always gives us something, but it always takes away something important. That’s true of the alphabet, and the printing press, and telegraph, right up through the computer.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The Faustian bargain in this context involves privacy and data, connectivity, and user control. </p>
<h2>Privacy and data</h2>
<p>As with any network technology, as soon as you opt into Apple Arcade or Google Stadia, your data becomes part of their system. </p>
<p>In digital games, it’s possible to track all kinds of user behaviour as you play. </p>
<p>While this might not lead to the building of psychological profiles and user manipulation on the scale of the Facebook <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/mar/17/facebook-cambridge-analytica-kogan-data-algorithm">Cambridge Analytica scandal</a>, Google and other Silicon Valley giants have <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/should-big-tech-own-our-personal-data/">an awful record of respecting user privacy</a>.</p>
<h2>Network connectivity</h2>
<p>Bad internet connection? Sorry, you’re out. </p>
<p>If you opt for Apple Arcade, this is less of a problem as you can download the game and play offline, but depending on your connection it can take minutes or hours before you can start playing - and let’s hope you don’t have a monthly data limit.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, to achieve 4K resolution streaming using Stadia, you require a steady flow of 20 megabits per second (Mbps). This will require a National Broadband Network (NBN) connection, but the <a href="https://www.whistleout.com.au/Broadband/Guides/what-nbn-speed-do-you-need">entry-level NBN plan achieves a meagre 7Mpbs average</a>.</p>
<p>Even for 720p resolution, <a href="https://www.videosolo.com/tutorials/screen-resolution-comparison.html">which barely qualifies as high-definition</a>, you need 10Mbps. Simply put, you’re going to need to pay for an upper-tier NBN plan, assuming that’s even possible in your area.</p>
<h2>Mods and extras</h2>
<p>Apple Arcade and Google Stadia also remove the potential for mods in gaming. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.pcgamer.com/au/a-beginners-guide-to-mods/">Mods</a> (an abbreviation of “user modification”) are extensions that offer new levels, items, quests, or characters. These are made by amateur game developers and made available, generally for free, across the internet on various platforms such as Valve’s Steam.</p>
<p>The mod scene has had an <a href="https://www.polygon.com/2013/9/2/4672920/moba-dota-arts-a-brief-introduction-to-gamings-biggest-most">enormous influence</a> on gaming culture. The World of Warcraft 3 mod, Defense of the Ancients (DotA), popularised the now enormously successful Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA) genre. Counter-Strike began as a mod for Half-Life.</p>
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<p>Both Apple Arcade and Google’s Stadia operate as closed systems, not allowing user modification in any substantial way. Any mod scene for these services is, at the moment, impossible by design.</p>
<p>And although Google is an enormous company, if the Stadia service is cancelled, all of its users will lose their individual game purchases.</p>
<h2>A frictionless bargain?</h2>
<p>We all want less friction in our lives. </p>
<p>We want things to be easy and accessible. In this sense, cloud technology offers a seductive bargain, encapsulated in one of Apple’s slogans: “it just works”. </p>
<p>Yet, in pursuit of things “just working”, we make sacrifices. We offer up our privacy, data and control.</p>
<p>The question becomes, what are we willing to lose in striking this bargain? Because, as Neil Postman reminds us, we will always lose something.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123359/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven Conway does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Google’s Stadia and Apple Arcade will rattle the gaming world this year. Both aim to solve current limitations, but as user experience improves, issues around connectivity and cost arise.Steven Conway, Senior Lecturer - Games and Interactivity, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/900002018-01-25T11:38:06Z2018-01-25T11:38:06ZHow secure is your data when it’s stored in the cloud?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203255/original/file-20180124-107963-zzxb0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Is this cloud secure?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/safety-concept-cloud-storage-data-571211755">SWEviL/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As cloud storage becomes more common, data security is an increasing concern. Companies and schools have been increasing their use of services like <a href="https://www.google.com/drive/">Google Drive</a> for some time, and <a href="https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20170614005856/en/92.48-Billion-Cloud-Storage-Market---Forecasts">lots of individual users also store files</a> on <a href="http://dropbox.com/">Dropbox</a>, <a href="http://box.com/">Box</a>, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/clouddrive">Amazon Drive</a>, <a href="https://onedrive.live.com/about/en-us/">Microsoft OneDrive</a> and the like. They’re no doubt concerned about keeping their information private – and millions more users might store data online if they were <a href="http://www.securityweek.com/it-pros-still-concerned-over-public-cloud-security-survey">more certain of its security</a>.</p>
<p>Data stored in the cloud is nearly always <a href="https://computer.howstuffworks.com/cloud-computing/cloud-storage3.htm">stored in an encrypted form</a> that would need to be cracked before an intruder could read the information. But as a <a href="https://www.csee.umbc.edu/%7Ehbzhang/">scholar of cloud computing and cloud security</a>, I’ve seen that where the keys to that encryption are held varies among cloud storage services. In addition, there are relatively simple ways users can boost their own data’s security beyond what’s built into systems they use.</p>
<h2>Who holds the keys?</h2>
<p>Commercial cloud storage systems encode each user’s data with a specific encryption key. Without it, the files look like gibberish – rather than meaningful data.</p>
<p>But who has the key? It can be stored either by the service itself, or by individual users. Most services keep the key themselves, letting their systems see and process user data, such as indexing data for future searches. These services also access the key when a user logs in with a password, unlocking the data so the person can use it. This is much more convenient than having users keep the keys themselves.</p>
<p>But it is also less secure: Just like regular keys, if someone else has them, they might be stolen or misused without the data owner knowing. And some services might have <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_Dropbox">flaws in their security practices</a> that leave users’ data vulnerable.</p>
<h2>Letting users keep control</h2>
<p>A few less popular cloud services, including <a href="https://mega.nz/">Mega</a> and <a href="https://spideroak.com/">SpiderOak</a>, require users to upload and download files through service-specific client applications that include encryption functions. That extra step lets users keep the encryption keys themselves. For that additional security, users forgo some functions, such as being able to search among their cloud-stored files. </p>
<p>These services aren’t perfect – there’s still a possibility that their own apps might be compromised or hacked, allowing an intruder to read your files either before they’re encrypted for uploading or after being downloaded and decrypted. An encrypted cloud service provider could even embed functions in its specific app that could leave data vulnerable. And, of course, if a user loses the password, the data is irretrievable. </p>
<p>One new mobile app says it can keep phone photos <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/pixek-app-encrypts-photos-from-camera-to-cloud/">encrypted from the moment they’re taken</a>, through transmission and storage in the cloud. Other new services may arise offering similar protection for other types of data, though users should still be on guard against the potential for information to be hijacked in the few moments after the picture is taken, before it’s encrypted and stored. </p>
<h2>Protecting yourself</h2>
<p>To maximize cloud storage security, it’s best to combine the features of these various approaches. Before uploading data to the cloud, first encrypt it using your own encryption software. Then upload the encoded file to the cloud. To get access to the file again, log in to the service, download it and decrypt it yourself. </p>
<p>This, of course, prevents users from taking advantage of many cloud services, like live editing of shared documents and searching cloud-stored files. And the company providing the cloud services could still modify the data, by altering the encrypted file before you download it. </p>
<p>The best way to protect against that is to use <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-44448-3_41">authenticated</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/937527.937529">encryption</a>. This method stores not only an encrypted file, but additional metadata that lets a user detect whether the file has been modified since it was created.</p>
<p>Ultimately, for people who don’t want to <a href="https://www.cryptopp.com/">learn how</a> <a href="https://www.openssl.org">to program</a> <a href="https://pypi.python.org/pypi/pycryptodome">their own tools</a>, there are two basic choices: Find a cloud storage service with trustworthy upload and download software that is open-source and has been validated by independent security researchers. Or use trusted open-source encryption software to encrypt your data before uploading it to the cloud; these are available for all operating systems and are generally free or very low-cost.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90000/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Haibin Zhang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Storing data in the cloud is convenient, but how secure is it? And what are users’ options for stepping up their data security?Haibin Zhang, Assistant Professor of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/815182017-08-17T10:16:25Z2017-08-17T10:16:25ZIt’s time to start thinking about our digital carbon footprint<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181364/original/file-20170808-22975-1e0he87.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source"> FreeProd33/shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The media is at the forefront of generating awareness over environmental issues. It is easy to name influential films like <a href="https://theconversation.com/al-gore-qanda-and-video-interview-fixing-democracy-to-combat-climate-change-82426">An Inconvenient Truth</a> or note advances made by The Guardian’s environmental reporting. But what is often missing from this discussion is the environmental costs of producing media in the first place.</p>
<p>Whether these be the energy that powers Al Gore’s visually stunning presentations or the materials – wood pulp, ink, detergents, cleansing solvents – required for printing a newspaper, there are considerable environmental costs involved. The media industry has slowly come to realise these costs, often as a result of prodding from NGOs like Greenpeace or in the form of policy (such as the BBC <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2017/albert-calculator?lang=cy">requiring carbon reporting</a> for all its productions). The print sector has <a href="http://www.almamedia.fi/en/about-us/sustainability/environment">elaborate mechanisms</a> in place to use recycled paper and minimise the use of harmful toxins. Similarly, the film and television sectors have started to develop carbon calculators to allow productions to assess – and curtail – their emissions.</p>
<p>To date, emissions reductions have focused on materials and practices that adhere to the traditional production pipelines for different sectors. The newspaper industry focuses on paper; broadcasting on the travel of journalists and crew; the film industry on production management.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181363/original/file-20170808-22982-1w29d66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181363/original/file-20170808-22982-1w29d66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181363/original/file-20170808-22982-1w29d66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181363/original/file-20170808-22982-1w29d66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181363/original/file-20170808-22982-1w29d66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181363/original/file-20170808-22982-1w29d66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181363/original/file-20170808-22982-1w29d66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Changing times.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">laetiferrero/flickr</span></span>
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<p>But of course, most of the operations of contemporary media companies are now thoroughly digital. Films are shot on digital cameras, online workflows allow for centralised management of editing, newspapers are increasingly accessed online. Contemporary digital media is pervasive and proliferating, and raises fundamental questions over the capabilities of the industry to account for its environmental impact by focusing largely on traditional production methods. </p>
<p>Indeed, when these companies observe their environmental performance, digital operations often present a daunting challenge. <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Sustainable-Media-Critical-Approaches-to-Media-and-Environment/Starosielski-Walker/p/book/9781138014060">Academic work</a> on the <a href="https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/a-geology-of-media">production</a> and <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/greening-the-media-9780199914678?cc=us&lang=en&">delivery of</a> digital <a href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/finite-media">content</a> as well as on the devices on which they are accessed has been conducted. Yet this discussion has not penetrated the public consciousness or even parts of the industry.</p>
<h2>The digital footprint</h2>
<p>Many assume that digital media is more environmentally friendly than traditional forms. Take publishing – there’s far less paper used, right? The publisher Schibsted, for example, <a href="http://www.schibsted.com/en/Annual-Report-2015/Sustainability/Our-enviromental-footprint/">argues</a> that the move to digital has reduced its emissions by more than 50% from 2009 to 2015. Yet it is not always clear what to include within these measurements. Schibsted has, for example, focused on the type and volume of energy needed to power devices in terms of reading time. But other considerations, such as the use of files and access to cloud services, provide more complex challenges.</p>
<p>Cloud services provide endless backups which are seen and marketed as a way to ensure one’s data is preserved indefinitely against disruption. But increasing information flow from servers to terminal devices and using remote hosting can lead to a considerable increase in the amount of <a href="http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/publications/reports/make-it-green-cloud-computing/">energy used</a>. Certainly, they provide for efficient corporate conduct and management of information, but they are also a quintessential example of anthropocentric logic. The image of the immaterial cloud ignores the grounded realities of the data centres, still often at least partially powered by coal.</p>
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<span class="caption">Cloud data storage.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scanrail1/Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>The Guardian picked up on these debates in 2015 and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global/blog/2015/nov/13/digital-revolution-environmental-sustainable">commissioned extensive research</a> on the publishing sector. It draws on studies that suggest that the internet accounts for <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/net-to-drain-all-britains-power-prm2qx8czp0">8% of the total energy consumption</a> in the UK. Greenpeace <a href="http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/wp-content/uploads/legacy/Global/usa/planet3/PDFs/clickingclean.pdf">estimates</a> that the ICT sector comprises 2% of global emissions – on par with the <a href="http://www.atag.org/facts-and-figures.html">airline industry</a>. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://www.vtt.fi/inf/julkaisut/muut/2013/vtt-cr-02104-13.pdf">study</a> by the VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland estimates that digital content production comprises, at the high end of estimates, 50% of the total climate emissions of newspaper publications. The majority of emissions are generated by consumer choices in accessing said content (going as high as 87% of total emissions from online publications). These depend on the particularities of the devices used, the electricity mix powering data servers, the grid which consumers use to access data, their means of downloading/streaming content (wifi vs ethernet), and how much time they spend reading the material. </p>
<h2>Concerns and solutions</h2>
<p>Any attempt to understand the digital emissions of a publisher would therefore rely on an overwhelming number of factors and variables including reader habits, data farms, internet service providers, device manufacturers, and the operations of the media companies themselves. And most difficult of all, 50% or more of these emissions take place outside of the control of the media company.</p>
<p>These concerns are not only prominent in the publishing sector. Calculating the total emissions of a company like the BBC or 20th Century Fox is even more complex. The problems for the industry are to do with not only agreeing on similar notions of transparency and common standards of accounting, but also of collecting data from sources far outside their remit.</p>
<p>There are no definitive ways to calculate and assess the footprint of digital media – as there arguably has been with more traditional production methods. The problem is that tracing material emissions extends all the way down the supply chain for media production and beyond to consumption practices, including how often a file is accessed and on what kind of devices.</p>
<p>When compared to heavy industry, the footprint of media production is small. But as the use of digital proliferates, our digital footprint can and will have consequences – and we should work out how to measure this sooner rather than later.</p>
<p>Sectors such as publishing may have alleviated environmental concerns by turning attention to recycled paper and suchlike. But the seeming immateriality of digital calls for much more extensive attention to the sector’s footprint. The proliferation of digital media necessitates urgent self reflection and regulation as well as the establishment of much firmer and more comprehensive policies to address these emissions. </p>
<p>The question of responsibility is clearly a tortuous one when 50% of these emissions take place outside of the control of the media company. Cross-sectional collaboration is required here, but the impetus for this goes back to the media company as well as the wider policy environment. Environmental sustainability may soon no longer be a marginal inconvenience (or a tool to generate positive PR), but emerge as a strategic, financial priority.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/81518/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pietari Kaapa has received funding from the British Academy. </span></em></p>The traditional media industry comes with a large environmental cost, but emissions from digital productions are often ignored.Pietari Kaapa, Associate Professor in Media and Communications, University of WarwickLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/779582017-05-31T20:09:21Z2017-05-31T20:09:21ZFrom botnet to malware: a guide to decoding cybersecurity buzzwords<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170710/original/file-20170524-5749-wzqqp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cybersecurity jargon can be intimidating, but it needn't be.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/software-web-developer-programming-codejavascript-abstract-586997042?src=WOJxiNenebQvATnrh1pumw-1-24">www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Words like worm, trojan horse and zombie may seem like the stuff of science fiction, but they’re part of the reality of life online.</p>
<p>Now that we communicate, work and entertain ourselves on the internet, these familiar terms start to take on new meaning. They’re just a few of the cybersecurity threats we face.</p>
<p>While most of us would rather leave the problem to the IT department, it’s essential we all have an understanding of cybersecurity so we can protect ourselves, and that means understanding some key terms. </p>
<p>This glossary, which is by no means exhaustive, is a first step.</p>
<h2>The cybersecurity glossary</h2>
<p><strong>Backup:</strong> Ensuring all important data is stored in a secure, offline location to protect it from being lost, if a computer is hacked. It’s important to routinely copy files to <a href="https://www.jbhifi.com.au/computers-tablets/storage/">a USB flash drive</a>, for example, or secure them in cloud storage.</p>
<p><strong>Blackhat hacker:</strong> A person who uses programming skills to cause damage to a computer system, steal data and in general conduct illegal cyber activities.</p>
<p><strong>Botnet:</strong> A grouping of computer systems, potentially anywhere in the world, that has been infected by a malicious piece of software. This software allows them to be networked together by the hacker (or bot-herder), giving them full control of all the “bots” in the network to conduct malicious tasks, including denial of service attacks (see below).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170729/original/file-20170524-5786-bewtr3.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170729/original/file-20170524-5786-bewtr3.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170729/original/file-20170524-5786-bewtr3.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170729/original/file-20170524-5786-bewtr3.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170729/original/file-20170524-5786-bewtr3.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170729/original/file-20170524-5786-bewtr3.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170729/original/file-20170524-5786-bewtr3.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Botnet’s can be used for all kinds of malicious activities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_Worm#/media/File:Botnet2.gif">JeroenT96/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Breach:</strong> The moment a hacker successfully exploits a vulnerability in a computer or device, and gains access to its files and network.</p>
<p><strong>Brute force attack:</strong> A technique a hacker can use to break into a computer system. They do this by trying to “guess” its password (either manually or with a computer application).</p>
<p><strong>Cloud:</strong> A technology that allows us to access our files through the internet from anywhere in the world. More technically, it is a collection of computers with large storage capabilities that remotely serve customer file requests.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171570/original/file-20170531-25652-1pf1pee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171570/original/file-20170531-25652-1pf1pee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=643&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171570/original/file-20170531-25652-1pf1pee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=643&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171570/original/file-20170531-25652-1pf1pee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=643&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171570/original/file-20170531-25652-1pf1pee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=808&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171570/original/file-20170531-25652-1pf1pee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=808&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171570/original/file-20170531-25652-1pf1pee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=808&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cloud computing lets you access your data from anywhere in the world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rr 750~commonswiki/Wikimedia Commons</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Command-and-control server:</strong> An application that controls all bots in a botnet (see above). The hacker will send a command through this server, which then relays it to all compromised computers in the network.</p>
<p><strong>DDoS:</strong> An acronym that stands for distributed denial of service – a form of cyber attack. This attack aims to make a service such as a website unusable by “flooding” it with malicious traffic or data from multiple sources (often botnets).</p>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> The networking of computers and devices. A domain is a group of computers, printers and devices that are interconnected and governed as a whole. Your computer is usually part of a domain at your workplace. </p>
<p><strong>Encryption:</strong> An algorithmic technique that takes a file and changes its contents into something unreadable to those outside the chain of communication. If we use a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sMOZf4GN3oc">Caesar cipher</a> on the word “hello”, for example, we can replace each letter with a fixed number of places in the alphabet. The encrypted form of “hello” would become “ifmmp”.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/sMOZf4GN3oc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Caesar cipher.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Exploit:</strong> A malicious application or script that can be used to take advantage of a computer’s vulnerability.</p>
<p><strong>Firewall:</strong> A defensive technology focused on keeping the bad guys out. A “wall” or filter is created that judges each attempted interaction with a user’s computer and internet connection to determine “should this be allowed entry or not?” Firewalls can be hardware or software-based.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170727/original/file-20170524-5757-1nmjt7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170727/original/file-20170524-5757-1nmjt7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170727/original/file-20170524-5757-1nmjt7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170727/original/file-20170524-5757-1nmjt7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170727/original/file-20170524-5757-1nmjt7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170727/original/file-20170524-5757-1nmjt7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170727/original/file-20170524-5757-1nmjt7g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Firewalls put a filter between you and the public internet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Firewall_(networking).png">Luis F. Gonzalez/Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Honeypot:</strong> A defensive cybersecurity technique. This technology is essentially a computer (server) that is set up to look like a legitimate and high value target on a network. The aim is to entice hackers to focus on this computer and not on actual high value computers or data. The bonus is that administrators can watch hackers in the act and learn to protect against their techniques.</p>
<p><strong>https:// versus http://</strong> Two online standards that allow computers to communicate.</p>
<p>HTTP is defined as Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Its most popular use is online to help internet browsers communicate. For example, to send you web pages from the associated computer hosting the web site you’re visiting.</p>
<p>HTTPS is similar, but it adds security, hence the “S”. It encrypts all data by creating a secure tunnel between you and the website you’re visiting, and is commonly seen in online shopping stores where security is required.</p>
<p><strong>IP Address:</strong> An internet version of a home address for your computer, which identifies it when it’s connected to the internet.</p>
<p><strong>Patch or Update:</strong> Most software requires thousands of lines of programming language to create, so it’s difficult for a developer to ensure all possible vulnerabilities are covered. When entry points are discovered by hackers or the developer themselves, software vendors will often release new pieces of software as a fix.</p>
<p><strong>Phishing or spear phishing:</strong> A technique used by hackers <a href="https://theconversation.com/spearphishing-roiled-the-presidential-campaign-heres-how-to-protect-yourself-68274">to obtain sensitive information</a>, including passwords, bank accounts or credit cards. </p>
<p>Often an unexpected email is received disguised as being from a legitimate source. In many cases, the hacker will attempt to trick you into either replying with the information they seek, like bank details, or tempt you to click a malicious link or run an attachment. </p>
<p>Spear phishing is a variant of this technique, but the hacker targets a business or person specifically, instead of taking a blanket approach.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/WpaLmeHTp3I?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">What is phishing.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Malware:</strong> An umbrella term that describes all forms of malicious software designed to cause havoc on a computer. Typical forms include viruses, trojans, worms and ransomware.</p>
<p><strong>Ransomware:</strong> A form of malware that deliberately prevents you from accessing files on your computer. If a computer is infected by malware <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-underground-market-for-ransomware-looks-like-77703">designed for this purpose</a>, it will typically encrypt files and request that a ransom be paid in order to have them decrypted.</p>
<p><strong>Spoofing:</strong> A technique hackers use to hide their identity, pretend to be someone else or simply try to fool you over the internet. </p>
<p>There a number of spoofing methods, such as making a hack look like it’s coming from another source, sending emails that appear to come from a different person, and website spoofing, where hackers set up a fake website to trick users into entering sensitive information.</p>
<p><strong>Software:</strong> A set of instructions that tell a computer to perform a task. These instructions are compiled into a package that users can install and use. Software is broadly categorised into system software like Microsoft Windows and application software like Microsoft Office.</p>
<p><strong>Trojan horse:</strong> A piece of malware that often allows a hacker to gain remote access to a computer. The system will be infected by a virus that sets up an entry point for the perpetrator to download files or watch the user’s keystrokes.</p>
<p><strong>Virtual Private Network:</strong> A tool that allows the user to remain anonymous while using the internet. It does this by <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-a-virtual-private-network-vpn-12741">masking location</a> and encrypting traffic as it travels between the user’s computer and the website they’re visiting.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170718/original/file-20170524-5757-6paqit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170718/original/file-20170524-5757-6paqit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170718/original/file-20170524-5757-6paqit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170718/original/file-20170524-5757-6paqit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170718/original/file-20170524-5757-6paqit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=113&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170718/original/file-20170524-5757-6paqit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=113&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170718/original/file-20170524-5757-6paqit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=113&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Demonstration of where a VPN operates in a normal internet connection.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:VPN_site-to-site.jpg">Wikimedia Commons/Philippe Belet</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Virus:</strong> A type of malware for personal computers, dating back to the days of <a href="https://usa.kaspersky.com/resource-center/definitions/boot-sector-virus">floppy disks</a>. Viruses typically aim to corrupt, erase or modify information on a computer before spreading to others. However, in more recent years, viruses like <a href="https://www.wired.com/2014/11/countdown-to-zero-day-stuxnet/">Stuxnet</a> have caused physical damage.</p>
<p><strong>Vulnerability</strong>: A weakness in computer software. Eventually, if you do not keep your systems up to date, you will have vulnerabilities. Say you’re using Microsoft Windows 7 but are failing to install updates – your system could exhibit vulnerabilities that can be attacked by a hacker because security safeguards are out of date.</p>
<p><strong>Worm:</strong> A piece of malware that can replicate itself in order to spread the infection to other connected computers. It will actively hunt out weak systems in the network to exploit and spread. Below is an example of a common worm, named the Win32 Conficker.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170716/original/file-20170524-5757-x0ga7i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170716/original/file-20170524-5757-x0ga7i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170716/original/file-20170524-5757-x0ga7i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170716/original/file-20170524-5757-x0ga7i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170716/original/file-20170524-5757-x0ga7i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170716/original/file-20170524-5757-x0ga7i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170716/original/file-20170524-5757-x0ga7i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Example of how the Win32 Conficker worm operates.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Conficker.svg">Gppande/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Whitehat hacker:</strong> A person who uses their hacking skills for an ethical purpose, as opposed to a blackhat hacker, who typically has a malicious intent. Businesses will often hire these individuals to test their cybersecurity capabilities.</p>
<p><strong>Zero Day:</strong> A particular form of software exploit, usually malware. What makes a zero day exploit unique is that they are unknown to the public or the software vendor. In other words, because few people are aware of the vulnerability, <a href="https://theconversation.com/zero-day-stockpiling-puts-us-all-at-risk-45637">they have “zero days”</a> to protect themselves from its use.</p>
<p><strong>Zombie:</strong> A computer system that has been infected by malware and is now part of a hacker’s botnet.</p>
<p>There are still many cybersecurity terms to tackle, but this will get you started. Next time someone mentions “phishing”, you’ll know they are not talking about the water-related hobby.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/77958/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas Patterson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>To protect ourselves online, we should all understand a few key terms.Nicholas Patterson, Teaching Scholar, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.