tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/construction-2700/articlesConstruction – The Conversation2024-02-29T17:37:32Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2220922024-02-29T17:37:32Z2024-02-29T17:37:32ZIndians are fleeing their growing economy to work abroad – even in conflict zones. Here’s how to create more jobs at home<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576217/original/file-20240216-18-l70jpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C59%2C7951%2C5237&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/people-workers-standing-line-outside-construction-728813566">Rahul Ramachandram/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Israel <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-68027582">plans</a> to bring in 70,000 workers from abroad, including 10,000 from India, to boost its construction sector. A labour shortage has emerged after 80,000 Palestinian workers were barred from entering the country after the October 7 Hamas-led attacks.</p>
<p>Figures suggest that India is one of the <a href="https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/mi/research-analysis/india-seizes-crown-of-fastest-growing-g20-economy-dec23.html">fastest-growing</a> economies in the world. Between July and September of 2023, it grew at a pace of 7.6%. If it continues along this current growth trajectory, India will become the world’s <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/benjaminlaker/2024/02/23/india-to-become-third-largest-economy-by-2027-implications-for-leaders/">third-largest</a> economy by 2027.</p>
<p>The fact that thousands of Indian workers are nonetheless queuing up to secure a job in a conflict zone abroad is a consequence of a jobs crisis at home. Despite the country’s apparent economic growth, many Indians – even those with a university degree – are struggling to secure stable employment.</p>
<p>Casual work makes up <a href="https://eastasiaforum.org/2023/04/10/indias-workforce-woes/#:%7E:text=About%2052%20per%20cent%20of,cent%20are%20regular%20salaried%20workers.">25% of the workforce</a>, while only 23% of workers are paid a regular salary. The remainder are self-employed, and quite vulnerable to irregular and insecure income too.</p>
<p>But India has a large working-age population (people between 15 and 64 years of age), so the demand for jobs is immense. India needs to create an <a href="https://eastasiaforum.org/2023/04/10/indias-workforce-woes/">estimated</a> 10 million to 12 million jobs each year for the unemployed, new workforce entrants, and surplus agricultural workers to be able to secure non-farm work.</p>
<p>How can India provide jobs for its increasingly educated young? It needs even faster economic growth and for this growth to be labour intensive. This will, in turn, generate demand in the economy from all sections of society (not just the middle class and above).</p>
<h2>Structural change</h2>
<p>Between 2004 and 2014, India’s economy grew at a rate of <a href="https://thewire.in/economy/modi-claims-india-saw-a-lost-decade-between-2004-and-14-is-that-true">nearly 8% per year</a> (despite the global financial crisis in 2008). This rapid growth was accompanied by a hastening of structural change in employment.</p>
<p>During that period, the economy created on average <a href="https://ideas.repec.org/a/spr/ijlaec/v64y2021i2d10.1007_s41027-021-00317-x.html">7.5 million</a> new non-farm jobs every year. The number of manufacturing jobs in India rose from 53 million in 2004 to 60 million by 2012.</p>
<p>However, ₹500 (£4.78) and ₹1000 (£9.56) notes were <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.34.1.55">taken out of circulation</a> in 2016, making 86% of India’s currency illegal. The cash recall was intended to accelerate the country’s transition towards a formal economy. But it led to acute shortages of cash, destroying jobs in the construction and manufacturing sectors.</p>
<p>Growth slowed to 2020 when, at the beginning of the COVID pandemic, the Indian government imposed a nationwide lockdown at <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-52081396">four hours’ notice</a>. The lockdown caused India’s gross domestic product (GDP) to <a href="https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/economicsurvey/">contract by 5.8%</a> – more than twice the rate at which the global economy shrank.</p>
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<img alt="Six Indian police officers wearing masks and standing on a city street." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Police in Gujarat, India, enforcing the COVID lockdown.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bharuch-gujarat-india-april-05-2020-1702650391">Kunal Mahto/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Employment in manufacturing jobs fell again, especially in labour-intensive manufacturing where employment had already been in decline for five years following the botched implementation of demonetisation. Around <a href="https://thewire.in/economy/what-we-know-about-indias-post-covid-economy-recovery-and-rising-inequality">60 million workers</a> returned to jobs in agriculture, reversing the structural change in employment that had been underway for 15 years.</p>
<p>To take advantage of its bulging working-age population, India needs to create more non-farm jobs. In his new book, “Breaking the Mould”, the former governor of the Reserve Bank of India, Raghuram Rajan, <a href="https://www.penguin.co.in/book/breaking-the-mould/">says</a> that India needs to focus on exports of services, drawing on the country’s new digital infrastructure and IT-based services growth for the domestic (and export) market.</p>
<p>But a focus on services alone will not suffice. This “New India” economy currently constitutes <a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/indian-economy-gdp-growth-capex-global-market-share-digital-public-infrastructure-9073549/">less than 15%</a> of the country’s economy and a fraction of that in employment. Such a strategy will generate jobs mainly for highly skilled people, rather than the millions of Indian workers that are searching for non-farm jobs.</p>
<p>What India needs is a <a href="https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2022/02/03/make-in-india-a-work-in-progress/">manufacturing strategy</a> akin to China’s that focuses on labour-intensive manufacturing. China has pursued an industrial policy since the 1950s, which has become even more evolved since the 1980s, helping the country establish dominance in global high-tech manufacturing.</p>
<h2>Creating jobs in India</h2>
<p>In India, the demand for jobs will only be met if several different factors come together. Construction activity needs to continue at its current brisk pace. But, for the next year or two, it must be led by public sector investment as private investment remains sluggish. </p>
<p>India’s investment-to-GDP ratio is <a href="https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/economicsurvey/">still below 30%</a>, and has remained below the 31% inherited by the current government when it came to power ten years ago. The potential for a twofold increase in construction employment (a trend that was observed between 2004 and 2012) over the next five years hinges on the revival of private investment.</p>
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<img alt="A group of workers in hi-vis jackets at a construction site." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Labour workers building an overhead metro in Bangalore, India.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bangalore-karnataka-india-january-21-2014-282302282">PI/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Labour-intensive manufacturing by micro, small and medium enterprises also needs a sustained fillip. The government’s focus is currently on large companies – so-called “national champions” like industrial conglomerates Tata and Mahindra – which are being encouraged through <a href="https://thewire.in/political-economy/why-the-modi-government-policy-of-national-champions-is-unravelling">subsidies</a>.</p>
<p>If these subsidies were instead redirected towards smaller enterprises, they might do more for employment generation. Large corporations <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/planning-in-the-20th-century-and-beyond/817DA53ABC693583B3E3D052CA5B2CE5#fndtn-information">typically</a> use highly capital-intensive methods of production, whereas smaller ones tend to absorb more labour. Historically, it is the latter that has generated <a href="https://archive.org/details/developmentwithh0000unse/mode/2up">most</a> of the non-farm jobs in developing countries.</p>
<p>The third area where employment can be generated is, indeed, services. Public expenditure should prioritise public health, education, vocational training and universities.</p>
<p>These sectors are labour-intensive, contribute to the creation of public goods, and will build the human capital needed by both manufacturing and modern export-oriented services. That is the only way India’s health and education services can reach the <a href="https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/385696/hcd-sa.pdf">levels observed</a> in east Asia and attract more foreign investment.</p>
<p>A renewed focus on smaller enterprises across these sectors is needed. Inclusive growth requires providing jobs rapidly at the bottom of the pyramid, not only at the top of the wage – and skill – distribution.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222092/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Santosh Mehrotra does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>India needs to follow a path akin to China’s to find answers to its job woes.Santosh Mehrotra, Visiting Professor at the Centre for Development Studies, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2172562024-02-06T23:06:30Z2024-02-06T23:06:30ZTurkey’s push for post-earthquake reconstruction puts speed over housing quality<p>It has been a year since <a href="https://apnews.com/article/earthquake-turkey-syria-february-2023-62dba95d0608a3a587ddd2fe5ec39541">two powerful earthquakes</a>, magnitude 7.8 and 7.5, devastated parts of southeastern Turkey and northern Syria. The Feb. 6, 2023 earthquakes destroyed hundreds of thousands of buildings, killed <a href="https://apnews.com/article/turkey-earthquake-anniversary-hatay-kahramanmaras-77ca7874fbfbe15f898f12c2690216fb">almost 60,000 people</a> and left more than <a href="https://www.ungeneva.org/en/news-media/news/2023/02/78128/15-million-now-homeless-turkiye-after-quake-disaster-warn-un">1.5 million homeless</a>.</p>
<p>One year later, the region is still recovering from its <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-64540696">most devastating disaster</a> in recent history. And significant changes are required in the way the reconstruction is taking place.</p>
<p>In Turkey, the disaster exposed persistent social inequality, widespread poverty, housing shortages and other systemic problems. <a href="https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/2023-Kahramanmaras-and-Hatay-Earthquakes-Report.pdf">The need to repair infrastructure and rebuild hundreds of thousands of homes</a> presents a unique opportunity for transformative change. However, the Turkish government’s approach to disaster recovery poses challenges for that change. </p>
<h2>Politics of post-disaster action</h2>
<p>The government of president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has maintained existing policies and housing strategies, and this creates an obstacle to redressing the social and environmental injustices that led to the disaster.</p>
<p>For decades, the Turkish government has maintained a housing and reconstruction strategy that concentrates decision-making power in the central government and prioritizes speed and quantity over quality. </p>
<p>This year, the government expanded the capacity of the Ministry of the Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change (MEUPCC) to expropriate land. The Ministry has expropriated over 207 hectares of land in the <a href="https://www.gercekgundem.com/guncel/afet-yasasi-ilk-hatayi-vurdu-defne-rezerv-alani-ilan-edildi-442597">southern province of Hatay alone</a>. More expropriations are expected in other provinces.</p>
<p>Similar to previous reconstruction processes in the country, the strategy has been to facilitate new urban development in city outskirts and remote locations. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2006.03.002">Scholars have noted</a>, however, that this approach increases urban sprawl, exacerbates fragmentation and tends to neglect the historical significance of city centres, as well as the value of agricultural land and rural practices. </p>
<p>Prioritizing speedy construction over housing quality perpetuates social problems and increases environmental and economic costs in the long term.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/buildings-left-standing-in-turkey-offer-design-guidance-for-future-earthquake-resilient-construction-202089">Buildings left standing in Turkey offer design guidance for future earthquake-resilient construction</a>
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<h2>Unequal access</h2>
<p>This is pretty much the same strategy that was implemented after <a href="https://www.sayistay.gov.tr/reports/download/m5pokdvgDW-bayindirlik-ve-iskan-bakanliginin-marmara-ve-duzce-depremleri-sonrasi-faaliyetle">the 1999 Marmara Earthquake</a>, the earthquakes in <a href="https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/izmirde-binlerce-konut-teslim-edildi-cevre-sehircilik-ve-iklim-degisikligi-bakani-murat-kurum-izmir-boyle-donustu-sira-11-ilde-42236523">Van (2011),</a> <a href="https://csb.gov.tr/bakanlik-elazig-da-24-ocak-2020-de-meydana-gelen-depremin-ardindan-yuruttugu-calismalarinda-sona-geldi-bakanlik-faaliyetleri-36248">Elazığ (2020),</a> and <a href="https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/izmirde-binlerce-konut-teslim-edildi-cevre-sehircilik-ve-iklim-degisikligi-bakani-murat-kurum-izmir-boyle-donustu-sira-11-ilde-42236523">İzmir (2020)</a> and the <a href="https://www.iha.com.tr/haber-bati-karadenizde-selin-vurdugu-ilceler-yeniden-ayaga-kaldirildi-1162107">2021 Western Black Sea floods</a>. </p>
<p>There are legal mechanisms in the country to conduct in-situ reconstruction and more careful urban transformation. However, the government keeps developing suburban areas because it is the <a href="https://tr.euronews.com/2023/02/21/toki-su-ana-kadar-kac-konut-yapti-deprem-bolgesinde-ne-kadar-surede-kac-konut-insa-edecek">easiest and fastest way to show that action is being taken</a>.</p>
<p>Yet, these new homes are not accessible to all.</p>
<p>Under the law only owners of moderately or severely damaged homes can access zero-interest loans for purchasing new units. This restricts the number of people eligible for post-disaster housing. In addition, many new settlements are located far from jobs, schools, services and other facilities. </p>
<p>Alternatives do exist to achieve quality, but they receive little attention from Erdoğan’s government.</p>
<h2>Co-operative housing in Turkey</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.31198/idealkent.1117042">Construction co-ops have existed in Turkey since the 1930s</a>. At the height of their popularity in 1988, co-operatives accounted for 35 per cent of total housing production. But political negligence, and the absence of a robust legal framework, have hindered the co-op movement and eroded public trust in community-based co-operatives. Today, co-operatives represent less than 0.1 per cent of housing production. </p>
<p>After the 1999 Marmara earthquake, a group of tenants, frustrated by their exclusion from government programs, formed a <a href="https://www.umutarsivi.org/hope/duzce-umut-evleri/">housing co-operative in Düzce</a>. Through participatory design, and community-driven construction, the co-op provided housing for 234 low-income families.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568079/original/file-20240105-17-zfhmks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A series of apartment buildings under construction with cranes above." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568079/original/file-20240105-17-zfhmks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568079/original/file-20240105-17-zfhmks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=253&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568079/original/file-20240105-17-zfhmks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=253&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568079/original/file-20240105-17-zfhmks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=253&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568079/original/file-20240105-17-zfhmks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568079/original/file-20240105-17-zfhmks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568079/original/file-20240105-17-zfhmks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">New apartments for earthquake survivors under construction in Kilis, southeastern Turkey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Republic of Turkey Ministry of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change)</span></span>
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<p>After the 2020 İzmir earthquake owners of moderately damaged houses were not eligible for financial support. About 30 families decided to create a similar version of the Düzce housing co-operative. With collaboration from the municipality, they established a co-operative construction project, <a href="https://www.halkkonut.org/">Halk Konut</a>. This co-op allowed earthquake-affected residents to lead both design and construction, while receiving technical and legal expertise from local authorities. </p>
<p>The municipality established a new office where co-operative members could work closely with municipal employees and helped Halk Konut members in negotiations with contractors. Although co-op members made the ultimate decisions, the office supervised both planning and construction activities. </p>
<p>The municipality also granted permission for building two additional floors. By selling the units in these two floors, the co-op received additional funds that made the operation economically feasible. </p>
<p>After construction is completed, co-ops are often dissolved. But during the process, they create a platform for collective discussions about ways to improve neighbourhoods, increase energy-efficiency and integrate public space and green areas. Co-ops also empower earthquake survivors by actively involving them in construction and design, and ensure affordability, sustainability, and community development. </p>
<p>One co-op member we interviewed said: “We didn’t know our neighbours before we initiated the co-operative effort. But now, we design and build our homes together and try to make our neighbourhood more liveable. Once the building is completed, we will organize workshops on civil rights, disasters, and climate change. We now collaborate with local universities, professional associations, and NGOs.”</p>
<p>Co-ops, however, do face several obstacles. Creating one is a long process that requires significant engagement. Despite efforts to reduce costs and share expenses, financing remains the most significant challenge, especially for retired people and others with low incomes. Developing trust and consensus among co-op members can also be difficult. Tensions and conflicts sometimes emerge in a process that depends on mutual trust and engagement.</p>
<h2>The way forward</h2>
<p>With a focus on centralized provision of turnkey projects since 1999, creation of new co-operatives has dramatically decreased. Yet, the co-op model, with its democratic, inclusive, and restorative nature, holds the potential to improve reconstruction strategies in Turkey. It offers an empowering tool for disaster victims based on active participation on decisions about their own future.</p>
<p>Embracing alternative reconstruction methods like co-operative housing is paramount for a resilient future in Turkey. But the model needs to be backed by a comprehensive legal framework, including obligations for contractors to complete projects within the agreed time-frame and ensuring the protection of homeowners’ rights. </p>
<p>The Turkish government must decide whether to maintain outdated strategies or embrace alternative models. It is time to place better strategies at the forefront, steering towards a future where communities actively participate in shaping cities. Otherwise, Turkey will continue to build disconnected settlements with a significant social, financial and environmental cost.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217256/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gonzalo Lizarralde receives funding from multiple research agencies in Canada, including SSHRC and FRQSC. He is affiliated with i-Rec, an international network of disaster related specialists. He is the holder of the Fayolle-Magil Construction Research Chair of Université de Montréal.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fatma Ozdogan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As Turkey is recovering from the most devastating earthquake in its recent history, a timely opportunity emerges to change how to reconstruct housing.Fatma Ozdogan, PhD Student & Researcher, post-disaster reconstruction, Université de MontréalGonzalo Lizarralde, Professeur titulaire - Faculté de l'aménagement, Université de MontréalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2218742024-01-30T19:06:30Z2024-01-30T19:06:30ZRenewable projects are getting built faster – but there’s even more need for speed <figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572066/original/file-20240130-23-glcujk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=33%2C8%2C5530%2C3102&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>How long does it take to build a solar or wind farm? It’s a simple question with wide implications. To reach our ambitious 82% renewable energy target by 2030, we have to build many new projects – and start them soon. </p>
<p>In 2022, renewables hit a new high of 36% of Australia’s total electricity production, double that of 2017. That’s good – but there’s a long way to go. </p>
<p>Hitting the national target <a href="https://reneweconomy.com.au/the-staggering-numbers-behind-australias-82-per-cent-renewables-target/">will require</a> building about 40 wind turbines (7 megawatts) every month, and 22,000 solar panels (500 watt) every day. </p>
<p>At the start of the year, climate minister Chris Bowen called on all levels of Australian government to <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/get-to-yes-or-no-as-quickly-as-possible-bowen-wants-fast-decisions-on-renewables-20240111-p5ewmj.html">speed up planning decisions</a> for renewable energy projects.</p>
<p>Reaching our target depends on one little-researched factor: completion time. </p>
<p>Solar and wind projects are built much faster than large fossil-energy plants. But the pre-construction approval process can be complex and slow projects down. In <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140988324000458?via%3Dihub">new research</a>, my colleague and I found completion times have fallen significantly in recent years. But we need to go even faster to achieve the 2030 target. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/renewables-are-cheaper-than-ever-yet-fossil-fuel-use-is-still-growing-heres-why-213428">Renewables are cheaper than ever yet fossil fuel use is still growing – here’s why</a>
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<h2>How long does it take to complete renewable energy projects?</h2>
<p>Very few studies have explored renewable energy lead times across a group of renewable projects in Australia or elsewhere. We investigated completion times for 170 onshore wind and solar projects completed in Australia between 2000 and 2023.</p>
<p>Using a <a href="https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/b572c8b3cc/1">data set we built</a>, we found welcome news: Australian renewable projects are being built significantly faster.</p>
<p>Taking an onshore wind farm from idea to reality now takes about 53 months. This is substantially faster than wind farms started before 2016, which took more than 88 months. Obtaining pre-construction approvals and planning took up most of that time.</p>
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<p>Solar projects now take about 41 months. It used to be double that, at up to 83 months before 2011. </p>
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<p>Overall, there has been a decrease in solar lead times. Due to recent regulatory changes, the time taken for the construction and final stages has increased from 18 months to 21 months.</p>
<h2>What does it take to build a solar or wind farm?</h2>
<p>We break project lead times down into three stages: </p>
<p><strong>1. Pre-construction</strong> – the developer designs the project and seeks approvals </p>
<p><strong>2. Building and connecting</strong> – the time between starting construction and connecting to the grid to supply energy for the first time </p>
<p><strong>3. Getting commissioned</strong> – this final stage involves obtaining a <a href="https://aemo.com.au/en/energy-systems/electricity/national-electricity-market-nem/system-operations/generator-performance-standards">performance standard</a> from the Australian Energy Market Operator. Essentially, a new renewable plant has to be able to perform as expected and pass a series of tests. In our study, this stage starts at the time of first generation and finishes when a site generates at least 80% of its total capacity.</p>
<h2>Why can lead times differ?</h2>
<p>Passing through all three stages can be smooth – or fraught. While build times are improving, some projects can get stuck in development for years, making it seem harder than it is.</p>
<p>Delays can come from seeking approvals from multiple authorities and difficulties in accessing and connecting to the grid.</p>
<p>As lead times are rarely tracked across a large number of projects, outliers can skew how long we expect things take to complete. These outliers can get a <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-18/woakwine-limestone-coast-wind-farm-delay-decade-after-approval/102361318">lot of publicity</a>. </p>
<p>Even when lead times are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.122563">monitored and compared</a>, the raw data isn’t made public. A renewable energy pipeline database should be public and provide historical examples for comparison. It could learn from the <a href="https://infrastructurepipeline.org/">Australia and New Zealand Infrastructure Pipeline</a> and should track and compare lead times.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-hit-82-renewables-in-8-years-we-need-skilled-workers-and-labour-markets-are-already-overstretched-188811">To hit 82% renewables in 8 years, we need skilled workers – and labour markets are already overstretched</a>
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<h2>How did development speed up?</h2>
<p>It wasn’t a single policy or process change that drove these faster build times. But the improvements in lead times were driven by faster pre-construction planning and approval stages.</p>
<p>We found clear evidence some states are faster than others. South Australia – Australia’s top renewable state – had notably lower pre-construction lead times for both wind and solar, likely due to streamlined approvals. We found some evidence of fast approvals for solar in Victoria.</p>
<p>Changes in project ownership occurred often (38% of projects) but this had little impact on how long they took to complete.</p>
<p>One issue that has increased lead times in Australia was a 2017 change to how renewables are tested, introduced as a response to the South Australia <a href="https://www.aer.gov.au/publications/reports/compliance/investigation-report-south-australias-2016-state-wide-blackout">statewide blackout</a> of 2016. One aspect of this – the controversial “do no harm” system strength assessment – has <a href="https://reneweconomy.com.au/aemc-dumps-do-no-harm-rule-to-end-chaotic-response-to-system-strength-issues/">since been removed</a>. </p>
<p>These changes added an average of three months of delay for projects commencing construction after 2017. </p>
<h2>We can go faster still</h2>
<p>Even though Australian renewable lead times have shortened significantly since 2010, we should do more. After all, there are now only 71 months until 2030, when Australia’s renewables targets must be met. </p>
<p>Government approvals could be sped up if renewable developers can clearly see the steps to follow and deal with one central agency. All authorities involved should have maximum response times for key stages of the approval process. </p>
<p>Suitable projects located close to existing projects could also be assessed as expansions and not new developments. This would notably streamline the process. Authorities are already allowing developers to do this when approving grid-scale batteries to be installed near solar farms. </p>
<h2>Why do we need this data?</h2>
<p>If you’re a renewable energy developer, it’s vitally important to know how long it normally takes to get a project up and running. It’s also a key piece of data for investors and policymakers. </p>
<p>That’s why we have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2024.107337">provided clear detail</a> of our data collection technique so it can be used by researchers, consultants, and government employees. Our data set is also <a href="https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/b572c8b3cc/1">available for download</a>.</p>
<p>Is it still possible to hit 82% renewable energy by 2030? Yes – but based on our lead-time estimates, only if most projects start their planning phase in the next couple of years. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-road-is-long-and-time-is-short-but-australias-pace-towards-net-zero-is-quickening-214570">The road is long and time is short, but Australia's pace towards net zero is quickening</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221874/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Longden receives funding from James Martin Institute for Public Policy. He is the Secretary of the NSW branch of the Economic Society of Australia and a Visiting Fellow at the Institute for Climate, Energy & Disaster Solutions (ICEDS), Australian National University (ANU). </span></em></p>We’re getting faster at building renewables – but we’ll have to speed up even more to reach our 2030 target of 82% clean energyThomas Longden, Senior Researcher, Urban Transformations Research Centre, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2221262024-01-29T19:05:42Z2024-01-29T19:05:42ZAustralia is welcoming more migrants but they lack the skills to build more houses<p>Australia has an acute shortage of housing. Renters across the country face steep rents rises and <a href="https://sqmresearch.com.au/uploads/15_1_24_National_Vacancy_Rate_December_2023_FINAL.pdf">record-low vacancy rates</a>.</p>
<p>At the same time, net overseas migration has surged to a <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/national-state-and-territory-population/latest-release#national">record high of 518,100</a> in the past financial year as international students, working holiday-makers, and sponsored workers returned to Australia after our international borders reopened and fewer migrants departed.</p>
<p>The trouble is, very few migrants arriving in Australia come with the skills to build the extra homes we need. </p>
<h2>Migrants are back but lack home building expertise</h2>
<p>Migrants are less likely to work in construction than in most other industries. About 32% of Australian workers were foreign born, but only about 24% of workers in building and construction were born overseas. </p>
<p>And very few recent migrants work in construction. Migrants who arrived in Australia less than five years ago account for just 2.8% of the construction workforce, but account for 4.4% of all workers in Australia.</p>
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<p>Most migrants who work in construction in Australia have been here for a long time. The largest migrant groups in construction are permanent skilled migrants (including their spouses and children), followed by New Zealand citizens (who can remain in Australia indefinitely on a temporary visa) and permanent family visa-holders (many of whom arrived in Australia long ago as the spouses of Australian citizens). </p>
<p>But among those migrant groups where we’re now seeing the biggest rebound in numbers – international students, international graduates and working holiday makers – relatively few work in construction. And just 0.5% of all construction workers are on a temporary skilled visa.</p>
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<p>Changing this situation won’t be easy. After all, Australia rightly wants to attract highly skilled migrants who will make the <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/australias-migration-opportunity-how-rethinking-skilled-migration-can-solve-some-of-our-biggest-problems/">biggest long-term contribution</a> to the country.</p>
<p>That means selecting highly skilled migrants – mostly tertiary-trained professionals. However, the construction workforce is one of Australia’s least educated. Just 22% of Australia’s construction workforce hold a diploma-level qualification or higher – the least of any industry. </p>
<h2>What the government should do</h2>
<p>But there are steps the federal government can take to make Australia more attractive to skilled trades workers who can help build the homes we desperately need.</p>
<p>First, the government should make it easier for employers to sponsor skilled trades workers to get a visa. </p>
<p>It should abolish labour-market testing and reduce sponsorship fees for the new <a href="https://www.migrationexpert.com.au/blog/core-skills-pathway-skills-in-demand-visa/">“Core Skills”</a> temporary sponsored visa stream – for skilled workers earning between A$70,000 and A$135,000 a year – to encourage more skilled trades workers to migrate to Australia. </p>
<p>The introduction of labour-market testing and extra fees like the <a href="https://www.dewr.gov.au/skilling-australians-fund-levy">Skilling Australians Fund Levy</a> are big reasons why the number of <a href="https://data.gov.au/dataset/ds-dga-2515b21d-0dba-4810-afd4-ac8dd92e873e/details?q=temporary%5C%20migration">visas granted</a> to temporary sponsored workers in construction has fallen from more than 9,000 in 2011-12 to just 4,021 in 2022-23. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-skilled-migration-policy-changed-how-and-where-migrants-settle-215068">Australia's skilled migration policy changed how and where migrants settle</a>
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<p>The government should also extend its new streamlined, high-wage <a href="https://www.migrationexpert.com.au/blog/working-in-australia/specialist-skills-pathway-revealed/">“Specialist Skills Pathway”</a> sponsored visa stream to skilled trades workers. </p>
<p>That pathway will be offered to workers who earn at least $135,000 a year. Visas will be approved in a median time of just seven days. Yet skilled trades workers earning more than $135,000 won’t qualify for the new streamlined pathway. </p>
<p>Second, the government should streamline the skills and occupational licensing process for skilled trades workers. </p>
<p>Currently, overseas qualified tradespeople must have their skills assessed separately to qualify for a skilled visa and to be granted a licence by a state or territory to practise their trade once in Australia. </p>
<p>The recent <a href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/reports-and-pubs/files/review-migration-system-final-report.pdf">Parkinson Migration Review</a> showed how that process can cost more than $9,000 for some skilled trades and take up to 18 months. </p>
<p>The Albanese government should work with states and territories to better align these processes. And it should pursue greater mutual recognition of qualifications and licences with other countries for skilled trades, as <a href="https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/productivity/report/productivity-volume7-labour-market.pdf">recommended recently</a> by the Productivity Commission. </p>
<p>Migration offers big benefits to Australia. But we’d benefit even more if it provided more of the skilled workers we need to help fix the housing shortage.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-prefab-building-revolution-can-help-resolve-both-the-climate-and-housing-crises-220290">A prefab building revolution can help resolve both the climate and housing crises</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222126/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Grattan Institute began with contributions to its endowment of $15 million from each of the Federal and Victorian Governments, $4 million from BHP Billiton, and $1 million from NAB. In order to safeguard its independence, Grattan Institute's board controls this endowment. The funds are invested and contribute to funding Grattan Institute's activities. Grattan Institute also receives funding from corporates, foundations, and individuals to support its general activities, as disclosed on its website. We would also like to thank the Scanlon Foundation for its generous support of our migration research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Trent Wiltshire does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australia needs more housing and is getting more migrants. But we need more of those migrants to be able to help build those houses.Brendan Coates, Program Director, Economic Policy, Grattan InstituteTrent Wiltshire, Deputy Program Director, Migration and Labour Markets, Grattan InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2212832024-01-17T13:37:30Z2024-01-17T13:37:30ZIceland battles a lava flow: Countries have built barriers and tried explosives in the past, but it’s hard to stop molten rock<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569684/original/file-20240116-25-6bp82a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=158%2C22%2C1637%2C996&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lava flows from a fissure near Grindavik, Iceland, on Jan. 14, 2024. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.facebook.com/Almannavarnir/">Iceland Department of Civil Protection</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fountains of lava erupted from the Sundhnúkur volcanic system in southwest Iceland on Jan. 14, 2024. As the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bqudj0x0POA">world watched on webcams and social media</a>, lava flows cut off roads and bubbled from a new fissure that invaded the outskirts of the coastal town of Grindavík, burning down at least three houses in their path.</p>
<p>Nearby, construction vehicles that had been working for weeks to <a href="https://www.constructionbriefing.com/news/the-construction-teams-working-to-hold-back-a-volcano/8033447.article">build large earthen dams and berms</a> in an attempt to divert the lava’s flow had to pull back.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569683/original/file-20240116-19-avqjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The glow from lava lights up the sky with a town nearby in front of it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569683/original/file-20240116-19-avqjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569683/original/file-20240116-19-avqjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569683/original/file-20240116-19-avqjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569683/original/file-20240116-19-avqjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569683/original/file-20240116-19-avqjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569683/original/file-20240116-19-avqjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569683/original/file-20240116-19-avqjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The lava flow on Jan. 14, 2024, with Grindavík in the foreground.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.facebook.com/Almannavarnir/">Iceland Department of Civil Protection</a></span>
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<p>Humans have tried many ways to stop lava in the past, from attempting to freeze it in place by cooling it with sea water, to using explosives to disrupt its supply, to building earthen barriers. </p>
<p>It’s too soon to say if Iceland’s earthworks will succeed in saving Grindavík, a town of <a href="https://guidetoiceland.is/travel-iceland/drive/grindavik">about 3,500 residents</a>, and a nearby <a href="https://www.visir.is/g/20232488946d/um-thrjatiu-vorubilar-notadir-til-ad-saekja-efni-ur-stapafelli">geothermal power plant</a>. As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9NUvHX4AAAAJ&hl=en">a volcanologist</a>, I follow these methods. The most successful attempts to stop or reroute lava have involved diversions like Iceland’s. </p>
<h2>Why lava is so hard to stop</h2>
<p>Lava is a <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/programs/VHP/lava-flows-destroy-everything-their-path">sluggish, viscous fluid</a> that behaves somewhat like tar. It is subject to gravity, so like other fluids, it will flow downslope along a path of steepest descent.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Images of Grindavik and the barrier being built to try to protect the town and geothermal power plant. Insider News.</span></figcaption>
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<p>With the temperature of its molten rock often <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/news/volcano-watch-how-do-lava-flows-cool-and-how-long-does-it-take">well above 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit</a> (1,000 Celsius), not much can stand in its way.</p>
<h2>Freezing lava in its tracks</h2>
<p>In 1973, Icelanders attempted the <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/of97-724/methods.html">most famous “lava freezing” experiment</a>. They used water hoses from a flotilla of small boats and fishing vessels to protect the small island community of Heimaey from the Eldfell volcano’s lava.</p>
<p>The lava flows were threatening to close off the harbor, which is critical to the region’s fishing industry and a lifeline to the Icelandic mainland. The eruption ended before the success of the strategy could be properly evaluated, but the harbor survived.</p>
<h2>Fighting lava with explosives</h2>
<p>Hawaiians used <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02600367">explosives dropped from planes in 1935 and 1942</a> to try to disrupt lava flows from Mauna Loa volcano that were threatening the town of Hilo on the Big Island. </p>
<p>The idea was to disrupt the channels or lava tubes in the volcano that were supplying lava to the surface. Neither attempt was successful. The explosions created new channels, but the newly formed lava flows soon <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1801/downloads/pp1801_Chap10_Tilling.pdf">rejoined the original lava channel</a>.</p>
<h2>Lava barriers and diversions</h2>
<p>Most recent efforts have focused instead on a third strategy: building dams or ditches in an attempt to divert the lava’s flow toward a different path of steepest descent, into a different “lavashed,” a <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/watershed.html">concept similar to a watershed</a> but where lava would naturally flow.</p>
<p>Results have been mixed, but diversion can be successful if the lava flow can be clearly diverted into a distinct area where lava would naturally flow – without threatening a different community in the process.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569688/original/file-20240116-17-hi8it9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An earthen berm with black lava along the one side of it. The lava broke through along a highway." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569688/original/file-20240116-17-hi8it9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569688/original/file-20240116-17-hi8it9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569688/original/file-20240116-17-hi8it9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569688/original/file-20240116-17-hi8it9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569688/original/file-20240116-17-hi8it9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569688/original/file-20240116-17-hi8it9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569688/original/file-20240116-17-hi8it9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Lava breached one section of the earthen barrier near Grindavík after the Jan. 14, 2024, eruption, but it largely followed the effort to divert it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/drone-is-capturing-the-town-of-grindavik-during-the-news-photo/1928389535?adppopup=true">NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Many attempts to divert lava have failed, however. Barriers built in Italy to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-0273(93)90048-V">stop Mt. Etna’s lava flows</a> in 1992 slowed the flow, but the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/news/volcano-watch-what-does-it-take-successfully-divert-a-lava-flow">lava eventually overtopped each one</a>.</p>
<h2>Iceland’s diversion efforts</h2>
<p>Icelandic authorities evacuated Grindavík’s residents in November 2023 <a href="https://theconversation.com/volcanic-iceland-is-rumbling-again-as-magma-rises-a-geologist-explains-eruptions-in-the-land-of-fire-and-ice-217671">after swarms of earthquakes</a> indicated a reactivation of the nearby volcanic system.</p>
<p>Shortly afterward, construction began on protective barriers for the town and some nearby critical infrastructure – notably, the Svartsengi geothermal power station. Construction had to be put on hold in mid-December, when a <a href="https://theconversation.com/volcanic-eruption-lights-up-iceland-after-weeks-of-earthquake-warnings-a-geologist-explains-whats-happening-220193">first volcanic eruption</a> occurred about 2.5 miles northeast of Grindavík, but work resumed in January. Work was still underway when magma reached the surface again on Jan. 14.</p>
<p>Diverting lava in this region is difficult, in part because the land around Grindavík is relatively flat. That makes it harder to identify a clear alternative path of steepest descent for redirecting the lava. </p>
<p><a href="https://en.vedur.is/about-imo/news/a-seismic-swarm-started-north-of-grindavik-last-night">Icelandic officials reported</a> on Jan. 15 that most of the lava from the main fissure had flowed along the outside the barrier, however a <a href="https://guidetoiceland.imgix.net/1322526/x/0/grindavik-2.jpg">new fissure</a> had also opened inside the perimeter, sending lava into a neighborhood. Unfortunately, that implies that Grindavík remains at risk.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221283/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Loÿc Vanderkluysen receives funding from the National Science Foundation</span></em></p>Iceland, Hawaii and Italy have all tried to control lava to save cities in the past. A volcanologist explains the methods.Loÿc Vanderkluysen, Associate Professor of Earth Science, Drexel UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2203232024-01-16T13:41:58Z2024-01-16T13:41:58ZHow to prevent America’s aging buildings from collapsing – 4 high-profile disasters send a warning<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568330/original/file-20240108-26-byn97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C316%2C5087%2C3291&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">This six-story apartment building in Davenport, Iowa, had clear signs of trouble before it partially collapsed in May 2023.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/BuildingCollapseIowa/de2d6d38aa2e4925a6bc2a585b6266df/photo">AP Photo/Charlie Neibergall</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Four recent catastrophic building collapses and a near miss are raising concerns about the state of America’s aging buildings and questions about who, if anyone, is checking their safety.</p>
<p>Many cities have buildings showing signs of aging and in need of repair. In New York City, where a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/15/nyregion/bronx-collapse-engineer.html">seven-story apartment building partially collapsed</a> in December 2023, the <a href="https://www.renthop.com/research/building-age-and-rents-in-new-york/">median building age is about 90 years</a>, and many neighborhoods were built before 1900.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://drexel.edu/engineering/about/faculty-staff/A/aghayere-abieyuwa/">a civil engineer</a>, I study building failures, and I have seen how crucial structural inspections and careful maintenance are – and how often the signs of trouble are ignored in the U.S. until a problem becomes a crisis. Too often, it is up to residents to call attention to the risks.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/cAiIte8i2oM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A video from 2020 shows moisture stains and evidence of failed repairs at the bottom of the basement level parking garage slab in Champlain Towers South condominium before it collapsed. Fiorella Terenzi.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Many disasters had clear warning signs</h2>
<p>There were two common threads prior to many of the recent building collapses: visible signs of the defects that eventually led to the building’s demise and a history of documents submitted to city building departments clearly showing deteriorating conditions. </p>
<p>For example:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>In June 2021, the <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/federal-investigators-surfside-condo-tower-collapsed-meet-building/story?id=100142150">sudden collapse of the Champlain Towers South</a> condominium in Surfside, Florida, killed 98 people and stunned the nation. Three years earlier, an <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/live-updates-miami-area-condo-collapse/2021/06/29/1010976101/timeline-what-we-know-so-far-about-what-led-up-to-the-surfside-condo-collapse">engineers report had raised concerns</a> about the structural integrity of concrete in the pool deck area that later collapsed, but the strength of the pool deck slab was not thoroughly investigated. Federal investigators in a 2023 preliminary report found that the original design of the pool deck <a href="https://www.tampabay.com/news/florida/2023/06/16/surfside-condo-collapse-investigation-pool-deck-champlain/">did not follow building standards</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>In May 2023, three people died when part of a <a href="https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/news/2023/09/07/davenport-apartment-building-collapse-cause-revealed-in-new-report/70787740007/">116-year-old apartment building in Davenport, Iowa</a>, collapsed. Inspectors pointed to a history of improper maintenance, and photos show clear signs of trouble, such as walls that were bowed.</p></li>
<li><p>In April 2023, one person was killed when a New York City <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/15/nyregion/nyc-garage-collapse.html">parking garage collapsed</a>. The nearly-100-year-old building had several past violations, and its collapse triggered a swift check of similar garages that turned up more potential hazards. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>In a near-miss, in November 2023, a large hole <a href="https://nypost.com/2023/11/13/metro/gaping-hole-opens-in-nyc-garage-above-amtrak-tracks/">opened in the base of another New York City parking garage</a>, offering a <a href="https://abc7ny.com/nyc-amtrak-suspended-trains-structural-issues/14049092/">view to the Amtrak rail line below</a>. It forced the closure of the line while the building was repaired.</p>
<h2>What cities and states can do</h2>
<p>Many buildings today are designed to last from as little as <a href="https://www.builderspace.com/how-long-do-modern-buildings-last">50 years to over 100 years</a>, depending on the materials used and assuming periodic maintenance and repairs.</p>
<p>Just as human beings need to see their physicians on a more regular basis as they age, older buildings also require more care and attention. That is even more important when they are exposed to adverse environmental conditions, such as corrosive de-icing salts in the Northeast and saltwater and salt air moisture in coastal regions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An aerial photo of four condo towers on the beach. In the center is Champlain Towers South, which partially collapsed in June 2021." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Champlain Towers South’s collapse in Surfside, Fla., near Miami, killed 98 people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ApartmentBuildingEvacuatedFlorida/e05b4770e98c4f9e852c944a0474b4d1/photo">AP Photo/Gerald Herbert</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yet, inspections of buildings primarily happen <a href="https://www.park.edu/blog/building-inspections-101-what-to-know-in-2023-and-beyond">only as they are being built</a>, resold or remodeled. Policies vary by state, but there are currently few widespread mandated rules for structural inspections of entire existing buildings. Some <a href="https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2023/154/BillText/er/HTML">exceptions are in Florida</a>, where structural inspections are required for condominium and co-op buildings statewide at age 25 to 30 years, and every 10 years thereafter, and <a href="https://library.municode.com/nj/jersey_city/ordinances/code_of_ordinances?nodeId=1153837">Jersey City</a>, New Jersey, where periodic structural inspections are required every 10 years for all buildings. Several <a href="https://www.fortlauderdale.gov/government/departments-a-h/development-services/building-services/building-safety-inspection-program">Florida cities</a> and counties have extended the state-mandated periodic inspections to commercial buildings.</p>
<p>Some cities have enacted ordinances governing <a href="https://www.concrete.org/publications/internationalconcreteabstractsportal.aspx?m=details&i=51740203">periodic inspections of specific structural elements</a>, such as balconies and facades. And a few require periodic inspections or condition assessments for parking garages. After the Surfside condo tower collapse, the International Code Council initiated efforts to develop <a href="https://www.floridabuilding.org/fbc/commission/fbc_1021/hrac-101221/21-20724_CORP_FL_Report_Oct_Update_BRO_v3_MIDrez-002.pdf">condition-assessment guidelines</a> for existing buildings that local governments could choose to adopt.</p>
<h2>Cities need to prioritize inspections</h2>
<p>In each of the recent collapses, there were signs of the problems that, had they been addressed, might have prevented the tragedy. </p>
<p>In the New York City apartment building, a visible, vertical crack in the corner column, which should have been a glaring red flag, was ignored. The <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/bronx-building-collapse-engineer-made-grave-errors-inspection-report/">NYC Buildings Department commissioner</a> recently said that “The Department of Buildings does not have enough of its own staff to inspect every building in New York City.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of the corner of a building with a deli and a giant crack down the front support column." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A corner column in the New York City building that collapsed in December 2023 had a large crack in 2020, as this photo in a city buildings department report shows.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://a810-dobnow.nyc.gov/Publish/DocumentStage/PortalDownloadedDocuments/BRONX/912259/TR6-912259-9A-I1/Supporting%20Documents/Elevation%20Photographs881950890.pdf">NYC Buildings Department</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This problem is <a href="https://www.americancityandcounty.com/2021/08/30/a-low-cost-approach-to-managing-building-inspections-and-risk-mitigation-challenges-facing-local-and-county-governments/">not unique to New York</a>. Building departments across the country are <a href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/money/realestate/a-decade-after-philly-s-deadly-market-street-collapse-residents-are-still-endangered-by-construction-destruction/ar-AA1lHB1C">understaffed and have oversight challenges</a>. </p>
<p>If increasing budgets for municipal inspection departments is not an option, another route is to contract with structural engineering firms to review submitted documents. While this comes at a cost, so do legal settlements <a href="https://therealdeal.com/miami/2022/05/27/surfside-collapse-1b-settlement-breakdown-revealed/">after building disasters</a>.</p>
<p>If cities and states enact periodic structural condition assessment rules for existing buildings within their jurisdiction, problems could also be spotted by expert inspectors before they develop into failures. </p>
<p>Insurance companies could also be a partner in this effort by requiring periodic inspection and maintenance by licensed design professionals as a condition of continuing coverage.</p>
<h2>If you see something, say something</h2>
<p>Residents also must adopt a more vigilant and proactive approach to identify and prevent structural problems.</p>
<p>Anyone can learn to identify the <a href="https://www.tjpa.org/files/2018/09/9.26.18-Press-Release-Temporary-Closure-of-Salesforce-Transit-Center-with-pics.pdf">telltale signs of building deterioration and defects</a>, though there may be some <a href="https://www.dezeen.com/2018/09/26/salesforce-transit-center-closed-cracked-beam-san-francisco/">hidden structural deterioration</a> behind architectural finishes that may not be visible. If these problems are spotted and addressed in a timely manner, that could help reduce the likelihood of structural failures and more costly repairs in the future.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A basement with metal clearly showing through the cracked cement on the ceiling." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Deteriorating reinforced concrete and rusted or exposed reinforcing steel are warning signs to watch for.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Jensen/BRV Engineering</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If you see any of the following problems, report them to your landlord or the city building department – they could be signs of structural trouble:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://macleans.ca/news/canada/elliot-lake-how-could-so-many-engineers-be-so-wrong/">Water intrusion, ponding, leaks</a>, water stains, rust stains and peeling paint on floors or ceilings.</p></li>
<li><p>Sagging floors, roofs and ceilings and <a href="https://apnews.com/article/iowa-davenport-building-collapse-621844c0d6c206ced4639ddcf443eb80">bulging or bowed walls</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>Cracks that are expanding in elevated floors or roof slabs, walls, beams and columns.</p></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><p>Cracks on a floor slab that create a trip hazard, or wall cracks, which may be the result of the foundation settling.</p></li>
<li><p>Chunks of concrete falling from slabs, beams, walls and columns; and exposed rusted steel reinforcement.</p></li>
<li><p>Rusting or corroded steel beams and columns.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A rusted steel beam sticking up through a cracked sidewalk." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Exposed and rusted steel canopy roof support columns are a structural stability problem.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Jensen/BRV Engineering</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><p>Balconies where the rainwater drains toward the interior of the building, rather than away from it.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.berkeleyside.org/2017/11/21/deadly-berkeley-balcony-collapse-lawsuit-settled">Rotted wood</a> structural parts, such as floor joists or wall studs.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Everyone needs to understand the warning signs and be willing to speak up so officials and building owners take the necessary steps to stem this <a href="https://nypost.com/2023/12/15/opinion/bronx-building-collapse-is-a-warning-of-disasters-likely-to-get-ever-more-common/">scary tide</a> and protect residents.</p>
<p>Our buildings are talking to us, and in some cases crying out for help – it’s time everyone listened.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220323/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Abieyuwa Aghayere does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Too often, signs of trouble are ignored until a problem becomes a crisis. Here are some clear warning signs residents should watch for.Abieyuwa Aghayere, Professor of Structural Engineering, Drexel UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2191132023-12-05T19:24:05Z2023-12-05T19:24:05ZAustralian homes can be made climate-ready, reducing bills and emissions – a new report shows how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563535/original/file-20231205-25-yz4yen.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C5%2C3463%2C2321&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/interior-view-house-attic-under-construction-379565095">ronstik, Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Millions of homes were built before Australia introduced housing <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/energy/energy-efficiency/buildings/residential-buildings">energy efficiency standards</a> in 2003. They’re leaky. Gaps around windows, doors and between building materials allow air to move in and out. So people tend to compensate, with more heating and cooling. It’s costly and damaging for the environment. </p>
<p>Using a national sample of 102,000 Australian homes across all 69 climate zones, we identified the most common housing types. Then we worked out how to make them “climate ready” and what benefits would flow. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.climateworkscentre.org/resource/climate-ready-homes-building-the-case-for-a-renovation-wave-in-australia/">new report</a> released today makes a strong case for a renovation wave across Australia. </p>
<p>By combining thermal upgrades with electrifying hot water and cooking appliances, households can shave up to $2,200 a year off their energy bills. And the nation will be closer to reaching net zero emissions by 2050. </p>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-973" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/973/534c98def812dd41ac56cc750916e2922539729b/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Paying for poor performance</h2>
<p>Australians are paying for low-performing homes through their energy bills, and the cost extends well beyond the kitchen table. </p>
<p>Low-performing homes draw more energy from the grid as heating and cooling systems work in overdrive to keep indoor temperatures safe or even comfortable. </p>
<p>Home interiors often look stylish, which contributes to making us feel comfortable. But there’s more to it than that. </p>
<p><iframe id="EdCBf" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/EdCBf/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>A home’s performance, and its energy bills, comes down to just a few appliances. That is, those used to heat the hot water, and to heat or cool individual rooms. </p>
<p>In summer, air conditioners need to run for long periods if the ceilings, floors, walls and windows cannot stop the cool from escaping or the Sun’s heat from building up inside. </p>
<p>Multiply poor energy performance across Australia’s housing stock of nearly 11 million homes, and you start to see the scale of inefficiency before us.</p>
<p>We clearly need to improve the energy performance of all low-performing homes.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/on-hot-days-up-to-87-of-heat-gain-in-our-homes-is-through-windows-on-cold-days-its-40-of-heat-loss-heres-how-we-can-fix-that-212117">On hot days, up to 87% of heat gain in our homes is through windows. On cold days, it's 40% of heat loss. Here's how we can fix that</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What’s the solution?</h2>
<p>To reach net zero emissions by 2050 or earlier, all sectors of the economy need to rapidly cut emissions. According to the <a href="https://www.climateworkscentre.org/resource/climateworks-centre-decarbonisation-scenarios-2023-australia-can-still-meet-the-paris-agreement/">latest Climateworks Centre modelling</a>, decarbonising buildings – responsible for <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/energy/energy-efficiency/buildings/residential-buildings">10% of national emissions</a> – is vital if Australia is to uphold its commitments under the <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/climate-change/international-climate-action#toc_0">Paris Agreement</a>.</p>
<p>In 2050, most Australians will be living in homes that already exist today, making renovations an essential part of achieving net zero.</p>
<p>We worked together for more than a year to understand Australia’s residential building stock, how these homes perform and what it would take to get them to a <a href="https://www.climateworkscentre.org/resource/renovation-pathways-defining-zero-carbon-homes-for-a-climate-resilient-future/">zero-carbon standard</a>.</p>
<p>With 69 separate climate zones and millions of homes, Australia’s housing profile looks different depending on the city or town you live in. Townhouses in Brisbane, freestanding houses in Darwin and apartments in Perth can all be made climate-ready, but they can get there in very different ways.</p>
<p>We analysed <a href="https://ahd.csiro.au/">data from 102,000 homes</a>, examining floor, wall and building materials that are key to energy performance. We found just 16 types of homes make up most Australian housing stock. </p>
<p>The most common “archetypes” can be turned into net zero carbon homes with either a quick fix, modest or full climate-ready upgrade. <a href="https://www.climateworkscentre.org/project/renovation-pathways/">The Renovation Pathways project</a> allows us to show how 80% of houses and townhouses, and most apartments, across Australia’s climate zones can be made climate-ready.</p>
<p>Our analysis shows a “thermal-first” approach – improving air tightness and insulation in roofs, walls and floors – optimises benefits from rooftop solar and electrification.</p>
<p>For example, freestanding houses represent 70% of Australian homes. Houses with lightweight walls such as weatherboard or brick veneer – along with a framed roof and either a concrete slab or suspended timber floor – make up nearly half of the total housing stock and are among the worst performing. </p>
<p>Upgrading the thermal performance of such houses across the country offers the biggest opportunity to reduce emissions, as well as significant household savings. </p>
<p><iframe id="93vGm" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/93vGm/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/budgets-energy-bill-relief-and-home-retrofit-funding-is-a-good-start-but-dwarfed-by-the-scale-of-the-task-205380">Budget's energy bill relief and home retrofit funding is a good start, but dwarfed by the scale of the task</a>
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<h2>Show me the money</h2>
<p>When combining thermal upgrades with electrifying hot water and cooking appliances, people living in detached houses could save on average between $1,850 and $2,200 a year off their energy bills.</p>
<p>Occupants of townhouses could save between $1,270 and $1,480 a year, and occupants in apartments between $1,030 and $1,200 a year.</p>
<p>As well as much-needed emissions savings for Australia, zero-carbon homes would deliver much-needed savings to residents as living costs continue to rise. </p>
<p>Even low levels of insulation combined with the switch from gas to electric space conditioning can save more than two tonnes a year of CO₂-equivalent per house, compared with a low-performing home built to pre-energy efficiency standards.</p>
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<p>Improving home energy performance also has positive effects for Australia’s energy grids. Efficient homes that reduce the need to turn on heating and cooling appliances for long stretches during heatwaves and cold snaps also reduce demand on the energy grid. Each low-performing home upgraded to climate-ready would contribute to reducing peak demand by between 1.4 and 3.5 kilowatts.</p>
<h2>Multiple benefits</h2>
<p>As more energy sources become electrified under the net zero transition, reducing peak demand will both help to prevent brownouts, blackouts and unexpected power outages, and reduce electricity network costs for consumers.</p>
<p>The catch is that at today’s energy prices, it would takes more for residents to break even on climate-ready upgrades. But it is an area ripe for government support. </p>
<p>Two key planning documents the federal government has committed to releasing – an update to its <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/energy/energy-efficiency/buildings/trajectory-low-energy-buildings">Trajectory for Low Energy Buildings</a> and a sectoral plan for the built environment – provide the government with the opportunity to embed policy that will support a wave of energy performance upgrades. </p>
<p>If policy supports a “go fast and go all-out” approach to energy performance upgrades in homes, a self-sustaining renovation wave will ensure more and more households live in resilient, climate-ready homes.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/on-hot-days-up-to-87-of-heat-gain-in-our-homes-is-through-windows-on-cold-days-its-40-of-heat-loss-heres-how-we-can-fix-that-212117">On hot days, up to 87% of heat gain in our homes is through windows. On cold days, it's 40% of heat loss. Here's how we can fix that</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219113/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gill Armstrong works for Climateworks Centre, Monash University. She receives funding from four philanthropic organisations for the Renovation Pathways program. These are: Boundless Earth, Energy Consumers Australia, Paul Ramsay Foundation, Lord Mayors' Charitable Trust.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Ambrose receives funding from the federal Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW). </span></em></p>Most Aussie homes are not suited to the current climate, let alone future extremes. But they can be upgraded. A new report identifies the most common housing types and benefits of renovating.Gill Armstrong, Researcher in architecture and urban planning, Climateworks CentreMichael Ambrose, Research Team Leader, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2122172023-10-10T11:25:59Z2023-10-10T11:25:59ZBuilding on the greenbelt is central to solving the housing crisis – just look at how the edges of cities have changed<p>Amid <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2023/oct/08/labour-keir-starmer-new-homes-target-green-belt">new targets</a> of 1.5m new <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-67058848">homes</a> over five years, the Labour party has pledged to review the planning rules which dictate where housing in England can be built. The shadow chancellor, Rachel Reeves, has said that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2023/oct/08/labour-keir-starmer-new-homes-target-green-belt">“a common-sense approach”</a> to deciding quite what land is worth protecting and what can sensibly be used to create more housing was crucial. </p>
<p>This may put Labour at odds with many Conservative politicians in the UK, who have long defended the greenbelt, the protected land that encircles the country’s largest cities, including London, Newcastle and Manchester. The Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities’s latest long-term plans for housing <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/long-term-plan-for-housing-secretary-of-states-speech">prioritise</a> urban development of brownfield sites (abandoned or underutilised industrial land) over so-called greenbelt “erosion.”</p>
<p>The notion of “concreting over the countryside,” as Prime Minister Rishi Sunak <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/rishi-sunak-housing-plan-uk-michael-gove-b2380605.html">has put it</a>, is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/oct/19/is-it-time-to-rethink-the-green-belt">politically loaded</a>. Yet, elements of the Conservative party itself are beginning to see that this oversimplifies the issue. As former housing minister Brandon Lewis <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-66998512">has said</a> at a fringe event at the Tory conference, the concept “needs to be reviewed and changed”.</p>
<p>It no longer makes sense to prioritise the city centre over its peripheries because quite what is in the city, and what is outside it, is no longer clear. Multiple factors have seen the city extend into a continuous periphery. These include uneven urbanisation and geo-engineered landscapes, changing working patterns and locations and the perceived conflation of nature with culture. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://counterintuitivetypologies.com/Peripheries-Peripherocene">research looks at</a> how to rethink the urban-nature divide. We have found that design that focuses on <a href="https://punctumbooks.com/titles/analogical-city/">urban peripheries</a> in socially diverse and sustainable ways <a href="https://www.park-books.com/en/product/thinking-design/115">can benefit residents</a>, combat climate change and tackle the housing crisis. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A graphic showing suburban town planning." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548777/original/file-20230918-29-9wssmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548777/original/file-20230918-29-9wssmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=848&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548777/original/file-20230918-29-9wssmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=848&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548777/original/file-20230918-29-9wssmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=848&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548777/original/file-20230918-29-9wssmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1065&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548777/original/file-20230918-29-9wssmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1065&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548777/original/file-20230918-29-9wssmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1065&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The Anthropocene has blurred the city’s boundaries.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Joe Wojewoda | Cameron McEwan</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<h2>The politics of ‘urban sprawl’</h2>
<p>In his long-term housing policy, Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities Michael Gove has made the connection between urban planning, aesthetic standards and climate change. He argues against what he and <a href="https://lirias.kuleuven.be/1684573?limo=0">many before</a> him have termed “urban sprawl”. Instead, making the city centre more dense, he says, will “enhance economic efficiency, free up leisure time and also help with climate change”. </p>
<p>In city planning terms, <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_698#:%7E:text=Definition,a%20defined%20unit%20of%20area.">“density”</a> refers to the degree of human activity and occupation in a defined unit of urban space. It is, of course, an important measure. Our research shows, however, that what matters most is not the numbers of people and businesses in a city, but the quality of the space in which they operate. </p>
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<img alt="Map of England's greenbelts" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551814/original/file-20231003-25-afdgj0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551814/original/file-20231003-25-afdgj0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=677&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551814/original/file-20231003-25-afdgj0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=677&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551814/original/file-20231003-25-afdgj0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=677&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551814/original/file-20231003-25-afdgj0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=850&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551814/original/file-20231003-25-afdgj0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=850&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551814/original/file-20231003-25-afdgj0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=850&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">England’s greenbelts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=26130819">Hellerick|Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Housing is an <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/jul/25/the-guardian-view-on-housebuilding-michael-goves-urban-visions-cant-erase-his-partys-record">inherently political issue</a>. <a href="https://england.shelter.org.uk/what_we_do/our_strategy_2022-2025">Shelter</a>, the housing charity, states that 17.5 million people are trapped by the housing emergency. According to the <a href="https://www.centreforcities.org/publication/the-housebuilding-crisis/">Centre for Cities</a> thinktank, Britain has a backlog of 4.3 million homes missing from the national housing stock. This analysis shows that it would take at least 50 years to fill this deficit, if the government’s current target to build 300,000 homes a year in England is met. And it won’t be: homes are being built at approximately half this rate.</p>
<p>However, in 2013, the economist Paul Cheshire <a href="https://theconversation.com/greenbelt-myth-is-the-driving-force-behind-housing-crisis-17802">wrote</a> that what he termed “the greenbelt myth” was, in fact, driving the housing crisis. “Contrary to popular perception,” he said, “less than 10% of England is developed. And of what is developed much less than half is ‘covered by concrete’.” </p>
<p>Instead, Cheshire proposed that there be selective building on what he termed “the least attractive and lowest amenity parts of greenbelts.” Not only are these areas close to cities where people want to live, but building on brownfield land in the greenbelt or repurposing derelict buildings might begin to alleviate the housing crisis, including problems of affordability, for generations to come.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A graphic illustration of an interior." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548775/original/file-20230918-17-p7l0vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548775/original/file-20230918-17-p7l0vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548775/original/file-20230918-17-p7l0vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548775/original/file-20230918-17-p7l0vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548775/original/file-20230918-17-p7l0vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548775/original/file-20230918-17-p7l0vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548775/original/file-20230918-17-p7l0vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Building reuse has great potential.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthias Guger|Mihael Vecchiet|Andreas Lechner, Studio Counterintuitive Typologies, TU Graz</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<h2>How urban peripheries can work for people and the environment</h2>
<p>To combat climate change and tackle the housing crisis, cities need to be allowed to expand with coherent planning – that includes good public transport, well-designed public spaces and high-quality housing. </p>
<p>In Italy, the post-war district of <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/867165/ad-classics-gallaratese-quarter-milan-aldo-rossi-carlo-aymonino">Gallaratese</a>, which lies 7km north-west of the centre of Milan, features medium-scale apartment blocks, good social amenities and high-quality, well-connected public transport. People living there have access to small parks and public gardens, places to sit and shop. </p>
<p>This affords the public realm a certain dignity that is often lacking in in Britain. People benefit from better infrastructure for commuting into the city centres – not just traffic lanes for cars, but metro, tram and train connections, with coherently designed outdoor public space. </p>
<p>In Austria, <a href="https://www.aspern-seestadt.at/en/about_us/organisation">Seestadt Aspern</a>, a newly developed extension of Vienna, has been characterised as a “city within a city.” It is compact, yet full of public spaces. The project is conceived with job creation, housing and metro-line extension as priorities. </p>
<p>Our research suggests introducing, to <a href="https://counterintuitivetypologies.com/Studios">periphery design</a>, the kind of buildings more associated with inner-city design. To date, housing in suburban planning in England has largely revolved around the detached single-family home. This ultra-low density building type uses lots of land and is firmly reliant on fossil-fuel heavy private transport. </p>
<p>Focusing instead on what we have called the urban villa might be an alternative. The urban villa aims for a synthesis between the city apartment and the single-family home. Think, a number of apartments in a freestanding house, no more than five storeys, surrounded by a garden. </p>
<p>Suburban planning that centred on this type of housing – which combines urban density with a connection to green space and the public realm – could create a denser, more attractive and, crucially, more sustainable alternative to the way city outskirts are currently planned.</p>
<p>The housing crisis is <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/climate/climate-publications/built-environment/the-green-belt-sustainability-and-england's-housing-crisis.aspx">inextricable</a> from the climate crisis. The environment is <a href="https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/documents/3554/JBA-9s9-00-FULL.pdf">most demonstrably in crisis</a> in urban peripheries. It is where the collapse of a coherent urban order takes place, where big bits of transport infrastructure meet fields and suburbs. It’s often where marginalised communities are pushed. </p>
<p>Ultimately, Cheshire was right. The dual housing and climate crises are exasperated by the failure to resolve the greenbelt argument. </p>
<p>What is built around urban cores is crucial to a truly sustainable and equitable solution – for both people and the environment. But, doing so in a way that is beneficial to both residents and the environment requires a shift in government policy and public imagination. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204614001522">more and more people</a> cluster around cities in search of work, or a better balance between home and work life, those areas that are now peripheral will become central. Quite under what conditions they live and work there is a matter that demands urgent attention.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212217/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The way we develop urban peripheries is central to tackling both the housing crisis and the climate emergency.Cameron McEwan, Associate Professor in Architecture, Northumbria University, NewcastleAndreas Lechner, Associate Professor, Graz University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2147322023-10-06T15:15:48Z2023-10-06T15:15:48ZDiscovery of half-a-million-year-old wooden structure shows we’re wrong to underestimate our ancient relatives<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551508/original/file-20231002-21-vds0x3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C1%2C1014%2C614&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Excavators found part of a structure formed by two overlapping logs.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Barham et al. Nature (2023)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>To most people, complex technologies separate modern humans from their ancestors who lived in the Stone Age, thousands or hundreds of thousands of years ago. In today’s fast changing world, older technologies, even those from a few years ago, are often described dismissively as “Stone Age”.</p>
<p>Such terms serve to disconnect us from our ancient relatives, who were much more sophisticated than we sometimes think they were.</p>
<p>A team led by archaeologist Larry Barham at the University of Liverpool recently published robust and well dated evidence <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06557-9">for the earliest known use of wood technology</a>. The wooden structure, along with artefacts, date to 476,000 years ago and have been excavated from waterlogged deposits at <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01963510">Kalambo Falls, Zambia</a>. </p>
<p>This archaeological site is famous for producing traces of human cultural development dating to <a href="https://w%20%20%C2%A71ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047248415001104">hundreds of thousands of years ago</a>. </p>
<p>The remarkably well preserved evidence found by Barham and colleagues include, among other things, a wedge (a type of wooden tool), a digging stick, a log cut with the help of tools and a branch with a notch cut into it. </p>
<p>But why, in the age of AI and robotics, should wood technology from nearly half a million years ago generate so much interest from both scientists and the public? </p>
<p>The evidence from Kalambo Falls demonstrates a remarkable ability by early hominins (ancient human relatives) to source wood and shape it with tools.
They were able to produce, not only an assortment of other tools, but also sophisticated wooden structures. We don’t know exactly what species made the structure, but <em>Homo heidelbergensis</em> or a species similar to <em>Homo naledi</em> might be candidates, among others.</p>
<p>These results have far reaching implications for our understanding of how sustainable materials were used in the Early Stone Age. It also sheds light on the capabilities of early hominins.</p>
<h2>From speculation to fact</h2>
<p>Archaeology is the study of deep and recent history using the remains of things left by people who came before us. However, these histories are biased in favour of things that have either survived the passage of time or decayed but left traces.</p>
<p>Humans lived in the era known as the Stone Age for nearly 99% of human history. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_archaeology">The Early Stone Age</a> is considered the earliest and perhaps longest “technological age”, stretching from nearly four million years ago to 300,000 years ago. </p>
<p>We know more about stone tools during this early phase of human development, in part because inorganic materials such as rocks are nearly indestructible compared to those made of perishable materials like wood. </p>
<p>Indeed, wood is very scarce in deposits belonging to the Early Stone Age, requiring <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0964830500000779">exceptional conditions of preservation</a> to avoid decaying. It survives only in extremely dry environments such as deserts, or extremely wet conditions – as was the case at Kalambo Falls.</p>
<p>Given the scarcity of evidence, direct proof of the intentional use of wood from more than 400,000 years ago sharply transforms our understanding of the antiquity of wood as a technology – and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/004724849190015N?via%3Dihub">how long hominins have been interacting</a> with this versatile material. They used it to make tools, to build shelters, to obtain food and perhaps even for fuel as they went about their daily lives.</p>
<p>Although researchers had suspected that wood technology <a href="https://archaeo.peercommunityin.org/articles/rec?id=229">was widely used by early hominins</a>, without hard, direct evidence, we could not accept that as fact. Archaeology is a discovery and evidence-based field of study –- seeing is believing. The Kalambo Falls discovery transformed speculation into fact, changing our understanding of the history of technology. </p>
<h2>Benefiting the environment</h2>
<p>However, part of the challenge comes from concepts of human history which could be described as <a href="https://oxfordre.com/education/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-111">progressivist or linear</a> – that envisage history as an inevitable advance towards modernity through scientific and technological achievement. </p>
<p>In the past, some scientists considered the minds of early hominins to have been more limited <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/human-evolution/Increasing-brain-size">compared to those of modern humans</a>. They believed technology and culture improved in sophistication as human brain size increased, moving from a “simple” state to the complex, algorithm-dominated world we live in today.</p>
<p>Despite the fact that brain sizes have increased over time, and that technology has changed, it is possible that those who came before us had an impressive understanding of the materials around them and cared for their surroundings. </p>
<p>The intentionally-shaped wood construction from Kalambo Falls is an illustration of design, technology and creativity – using what in today’s world we would call a green technology. </p>
<p>Notions of “progress” are quite deeply embedded in culture. This can also be a proxy for the exceptionalism of modern humans (<em>Homo sapiens</em>) – the belief that there is something unique or exemplary about our species compared with earlier hominins. If we put these notions aside, we can recognise that so called “backward technologies” can greatly benefit the environment and the planet. </p>
<p>The fact that wood is perishable makes it a more sustainable material, unlike some modern construction materials that are nearly indestructible, and leave conspicuous ruins. Manufacturing these modern materials also <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02612-5">emits greenhouse gases</a> that contribute to climate change. </p>
<p>Of course, there are risks associated with using wood as a construction material, such as fire and decay. But in appropriate situations, we should continue our long tradition of building in wood. Perhaps the ancients were not so backward, but more progressive than us when it came to looking after the planet through sound decision making.</p>
<p>In summary, the Kalambo Falls evidence suggests that, at least sometimes, early hominins were able to take advantage of materials other than stone for their everyday needs, including tool-making and shelter. They might also have been able to use the resources in their environment for fuel and medicine. </p>
<p>However, we need more direct evidence, going back to the beginnings of the Stone Age to demonstrate how those who came before us used and worked with wood. More discoveries like this might even lead us to rename the mighty Stone Age as the Wood Age.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214732/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shadreck Chirikure receives funding from the British Academy, the University of Oxford, National Research Foundation of South Africa, and the University of Cape Town. </span></em></p>Experts speculated that very early humans worked wood, but previously didn’t have the evidence.Shadreck Chirikure, Prof of Archaeological Science & British Academy Global Professor, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2141382023-09-22T00:59:08Z2023-09-22T00:59:08ZDoug Ford reverses Greenbelt plans: Construction would never have provided affordable housing<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/doug-ford-reverses-greenbelt-plans-construction-would-never-have-provided-affordable-housing" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Ontario Premier Doug Ford has announced a <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ford-stag-and-doe-integrity-commissioner-1.6974058">reversal of his government’s decision to allow developers to construct residential properties on parts of Ontario’s Greenbelt</a>. While this is a positive outcome for an ongoing saga, let’s be clear: paving Ontario’s Greenbelt was never actually about providing affordable housing. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Ontario Premier Doug Ford announces a reversal of his government’s plans to allow housing development on parts of the Greenbelt on Sept. 21 in Niagara Falls, Ont.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Sure, there would have been houses where farms once stood, adding to the province’s overall supply. While housing experts would agree that our housing supply needs to grow as our population grows, we also need to ask questions: What kind of housing do we need? For whom? And where? </p>
<p>Once we expand the housing debate beyond a need to build, it becomes clear that building on the Greenbelt is neither necessary, nor a solution.</p>
<h2>More doesn’t necessarily mean affordable</h2>
<p>First, much of the housing that gets built on fringes of our urban regions is not in any way affordable. While <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/real-estate/article-toronto-area-lot-sizes-continue-to-shrink/">suburban plot sizes are smaller</a> than in the 1960s, houses have become bigger, meaning they are not cheap to buy, even in more modest developments. </p>
<p>But it’s not just new subdivisions that get built when rural land is turned into houses. Beyond Brampton, towards Guelph and Waterloo Region, there are enormous mansions on multi-acre lots that most families would struggle to afford. These huge properties are becoming typical in expansion of the Greater Toronto Area.</p>
<p>Second, while some housing in the suburbs might be cheaper than downtown, the <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/commuting-costs-eat-up-house-savings-in-many-gta-communities-study-finds/article_0845a9ca-d99e-5727-8d60-eb5b370bc1cc.html">extra commuting costs of living far from jobs</a> adds to a household’s expenses and negates much of the cost-saving of buying a less expensive house further away. This kind of housing policy locks generations of Ontarians into costly car-dependency; it also costs the government more to maintain and expand highway infrastructure to meet this suburban growth.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549692/original/file-20230921-23-kxb231.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="aerial view of a suburban neighbourhood bordered by farmland" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549692/original/file-20230921-23-kxb231.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549692/original/file-20230921-23-kxb231.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549692/original/file-20230921-23-kxb231.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549692/original/file-20230921-23-kxb231.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549692/original/file-20230921-23-kxb231.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549692/original/file-20230921-23-kxb231.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549692/original/file-20230921-23-kxb231.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The cost of providing and servicing infrastructure to new suburban developments is much higher than for existing urban areas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>Related to this, it costs much more for municipalities to service these new communities compared to housing built within existing urban areas. This is not just the initial costs of <a href="https://usa.streetsblog.org/2015/03/05/sprawl-costs-the-public-more-than-twice-as-much-as-compact-development">preparing and providing services</a> (water, electricity, roads) to new subdivisions — <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26150800">annual operating costs to service sprawling neighbourhoods on the edges of cities is much higher than denser and more central neighbourhoods</a>. Someone has to pay for <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/urban-expansion-costs-menard-memo-1.6193429">these extra costs</a>, either through higher property taxes or poorer services.</p>
<p>Fourth, there are many sites already zoned for new subdivisions. While some are being developed, others are simply being held by developers until the time is right to maximize their profits. In other words, there’s already plenty of land, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ontario-caledon-mzo-greenbelt-1.6946441">in places such as Caledon</a>, where new population growth can be accommodated.</p>
<p>Finally, several <a href="https://www.thespec.com/opinion/contributors/mapping-hamilton-s-vacant-spaces-helps-paint-a-picture-for-the-future/article_b7e510a3-6d13-5667-8a7f-259efc4fdce5.html">studies</a> have pointed out that there is more than enough room <a href="https://www.ssho.ca/">within the existing urban footprint</a> to accommodate expected population growth. It requires denser, smarter and more creative approaches, but there is <a href="https://www.thespec.com/opinion/contributors/building-a-denser-inclusive-hamilton/article_5654dbf2-c677-5783-bc37-f01007e63f74.html">plenty of land to develop and redevelop</a> within our cities. This removes the need to destroy precious farmland and other natural areas that are vital to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115763">our health, economy, food supply and well being</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://thenarwhal.ca/southern-ontario-housing-farmland/">Southern Ontario needs a lot more housing</a>. But it needs genuinely affordable housing for low- moderate- and middle-income households. This housing supply rarely, if ever, gets built when farmland is lost.</p>
<h2>Solving the housing crisis</h2>
<p>Expanding our urban areas into the Greenbelt will not solve the housing crisis. So, what would a provincial policy that was genuinely focused on making housing more affordable look like?</p>
<p>To start, it would focus not just on adding new supply, but ensuring that existing housing remains affordable. Thousands of apartments that were affordable to low- and moderate-income households <a href="https://chec-ccrl.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Updated-Analysis-on-Housing-Erosion-from-2021-Census-Steve-Pomeroy.pdf">have been lost to processes such as renoviction and demoviction</a>.</p>
<p>The most important aspect to help keep existing housing affordable is <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520386228/shaking-up-the-city">rent control</a>. But one of Ford’s first acts as premier was to <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/the-ford-government-removed-rent-control-on-new-units-a-year-later-tenants-are-reporting/article_aee5f429-cba9-5f07-a7ac-1387a7a59730.html">abolish rent control on any new unit first occupied on or after Nov. 15, 2018</a>. That means that tenants who live in the thousands of condo towers that have been popping up since then can be subject to <a href="https://nowtoronto.com/news/toronto-sisters-fight-for-rent-control-after-7000-monthly-rent-increase/">whatever kind of rent increase</a> their landlords want to charge.</p>
<p>Tenants who reside in buildings first occupied prior to this still enjoy some degree of rent control. But the previous Progressive Conservative government, under Mike Harris, <a href="https://doi.org/10.60082/0829-3929.1059">also got rid of vacancy control</a>, meaning that when a tenant leaves, landlords can raise the rent to whatever they like. This not only creates a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.04.011">huge incentive</a> for landlords to evict sitting tenants, but has also led to an erosion of the housing supply that is affordable to tenants.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549693/original/file-20230921-23-3m9hoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="four cranes and buildings under construction" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549693/original/file-20230921-23-3m9hoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549693/original/file-20230921-23-3m9hoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549693/original/file-20230921-23-3m9hoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549693/original/file-20230921-23-3m9hoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549693/original/file-20230921-23-3m9hoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549693/original/file-20230921-23-3m9hoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549693/original/file-20230921-23-3m9hoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The condo boom in Ontario has not translated into the availability of affordable housing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<h2>The role of policy</h2>
<p>How can the provincial government help shape the kind of new supply that we need? The provincial government has taken some initiative to <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/page/more-homes-built-faster">permit up to four units on residential plots of land previously zoned only for one single family home</a>. However, the evidence is mixed as to whether this <a href="https://www.axios.com/local/twin-cities/2023/08/15/what-really-created-minneapolis-apartment-boom">produces this kind of housing</a> (at the appropriate price) that households need.</p>
<p>We need to think differently about the <a href="https://theconversation.com/publicly-owned-land-should-be-used-for-affordable-housing-not-sold-to-private-developers-198654">public land</a> that is owned by everyone in Ontario. We used to build genuinely affordable housing on public land; the <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/partners/advmoderncity2016/why-torontos-st-lawrence-neighbourhood-is-a-model-for-affordable-housing/article35872718/">St. Lawrence neighbourhood</a> in downtown Toronto remains the <a href="https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/127154/1/Hulchanski%201990%20Planning%20the%20St%20Lawrence%20Neighbourhood%20-%20Chap%203%20-%20Learning%20from%20St%20Lawrence.pdf">gold standard</a> of how to build housing that meets the needs of communities.</p>
<p>Today, all levels of government, and many other public sector agencies, own land throughout the province. When this land is surplus, it is usually sold on the open market to the highest bidder. The Ontario Housing Affordability Task Force recommended that <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/page/housing-affordability-task-force-report">all future government land sales have a 20 per cent affordable housing requirement</a>, although this was not taken up.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/publicly-owned-land-should-be-used-for-affordable-housing-not-sold-to-private-developers-198654">Publicly owned land should be used for affordable housing, not sold to private developers</a>
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<p>Instead, there have been several high profile sales of Ontario government land that have resulted in no affordable housing, including a parking lot at the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/provincial-land-transit-hub-private-developer-sale-1.6330555">Port Credit GO station in Mississauga</a>, which was sold to a private developer for $64.5 million with no provisions for any affordable housing.</p>
<p>Land that Metrolinx has acquired for the Ontario Line will also be <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/metrolinx-land-sold-developers-affordable-housing-1.6817447">sold on the open market to the highest bidder</a>, with no requirements for any affordable or non-market housing.</p>
<p>This land should be kept in public ownership to build the kind of housing that the market is unwilling or unable to build. Paving over the Greenbelt was never necessary to meet our need for affordable housing. </p>
<p>A housing policy based on Greenbelt expansion has rightly been tossed aside. Now it’s time for the provincial government to step up and develop housing policies that will actually make a difference and get to the heart of why housing is so expensive. Fortunately, this isn’t rocket science and many of the solutions already exist.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214138/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian Doucet receives funding from SSHRC and the Canada Research Chairs program. </span></em></p>Ontario Premier Doug Ford’s plan to allow developers to build projects on parts of the Greenbelt was under the auspices of providing additional housing. But it would never have been affordable.Brian Doucet, Canada Research Chair in Urban Change and Social Inclusion, University of WaterlooLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2130912023-09-14T16:15:15Z2023-09-14T16:15:15ZAsymmetrical bridges, timber towers and a repurposed gas platform: awards hail 2023’s best structures<p>The 2023 Structural Awards, hosted by the Institution of Structural Engineers, has unveiled <a href="https://www.istructe.org/structural-awards/shortlist/2023-shortlist/">its shortlist</a> of the world’s 35 most outstanding building projects. </p>
<p>Aimed at highlighting technical innovation, the featured structures comprise seven bridges, two footbridges, three stadiums and one football stadium stand, redevelopments, new builds, malls, museums, community hubs, a college and a school. They also include a retired gas platform transformed into an art installation and Stufish Entertainment Architects’ <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/983752/abba-arena-stufish-entertainment-architects">Abba Arena</a>, a venue custom-built in London’s Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, to house the Swedish band’s Voyage concert. </p>
<p>The prize has a global remit, featuring entrants from Canada and China to New Zealand, Niger and the Netherlands. Of the 35 shortlisted structures, however, 16 are in London. These include <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/big-ben-is-back-telling-the-time-and-the-bongs-will-soon-ring-out-again-12618628">the £80 million renovation</a> of Big Ben and the redevelopment of the grade-II listed <a href="https://www.dezeen.com/2022/10/05/battersea-power-station-opens-wilkinson-eyre/">Battersea power station</a> by the WilkinsonEyre architecture studio. </p>
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<p>Since 2022, the judging process has put ever greater emphasis on the environmental impact of the buildings, the social value they provide and the effect they have on the people who use them. </p>
<p>The need to promote sustainability within architecture and construction is gaining ground, as <a href="https://theconversation.com/lacaton-and-vassal-how-this-years-pritzker-prize-could-spark-an-architectural-revolution-157636">recent</a> Pritzker prize <a href="https://theconversation.com/diebedo-francis-kere-how-first-black-winner-of-architectures-top-prize-is-committed-to-building-peaceful-cities-179483">laureates</a>, among other international accolades, show. </p>
<p>I have spent 20 years <a href="https://eng.ox.ac.uk/people/barbara-rossi/">researching</a> sustainability and resilience within the construction sector. Here are four highlights from the shortlist that show why this matters.</p>
<h2>Battersea power station</h2>
<p>To preserve this <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0957-1272(91)90048-J">cultural icon</a>, engineering firm Buro Happold deployed structural engineering prowess and creative solutions. The <a href="https://www.burohappold.com/projects/battersea-power-station-building-works/#">2,495,000 sq ft</a> building has been refurbished to include more than 250 apartments, restaurants, shops, cinemas, offices, and an entertainment venue. </p>
<p>The building posed significant challenges. First, at foundation level, there were obstructions and deep geological scour hollows that created significant risk when combining the new structures with those already in place. The firm also worked hard to restore the external fabric of the building to maximise its reuse. Fire risk management also posed a big challenge – it is always highly complex in this kind of mixed-use building, especially since the Grenfell Tower fire.</p>
<p>Of particular note are the elegant tree structures used to carry an unprecedented load. They are composed of four curved, V-shaped branches. Each weighs 43 tonnes and supports six column lines from the commercial space above, transferring their load into the foundation. This minimises the footprint of the structure, ensuring the impressive space of the north atrium remains open. </p>
<h2>The Black and White Building</h2>
<p>Located in Shoreditch, London, this multi-storey new-build office block is designed by the engineering firm Eckersley O'Callaghan. It is central London’s tallest mass timber office structure and has already netted the firm the Architectural Review Future Projects Award for Best Office in 2022 and been shortlisted for the Construction News Awards low carbon project of the year in 2023. </p>
<p>The building is comprised of a reinforced concrete substructure (below ground level) beneath a timber superstructure. The latter includes the staircases and, most unusually, the core, which enable the designers to achieve a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109320">lower embodied carbon</a> score. Most massive timber buildings have a concrete core, which increases their embodied carbon, thereby defeating the purpose of using timber in the first place. </p>
<p>Eckersley O'Callaghan also created unusually long spans (up to 10 metres between internal columns) and, in the facade, used steel cross-bracing to provide support against what construction specialists term <a href="http://web.mit.edu/4.441/1_lectures/1_lecture18/1_lecture18.html">“lateral loads”</a> (the horizontal forces applied to a structure, by things like wind).</p>
<h2>The Youshui Bridge</h2>
<p>Designed by architect Wen Wanqing and structural designer Yan Aiguo for the China Railway Siyuan Survey and Design Group, this is an awe-inspiring railway bridge in Furong Town, China. It is essentially a giant, <a href="https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/10.1680/jbren.19.00016">asymmetrical</a> arch, the north foundation of which sits 48.4m higher than the south foundation. </p>
<p>The structure is made of a concrete-filled steel tubular truss and spans 292 meters across the Youshui river valley. This is very rare, especially over a gorge, which only makes construction harder. </p>
<p>Concrete arches will typically span over anything up to 200m. Above that, steel (or concrete combined with steel) has to be employed. The construction process was a feat of engineering: it involved building a 865m highline to transport elements of the truss. </p>
<h2>The Marisfrolg Fashion Apparel Campus</h2>
<p>Designed by the Architecture Van Brandenburg studio for a fashion company in Shenzen, China, this curved building has already garnered awards for lighting design, among other things. It uses a notable mix of materials in an intricate composition of concrete shells, covered with a carapace of bricks, stone and ceramics. It really looks like the feather of a cretaceous bird just landing on the ground. </p>
<p>Structurally speaking, concrete shells are extremely challenging structures, both to calculate and to build. The designers must have used extensive <a href="https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/book/10.1680/fedcs.41899#:%7E:text=Finite%2Delement%20Design%20of%20Concrete%20Structures%2C%20Second%20edition%2C%20is,with%20the%20aid%20of%20computers.">finite element modelling</a> (a numerical approach that involves breaking down a problem into many smaller parts). And they would have needed complex <a href="https://www.eca.ed.ac.uk/research/rethinking-concrete-formwork">“formwork”</a>, that is, moulds, as well as high-quality concrete. </p>
<p>In terms of sustainability, however, despite the studio’s claims that the roof of the pavilion is clad in recycled materials and that bamboo was used for the concrete formwork, in the concrete structure itself, it appears that only Portland cement was used. It is difficult to rule, therefore, on the project’s actual sustainability credentials.</p>
<p>Winners will be announced on November 10 2023. The hope for such awards, of course, is that they will continue to promote sustainability within structural engineering. </p>
<p>The question, though, is whether even more stringent criteria should not be considered. The Institution of Structural Engineers offers a course to design net-zero structures. Imagine the impact this institution might have if it were to restrict the award to net-zero projects only.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213091/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barbara Rossi receives funding from The European Commission (Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions). </span></em></p>The 35 shortlisted structures from around the world showcase engineering ingenuity and big ideas for making construction more sustainable.Barbara Rossi, Associate Professor and Tutorial Fellow in Engineering Science (Structures & Mechanics), University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2129172023-09-11T18:53:01Z2023-09-11T18:53:01ZWhy is Doug Ford doubling down amid Ontario’s Greenbelt scandal?<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/why-is-doug-ford-doubling-down-amid-ontarios-greenbelt-scandal" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>The past few weeks have witnessed an extraordinary series of events in Ontario politics. Reports tabled by the province’s <a href="https://www.auditor.on.ca/en/content/specialreports/specialreports/Greenbelt_en.pdf">auditor general</a> and its <a href="https://www.oico.on.ca/web/default/files/public/Commissioners%20Reports/Report%20Re%20Minister%20Clark%20-%20August%2030%2C%202023.pdf">integrity commissioner</a> on the government’s November 2022 decision to remove 7,400 acres of land from the Greater Toronto Area’s Greenbelt have set off a political firestorm.</p>
<p>The controversy has resulted in the resignation of <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/steve-clark-resigns-greenbelt-1.6956402">Housing Minister Steve Clark</a> and his <a href="https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/ontario-housing-ministers-chief-of-staff-resigns-days-after-auditor-general-report-on-greenbelt">chief of staff</a> and angry protesters greeting <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/ford-fest-kitchener-waterloo-region-1.6960609">Premier Doug Ford in Kitchener, Ont., when he arrived for the annual Ford Fest under heavy police escort.</a></p>
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<p>The auditor general found that normal decision-making processes related to the Greenbelt had been bypassed, that it was well-established there was no need to remove land from the Greenbelt for housing purposes and that decisions were “biased” in favour of certain developers who had bought the lands in question and who stood to reap a $8.3 billion windfall from their development. </p>
<p>The integrity commissioner, for his part, described the decision-making process around the Greenbelt removals as “madcap.”</p>
<h2>Doubling down</h2>
<p>Ford’s government has so far stonewalled on the auditor general’s key recommendation that the removal of the lands from the Greenbelt be “reconsidered.”</p>
<p>In fact, the government seems to be moving in the opposite direction. <a href="https://www.newmarkettoday.ca/local-news/youre-on-notice-ford-warns-land-will-return-to-greenbelt-if-conditions-not-met-7469519">It is pressuring</a> developers to accelerate construction on the removed lands. </p>
<p>New Housing Minister Paul Calandra is now advancing a wholesale review of the Greenbelt plan. <a href="https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/more-land-removed-greenbelt-review-minister-says">That seems to include consideration</a> of the possibility of further land removals, if not a complete reconsideration of the Greenbelt as a whole.</p>
<p>The government’s response to the situation defies normal political logic. Following the departure of the minister and his chief of staff, a government might have been expected to use the announcement of the Greenbelt review as political cover to back down on the land removals, take further moves on the Greenbelt off the table and then move on from the entire episode.</p>
<p>The Ford government’s emerging <a href="https://ici.radio-canada.ca/rci/en/news/2007266/ford-doubles-down-on-housing-plan-amid-calls-to-fire-minister-over-greenbelt-swap">double-down</a> approach, by contrast, seems fraught with political and legal risks. </p>
<p>Furthermore, reports expected to be just as damaging are on the horizon. The integrity commissioner will issue a follow-up report at some point over the next year, and so will the auditor general.</p>
<h2>Major challenges loom</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-opp-refers-greenbelt-investigation-to-rcmp/">The RCMP</a> is considering requests to look into whether there’s been any criminal behaviour in relation to the Greenbelt controversy. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/greenbelt-stop-ford-ontario-1.6933082">Other potential challenges</a> to the legality and procedural correctness of Greenbelt removals loom. Municipal councils may decline to <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/duffins-rouge-agricultural-preserve-1.6937144">provide or approve the infrastructure</a> needed to support housing development on the Greenbelt since the lands in question were never expected to be developed, and no plans exist for such infrastructure. </p>
<p>There may even be legal action by <a href="https://www.nationalobserver.com/2023/08/29/news/first-nations-chiefs-demand-return-all-removed-greenbelt-land">Indigenous Peoples</a> whose treaty rights and interests may have been infringed upon by the Greenbelt decisions.</p>
<p>The situation begs an explanation of the government’s behaviour in response to the episode. Some have suggested simple stubbornness and a refusal to accept blame, although Ford himself <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/2261250627978">has described the process as flawed</a>.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/doug-fords-greenbelt-scandal-the-beginning-of-the-end-of-his-years-in-power-211629">Doug Ford's Greenbelt scandal: The beginning of the end of his years in power?</a>
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<h2>The role of Ford Nation</h2>
<p>There’s a second possibility.</p>
<p>Ontario voters, especially <a href="https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/may-2022/doug-ford-political-durability/">those who are likely to vote for the Ford government</a> (also known as <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-01-17/the-rise-of-urban-populism-in-rob-ford-s-toronto">Ford Nation</a>), may simply care more about immediate affordability issues than more abstract notions about evidence-based policymaking, good planning, legal correctness and political accountability. </p>
<p>These are all issues being raised by Ontario’s <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9885243/ontario-opposition-parties-greenbelt-report-response/">opposition parties</a> and <a href="https://www.thestar.com/politics/political-opinion/doug-ford-s-housing-minister-must-resign-but-hey-don-t-just-take-it-from/article_742bf67e-9804-5df2-88c9-7478fc0c2f2c.html">mainstream</a> media, but it’s unclear whether they resonate with Ford’s loyal base. </p>
<p>Public opinion polling on the impact of the Greenbelt episode is still relatively preliminary. <a href="https://abacusdata.ca/has-the-greenbelt-scandal-hurt-the-ford-pcs-in-ontario/">There is evidence</a> of relatively high levels of awareness of the Greenbelt scandal, but its political consequences, particularly nearly three years away from the next provincial election, aren’t clear. </p>
<p>The longer-term response may give some indication of whether the government has accurately assessed deeper shifts in Ontario’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/ontario-election-4-ways-doug-ford-has-changed-the-provinces-politics-182660">political culture</a>, which has traditionally emphasized administrative competence, integrity and moderation.</p>
<h2>No vision</h2>
<p>Beyond its political impact, the Greenbelt episode, and the government’s broader approach to planning and development matters, have left the province’s planning process in discredited shambles. </p>
<p>Once the subject of <a href="https://news.ontario.ca/en/release/86986/ontario-celebrates-second-major-award-for-growth-plan">international acclaim</a>, the Greenbelt debacle has made it starkly apparent that the <a href="https://thepointer.com/article/2023-04-24/experts-say-pcs-proposed-bill-97-is-a-sprawl-inducing-full-frontal-assault-on-ontario-agriculture">government’s reforms</a> over the past five years have converted the process into an instrument wielded by the province on behalf of the interests of developers.</p>
<p>The government seems to have <a href="https://theconversation.com/giving-developers-free-rein-isnt-the-solution-to-the-gtha-housing-challenges-176128">no underlying vision</a> for the Greater Toronto Area other than to give the development industry everything it wants and hope that solves the housing crisis. </p>
<p>The industry itself has no vision for the region other than an overriding focus on short-term profit maximization.</p>
<p>Challenges facing the GTA are multidimensional and complex: <a href="https://www.torontomu.ca/content/dam/social-innovation/Programs/Affordable_Housing_Visual_Systems_Map_Oxford.pdf">housing needs</a>, particularly at the lower end of the income scale; structural economic transitions and <a href="https://ppforum.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/JobPolarizationInCanada-PPF-April2021-EN.pdf">increasingly polarized</a> labour markets; <a href="https://trca.ca/climate-change-impacts-gta/">the impacts</a> of a changing climate; and a growing <a href="https://www.toronto.ca/news/city-of-toronto-staff-report-says-toronto-faces-an-unprecedented-financial-crisis-and-the-time-is-now-for-all-orders-of-government-to-step-up-to-fulfil-their-roles/">fiscal crisis</a>, particularly for the City of Toronto, driven in large part by <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ontario-mayors-slam-ford-download-1.5117718">provincial downloading.</a> </p>
<p>Responding to these challenges will require planning and decision-making processes grounded in democratic norms, evidence, transparency and accountability — the <a href="https://marksw.blog.yorku.ca/2023/06/13/doug-ford-at-5-years-selling-out-ontarios-future-to-please-the-well-connected/">very opposite</a> of the Ford government’s modus operandi.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212917/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Winfield receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. He was involved in the development of the original Growth and Greenbelt Plans for the Greater Toronto Region. </span></em></p>The Greenbelt scandal is among the most serious of Ontario Premier Doug Ford’s years in office. So why is he pressuring developers to accelerate construction on Greenbelt lands?Mark Winfield, Professor, Environmental and Urban Change, York University, CanadaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2128932023-09-07T15:18:15Z2023-09-07T15:18:15ZSchool concrete crisis: how Raac has been used well beyond its expiry date<p>More than one hundred schools in England <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2023/sep/04/which-schools-in-england-are-affected-by-raac-concrete">have been fully or partly</a> closed just days before the start of the new academic year, due to concerns over the safety of <a href="https://theconversation.com/concrete-in-schools-how-missing-data-and-poor-funding-contributed-to-todays-closures-212812">concrete roof panels</a>. </p>
<p>Problems with what the construction industry terms “reinforced autoclaved aerated concrete” (Raac) were brought to a head in August 2023, when a Raac ceiling panel, that had been deemed safe by inspectors, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-66709154">collapsed</a> at a school in England. In response, the Department for Education issued an urgent alert. More than 156 schools were identified as being at risk.</p>
<p>The British public is understandably sensitive about the safety of building materials and how risk in buildings is managed in the wake of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/grenfell-steve-mcqueens-film-is-a-silent-unflinching-reminder-of-lives-devastated-by-fire-203797">Grenfell Tower disaster</a> in 2017. The focus here should, specifically, be not on the material itself but on the fact it has been used well beyond its expiry date. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.06.082">Research shows</a> that there are significant risks associated with exceeding the intended design-life of building materials.</p>
<h2>Why has Raac been used?</h2>
<p>Developed in 1950s and 1960s, Raac – also known as “aircrete” – is an aerated concrete, that is reinforced with steel bars or “rebar”. Air is injected into it during construction, which means it is more than two times lighter than regular concrete (it can even float on water). A cross-section of a slab looks a lot like an Aero chocolate bar. </p>
<p>These characteristic bubbles make the material weaker. But that is not necessarily an issue, since the reduced weight means less strength is required to prevent a panel from bending. Raac panels can easily span up to six metres without an intermediate support column. This suits architectural layouts in many schools, hospitals and other buildings. </p>
<p>Lighter buildings are, in principle, easier to build (<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2017.03.005">and dismantle</a>). They require less materials, which lowers carbon emissions and reduces costs. They are also easier to heat and cool because Raac offers excellent thermal insulation, as compared to bricks or standard concrete. </p>
<p>As a result, Raac has been widely used across the world for decades. It is popular in Turkey and Japan, in particular, due to its <a href="http://invenio.itam.cas.cz/record/18937?ln=en">excellent performance in earthquakes</a>. </p>
<p>In the UK, it was widely used for floor and wall panels until the beginning of the 1980s, when production was stopped. Other countries, including Germany and the US, continued to produce Raac. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-hidden-danger-of-asbestos-in-uk-schools-i-dont-think-they-realise-how-much-risk-it-poses-to-students-203582">The hidden danger of asbestos in UK schools: 'I don't think they realise how much risk it poses to students'</a>
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<p>A number of weaknesses were identified from the outset. Raac’s main limitation is that the bubbles and the material composition itself make it vulnerable to moisture and water ingress, especially if there is a leak. This can lead to strength reduction and corrosion of the rebar. </p>
<p>The developers of Raac were well aware of this limitation. Guidelines required that panels be protected from rainwater using asphalt layers. The rebar is also coated to protect against corrosion. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, these protection measures require regular maintenance and inspection. In the UK this hasn’t always happened, due to the associated costs for the building owners.</p>
<p>The protective coating of the rebar can result in reduced grip between the aerated concrete and the steel bars. This can lead to excessive bending and cracking of the panels, which can worsen over time, depending on the temperature. </p>
<p>In the 1990s, <a href="https://www.thenbs.com/PublicationIndex/documents/details?Pub=BRE&DocID=98696">this issue was investigated</a> by the building science charity, the Building Research Establishment (BRE), after panels had to be removed from some buildings. The study concluded that no evidence was available at that time to indicate that the Raac panels posed a safety hazard to building users. It said that future inspections and assessments of roofs was needed. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A cross-section of an aerated concrete block." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546956/original/file-20230907-23-oixt3z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546956/original/file-20230907-23-oixt3z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546956/original/file-20230907-23-oixt3z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546956/original/file-20230907-23-oixt3z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546956/original/file-20230907-23-oixt3z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546956/original/file-20230907-23-oixt3z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546956/original/file-20230907-23-oixt3z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Air is inserted into Raac during construction, making it a light-weight material.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:UW_280748.jpg">Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Life of materials exceeded</h2>
<p>The BRE study also suggested that the expected design-life of Raac panels was around 30 years. This is less than the 50 years recommended for building structures in the UK. However, building standards in the UK allow replaceable structural parts in buildings to have a lower indicative working life, of between ten and 30 years.</p>
<p>This information was disseminated to schools at that time by the Department for Education. The associated costs for assessment and repairs varied from one school to another. In many cases, budget allocated for monitoring Raac panels was not prioritised.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/dozens-of-schools-ordered-to-turn-pupils-away-due-to-crumbling-concrete-b3xvlzn88">sudden Raac roof panel collapse</a> in 2018 at Singlewell Primary School in Gravesend, Kent highlighted additional issues. Subsequent <a href="https://www.cross-safety.org/sites/default/files/2019-05/failure-reinforced-autoclaved-aerated-concrete-planks.pdf">reports</a>, from the standing committee of structural safety (an independent building and civil engineering body in the UK), identified a series of additional construction issues with incorrect positioning of the rebar. Research on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100194">building collapses</a> shows that construction defects, which are exacerbated by deterioration, are the most commonly occurring hazard to trigger building failures.</p>
<p>Since then, a <a href="https://www.istructe.org/resources/guidance/reinforced-autoclaved-aerated-concrete-(raac)-inve/">number of surveys</a> by, among other bodies, the Institution of Structural Engineers, have highlighted further defects, some of which have led to sudden failures that were difficult to anticipate. The recent panel collapse in August 2023 suggests that this is a systemic issue and that we may have reached a tipping point.</p>
<p>Recent evidence shows that the behaviour of these panels can no longer be predicted reliably due to uncertainties in the material and the mechanical properties of the panels, which are highly impacted by deterioration. This is simply because the panels have been used so far beyond their intended design-life and in many cases without proper maintenance.</p>
<p>Indeed, there is a trade-off between using more durable and expensive materials, which require less maintenance, or using less durable and cheaper materials, that require more costly maintenance. The decision will be influenced by whomever is covering both the initial and the long-term costs. Finding the right balance means considering how a building performs throughout its life-cycle – from construction to operation and demolition or reuse.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212893/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Juan Sagaseta receives funding from UK Research and Innovation (UKRI). He is affiliated with the Concrete Industry Eurocode 2 Group in the UK and he is Member of the Editorial Board for the Magazine of Concrete Research (Institution of Civil Engineers, ICE). The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views or positions of any entities he is affiliated to.</span></em></p>Modern building materials are often designed with a limited design-life. Exceeding that limit – and not properly maintaining the structures – is risky.Juan Sagaseta, Reader in Structural Robustness, University of SurreyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2098942023-09-01T13:43:36Z2023-09-01T13:43:36ZPulverised fuel ash: how we can recycle the dirty byproduct from coal-fired power stations<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545549/original/file-20230830-15-9481l8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4031%2C2576&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The pulverised fuel ash from coal-fired power stations is typically stored in landfill.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/coal-fired-power-station-cooling-towers-110448884">Sponner/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The ash from burning coal in coal-fired power stations lies in thousands of landfills around the world. This waste material, generally considered a hazard, is now being put to good use in the construction industry.</p>
<p><a href="https://bloombergcoalcountdown.com">More than 6,000</a> coal-fired power stations produce this powdery byproduct, which is properly known as “pulverised fuel ash” (PFA) or “fly ash”. Traditionally, it was released into the atmosphere from the smoke stack after the coal was burned, but, because of its effect on air quality, it is now captured and stored in landfills. </p>
<p><a href="https://pure.southwales.ac.uk/en/publications/effects-of-lysinibacillus-sphaericus-on-physicomechanical-and-che">Our research</a> focuses on how we can recycle and make best use of these types of dirty byproducts for the sake of the environment.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A small heap of a brown/grey ash." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545562/original/file-20230830-23-wovt73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545562/original/file-20230830-23-wovt73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545562/original/file-20230830-23-wovt73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545562/original/file-20230830-23-wovt73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545562/original/file-20230830-23-wovt73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545562/original/file-20230830-23-wovt73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545562/original/file-20230830-23-wovt73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Pulverised fuel ash or fly ash is a byproduct from coal-fired power stations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fly-ash-coal-waste-used-concrete-1934812655">alegga/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>The <a href="https://www.greenbiz.com/article/how-decarbonize-concrete-and-build-better-future#:%7E:text=Concrete%20is%20the%20most%2Dconsumed,and%20demand%20for%20infrastructure%20grows.">current demand</a> for concrete worldwide is around 14 billion cubic metres annually. This is projected to increase by 43% to 20 billion cubic metres by 2050. The impact of the carbon dioxide emissions (<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02612-5">8% globally</a>) that is associated with this increase, against the backdrop of the current environmental crisis, is immense. </p>
<p>There is a dire need for a change in lifestyle and for tighter environmental regulation of industrial operations and processes. This should include a serious mitigation of the worsening environmental landscape. Increasing the use of industrial waste and byproduct materials is one such strategy. </p>
<p>Some of the most abundant global waste streams result from the many years of coal mining, so the role that can be played by re-using coal waste, including PFA, is significant. </p>
<p>And this idea is based on old technology if you consider how the Romans used ash. The dome of the Pantheon in Rome, built in AD128, as well as the Colosseum, are examples of successful structures built with <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/why-modern-mortar-crumbles-roman-concrete-lasts-millennia">volcanic ash-based concrete</a>. </p>
<h2>Portland cement</h2>
<p>PFA can be blended with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/portland-cement">Portland cement</a> to make concrete. That’s the most common type of cement in general use around the world and is a basic ingredient of concrete, but also mortar, stucco and some grout. Portland cement is a hydraulic cement, which means that it reacts with water to form a paste that binds sand and rock together, creating concrete. Around <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/221654/best-ways-carbon-emissions-from-cement/">3.5 billion tonnes</a> of Portland cement are produced annually.</p>
<p>The problem, though, is that producing Portland cement uses a lot of energy and also precious natural resources. You must quarry the raw materials, which not only damages the landscape but also results in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2542435121001975?dgcid=author">emissions</a> of up to 622kg of carbon dioxide per tonne of cement. </p>
<p>Lessening the impact of Portland cement on the environment is therefore vital. PFA is the most attractive byproduct for this purpose, due to its abundance and low cost. Also, if it is properly used in combination with Portland cement, it can result in stronger and <a href="http://www.xpublication.com/index.php/jcec/article/view/446">more durable concrete</a>.</p>
<p>However, as more coal-fired power stations are decommissioned and fewer come into operation worldwide, stockpiles of PFA become depleted. This means we will need to use the material more efficiently in the future. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A large industrial site featuring several buildings and chimneys" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545915/original/file-20230901-29-xrkzp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545915/original/file-20230901-29-xrkzp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545915/original/file-20230901-29-xrkzp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545915/original/file-20230901-29-xrkzp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545915/original/file-20230901-29-xrkzp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545915/original/file-20230901-29-xrkzp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545915/original/file-20230901-29-xrkzp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The now decommissioned Aberthaw power station in south Wales. On the right of the picture is the grass-topped ash mound.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ben_salter/46572448115/in/photostream/">Ben Salter/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Attention will have to shift to different types of fly ash or unburnt colliery waste. But coal mining waste, either from current or past mining activities, will continue to feature in the construction industry for a long time.</p>
<p>And besides concrete, there are also <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/296519/LIT_8272_420835.pdf">other ways</a> in which we can recycle PFA. This includes using it to improve the properties of soils, making abrasives such as sandpaper and grinding wheels, and using it in the manufacturing of a variety of products, such as plastics, paints and rubber.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Kinuthia receives funding from industry, research councils, and government sources for the furtherance of research into sustainable construction</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Oti receives receives funding from industry, research councils, and government sources for the furtherance of research into sustainable construction</span></em></p>Pulverised fuel ash can be recycled and used to manufacture concrete as well as other products.John Kinuthia, Professor and Manager of the Advanced Materials Testing Centre (AMTeC), University of South WalesJonathan Oti, Associate Professor at the Advanced Materials Testing Centre (AMTeC), University of South WalesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2105532023-08-02T12:31:19Z2023-08-02T12:31:19ZWhy older homes feel warmer than the thermostat suggests – and what to do about it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540544/original/file-20230801-27-rosc0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1012%2C0%2C5196%2C3554&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The temperature you feel on a hot, sunny day doesn't always match the thermostat.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/little-boy-looking-at-a-fan-royalty-free-image/1157634115">Catherine Falls Commercial/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Picture two homes on the same street: one constructed in the 1950s and the other in the 1990s. There are no trees or other shade. The air conditioning units are identical, recently replaced, and operating perfectly. Identical thermostats are set at 82 degrees Fahrenheit (27.8 Celsius).</p>
<p>When it’s 110 F (43.3 C) outside, the 1950s house will likely feel at least 10 F (5.6 C) warmer inside, even with the same air temperature. </p>
<p>Why?</p>
<p>The answer has to do with radiant heat. Radiant heat is what keeps you toasty warm at a campfire on a cold winter night. The fire doesn’t warm the air much; rather, like the Sun, most of the fire’s heat moves through invisible waves directly from the campfire to your body.</p>
<p>In the radiant heat of the Arizona sun, the surface temperature of the uninsulated post-and-beam ceilings in my house, one of <a href="https://www.tucsonaz.gov/files/sharedassets/public/city-services/planning-development-services/historic-preservation/documents/text_-_tucson_post_wwii_residential_subdivision_development.pdf">41,000 built</a> in Tucson during the post-World War II era, can reach over 100 F (37.8 C). The single-glazed steel windows register 122 F (50 C), and the uninsulated concrete block walls aren’t much cooler.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Infrafred thermometer registering 122 F for a single-glazed steel casement window." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540218/original/file-20230731-160144-b1euk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540218/original/file-20230731-160144-b1euk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540218/original/file-20230731-160144-b1euk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540218/original/file-20230731-160144-b1euk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540218/original/file-20230731-160144-b1euk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540218/original/file-20230731-160144-b1euk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540218/original/file-20230731-160144-b1euk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The surface temperature of single-glazed steel casement windows contributes to discomfort in older homes. This window registered 122 F (50 C) when the outdoor temperature was 108 F (42.2 C).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jonathan Bean</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Inside my house on triple-digit days, it can feel like I’m standing near a campfire, even with the air conditioner roaring to maintain 75 F (23.9 C). And when the system breaks – as it did during the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/31/us/phoenix-heat-july.html">long-running 2023 heat wave</a>, when Phoenix hit 110 F (43.3 C) every day for weeks – temperatures rise dangerously fast. Without the AC, the hot surfaces plus the swirl of air from the ceiling fan makes the house <a href="https://apnews.com/article/phoenix-heat-air-conditioning-rationing-cooling-center-63f35e2a87fc92ebbf4ccb139ddd6496">feel like an air fryer</a>.</p>
<h2>Air temperature: An incomplete indicator of comfort</h2>
<p>While people are used to thinking about how clothing, air movement, temperature and <a href="https://theconversation.com/as-heat-records-fall-how-hot-is-too-hot-for-the-human-body-210088">humidity</a> affect comfort, two lesser-known measures help explain how they experience comfort indoors:</p>
<ol>
<li><p><strong>Mean radiant temperature.</strong> This is the average temperature of all the surfaces that surround us: ceiling, windows, walls, floor. For radiant heat to move between an object and the human body, it needs an uninterrupted line of sight, so ceilings and unobstructed windows have an outsized influence on the radiant temperature experienced in a specific place in a house.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Operative temperature.</strong> This can be approximated by averaging the mean radiant temperature and the average air temperature in a room. Other calculations of operative temperature take into account effects of air movement, humidity and additional variables. Roughly <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.06.014">half of how you experience comfort</a> is determined by <a href="https://www.treehugger.com/mean-radiant-temperature-key-to-understanding-comfort-5213152">the radiant environment</a>.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>Unfortunately, as the building scientist <a href="http://www.healthyheating.com/Definitions/Mean%20Radiant.htm">Robert Bean</a> (no relation) says, “an entire industry of manufacturers, suppliers, builders and tradespeople incorrectly equate thermal comfort with air temperatures.” The result is that most people are completely oblivious to what actually makes a space feel comfortable — or uncomfortably hot.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A diagram shows the impact of mean radiant temperature on operative temperature." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540590/original/file-20230801-17-apsfw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540590/original/file-20230801-17-apsfw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540590/original/file-20230801-17-apsfw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540590/original/file-20230801-17-apsfw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540590/original/file-20230801-17-apsfw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540590/original/file-20230801-17-apsfw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540590/original/file-20230801-17-apsfw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The temperature of indoor surfaces makes a big difference for comfort, even when the indoor air is the same temperature.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jonathan Bean</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On a hot, sunny day, good insulation and double-pane windows slow heat transfer enough for air conditioning to keep the mean radiant temperature inside the building within a few degrees of the air temperature.</p>
<p>However, in an under-insulated building, such as my house, or in some older public housing projects in Phoenix, the high mean radiant temperature can push the operative temperature over 90 F (32.2 C) – even with the thermostat set to 75 F (23.9 C). When the surface temperature exceeds the temperature of our skin, heat will begin to radiate from the hot surface into the body, making <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1982.03320490030031">heat stroke more likely</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An illustration of a person sitting with their head in their hand in an older home with the ceiling temperature at 101 F, the windows 122 F and the walls and floor in the 90s F." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540655/original/file-20230802-18-nm2xby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540655/original/file-20230802-18-nm2xby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=653&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540655/original/file-20230802-18-nm2xby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=653&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540655/original/file-20230802-18-nm2xby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=653&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540655/original/file-20230802-18-nm2xby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=821&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540655/original/file-20230802-18-nm2xby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=821&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540655/original/file-20230802-18-nm2xby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=821&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The high radiant mean temperature in old, under-insulated homes makes them much less comfortable than new or well-insulated homes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jonathan Bean</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Illustration shows a person sitting comfortably in a house with wall, ceiling and floor temperatures primarily in the 70s." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540654/original/file-20230802-29-k4xo5p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540654/original/file-20230802-29-k4xo5p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=653&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540654/original/file-20230802-29-k4xo5p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=653&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540654/original/file-20230802-29-k4xo5p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=653&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540654/original/file-20230802-29-k4xo5p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=821&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540654/original/file-20230802-29-k4xo5p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=821&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540654/original/file-20230802-29-k4xo5p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=821&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jonathan Bean</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While the exact threshold where overheating becomes dangerous is debated, most people would agree that 90 F (32.2 C) is far too warm for comfort.</p>
<p>Hot surfaces are why smaller buildings, such as mobile homes, tiny homes, <a href="https://jonathanyb.medium.com/smaller-hotter-and-unfit-3e61e4b877b1">shipping containers</a> and garages turned into apartments, often feel uncomfortable regardless of the thermostat setting. Smaller structures expose occupants to three, four or even six surfaces with the exterior exposed to the sun and hot outside air. More warm surfaces, more discomfort.</p>
<h2>Cooler surfaces, more comfort</h2>
<p>If you live in an under-insulated building and don’t mind using more electricity, you can set the thermostat lower. But if the mean radiant temperature is high, a 2 F (1.1 C) drop in air temperature will feel like only 1 F (0.6 C) — and those hot surfaces will still make you feel uncomfortable. </p>
<p>Adding insulation to your roof and replacing single-pane windows with double-pane units with <a href="https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/window-types-and-technologies">low-emissivity (low-E) glass</a> can help reduce the mean radiant temperature and your energy bills. They’re expensive improvements, but new federal <a href="https://www.energy.gov/save">tax credits</a> and <a href="https://www.consumerreports.org/appliances/heat-pumps/heat-pump-federal-tax-credits-and-state-rebates-a5223992000/">forthcoming rebates</a>, to be administered by individual states, can help. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man and woman close bright-yellow curtains on tall side-by-side windows. The windows also have shades." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540542/original/file-20230801-22-1654yc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540542/original/file-20230801-22-1654yc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540542/original/file-20230801-22-1654yc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540542/original/file-20230801-22-1654yc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540542/original/file-20230801-22-1654yc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540542/original/file-20230801-22-1654yc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540542/original/file-20230801-22-1654yc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Curtains and double-glazed windows can reduce uncomfortable levels of radiant heat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/an-african-american-stand-near-the-bedroom-windows-royalty-free-image/1446923585">Mireya Acierto/Photodisc via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Trees, awnings and exterior shades can also reduce mean radiant temperatures by blocking direct sunlight. However, <a href="https://buildingscience.com/documents/insights/bsi-006-can-fully-glazed-curtainwalls-be-green">glass is a lousy insulator</a>, so in very hot climates, single-pane windows completely protected from the sun can still become uncomfortably warm. </p>
<p>Adding a curtain inside — and keeping it closed — can help decrease mean radiant temperature because the curtain will be closer to the air temperature than the glass.</p>
<h2>What about renters in old buildings?</h2>
<p>Renters in older, under-insulated buildings are often less able to afford large energy bills, and landlords may be unable or unwilling to make expensive improvements. Making matters worse, <a href="https://www.lennox.com/buyers-guide/tools/energy-savings-calculator">older air conditioning systems use two to three times as much energy</a> as newer units to deliver the same amount of cooling.</p>
<p>Since creating a comfortable operative temperature requires setting the thermostat lower, an HVAC system in an under-insulated building must work longer and harder, using more energy and further raising the cost. And the costs of discomfort are not only financial: Hot buildings also have <a href="https://theconversation.com/3-dangers-of-rising-temperatures-that-could-affect-your-health-now-105028">adverse impacts on health</a> and productivity.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An old, dirty and beat-up air condition sits next to a window and brick wall with peeling paint." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540543/original/file-20230801-17-9t0k8i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540543/original/file-20230801-17-9t0k8i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540543/original/file-20230801-17-9t0k8i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540543/original/file-20230801-17-9t0k8i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540543/original/file-20230801-17-9t0k8i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540543/original/file-20230801-17-9t0k8i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540543/original/file-20230801-17-9t0k8i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rental homes often have older air conditioning units that are less efficient.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/old-air-conditioner-unit-in-need-of-updating-royalty-free-image/542190768">SBSArtDept via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Millions of Americans now live in places where <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.2c09588">cooling is the only thing preventing a mass casualty event</a>. In Phoenix, <a href="https://www.phoenix.gov/humanservicessite/Documents/Cooling%20Ordinance.pdf">city code requires rental units cooled by air conditioning</a> to maintain a temperature of no more than 82 F (27.8 C), measured 3 feet above the floor in the center of the room. Unfortunately, the code does not specify whether 82 F is the operative temperature or the air temperature.</p>
<p>That one word makes a world of difference. </p>
<p>In an older, under-insulated building similar to my house — or, in what might be the worst-case scenario, a sun-fried southwest unit of the top floor of an uninsulated concrete high-rise — a seemingly safe air temperature of 82 F could easily mask dangerous operative temperatures of 96 F (35.6 C) or higher.</p>
<h2>The key to better design</h2>
<p>As a professor of <a href="https://capla.arizona.edu/faculty-staff/jonathan-bean">architecture and building science</a>, I believe today’s byzantine building codes and rental rules could be greatly improved for comfort by <a href="http://www.healthyheating.com/Thermal-Comfort-in-Simple-Terms.htm#.YbjH1X3MJqt">regulating mean radiant temperature</a> rather than air temperature. Vast sections of code could be jettisoned by requiring that interior surfaces, which are easy to measure with an inexpensive <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_thermometer">infrared thermometer</a>, be kept within a comfort range above 60 F (15.6 C) and below 85 F (29.4 C).</p>
<p>For more comfortable buildings, architects and engineers can apply <a href="https://basc.pnnl.gov/resource-guides/passive-and-low-energy-cooling">simple, established principles</a>, such as natural ventilation, shading and the right insulation and windows for the climate. Keeping heat out in the first place means we don’t have to spend so much on energy for cooling. Research shows that these measures can also make us safer by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119323">keeping buildings cooler for longer</a> in summer power outages.</p>
<p>The happy result: homes and other buildings that are not only comfortable, but also safer and more affordable to operate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210553/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Bean is the co-director of the Institute for Energy Solutions within the Arizona Institute for Resilience at the University of Arizona, and a board member of the Phius Alliance.</span></em></p>Thermostats don’t tell the whole truth about heat, particularly in older homes.Jonathan Bean, Associate Professor of Architecture, Sustainable Built Environments and Marketing, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2101372023-07-24T20:09:27Z2023-07-24T20:09:27ZBuilding houses in factories for the Commonwealth Games was meant to help the housing crisis. What now?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538911/original/file-20230724-25-3s1qad.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=27%2C6%2C4573%2C3055&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Huge sporting events come with substantial public investment in housing. After Melbourne hosted the 1956 Olympics, about 600 houses in the athlete village became public housing in West Heidelberg. After Melbourne hosted the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the athlete village in Parkville was <a href="https://www.development.vic.gov.au/projects/parkville-gardens?page=overview">largely sold off</a>, with 320 houses going to social housing. </p>
<p>Victoria’s now cancelled 2026 Commonwealth Games were meant to have the same effect in the state’s smaller cities. New dwellings were intended to help boost social and private housing supply amid the ongoing housing crisis. Ironically, the broader housing crisis <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/how-the-housing-crisis-helped-kill-off-the-commonwealth-games-20230719-p5dpij.html">may have contributed</a> to the cancellation, as worker shortages and building material price spikes took their toll. </p>
<p>Importantly, half of these <a href="https://builtoffsite.com.au/news/development-victoria-issues-advanced-tender-for-2026-commonwealth-games-with-commitment-for-50-prefabricated-buildings-and-structures/">were to be</a> prefabricated and modular buildings. This would speed up construction and demonstrate what’s now possible. While regions like Scotland now do almost all of their construction in factories, Australia is only just beginning. </p>
<p>So is cancellation of the games a blow for prefab construction in Australia? It’s a PR setback, given the attention it would have received. The state government has committed to building 1,300 new homes in the regions, the same number intended for the games. As yet, we don’t know if these will be prefab. </p>
<h2>Building the prefab profile</h2>
<p>Victoria agreed to host the games only last year. That gave very little lead time – the games will start in just two and a half years, assuming a new host is found. This rapid time frame was why Victoria’s government looked to prefab to provide the thousands of dwellings needed for officials, athletes and workers. </p>
<p>After the games, these houses in Victoria’s fast-growing host cities of Bendigo, Ballarat, Geelong and Shepparton were meant to boost social and affordable <a href="https://www.theurbandeveloper.com/articles/victorian-government-eoi-commonwealth-games-villages">housing supply</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/turning-the-housing-crisis-around-how-a-circular-economy-can-give-us-affordable-sustainable-homes-208745">Turning the housing crisis around: how a circular economy can give us affordable, sustainable homes</a>
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<p>The plans were a welcome shot in the arm for Australia’s prefab industry, which was just <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/may/21/could-prefab-homes-be-future-australian-house-houses">5% of new builds</a> this year, though it’s expected to reach <a href="https://builtoffsite.com.au/emag/issue-01/prefab-australian-building-sector/">10% by 2030</a>. Scaling up the use of prefabrication will need government support and leadership. </p>
<p>Leading prefab jurisdictions like <a href="https://www.nweurope.eu/media/10913/tg_construction_oxford_meeting_brochure.pdf">Scotland</a> and <a href="https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/scandinavia-prefabricated-housing-market">Sweden</a> have needed government support to get to where they are, with prefab accounting for 84%.</p>
<h2>Why look to prefab homes at all?</h2>
<p>Factories are a way of producing standardised products more cheaply. Bringing <a href="https://aecom.com/without-limits/article/offsite-construction-unlocking-a-thriving-and-sustainable-construction-industry">these techniques</a> to bear on houses cuts costs, slashes waste by up to half, and can quickly boost housing supply. Waste can be cut by precise standardised measurements and the use of low-carbon materials like timber or <a href="https://www.arup.com/news-and-events/aisc-design-guide-for-hybrid-steel-timber">hybrid steel-timber</a> reduces environmental impact. </p>
<p>You might think prefab homes would all look the same or lack quality. But standardisation can often be high quality. When construction is done in a factory setting with a controlled environment, it can be easier to ensure it’s airtight, well insulated and meets standards.</p>
<p>Prefab factories can reduce the impact of weather on construction, though it does create another challenge – transporting the dwelling to the site. </p>
<p>It’s not just for single or double-storey buildings. More than 500 apartments were delivered to a vacant site in London using modular systems, which were then slotted into place to <a href="https://www.hta.co.uk/project/101-george-street">build Ten Degrees</a>, the world’s tallest residential modular building to this date. The process cut embodied carbon by up to 40%, according to the building’s designers. </p>
<h2>Boosting prefab without the games</h2>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.mbav.com.au/news-information/policy-and-advocacy/building-transition-report?policy">recent report</a> led by Master Builders Victoria, we examined how experiences of the Birmingham 2022 and Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games in the UK helped the construction industry innovate in areas like prefab housing. </p>
<p>Preparations for the Birmingham games faced the unprecedented challenge of the COVID pandemic. As a result, the planned athlete village was <a href="https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/homes-and-property/first-time-home-buyers-luck-26680120">never used</a> for athletes, and the units built eventually became private and social housing. Prefab techniques <a href="https://familybusinessunited.com/2021/02/26/willmott-dixon-embraces-innovative-approach-in-birmingham">were used</a> to build 430 apartments. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1565624266766393345"}"></div></p>
<p>Even with the COVID challenge, these apartments were completed ahead of time. In contrast to traditional construction methods, there was more use of the local workforce.</p>
<h2>Why isn’t Australia embracing these techniques?</h2>
<p>Inertia. To make prefab housing mainstream in Australia will mean major changes to the way things are done at present. Our construction industry is not always able to take risks, which makes innovation challenging. </p>
<p>One way to get around this is to create the demand for these types of houses. In Victoria, the government’s pledge to still deliver the promised regional housing could be tied to prefabrication, to help deliver high quality, <a href="https://theconversation.com/turning-the-housing-crisis-around-how-a-circular-economy-can-give-us-affordable-sustainable-homes-208745">sustainable and affordable housing</a> more quickly and begin reshaping the wider industry.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538906/original/file-20230724-23-3c5cz0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="modular office building" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538906/original/file-20230724-23-3c5cz0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538906/original/file-20230724-23-3c5cz0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538906/original/file-20230724-23-3c5cz0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538906/original/file-20230724-23-3c5cz0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538906/original/file-20230724-23-3c5cz0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538906/original/file-20230724-23-3c5cz0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538906/original/file-20230724-23-3c5cz0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Prefab buildings can be produced to be modular, meaning they can stack or connect, as in this image of a modular office building in Berlin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>Even with the games gone, other pressures like the rental and housing crisis are only intensifying. Prefab could help here by offering more affordable and sustainable housing as an option, especially outside metropolitan areas where the cost of land makes up a smaller proportion of the cost of a house or as urban infill.</p>
<p>The games would have helped supercharge the prefab industry. But Australia has an urgent need for more housing. Prefab could <a href="https://thefifthestate.com.au/innovation/residential-2/why-prefab-building-is-going-gangbusters-smart-building-for-the-21st-century/">help deliver this</a> more cheaply and more sustainably. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/building-in-the-same-old-ways-wont-end-the-housing-crisis-we-need-innovation-to-boost-productivity-206862">Building in the same old ways won't end the housing crisis. We need innovation to boost productivity</a>
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<p><em>Former RMIT researcher and Master Builders Victoria adviser Joana Correia contributed to this piece.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210137/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Dorignon has received funding from various organisations including the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute and various industry partners.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Trivess Moore has received funding from various organisations including the Australian Research Council, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute, Victorian Government and various industry partners. He is a trustee of the Fuel Poverty Research Network.</span></em></p>If we build homes on a production line, we could make them cheaper, faster and more sustainable.Louise Dorignon, Vice-Chancellor Postdoctoral Research Fellow, RMIT UniversityTrivess Moore, Senior Lecturer, School of Property, Construction and Project Management, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2071682023-07-14T12:47:39Z2023-07-14T12:47:39ZEmpty office spaces can be converted to residential buildings – but it won’t be affordable<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534137/original/file-20230626-23-hhuczo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C2121%2C1406&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many office buildings have been left empty since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/low-angle-view-of-skyscrapers-in-london-royalty-free-image/1405678211?phrase=building">Gary Yeowell/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since the COVID-19 pandemic began, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/03/30/about-a-third-of-us-workers-who-can-work-from-home-do-so-all-the-time/">more companies have offered remote work options</a> for their employees, or have even <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/bryanrobinson/2022/02/01/remote-work-is-here-to-stay-and-will-increase-into-2023-experts-say/?sh=383f0f5d20a6">switched to working entirely remotely</a> – leaving empty office buildings a new fixture in many cities. In July 2023, Boston’s <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/2023/07/10/business/wu-administration-will-offer-tax-breaks-turn-office-buildings-into-housing/">Planning and Development Agency announced</a> a pilot program to offer incentives to building developers who convert office buildings to residential housing.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.ccee.iastate.edu/directory/focus-areas/profile/jzbaker/">engineers</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=zi8F33cAAAAJ&hl=en">who study buildings</a>, we wanted to know if these empty spaces could be converted to residential buildings, and what hurdles developers would face. </p>
<p>While converting office buildings to multi-family residential involves many considerations – including zoning codes, real estate values and structural issues – certain buildings may be good candidates for this type of conversion. Here’s what it would take to remodel these spaces. </p>
<h2>Redefining space</h2>
<p>First off, the building owners wouldn’t need to make any major structural changes to convert an office building to a residential building. Most office buildings are designed so that the tenants can easily <a href="https://www.ny-engineers.com/blog/shell-and-core-construction">build out the space</a> to suit their needs. This means they can put up walls, take power where they need, and select finishes like flooring, paint and lighting.</p>
<p>With a conversion to multi-family residential, the shell and structural elements of the building would remain, while the building owners could add or move walls to create individual apartments. The costs for this interior remodeling would depend on the <a href="https://www.build-review.com/high-end-finishes-and-materials-you-need-for-your-dream-home/">how fancy things like the countertops and light fixtures are</a>. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-7EG4d-W4W8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Proper daylighting in a dwelling or office provides a host of benefits.</span></figcaption>
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<p>But remodelers would also need to consider nonstructural building features, like windows. Windows determine the distribution of natural light in each <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.02.026">residential unit</a>. Narrower office buildings with more area along the perimeter – and therefore more opportunity for viewing windows – would transition more easily to residential than deep, rectangular-shaped <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2017.03.005">office buildings</a>. No one wants to live in a <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/Denver/comments/xg7elq/you_thought_slot_homes_were_bad_check_out_the/">home with no daylight</a>.</p>
<h2>Electricity, fire alarm and telecommunications</h2>
<p>Residential and commercial buildings have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/ECCE.2010.5618423">different electricity needs</a>. Residential buildings have <a href="https://www.siliconvalleypower.com/residents/save-energy/appliance-energy-use-chart">kitchen appliances</a> that require lots of power, but office buildings use more computers, projectors and copy machines – meaning the electrical load would likely be about the same. Office and residential buildings also have similar power needs for <a href="https://www.ies.org/standards/lighting-library/">lighting</a>. </p>
<p>The electrical load from heating and air conditioning would depend on the type of systems used. While the main electrical service of an office building might be an OK size for a residential building, remodelers would need to add a <a href="https://www.eaton.com/us/en-us/products/low-voltage-power-distribution-control-systems/loadcenters/load-center-fundamentals.html">subpanel</a> to each residential unit. U.S. code requires that all residents have “<a href="https://codes.iccsafe.org/s/ISEP2018/national-electrical-code-nec-solar-provisions/ISEP2018-NEC-Sec240.24">ready access</a>” to the circuit breakers or fuses supplying their unit. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534142/original/file-20230626-4425-72bc8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two floor plans, one shows an apartment layout with living room, kitchen, two bedrooms and a bathroom, while the other shows an office with bathrooms, an atrium and many individual offices" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534142/original/file-20230626-4425-72bc8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534142/original/file-20230626-4425-72bc8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=261&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534142/original/file-20230626-4425-72bc8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=261&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534142/original/file-20230626-4425-72bc8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=261&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534142/original/file-20230626-4425-72bc8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534142/original/file-20230626-4425-72bc8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534142/original/file-20230626-4425-72bc8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Residential units, left, and commercial units, right, use space differently and have different electrical, HVAC and plumbing needs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Typical_apartment_floor_plan_FOCSA_Building.jpeg">Osvaldo valdes/Wikimedia Commons and Aushist/Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
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<p>Building owners would also need to add more fire alarm devices, since residential buildings have more rooms. They might need to revise the internet, telephone and cable systems, as well, to make sure each residential tenant has access to these services.</p>
<p>Though expensive, these electrical revisions are possible. The biggest hurdles would be adding the subpanels and metering to figure out <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.104250">how much each unit uses</a>.</p>
<h2>Heating, ventilation and air conditioning</h2>
<p>While commercial buildings usually have centralized HVAC systems, residential buildings need separate HVAC systems and controls for each residential unit. That being said, mid-rise and high-rise apartment buildings often use a centralized HVAC system with <a href="https://mepacademy.com/how-a-variable-air-volume-vav-system-works/">variable air volume units</a> in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.109429">each zone</a>. Variable air volume units work together with a central air handling unit that supplies a constant airflow. Each variable air volume unit then adjusts the air flow for its specific zone. Each smaller apartment would be a zone, but some larger apartments may need multiple zones. </p>
<p>Residential buildings typically have a smaller HVAC load than office buildings, meaning the existing HVAC system would be larger than needed for residential reuse. Oversized air conditioning systems often have humidity problems – add to that the fact that residential tenants <a href="https://www.apartments.com/blog/how-to-deal-with-home-humidity">create more humidity</a> from showering, doing laundry and cooking. The way to <a href="https://hghomeinspection.com/reduce-humidity-in-the-home/">mitigate humidity</a> here is through <a href="https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.680.524">additional exhaust fans</a>. Variable air volume units would also help keep the extra humidity under control. Building owners would need to pay for these additions, as well as ductwork remodeling. </p>
<h2>Plumbing and fire protection</h2>
<p>In office buildings, most <a href="https://bsesc.energy.gov/energy-basics/basics-core-plumbing-layout">plumbing is centralized</a>, often in the building’s core. For instance, bathrooms tend to be grouped together and located in the same spot on each floor. However, in residential buildings, <a href="https://trusteyman.com/blog/how-plumbing-works-in-apartment-buildings/">plumbing is distributed throughout</a>. Each unit typically has its own bathroom and kitchen, and each requires drinking water and sanitary sewer. </p>
<p>The biggest issues here would be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2015.05.007">the service sizes</a> – or how large the pipes serving the building are – and the interior plumbing system. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1966.tb01643.x">service sizes for water</a> and sewer in an office building may not be big enough for residential uses. This would depend on <a href="https://www.weekand.com/home-garden/article/plumbing-code-requirements-18060405.php">local codes</a> and the number of plumbing fixtures. It’s likely that the pipe for a <a href="https://up.codes/viewer/iowa/upc-2018/chapter/7/sanitary-drainage#7">sewer utility connection</a> would need to be larger for an apartment building than for an office building. Also, the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qZ4HTmibt1g">interior plumbing system</a> would need a remodel to serve each residential unit. </p>
<p>Reworking the plumbing for water should be possible. However, reworking the <a href="https://codes.iccsafe.org/content/IPC2018/chapter-7-sanitary-drainage">sanitary sewer system</a> would be much more difficult, especially on upper floors. Gravity makes things run downhill, and longer horizontal pipes need more vertical drop to keep things flowing in the right direction. This remodel would require new <a href="https://www.h2ouse.org/pipe-chase/">plumbing chases</a> – vertical cavities that pipes run in – to accommodate the sanitary sewer and vent piping needs. Adding these chases would likely require <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2023.03.008">core drilling</a> of floors. If the owner wanted to invest the money, it would be doable – but expensive.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nfpa.org/News-and-Research/Publications-and-media/Blogs-Landing-Page/NFPA-Today/Blog-Posts/2021/03/26/Sprinkler-System-Basics-Types-of-Sprinkler-Systems">fire sprinkler system</a> would likely need revisions once the new walls go up, but the size of the pipe bringing water to the sprinkler system should be pretty close to the right size.</p>
<h2>New life for vacant buildings is doable but not easy</h2>
<p>No one wants to see <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/05/16/1174938708/commercial-real-estate-property-offices-work-from-home-remote-work">office buildings sitting vacant</a>, as vacant buildings can <a href="https://communityprogress.org/blog/how-vacant-abandoned-buildings-affect-community/">diminish surrounding real estate values</a>. Converting an office building to a multi-family residential occupancy is possible. It would, however, not be cheap.</p>
<p>But office buildings that are due for a remodel or upgrade anyway could be great candidates for this type of reinvention. If the building systems – HVAC, plumbing, electrical – are due for replacement, the project becomes more cost effective. With <a href="https://www.jchs.harvard.edu/americas-rental-housing-2022">demand for rental units outpacing growth in new supply</a>, and many cities like <a href="https://www.axios.com/local/san-francisco/2023/04/06/san-francisco-office-housing-conversions">San Francisco</a> and <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/2023/07/10/business/wu-administration-will-offer-tax-breaks-turn-office-buildings-into-housing/">Boston</a> offering incentives to convert, there is potential here. For someone with a creative vision and a building in the right location, this could be a successful and innovative project.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207168/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With many employers switching to remote work, two engineering experts explain the feasibility of converting office buildings to residential spaces.Jenny Baker, Teaching Professor in Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State UniversityLeah Mo, Assistant Professor of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2091422023-07-12T20:03:50Z2023-07-12T20:03:50ZFungi could be the next frontier in fire safety<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536957/original/file-20230712-21-of56i6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5422%2C3571&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia is no stranger to fire-related disasters. The country <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221133552200167X">experiences more than</a> 17,000 residential fires each year.</p>
<p>Each winter brings an increase in potential fire hazards due to the use of heaters and candles. Couple this with our already fire-prone vegetation, and a generally hot and dry climate, and you can see why there’s an urgent need to develop effective and sustainable fireproofing methods.</p>
<p>This is what inspired our research team to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-19458-0?fbclid=IwAR3wYYY-fml-OasZVHARLKbi4wjJKCXwNDZ9kaT7n-o7o3yL6Xy61fiQU9Y">create fireproofing materials</a> made from edible fungi. These materials can withstand flames to protect the integrity of a building’s structure (and any occupants).</p>
<p>Our work presents an exciting opportunity for an industry that has spent too long using materials that are harmful to human health and the environment.</p>
<h2>Fireproofing through the decades</h2>
<p>In the 1970s, construction companies in Australia widely used chemicals categorised as “<a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/flame_retardants/">halogenated flame retardants</a>” to fireproof buildings, furnishings and electronics.</p>
<p>These flame retardants, which <a href="https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/whatwestudy/assessments/cancer/ongoing/hfr#:%7E:text=Halogenated%20flame%20retardants%20encompass%20a,%2C%20structural%2C%20and%20chemical%20properties">largely consist</a> of bromide or chlorine-containing chemicals, are effective in interrupting combustion. But many have been associated with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21268442/">adverse health effects</a> including immunotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, cancer and impaired neurological function. </p>
<p>Phosphorus and nitrogen-based flame retardants are preferred over their halogenated counterparts and are still used for fireproofing today, including in Australia. However, these too pose some risk to human health and to nature (through toxicity and accumulation in the environment).</p>
<h2>Exploring a better alternative</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141391023001714?dgcid=coauthor">Our team has</a> produced a material made entirely out of mycelium, which shows great promise for fireproofing. </p>
<p>Mycelium is the root-like structure of fungi. It’s made up of many thin, branched filaments. The cell walls of these filaments are largely composed of a natural polymer called chitin (which you can also find in <a href="https://theconversation.com/5-ways-fungi-could-change-the-world-from-cleaning-water-to-breaking-down-plastics-157320">crab shells and insect exoskeletons</a>). </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536955/original/file-20230712-17-pcvo4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536955/original/file-20230712-17-pcvo4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536955/original/file-20230712-17-pcvo4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536955/original/file-20230712-17-pcvo4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536955/original/file-20230712-17-pcvo4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536955/original/file-20230712-17-pcvo4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536955/original/file-20230712-17-pcvo4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536955/original/file-20230712-17-pcvo4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mycleium is the vegetative root-like structure of fungi. It’s usually hidden from view underground.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our mycelium-based material is lightweight, eco-friendly, biodegradable and has a relatively long ignition time.</p>
<p>When exposed to intense fire or heat, the material can transform to char – a black high-carbon residue that remains when all the water and volatile compounds have burned off. This is similar to the charcoal that remains when wood is burned. This char protects any underlying flammable material by slowing down heat transfer and preventing further combustion. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535988/original/file-20230706-25-vu83ie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535988/original/file-20230706-25-vu83ie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535988/original/file-20230706-25-vu83ie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535988/original/file-20230706-25-vu83ie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535988/original/file-20230706-25-vu83ie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535988/original/file-20230706-25-vu83ie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535988/original/file-20230706-25-vu83ie.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our mycelium material can be used as a thin, wallpaper-like fireproofing layer.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unlike current fireproofing materials, our material releases only harmless natural products when exposed to fire, such as water and carbon dioxide.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-create-new-building-material-out-of-fungus-rice-and-glass-98153">Scientists create new building material out of fungus, rice and glass</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A versatile material</h2>
<p>Our material is flexible and can be manipulated to varying thinness, including down to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141391023001076">1mm thin wallpaper</a>. This makes it more useful than the bulky fungal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fam.2637">bricks</a> our group previously created. </p>
<p>It could be used as thin wallpaper-like sheets, or consolidated into thicker and stronger core materials that resemble timber or cladding.</p>
<p>We showcase two possible applications for the building and construction industry (although there would be other uses in industries such as automotive and aerospace engineering):</p>
<ol>
<li><p>fungal-only sheets as laminates, where the thickness can be customised, which would be ideal for use as insulation panels</p></li>
<li><p>fungal layers attached to the surface of flammable structures, in the same way wallpaper is applied to walls, to enhance fire protection.</p></li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535990/original/file-20230706-26-g3zktn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535990/original/file-20230706-26-g3zktn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535990/original/file-20230706-26-g3zktn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535990/original/file-20230706-26-g3zktn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535990/original/file-20230706-26-g3zktn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535990/original/file-20230706-26-g3zktn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535990/original/file-20230706-26-g3zktn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The material could be used as a consolidated laminate with a thickness of about 4.5mm.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The next steps</h2>
<p>Although mycelium-based materials are currently used globally for construction, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8934219/">packaging and insulation</a>, none are so far commercially available. Moreover, none have been used or approved for fireproofing.</p>
<p>We’ve been approached by the mushroom industry to develop our material and its feasibility for commercialisation. Collaboration will be crucial to creating a closed-loop industry where agricultural waste can be up-cycled into sustainable biomaterials that meet fire safety needs. </p>
<p>There’s a long way to go before our product can be bought off-the-shelf, and we’ll need to address various large-scale manufacturing challenges in the process.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, we hope our work can eventually contribute to a future where building fires are significantly reduced, and where our homes are safer and more sustainable spaces to live in.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-ways-fungi-could-change-the-world-from-cleaning-water-to-breaking-down-plastics-157320">5 ways fungi could change the world, from cleaning water to breaking down plastics</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209142/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Everson Kandare receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Sustainability Victoria, Tyre Stewardship Australia, and Coorperative Research Centres.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nattanan Chulikavit receives funding from Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tien Huynh does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>For decades, construction companies have used fireproofing chemicals associated with risks to human health and the environment. We need safer alternatives.Tien Huynh, Associate Professor, School of Sciences, RMIT UniversityEverson Kandare, Associate Professor, School of Engineering, RMIT UniversityNattanan Chulikavit, PhD student, School of Engineering, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2069072023-06-26T16:14:05Z2023-06-26T16:14:05ZDog detectives can sniff out protected great crested newts and reduce costly construction delays<p>Construction projects often find themselves at odds with the <a href="https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/amphibians/great-crested-newt">great crested newt</a>. In 2020, the then UK prime minister, Boris Johnson, referred to them as a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-53276461">drag on the economy</a>, citing their presence on development sites as a cause for costly delays. These creatures even <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/06/11/ed-sheeran-launches-hunt-great-crested-newts-objections-plan/">put a stop</a> to Ed Sheeran’s proposal to build a wedding chapel on his Suffolk estate.</p>
<p>Great crested newts play crucial ecological roles. They breed in ponds and ditches during the spring and early summer, before emerging to spend most of their time on land. This behaviour means they are able to recycle nutrients from water to land.</p>
<p>They are also an important part of the food chain. These newts eat small invertebrates and are prey for many species of reptile, mammal and bird. </p>
<p>But great crested newt populations are dwindling due to the widespread loss of suitable habitat, changes in farming practices and climate change. There are now only 478,000 ponds remaining in the UK’s countryside – a <a href="https://freshwaterhabitats.org.uk/news/great-crested-newt-habitat-report/">50% decline compared to a century ago</a> – and only 20% of the remaining ponds are suitable for breeding great crested newts. </p>
<p>So it’s no surprise that harming these creatures or their habitats <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/great-crested-newts-protection-surveys-and-licences#:%7E:text=Great%20crested%20newts%20are%20a,places%20are%20protected%20by%20law.">is now illegal</a>. Developments that may harm great crested newts can proceed only if suitable new habitats are made for them. </p>
<p>But the current methods for relocating newts, which include the installation of drift fencing, pitfall traps (sunken buckets in the ground) and searching by hand, are time-consuming, restricted to certain seasons, expensive and are often hampered by the weather. Great crested newts also tend to hide underground in mammal burrows and other inaccessible refuges, where they are hard to locate. </p>
<p>However, my colleagues and I <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0285084">have discovered</a> that detection dogs can be a valuable addition to the existing toolkit for managing great crested newt populations. </p>
<p>A trained English springer spaniel, called Freya, was highly accurate at detecting great crested newts, even at distances of up to 2 metres above the ground (87% accuracy) and through 20cm of soil (88% accuracy). This approach offers a non-invasive method for locating this species in inaccessible underground shelters.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A female great crested newt." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Great crested newts have a reputation for holding up construction projects.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/greatcrested-newt-triturus-cristatus-single-female-168592301">Erni/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Dog detectives</h2>
<p>Over 128 trial runs, we conducted experiments to investigate the impact of various distances between target newts and Freya on her ability to locate them. We also tested how well Freya could detect the newts through two different soil types: clay and sand. In some instances, we placed a vent within the soil to mimic a mammal burrow. </p>
<p>Freya accurately located all individual great crested newts across the entire range of tested distances (0.25 metres–2 metres). When Freya detected the smell of a great crested newt, she would lie down and point at where the scent was emerging from. </p>
<p>Freya could locate individual newts both in soils with and without vents. But she was significantly faster and more accurate at detecting newts under clay soil compared to sand. This finding contrasts with previous research that found dogs were able to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299522945_The_Effects_of_Soil_Texture_on_the_Ability_of_Human_Remains_Detection_Dogs_to_Detect_Buried_Human_Remains">detect human remains</a> under sandy soil much faster and more accurately than in clay soil. </p>
<p>Our results are likely to do with the type of odour that is emitted and how it reacts with the soil. Great crested newts are amphibians and use moisture to transport pheromones (a chemical that is secreted into the environment to attract a mate for breeding) during their aquatic life phase. The presence of moisture within clay soil may transport their odour to the surface more readily than in sandy soil.</p>
<p>We also found that air temperature influenced how quickly and accurately Freya could detect the newts. Moisture will evaporate at the surface when it’s hot, making it harder for dogs to locate the scent.</p>
<h2>Not so fast</h2>
<p>Using detection dogs to locate great crested newts underground offers valuable insights into the habitat that newts prefer. It also serves practical purposes. Finding and relocating newts is costly and time-consuming at present, but a legal requirement prior to construction activities.</p>
<p>Our findings provide a better understanding of the factors, such as temperature and soil type, that can hinder or improve the chance of detecting these newts. But they also highlight the need for detection dog handlers to be aware of their environmental surroundings and how these factors may impact the dispersal of the newts’ odour.</p>
<p>Furthermore, training dogs and handlers to find great crested newts takes a long time. In fact, it can take up to two years for a dog and its handler to become operational. </p>
<p>This is due to the complexity of the newts’ lifecycle. Great crested newts spend time both above and below the ground, as well as in inaccessible underground hiding places. As a result, the dogs must be exposed to all different types of scenarios during training to ensure they can accurately distinguish between a scent that is accessible above the ground, and a more diluted scent at a distance. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Freya the spaniel and her handler being trained." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It can take up to two years to train a dog and its handler to detect great crested newts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Upton/Wessex Water</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Using detection dogs to locate hidden great crested newts has the potential to protect this rare species and reduce costly construction delays. But the complexity of the newts’ life phases and the time-consuming training process for dogs and handlers means it will take time before this effective new method becomes commonplace.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206907/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nikki Glover does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Great crested newts cause expensive delays to construction – trained sniffer dogs may offer a solution.Nikki Glover, PhD Candidate in Environmental Biology, University of SalfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2067202023-06-12T15:50:46Z2023-06-12T15:50:46ZThe materials used by humans now weigh more than all life on Earth – here’s four graphs that reveal our staggering impact on the planet<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531323/original/file-20230612-220125-wmssuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C3976%2C2664&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Yantian Port, Shenzhen City, China.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/november-16-2020yantian-port-free-trade-1855418863">Weiming Xie/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The extent of humanity’s influence on the planet has become increasingly clear in recent years. From the alarming <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-earths-plastic-pollution-problem-could-look-by-2040-143220">accumulation of plastic waste</a> in our oceans to the <a href="https://theconversation.com/star-wars-earth-will-never-be-an-ecumenopolis-like-coruscant-but-our-cities-are-devouring-the-world-202224">sprawling growth of urban areas</a>, the size of our impact is undeniable. </p>
<p>The concept of the “technosphere” aims to reveal the immense scale of our collective impact. The concept was <a href="https://pne.people.si.umich.edu/PDF/Haff%202013%20Technology%20as%20a%20Geological%20Phenomenon.pdf">first introduced</a> by US geologist Peter Haff in 2013, but paleobiologist <a href="https://theconversation.com/anthropocene-human-made-materials-now-weigh-as-much-as-all-living-biomass-say-scientists-151721">Jan Zalasiewicz</a> has since popularised the term through his work. The technosphere encompasses the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2053019616677743">vast global output of materials</a> generated by human activities, as well as the associated energy consumption. </p>
<p>Since the agricultural revolution some 12,000 years ago (when we started building cities and accumulating goods), human enterprise has steadily grown. However, our impact has surged dramatically over the past couple of centuries. This surge has since transformed into <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2053019614564785">exponential growth</a>, particularly since 1950. </p>
<p>The technosphere is indicative of how humans are increasingly emerging as a global force on par with the natural systems that shape the world. The transformation that is needed to reduce our impact is therefore equally large. And yet, despite growing awareness, there has been a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7958091/">lack of concrete action</a> to address humanity’s impact on the planet.</p>
<p>To comprehend the sheer magnitude of the technosphere, it is best visualised. So here are four graphs that capture how our collective addiction to “stuff” is progressively clogging up planet Earth.</p>
<h2>1. Weighing the technosphere</h2>
<p>In 2020, a group of Israeli academics <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-3010-5">presented a shocking fact</a>: the combined mass of all materials currently utilised by humanity had surpassed the total mass of all living organisms on Earth. </p>
<p>According to their findings, the collective weight of all life on Earth (the biosphere) – ranging from microbes in the soil, to trees and animals on land – stands at 1.12 trillion tonnes. While the mass of materials actively used by humans, including concrete, plastic and asphalt, weighed in at 1.15 trillion tonnes. </p>
<p><strong>The technosphere weighs more than all life on Earth (trillion tonnes):</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531118/original/file-20230609-19-xmxm7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graph showing how the technosphere now weighs more than the biosphere." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531118/original/file-20230609-19-xmxm7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531118/original/file-20230609-19-xmxm7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531118/original/file-20230609-19-xmxm7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531118/original/file-20230609-19-xmxm7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531118/original/file-20230609-19-xmxm7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531118/original/file-20230609-19-xmxm7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531118/original/file-20230609-19-xmxm7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The relative weights of the active technosphere and biosphere. The active technosphere includes materials that are currently in use by human activities. The biosphere includes all living things.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-3010-5">Elhacham et al. (2020)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This graph offers a glimpse into the immense size of humanity’s footprint. But it likely only scratches the surface. </p>
<p>When accounting for the associated byproducts of the materials used by humans, including waste, ploughed soil and greenhouse gases, the geologist and palaeontologist, <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jan-zalasiewicz-153171">Jan Zalasiewicz</a>, calculated that the technosphere expands to a staggering <a href="https://en.unesco.org/courier/2018-2/unbearable-burden-technosphere">30 trillion tonnes</a>. This would include a mass of industrially emitted carbon dioxide equivalent to 150,000 Egyptian Pyramids.</p>
<h2>2. Changing the Earth</h2>
<p>Remarkably, human activity now dwarfs natural processes in changing the surface of our planet. The total global sediment load (erosion) that is transported naturally each year, primarily carried by rivers flowing into ocean basins, is estimated to be around <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2053019618800234">30 billion tonnes</a> on average. However, this natural process has been overshadowed by the mass of material moved through human action like construction and mining activities.</p>
<p>In fact, the mass of material moved by humans <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/07/040709083319.htm">surpassed the natural sediment load in the 1990s</a> and has since grown rapidly. In 2015 alone, humans moved approximately <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2053019618800234">316 billion tonnes of material</a> – more than ten times the natural sediment load. </p>
<p><strong>Humans change the Earth’s surface more than natural processes (billion tonnes):</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531335/original/file-20230612-151816-a7wk5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graph showing how more material is moved by mineral extraction and construction than by natural geological processes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531335/original/file-20230612-151816-a7wk5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531335/original/file-20230612-151816-a7wk5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531335/original/file-20230612-151816-a7wk5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531335/original/file-20230612-151816-a7wk5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531335/original/file-20230612-151816-a7wk5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531335/original/file-20230612-151816-a7wk5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531335/original/file-20230612-151816-a7wk5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Global movement of material: average annual natural sediment transport (blue), the total mass of things transported by humans in 1994 (purple) and in 2015 (orange).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2053019618800234%20and%20https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/07/040709083319.htm">Cooper at al. (2018) & ScienceDaily (2004)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Transporting ‘stuff’</h2>
<p>Our ability to transport fuel and products worldwide has facilitated the trends shown in the preceding graphs. Humans now transport these materials over increasingly vast distances. </p>
<p>Shipping continues to be the primary mechanism for moving materials around the globe. Since 1990, the amount of materials that are shipped around the world has increased <a href="https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1/transport/global-shipping/">more than threefold</a> – and is <a href="https://hbs.unctad.org/merchant-fleet/">continuing to grow</a>. </p>
<p><strong>How shipping has grown since 1980 (million tonnes):</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529942/original/file-20230604-23-yjd97z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graph showing the growth in shipping capacity from 1980 to 2022." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529942/original/file-20230604-23-yjd97z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529942/original/file-20230604-23-yjd97z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529942/original/file-20230604-23-yjd97z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529942/original/file-20230604-23-yjd97z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529942/original/file-20230604-23-yjd97z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529942/original/file-20230604-23-yjd97z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529942/original/file-20230604-23-yjd97z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shipping capacity growth between 1980 and 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1/transport/global-shipping/%20and%20https://hbs.unctad.org/merchant-fleet/">World Ocean Review (2010) & UNCTAD (2022)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. The growth of plastics</h2>
<p>Plastic stands out as one of the main “wonder materials” of the modern world. Due to the sheer speed and scale of the growth in plastic manufacturing and use, plastic is perhaps the metric most representative of the technosphere.</p>
<p>The first forms of plastic emerged in the early 20th century. But its mass production began following the second world war, with an <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1700782">estimated quantity of 2 million tonnes</a> produced in 1950. However, the global production of plastic had increased to approximately 460 million tonnes by 2019.</p>
<p>This surge in plastic manufacturing is a pressing concern. Plastic pollution now causes many negative impacts on both <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22939-w">nature</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/may/24/plastic-waste-puts-millions-of-worlds-poorest-at-higher-risk-from-floods">humans</a>. Ocean plastics, for example, can degrade into smaller pieces and be ingested by marine animals.</p>
<p><strong>Plastic manufacturing (million tonnes) has grown exponentially since 1950:</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530067/original/file-20230605-25-crv4bw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graph showing how plastic production has increased since 1950." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530067/original/file-20230605-25-crv4bw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530067/original/file-20230605-25-crv4bw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530067/original/file-20230605-25-crv4bw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530067/original/file-20230605-25-crv4bw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530067/original/file-20230605-25-crv4bw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530067/original/file-20230605-25-crv4bw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530067/original/file-20230605-25-crv4bw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Annual plastic production.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1700782%20and%20https://www.oecd.org/environment/plastics/">Geyer et al. (2017) and OECD (2023)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Humanity’s escalating impact on planet Earth poses a significant threat to the health and security of people and societies worldwide. But understanding the size of our impact is only one part of the story.</p>
<p>Equally important is the nature, form and location of the different materials that constitute the technosphere. Only then can we understand humanity’s true impact. For example, even the tiniest materials produced by humans, such as <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c04184">nanoplastics</a>, can have significant and far-reaching consequences.</p>
<p>What is clear, though, is that our relentless pursuit of ever-increasing material output is overwhelming our planet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206720/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick King is affiliated with the Schumacher Institute. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aled Jones does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Four graphs that show us how humanity’s impact on the planet is growing.Aled Jones, Professor & Director, Global Sustainability Institute, Anglia Ruskin UniversityNick King, Visiting Researcher, Anglia Ruskin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2061882023-06-06T02:21:12Z2023-06-06T02:21:12ZBuilding activity produces 18% of emissions and a shocking 40% of our landfill waste. We must move to a circular economy – here’s how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529530/original/file-20230601-25-k0dgno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4475%2C2974&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Architecture, engineering and construction employ <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/SASBE-10-2020-0154">1.2 million people</a> in Australia and account for <a href="https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-2983477707">9% of GDP</a>. But our biggest services sector also produces roughly <a href="https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-2983477707">40% of landfill waste</a> and accounts for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.180">18.1% of Australia’s carbon footprint</a>. The sector must change its practices fast for Australia to meet its commitments to cut emissions under the Paris Agreement. </p>
<p>A circular economic model can help solve the environmental challenges created by our built environment – water, waste and power systems, transport infrastructure and the buildings we live and work in. A <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-a-circular-economy-29666">circular economy</a> involves sharing, leasing, reusing, repairing, refurbishing and recycling materials and products for as long as possible. </p>
<p>Circular economy principles have gained recognition from all levels of government in Australia. But there’s a big gap between acknowledgement and action. Progress towards systemic change has been very limited.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/253896506?keyword=circular%20economy%20deakin">new report</a> by university and industry experts lays out a roadmap to a circular economy. Those working in the sector reported the top three barriers as: a lack of incentives, a lack of specific regulations, and a lack of knowledge. The top three enablers were: research and development of enabling technologies, education of stakeholders, and evidence of the circular economy’s added value. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-needs-construction-waste-recycling-plants-but-locals-first-need-to-be-won-over-161888">Australia needs construction waste recycling plants — but locals first need to be won over</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/igiE6dwE8QI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The huge amount of waste created by building construction and demolition makes the industry unsustainable.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So what are the world leaders doing?</h2>
<p>Extensive research for the report drew on real-world experiences, including a survey and interviews with stakeholders. The report offers practical recommendations to drive the transformation to a circular economy, with examples from global front-runners.</p>
<p>The first recommendation is to learn from these nations. Most are in Europe.</p>
<p>A leading example is the Netherlands’ “<a href="https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/en/dialogue/existing-eu-platforms/cirkelstad">Cirkelstad</a>”. This national platform connects key players in the transition to a circular economy in major cities. It provides a database of exemplary projects, research and policies, as well as training and advice.</p>
<p>Cirkelstad highlights the importance of broad collaboration, including research organisations. One outcome is the <a href="https://www.cirkelstad.nl/project/city-deal-circulair-conceptueel-bouwen/">City Deal</a> initiative. It has brought together more than 100 stakeholders with the shared goal of making circular construction the norm. They include government bodies, contractors, housing associations, clients, networks, interest groups and knowledge institutions. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/buildings-used-iron-from-sunken-ships-centuries-ago-the-use-of-recycled-materials-should-be-business-as-usual-by-now-200351">Buildings used iron from sunken ships centuries ago. The use of recycled materials should be business as usual by now</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1002976732960436224"}"></div></p>
<p>We rarely see such collaboration in Australia. Connections between government, research and industry practices have been weak. Our universities compete fiercely. </p>
<p>In Denmark and Sweden, rigorous regulations have been effective in promoting circular practices. Denmark has incentives for the use of <a href="https://www2.mst.dk/Udgiv/publications/2019/03/978-87-7038-052-2.pdf">secondary materials</a> such as recycled brick. It also promotes designs that make buildings easy to disassemble. </p>
<p>In Sweden, contractors must give priority to using secondary materials in public projects. Suppliers are <a href="http://doi.org/10.51414/sei2022.026">evaluated based on their environmental impacts</a> </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-third-of-our-waste-comes-from-buildings-this-ones-designed-for-reuse-and-cuts-emissions-by-88-147455">A third of our waste comes from buildings. This one's designed for reuse and cuts emissions by 88%</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In Canada, Toronto is notable for its proactive approach. Measures include a cap on upfront carbon emissions for <a href="https://secure.toronto.ca/council/agenda-item.do?item=2023.PH3.19">all new city-owned buildings</a>.</p>
<p>Test beds and pilot projects have proven effective, too. A good example is the UK’s <a href="https://www.brighton.ac.uk/research/research-news/feature/brighton-waste-house.aspx">Waste House</a>. </p>
<p>Waste House was built using more than 85% waste material from households and construction sites. Yet it’s a top-rated low-energy building. The project is an inspiration for architects and builders to challenge conventional construction methods and embrace circular practices. </p>
<p>Much of the focus of Finland’s <a href="https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/fi/Documents/risk/The%20circular%20city%20in%20Finland.pdf">circular economy initiatives</a> is on construction and urban planning. Various policy tools and incentives encourage the use of recycled or renewable materials in construction. The renovation of Laakso hospital in Helsinki is a notable example.</p>
<p>Strategic zoning of public spaces can also be used to bolster circular economy activities. An example is the repurposing of urban land for activities such as waste sorting.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-make-roads-with-recycled-waste-and-pave-the-way-to-a-circular-economy-164997">How to make roads with recycled waste, and pave the way to a circular economy</a>
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</em>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/UGSlZAz63Rg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Brighton Waste House was made largely from recycled materials.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How can Australia create a circular economy?</h2>
<p>Australia has been slow to adopt such measures. There are voluntary schemes, such as <a href="https://new.gbca.org.au/green-star/exploring-green-star/">Green Star</a>, that include emission caps for buildings. However, Australia lacks specific, well-defined requirements to adopt circular economy practices across the built environment sector.</p>
<p>Our report’s recommendations include:</p>
<ul>
<li>develop metrics and targets to promote resource efficiency</li>
<li>adopt measurable circular procurement practices for public projects</li>
<li>provide incentives for circular practices</li>
<li>establish technical codes and standards that foster the use of secondary products.</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/greenwashing-the-property-market-why-green-star-ratings-dont-guarantee-more-sustainable-buildings-91655">Greenwashing the property market: why 'green star' ratings don't guarantee more sustainable buildings</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The report finds funding for collaborative projects is badly needed too. Regrettably, the Australian built environment is not seen as <a href="https://www.arc.gov.au/funding-research/apply-funding/grant-application/science-and-research-priorities">a research funding priority</a>. But more funding is essential to foster the innovation needed to make the transition to a circular economy. </p>
<p>Innovation can help us reconcile the public demand for spacious homes with sustainable construction practices. We can achieve this through a mix of strategies:</p>
<ul>
<li>moving towards modular construction techniques</li>
<li>creating incentives to adopt circular design principles</li>
<li>making adaptive reuse of existing structures a priority</li>
<li>designing multi-functional spaces that makes the most of resources.</li>
</ul>
<p>Integrating circular economy principles into education and training at universities and schools can embed a culture of innovation. Equipping students with this knowledge and skills will enable the next generation to drive change in our built environment. </p>
<p>Currently, there are few Australian-based training programs that focus on the circular economy. And available courses and programs overseas are costly.</p>
<p>There is also a need to promote inclusivity in the built environment sector. Circular solutions must incorporate cultural considerations.</p>
<p>By embracing the above strategies, Australia can foster a harmonious balance between cultural values, environmental sustainability and efficient resource use.</p>
<p>Collectively, these initiatives will lay the foundation for a circular economy in the built environment sector. The growing need for housing and infrastructure underscores the urgency of achieving this goal in Australia. Ultimately, consumers, industry and the environment will all benefit.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/with-the-right-tools-we-can-mine-cities-87672">With the right tools, we can mine cities</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206188/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tuba Kocaturk is affiliated with Geelong Manufacturing Council, as a Non-Executive Director.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>M. Reza Hosseini does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our buildings and infrastructure can only become sustainable if the sector shares, leases, reuses, repairs, refurbishes and recycles materials and products. A new report maps out out how to get there.M. Reza Hosseini, Senior Lecturer in Construction, Deputy Director, Mediated Intelligence in Design (MInD) Research Lab, Deakin UniversityTuba Kocaturk, Deputy Head, School of Architecture & Built Environment, and Director, Mediated Intelligence in Design (MInD) Research Lab, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2051072023-05-24T19:01:32Z2023-05-24T19:01:32ZCanada’s housing crisis demands better buildings — here are the changes that could improve apartment and condo life<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527128/original/file-20230518-21-9qziew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=426%2C0%2C4172%2C2697&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">To address the growing urban population, along with the joint affordability and environmental crises, Canada needs to build more affordable, energy-efficient buildings</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As Canada grapples with an <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-study-reveals-intensified-housing-inequality-in-canada-from-1981-to-2016-173633">ongoing housing crisis</a>, the need for more housing — particularly in cities — is becoming increasingly apparent. To effectively address this challenge, Canada needs to focus on constructing more multi-unit residential buildings, like apartments and condominiums.</p>
<p>This is especially important because Canada becomes increasingly urbanized with each passing year. In 2021, <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220209/dq220209b-eng.htm">73.7 per cent of Canadians lived in</a> one of the country’s large urban centres.</p>
<p>But Canada doesn’t just need more housing — it needs good quality housing. And the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.06.010">multi-unit housing sector</a> is plagued with performance issues that negatively impact residents. </p>
<p>To address the growing urban population, along with the joint <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/business/affordability-crisis-why-young-canadians-are-facing-a-huge-wealth-gap-1.6106343">affordability</a> and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/the-nature-of-things/six-ways-climate-change-is-affecting-canada-1.6527535">climate crises</a>, Canada needs to ensure these new multi-unit residential buildings are more affordable and energy-efficient.</p>
<p>In order to ensure new housing prioritizes comfort and health, future residents and building owners should know what design choices to advocate for.</p>
<h2>Design vs. reality</h2>
<p>When appropriately designed and operated, multi-unit housing can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings4030336">more sustainable than detached homes</a>. They can also improve the viability of public transportation and <a href="https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%290733-9488%282006%29132%3A1%2810%29">reduce urban infrastructure costs and associated environmental impacts</a>.</p>
<p>Despite these advantages, multi-unit residential buildings have issues to contend with: they are <a href="https://assets.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/sf/project/cmhc/pdfs/content/en/achieving-high-performance-murbs-opportunities.pdf?rev=6cf09117-cee4-4129-af7a-a973dddac18d">less energy efficient</a> than detached homes and often suffer from a number of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106182">comfort-related challenges</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An advertisement for a condominium is seen outside a low-rise building" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527126/original/file-20230518-21391-t4316e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527126/original/file-20230518-21391-t4316e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527126/original/file-20230518-21391-t4316e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527126/original/file-20230518-21391-t4316e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527126/original/file-20230518-21391-t4316e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527126/original/file-20230518-21391-t4316e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527126/original/file-20230518-21391-t4316e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Real estate signage is seen in front of condos for sale on May 15, 2023, in Montréal, Que.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Christinne Muschi</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many people who have lived in apartments or condos can empathize with issues like <a href="https://jcaa.caa-aca.ca/index.php/jcaa/article/view/3389">noisy neighbours</a>, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/tc.2009.029728">smoke and odour transfer</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.08.024">poor heating or cooling</a>. </p>
<p>Fortunately, many of these issues can be addressed through simple design changes. By examining the research on these issues, we can better understand how design and operation failures contribute to these negative impacts and identify effective strategies to mitigate them.</p>
<h2>Improving ventilation</h2>
<p>Unpleasant odours are a common and bothersome issue faced by apartment and condo residents. </p>
<p>The main causes of odours making their way into suites are ventilation systems and air leakage between suites and other areas of the building or the outside.</p>
<p>Many existing multi-unit residential buildings are ventilated with central pressurized corridor systems. This system delivers outdoor air to a building’s corridors, creating positive pressure. The outdoor air then enters individual suites through intentional gaps underneath front doors.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, these systems don’t work reliably because they are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106320">highly sensitive to changes in outdoor temperature, wind and the opening and closing of doors and windows</a>. They also <a href="https://www.bchousing.org/research-centre/library/building-science-reports/energy-consumption-and-conservation-mid-and-high">use a lot of energy</a>. </p>
<p>Better performance can be achieved with central direct-ducted systems. In these systems, outdoor air is delivered directly to each suite through ducts. While these systems are still affected by seasonal changes and the opening and closing of windows, it’s to a lesser degree. </p>
<p>The best approach is for each suite to have its own decentralized ventilation system. These systems, known as suite-based <a href="https://www.bchousing.org/publications/Heat-Recovery-Ventilation-Guide-MURBs.pdf">heat or energy recovery ventilators</a> (commonly called HRVs or ERVs), supply outdoor air directly to suites while extracting stale air. If you have this type of system, make sure you don’t have a gap under your suite door! </p>
<h2>Stopping air leakage</h2>
<p>Air leakage can transfer smells <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108292">between suites through walls and floors or indirectly via air coming in from corridors</a>. To address this, we want to compartmentalize suites by making the walls, ceiling and floor airtight. </p>
<p>There are tests to help developers assess the level of compartmentalization in a suite, but these tests <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.110273">only measure total air leakage for the entire suite</a> and don’t account for one component being leakier than another. </p>
<p>In the buildings we’ve studied, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.110273">leakiest walls</a> are those separating the corridor from the suite. This is where developers should focus additional air-sealing efforts, along with sealing stairwell doors and adding elevator vestibules.</p>
<h2>Sound-proofing suites</h2>
<p>In multi-unit housing, residents are often exposed to various sources of noise from neighbours, the outside or building systems like elevators or plumbing.</p>
<p>Dealing with noise is complex; sometimes we <a href="https://jcaa.caa-aca.ca/index.php/jcaa/article/view/3389">use one type of noise to drown out another</a>, which can exacerbate existing acoustic problems.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman banging on the ceiling of an apartment with a broom handle. A man, who is sitting on a couch in the same room, covers his ears and watches her." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527127/original/file-20230518-21-cazwgd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527127/original/file-20230518-21-cazwgd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527127/original/file-20230518-21-cazwgd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527127/original/file-20230518-21-cazwgd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527127/original/file-20230518-21-cazwgd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527127/original/file-20230518-21-cazwgd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527127/original/file-20230518-21-cazwgd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In multi-unit housing, residents are often exposed to irritating sounds from their neighbours, like talking or stomping.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Different types of sound require distinct approaches for noise reduction. Airborne noise, like talking, is partly addressed automatically if suites are appropriately compartmentalized. Impact noise, like stomping, can be reduced by applying an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apacoust.2023.109291">acoustic underlay below the finished floor</a>. </p>
<p>Outdoor noise can be addressed with more airtight exterior walls and smaller windows, both of which also have temperature and energy benefits. </p>
<p>Noise from building systems is best addressed through positioning (e.g., not having heat or energy recovery ventilators in the living room) and sound insulation. </p>
<h2>Improving temperatures in the suite</h2>
<p>Thermal discomfort in multi-unit residential buildings can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.106748">prevalent in both heating and cooling seasons</a>. Uncomfortable temperatures in suites are driven, in part, by unnecessarily large and/or poor-quality windows, which makes sitting near them <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00038628.2016.1205179">uncomfortable in the winter</a> and leads to solar overheating in the summer. </p>
<p>Looking for smaller windows with low heat transfer values — <a href="https://natural-resources.canada.ca/energy-efficiency/products/product-information/windows-doors-and-skylights/rating-criteria-and-standards/13978">also known as a window’s U-value</a> — can improve winter comfort. <a href="https://img1.wsimg.com/blobby/go/a60eef51-42d5-4e63-8852-b2b795185efd/downloads/CAE%20Montreal%202020%20Symposium-Passive%20Strategies.pdf">Overhangs, exterior shading, or, at the very least interior shading</a> can reduce overheating. </p>
<p>Central heating and cooling systems, which require seasonal changeover, perform poorly in the spring and fall. Four-pipe fan coils or, better yet, in-suite heat pumps, are a good alternative because they can deliver heating or cooling regardless of the season.</p>
<h2>The good news</h2>
<p>While most of the solutions presented here have multiple benefits for residents, they can also save energy and reduce the environmental impacts of operating newly built housing.</p>
<p>For example, smaller, high-performance windows with solar shading, interior and exterior air tightness, and heat/energy recovery ventilators can reduce heating and cooling loads. </p>
<p>Heat pumps can <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-heat-pumps/executive-summary">enable buildings to use cleaner electricity for heating</a>, as opposed to the more commonly used carbon-intensive natural gas.</p>
<p>It is essential that residents and building owners take active roles in advocating for residential design changes. They can do so by asking building developers to make changes and lobbying elected officials to include performance improvements in provincial building codes.</p>
<p>Canadians don’t just deserve more housing — they deserve more <em>quality</em> housing.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205107/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marianne Touchie has received funding from the National Research Council, NSERC, ASHRAE and SSHRC. </span></em></p>In order to ensure new multi-unit housing prioritizes comfort and health, future residents and building owners should know what design choices to advocate for.Marianne Touchie, Associate Professor, Jointly appointed in the Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering and Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2033252023-04-12T23:51:04Z2023-04-12T23:51:04Z‘Build back better’ requires a framework that focuses on the full life of a house – from materials to its end of life<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520144/original/file-20230411-28-thnam3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=66%2C94%2C6230%2C4380&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the wake of Cyclone Gabrielle, New Zealand is again talking about “<a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/131292589/chris-hipkins-commits-to-build-back-better-anticipating-billions-needed-for-cyclone-recovery">building back better</a>”. But how do we build back better when we don’t necessarily understand what “better” means? Or how to achieve this across a country with significantly different risk profiles?</p>
<p>At its most basic level, build back better is an opportunity to rebuild homes and other buildings in a way that is responsive to future risks and sustainability needs. To achieve this, we need to address knowledge gaps around building within a <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-a-circular-economy-29666">circular economy</a>. A circular economy is one that swaps the typical cycle of make, use, dispose in favour of re-using and recycling as much as possible.</p>
<p>A sustainable building in the circular economy model will minimise emissions and its impact on climate and natural resources across its entire life cycle. This life cycle includes the manufacturing of materials and construction, passive lifetime emissions, maintenance, as well as end-of-life requirements (deconstruction).</p>
<p>At the University of Waikato, our research is focused on material choices, both for long-term rebuild as well immediate emergency relief. We approach this from a structural engineering perspective and consider light steel, light timber, fiber reinforced polymers and concrete. We work alongside industry to develop know-how around deconstruction for light steel and timber structures. </p>
<p><a href="https://eng.waikato.ac.nz/research/cold-formed-steel-structures-group">The research</a> will contribute to best practice guidelines and circular economy adaptation. Here’s why this is important.</p>
<h2>Embracing a circular economy</h2>
<p>The construction and demolition industry in New Zealand <a href="https://www.branz.co.nz/sustainable-building/reducing-building-waste/">produces around 50% of all waste</a>. According to the United Nations Environment Programme’s <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/publication/2022-global-status-report-buildings-and-construction">2022 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction</a>, the sector accounts for more than 34% of energy demand globally and around 37% of energy and process-related carbon dioxide emissions. The report concludes that the building and construction sector are not on track to achieve decarbonisation by 2050 – the international deadline for achieving <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050">net zero energy emissions</a>.</p>
<p>The New Zealand government has committed to the circular economy model in its <a href="https://theconversation.com/nzs-government-plans-to-switch-to-a-circular-economy-to-cut-waste-and-emissions-but-its-going-around-in-the-wrong-circles-170704">plans to deal with waste</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-companies-want-net-zero-carbon-offices-they-need-to-focus-on-building-materials-173476">If companies want net-zero carbon offices,
they need to focus on building materials</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But building back better isn’t simply about using sustainable materials and construction methods, and incorporating features that enable lower emissions during the “living phase” of a home. </p>
<p>Buildings need end-of-life considerations built into the design and construction, so they can be easily repurposed or deconstructed with minimal energy and then recycled, reused or disposed of in a manner that doesn’t send emissions through the roof.</p>
<p>Presently, we’re building sustainable homes on the premise of being carbon neutral by 2050, but they also need to be built on the premise of being carbon neutral at the end-of-life in 50 years. </p>
<p>We are not even close to achieving that. A report from building research institute BRANZ determined the climate impact of a new-build standalone house exceeds the 1.5°C climate targets by a factor of <a href="https://d39d3mj7qio96p.cloudfront.net/media/documents/ER63_Carbon_budget_sensitivities_LR12977.pdf">6.7 during its life cycle</a>. This shows the substantial work needed to achieve carbon neutrality of new homes.</p>
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<h2>Modular buildings and new materials beckon</h2>
<p>The solution to this issue may lie in modular homes and the development of new materials. </p>
<p>Quick and easy to make, modular homes provide fast options to house displaced people. They are also valuable for community wellbeing after the trauma of natural disasters. Finally, modular homes offer exciting opportunities for sustainability. They can be easily reconfigured to adapt to changing needs, for example, with the addition or removal of modules.</p>
<p>However, without careful design and know-how, modular homes and the foundations under them will not necessarily provide resilient and sustainable structures into the future. </p>
<p>The most challenging aspect of modular homes is the connection between the structures and their foundations. Therefore, it’s critical for resilient structures that the connections are designed carefully. Throughout the design process, those in charge need to consider the structure’s deconstruction or disassembly at the end of its life. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-net-zero-and-passive-houses-can-cut-carbon-emissions-and-energy-bills-148587">How 'net-zero' and 'passive' houses can cut carbon emissions — and energy bills</a>
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<p>That said, modular homes are also not the cure all for the entire building industry. The global need for sustainable and resilient buildings is a driver for the development of new construction materials, such as the plasterboard substitutes <a href="https://www.saveboard.nz/">saveBOARD</a> and <a href="https://www.neocrete.co.nz/">Neocrete</a>, a low-emission concrete.</p>
<p>These products offer low-emission building options, which use recycled materials in manufacturing and provide an alternative to high-emission materials. But, due to a lack of strict regulations around adopting new materials and a lack of awareness in the industry, adoption has been slow. </p>
<h2>Identifying the missing data</h2>
<p>In New Zealand, we have different risk profiles across the regions, depending on the likelihood of earthquakes and natural hazards like flooding, landslides, and wildfires – as well as the intensification of those hazards due to climate change. </p>
<p>The location risk profile dictates the best materials, but to utilise new materials, we need local testing data which are very limited as of yet.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-cant-afford-to-just-build-greener-we-must-build-less-170570">We can't afford to just build greener. We must build less</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>If we’re really committed to building back better, then we need to do the research and incorporate the evidence into the building code, design standards and information for construction practitioners. </p>
<p>This could mean a “passport” for new materials based on local testing. The passport would incorporate details on the potential to recycle and reuse, a disassembly guide and a sustainability record (in essence, an environmental declaration).</p>
<p>The adaptation of the circular economy approach to the “build back better” strategy for buildings will be essential in reducing the risk of future catastrophes, as well as the impacts on climate and natural resources. Setting up a clear guideline for this strategy will be a pivotal early step in helping the industry define and oversee its efforts towards these objectives, which are currently lacking.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203325/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Krishanu Roy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Innovative materials and modular buildings offer New Zealand a way to build back better after Cyclone Gabrielle. But to do this, we need to develop the framework to support the new approach.Krishanu Roy, Senior Lecturer in Engineering, University of WaikatoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1993892023-02-07T02:02:15Z2023-02-07T02:02:15ZEarthquake footage shows Turkey’s buildings collapsing like pancakes. An expert explains why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508530/original/file-20230207-21-fclmjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C0%2C4479%2C2983&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mustafa Karali / AP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A pair of huge earthquakes have struck in Turkey, leaving <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-64533851">more than 3,000 people dead</a> and unknown numbers injured or displaced. </p>
<p>The first quake, near Gaziantep close to the Syrian border, <a href="https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us6000jllz/executive">measured 7.8 in magnitude</a> and was felt as far away as the UK. The second occurred nine hours later, on what appears to be an intersecting fault, registering <a href="https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us6000jlqa/executive">a magnitude of 7.5</a>. </p>
<p>Adding to the devastation, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/05/world/europe/turkey-earthquake-rescue.html">some 3,450 buildings have collapsed</a>, according to the Turkish government. Many of the modern buildings have failed in a “<a href="https://www.newcivilengineer.com/archive/pancake-collapses-tell-story-of-poor-construction-15-02-2001/">pancake mode</a>” of structural collapse. </p>
<p>Why did this happen? Was it simply the enormous magnitude and violence of the quake, or is the problem with the buildings?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/turkey-syria-earthquakes-a-seismologist-explains-what-has-happened-199340">Turkey-Syria earthquakes: a seismologist explains what has happened</a>
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</em>
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<h2>Thousands of years of earthquakes</h2>
<p>Earthquakes are common in Turkey, which sits in a very seismically active region where three tectonic plates constantly grind against one another beneath Earth’s surface. Historical records of earthquakes in the region go back at least 2,000 years, to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AD_17_Lydia_earthquake">a quake in 17 CE</a> that levelled a dozen towns. </p>
<p>The East Anatolian Fault zone that hosted these earthquakes is at the boundary between the Arabian and Anatolian tectonic plates, which move past each other at approximately 6 to 10 mm per year. The elastic strain that accumulates in this plate boundary zone is released by intermittent earthquakes, which have occurred for millions of years. The recent earthquakes are thus not a surprise.</p>
<p>Despite this well-known seismic hazard, the region contains a lot of vulnerable infrastructure.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/earthquakes-dont-kill-our-collapsing-structures-do-so-how-can-we-build-them-to-stay-up-64443">Earthquakes don't kill, our collapsing structures do. So how can we build them to stay up?</a>
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</p>
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<p>Over the past 2,000 years we have learnt a lot about <a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Business-Spotlight/How-Japan-s-builders-absorbed-the-lessons-of-the-2011-earthquake">how to construct buildings</a> that can withstand the shaking from even severe earthquakes. However, in reality, there are many factors that influence building construction practices in this region and others worldwide.</p>
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<h2>Poor construction is a known problem</h2>
<p>Many of the collapsed buildings appear to have been built from concrete without adequate seismic reinforcement. Seismic building codes in this region <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/737/1/012015">suggest</a> these buildings should be able to sustain strong earthquakes (where the ground accelerates by 30% to 40% of the normal gravity) without incurring this type of complete failure. </p>
<p>The 7.8 and 7.5 earthquakes appear to have caused shaking in the range of 20 to 50% of gravity. A proportion of these buildings thus failed at shaking intensities lower than the “design code”. </p>
<p>There are <a href="https://revkin.substack.com/p/gauging-losses-and-lessons-in-turkeys">well-known problems in Turkey</a> and elsewhere with ensuring safe building construction and adherence to seismic building codes. Similar building collapses have been seen in <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/daily/aug99/buildings21.htm">past earthquakes in Turkey</a>.</p>
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<img alt="An aerial photo of a collapsed building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508541/original/file-20230207-17-hnmtis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508541/original/file-20230207-17-hnmtis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508541/original/file-20230207-17-hnmtis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508541/original/file-20230207-17-hnmtis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508541/original/file-20230207-17-hnmtis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508541/original/file-20230207-17-hnmtis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508541/original/file-20230207-17-hnmtis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A known problem: a collapsed apartment building after the 1999 earthquake in Izmit, Turkey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hurriyet / AP</span></span>
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<p>In 1999, a huge quake near Izmit saw some 17,000 people dead and as many as <a href="https://ilkha.com/english/analysis/today-marks-the-21st-anniversary-of-marmara-earthquake-9525">20,000 buildings</a> collapse.</p>
<p>After a quake in 2011 in which hundreds of people died, Turkey’s then prime minister, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/oct/26/turkey-earthquake-building-negligence-erdogan">blamed</a> shoddy construction for the high death toll, saying: “Municipalities, constructors and supervisors should now see that their negligence amounts to murder.”</p>
<h2>Reconstruction</h2>
<p>Even though Turkish authorities know many buildings are unsafe in earthquakes, it is still a difficult problem to solve. Many of the buildings are already built, and seismic retrofitting may be expensive or not considered a priority compared to other socio-economic challenges.</p>
<p>However, reconstruction after the quake may present an opportunity to rebuild more safely. In 2019, Turkey <a href="https://www.preventionweb.net/news/turkiye-building-resilience-against-earthquakes">adopted new regulations</a> to ensure buildings are better equipped to handle shaking. </p>
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<p>While the new rules are welcome, it remains to be seen whether they will lead to genuine improvements in building quality.</p>
<p>In addition to substantive loss of life and infrastructure damage, both earthquakes are likely to have caused a myriad of environmental effects, such as ruptured ground surfaces, liquified soil, and landslides. These effects may render many areas unsafe to rebuild on – so reconstruction efforts should also include <a href="https://nhess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3361/2020/">planning decisions about what can be built where</a>, to lower future risks.</p>
<p>For now, aftershocks continue to shake the region, and search and rescue efforts continue. Once the dust settles, reconstruction will begin – but will we see stronger buildings, able to withstand the next quake, or more of the same?</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/earthquake-in-turkey-and-syria-how-satellites-can-help-rescue-efforts-199357">Earthquake in Turkey and Syria: how satellites can help rescue efforts</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199389/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Quigley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When Monday’s earthquake struck, many poorly constructed buildings suffered a ‘pancake mode’ collapse.Mark Quigley, Associate Professor of Earthquake Science, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1957322023-01-11T09:36:27Z2023-01-11T09:36:27ZChinese workers on Africa’s infrastructure projects: the link with host political regimes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499767/original/file-20221208-11-oy4h0a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Chinese workers are part of most Chinese government-funded projects in Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>China has rapidly become Africa’s most important infrastructure builder, and the footprint of Chinese construction companies is seen in cities, towns and villages across the continent. </p>
<p>With the launch of Beijing’s “Go Global” policy in 2000, and President Xi Jinping’s Belt and Road Initiative in 2013, the volume of roads, bridges, railways, power stations and other infrastructure built by China has increased markedly. The number of overseas contracts signed by Chinese companies more than doubled from just under 6,000 in 2004 to almost 12,000 in 2019. </p>
<p>In 2019, Chinese companies won over US$250 billion of infrastructure contracts around the world, paid for by the Chinese government, international institutions and host governments. Chinese firms won over 30% of <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/products-and-services/brief/summary-and-detailed-borrower-procurement-reports">public works</a> contracts funded by the World Bank, one of the world’s largest infrastructure financiers.</p>
<p>Chinese records also show that the number of Chinese citizens dispatched to work on infrastructure projects increased almost five-fold, from a global total of 79,000 in 2002 to 368,000 in 2019 (with a peak of 405,000 in 2015). Of these, around one quarter were recorded in sub-Saharan Africa, while one-third were in the Middle East and north Africa region.</p>
<p>The presence of large numbers of Chinese workers labouring on these projects is one of the most controversial aspects of China’s economic engagement with Africa and the wider world. </p>
<p>Chinese workers have been accused of taking job opportunities from locals, undercutting labour standards by being willing to work for longer hours and with fewer rest days, and being the source of culture clashes. A 2021 <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0143831X211029382">meta-analysis</a> of Chinese labour practices in Africa found evidence of tense labour relations driven in part by practices such as weekend work and dormitory systems. These are common practice in China but not in many African economies. </p>
<p>However, the debate on Chinese workers underplays the agency of host governments. After all, they make local laws and issue work visas.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09692290.2022.2127833">research</a> covering 195 countries explored whether different types of host regime were more likely or less likely to allow Chinese workers in or force Chinese companies to hire locally. We found that democratic governments were much more prone to limiting the number of Chinese workers in the infrastructure sector in the face of potential domestic opposition to those workers. The opposite was true in more authoritarian countries.</p>
<p>This means that the long-term economic benefits that Chinese-built infrastructure brings are likely to be limited in authoritarian countries. It also gives rise to the possibility that local dissatisfaction with the lack of job opportunities complicates the political relations between China and the host country.</p>
<h2>China’s overseas infrastructure builders</h2>
<p>Prior <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10670564.2014.898894">research</a> has shown that Chinese companies like to bring their own workers because they require less training, work efficiently and help to avoid difficult labour relations issues. However, the number of Chinese workers varies a lot across different host countries. For example, Algeria has long hosted huge numbers of Chinese citizens building infrastructure. Others, like Ghana, have relatively few, despite China playing a large role in the country’s infrastructure sector.</p>
<p>There has been remarkably little quantitative research on the factors shaping the number of Chinese workers completing infrastructure projects in different countries. Our research, using data gathered from Chinese statistical yearbooks (many of which are available only in mainland China), aimed to address this gap in knowledge.</p>
<p>The starting point of our research was that it matters how policymakers assess and pursue their interests. In democracies, governments face more pressure to ensure that construction projects deliver local jobs. They run the risk that opposition groups can use the presence of foreign workers as an issue to stir up opposition to the government. Therefore, they are more likely to force Chinese firms to hire locally, even if it means projects are completed more slowly.</p>
<p>Autocrats, on the other hand, do not face the same electoral pressures. Instead, their interest lies in completing construction projects quickly and efficiently. Doing so boosts their “performance-based legitimacy” – citizens accept them because they get things done. Foreign workers, who are politically neutral, provide a convenient way to do this.</p>
<h2>The evidence</h2>
<p>Our analysis used data gathered from 195 host countries and territories. It showed strong empirical evidence that democracies host significantly fewer Chinese workers than autocracies, all other things being equal. The results hold up using a variety of different statistical modelling techniques.</p>
<p>We also explored two case studies: Ghana and Algeria. </p>
<p>In Ghana, a vibrant democracy, we found that both the country’s main political parties faced pressure to ensure Chinese-built projects delivered local jobs. For example, in the construction of the Bui Dam, the agreement between Sinohydro, the Chinese state-owned behemoth contracted to complete the project, and the Ghanaian government stipulated that a certain proportion of the workforce would be local.</p>
<p>Unlike many governments, Ghana’s tends to limit foreign workers in practice as well as on paper. </p>
<p>In Algeria, on the other hand, Chinese labour has been used to quickly complete projects seen as politically expedient. Algeria is a “hybrid” regime that was ruled by a single man, Abdelaziz Bouteflika, from 1999 to 2019. Even when domestic discontent over Chinese workers prompted measures to limit their presence, the measures were not implemented.</p>
<h2>Why this matters</h2>
<p>Our findings have several important implications. First, host country agency is important. Host governments have the ability to ensure Chinese companies hire locally. </p>
<p>Second, projects that hire locally may bring more long-term economic benefit to host countries. This can happen both directly through the jobs that they create, and via knowledge and technology transfers into the wider economy. Our analysis therefore suggests that the wider developmental benefits of Chinese built infrastructure may actually be stronger in democracies than in autocracies.</p>
<p>Finally, there’s an implication for China’s foreign policy and diplomatic relations. Many Chinese citizens are in autocratic countries where they may be welcomed by leaders but resented by the local population.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195732/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Countries that lean towards democracy are less likely to welcome Chinese labourers.Pippa Morgan, Lecturer, Political Science, Duke Kunshan UniversityAndrea Ghiselli, Assistant Professor, School of International Relations and Public Affairs, Fudan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.