tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/culture-1909/articlesCulture – The Conversation2024-03-28T12:50:48Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2257712024-03-28T12:50:48Z2024-03-28T12:50:48ZNASA’s mission to an ice-covered moon will contain a message between water worlds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584594/original/file-20240326-30-7p4fl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C8%2C1191%2C1212&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An illustration of the Europa Clipper spacecraft, which will head to Jupiter's moon Europa. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://europa.nasa.gov/resources/173/europa-clipper-journey-to-an-ocean-world-poster/">NASA/JPL-Caltech</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>NASA’s <a href="https://europa.nasa.gov/">Europa Clipper</a> spacecraft, <a href="https://theconversation.com/jupiters-moons-hide-giant-subsurface-oceans-two-missions-are-sending-spacecraft-to-see-if-these-moons-could-support-life-203207">headed to Jupiter’s ice-covered moon</a> Europa in October 2024, will carry <a href="https://europa.nasa.gov/spacecraft/vault-plate/">a laser-etched message</a> that celebrates humanity’s connection to water. The message pays homage to past NASA missions that carried similar messages. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://meti.org/en/board/douglas-vakoch">the president</a> of <a href="https://meti.org/mission">Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence, or METI, International</a>, I helped design the message on Clipper with two fellow members of our board of directors: linguists <a href="https://meti.org/en/board/sheri-wells-jensen">Sheri Wells-Jensen</a> and <a href="https://longnow.org/people/laura/">Laura Buszard-Welcher</a>. METI International is a scientific organization dedicated to transmitting powerful radio messages to extraterrestrial life.</p>
<p>We collected audio recordings in 103 languages, and we decided how to <a href="https://europa.nasa.gov/spacecraft/vault-plate/#otp_waveform_generator">convert these into waveforms</a> that show these sounds visually. Colleagues from NASA etched these waveforms into the metal plate that shields the spacecraft’s sensitive electronics from <a href="https://www.astronomy.com/science/what-is-the-source-of-jupiters-radiation/">Jupiter’s harsh radiation</a>. </p>
<p>I also designed another part of the message that visually depicts the wavelengths of water’s constituents, because water is so important to the search for intelligent life in the universe. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/8coGQ9kvBas?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">NASA’s design for the Clipper message heading to Jupiter’s moon Europa.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Etching messages into spacecraft isn’t a new practice, and Clipper’s message fits into a decades-old tradition started by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Sagan">astronomer Carl Sagan</a>.</p>
<p>In 1972 and 1973, two Pioneer spacecraft headed to Jupiter and Saturn carrying metal plaques engraved with scientific and pictorial messages. In 1977, two <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-voyager-space-probes-can-teach-humanity-about-immortality-and-legacy-as-they-sail-through-space-for-trillions-of-years-177513">Voyager spacecraft</a> headed to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Nepture bearing <a href="https://theconversation.com/voyager-golden-records-40-years-later-real-audience-was-always-here-on-earth-79886">gold-plated copper phonograph records</a>. These records contained tutorials in mathematics and chemistry, as well as music, photos and sounds of Earth and greetings in 55 languages.</p>
<h2>Water words</h2>
<p>As water is essential for life on Earth, searching for its presence elsewhere has been key to many NASA missions. Astronomers <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/jupiter/moons/europa/">suspect that Europa</a>, where Clipper is headed, <a href="https://theconversation.com/jupiters-moons-hide-giant-subsurface-oceans-two-missions-are-sending-spacecraft-to-see-if-these-moons-could-support-life-203207">has an ocean underneath its icy surface</a>, making it a prime candidate for the search for life in the outer solar system.</p>
<p>Part of the Clipper message features the word for water in 103 languages. We started with audio files collected online, but we then needed to analyze those and find an output that could be engraved on a metal plate. I ended up going back to some of the techniques I used in some of my early psycholinguistic research, where I explored how <a href="https://doi.org/10.1121/1.408973">emotions are encoded in speech</a>.</p>
<p>The 103 spoken words we recorded represent a global snapshot of the diversity of Earth’s languages. The outward-facing side of the Clipper plate shows the words as waveforms that track the varying intensity of sound as each word is spoken. </p>
<p>Each person whom we recorded saying the word “water” for the waveform had a connection to water. For example, the lawyer who contributed the word for water in Uzbek – “suv” – organizes an annual music festival in Uzbekistan to raise awareness of the desertification of the Aral Sea. </p>
<p>The native speaker of the Catalan water word – “aigua” – hunts <a href="https://theconversation.com/nasas-tess-spacecraft-is-finding-hundreds-of-exoplanets-and-is-poised-to-find-thousands-more-122104">for exoplanets</a>, discovering potentially habitable planets that orbit other stars. </p>
<h2>The Drake Equation</h2>
<p>Clipper’s message also pays homage to <a href="https://www.seti.org/frank-drake">astronomer Frank Drake</a>, the father of SETI – <a href="https://www.seti.org/">the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence</a> – by bearing <a href="https://www.seti.org/drake-equation-index">the Drake Equation</a>, his namesake formula. By drawing on scientific data, as well as some best guess hunches, the Drake Equation estimates the number of extraterrestrial civilizations in the galaxy currently sending messages into the cosmos. </p>
<p>By one <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Drake-equation">widely quoted estimate</a>, there are a tenth as many of these extraterrestrial civilizations as one’s average lifetime in years. If civilizations survive for a million years, for example, there should be about 100,000 in the galaxy. If they last only a century on average, scientists would estimate that about 10 exist.</p>
<p>Radio astronomers study the universe by examining the radiation that chemical elements in space give off. They spend much of their time mapping the distribution of the most abundant chemical in the universe – hydrogen.</p>
<p>Hydrogen emits radiation at a certain frequency called the <a href="http://www.setileague.org/askdr/hydrogen.htm">hydrogen line</a>, which radio telescopes can detect. During <a href="https://www.seti.org/project-ozma">Project Ozma</a>, the first modern-day SETI experiment, Drake looked for artificial signals at the same frequency, because he figured scientists on other worlds might recognize hydrogen as universally significant and broadcast signals at that frequency.</p>
<h2>The water hole</h2>
<p>As our team developed our water words message, I realized that the message would only make sense if it were discovered by someone already familiar with the contents inscribed on the plate. The Drake Equation would only make sense if someone already knew what each of the terms in the equation stood for. </p>
<p>The Europa Clipper will crash into Jupiter or one of its other moons, with <a href="https://www.space.com/europa-clipper-might-crash-into-ganymede">Ganymede or Callisto the leading candidates</a>. But if for some reason the mission changes and it survives that fate, then humans far in the future with a radically different cultural background and different language conventions may retrieve it millennia from now as an ancient artifact.</p>
<p>To ensure we had at least one part of the message that a distant future scientist might be able to understand, I also designed a pictorial representation of the same frequency that Drake used for Project Ozma: the hydrogen line. We engraved this on the Clipper plate, along with a frequency called the hydroxyl line.</p>
<p>When hydrogen (H+) and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/hydroxyl">hydroxyl (OH-)</a> combine, they form water. Scientists call the range of frequencies between these lines the “<a href="http://www.setileague.org/general/waterhol.htm">water hole</a>.” The water hole represents the part of the radio spectrum where astronomers conducted the first SETI experiments.</p>
<p>We displayed the hydrogen and hydroxyl lines using their wavelengths in the Clipper message. The metal plate also has diagrams showing what hydrogen and hydroxyl look like at the atomic level. </p>
<p>We’re hoping that future chemists would recognize these chemical components as the ingredients of water. If they do, we will have succeeded in communicating at least a few core scientific concepts across time, space and language. </p>
<p>Waveforms let our team tie the messages on the two sides of the Clipper plate together. On the water words side, over a hundred words are depicted by their waveforms. On the other side, the wavelengths of hydrogen and hydroxyl – the constituents of water – are etched into the plate.</p>
<p>METI International funded the collection and curation of the water words, as well as my design of the hydrogen and hydroxyl lines, providing these to NASA at no cost.</p>
<p>While designing the message for the Europa Clipper, we got to reflect on the importance of water on Earth, and think about why astronomers feel so compelled to search for it beneath the icy crust of Jupiter’s moon Europa. The spacecraft is scheduled to enter Jupiter’s orbit in April 2030.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225771/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Douglas Vakoch does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Europa Clipper will contain a plaque that celebrates humanity’s relationship with water and a decades-old tradition of searching for life outside Earth.Douglas Vakoch, President, METI International; Professor Emeritus, California Institute of Integral StudiesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2226442024-03-11T13:10:36Z2024-03-11T13:10:36ZUK to sign Unesco pledge to protect ‘intangible cultural heritage’ – an expert explains its importance<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575358/original/file-20240213-22-w787f9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=90%2C0%2C10065%2C6629&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Traditional Morris dancers performing in Stratford Upon Avon. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/stratford-upon-avon-england-march-28th-785993122">Tom Payne/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At the end of last year, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/2003-unesco-convention-for-the-safeguarding-of-the-intangible-cultural-heritage">announced</a> that the UK was starting a consultation about signing the 2003 <a href="https://ich.unesco.org/en/convention">Unesco convention on the safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage</a>.</p>
<p>This would bring the UK in line with the 182 other Unesco member states who have already signed the convention. It has been <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/2003-unesco-convention-for-the-safeguarding-of-the-intangible-cultural-heritage">suggested</a> that this is a way to greater international cooperation on the importance of the UK’s intangible heritage and to find ways to monitor and protect cultural practices.</p>
<p>Traditionally, especially in many western cultures, heritage tends to be considered as something tangible – physical things such as artefacts, objects and historic buildings. <a href="https://www.icomos.org/en/participer/179-articles-en-francais/ressources/charters-and-standards/157-the-venice-charter">The Venice charter</a> of 1964 broadened this field from mainly physical heritage to include other kinds of heritage, such as whole environments and sites of interest.</p>
<p>However, Unesco felt that cultural heritage did not go far enough and should also include other aspects. This could be traditions inherited from previous generations that remain relevant and important to communities. This is intangible cultural heritage and it can be found all over the world.</p>
<p><a href="https://ich.unesco.org/en/convention#art2">The Unesco convention defines</a> intangible cultural heritage as: “Practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artefacts and cultural spaces associated therewith – that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognise as part of their cultural heritage.” Intangible cultural heritage is typically made up of five different domains: </p>
<ol>
<li>oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural heritage</li>
<li>performing arts</li>
<li>social practices, rituals and festive events</li>
<li>knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe</li>
<li>traditional craftsmanship.</li>
</ol>
<p>It is crucial that these forms of heritage are still practised by different community groups, constantly evolving and reflecting the identity of diverse communities worldwide. In the UK this could include different festivals, folklore or traditional tales, Morris dancing and certain skills and crafts.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People celebrate solstice at Stonehenge" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575360/original/file-20240213-24-buu5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575360/original/file-20240213-24-buu5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575360/original/file-20240213-24-buu5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575360/original/file-20240213-24-buu5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575360/original/file-20240213-24-buu5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575360/original/file-20240213-24-buu5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575360/original/file-20240213-24-buu5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A summer solstice celebration at Stonehenge.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/summer-solstice-celebration-stonehenge-june-20th-1429956233">John Kotlowski/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The purpose of the protection</h2>
<p>The Unesco convention seeks to safeguard intangible cultural heritage across the globe. It also aims to ensure respect for the communities involved in this heritage and raise awareness at local, national and international levels of the importance of the heritage. The convention also seeks to ensure appreciation of different practices to allow for international cooperation and assistance.</p>
<p>The general conference of Unesco ratified the convention in 2003 and <a href="https://ich.unesco.org/en/working-towards-a-convention-00004">saw this adoption</a> as a “milestone in the evolution of international policies for promoting cultural diversity, since for the first time the international community had recognised the need to support the kind of cultural manifestations and expressions that until then had not benefited from such a large legal and programmatic framework.”</p>
<p>This agreement to “safeguard” meant implementing measures to identify, document, research, preserve and protect intangible cultural heritage. It also covers revitalisation of traditions and cultures where needed. But <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/safeguarding-intangible-cultural-heritage/paradoxes-of-intangible-heritage/AA451DEA26FBBBBC20BEC711384F90E1">Critics of the convention</a> believe that such global approaches cannot safeguard local traditions which vary across the world in totally different cultural settings. </p>
<p>Most Unesco member states signed the convention, which included drawing up inventories of intangible cultural heritage which need to be regularly updated. The UK was one of only a handful of countries which did not sign, meaning there was no framework in place for recognising intangible cultural heritage around the country. </p>
<p>Reasons why this was the case ranged from the UK appearing to value tangible heritage more, to the fact that it could increase bureaucracy, while <a href="https://tradfolk.co/news/intangible-cultural-heritage-does-the-uk-have-any/">some believed</a> that there was no real intangible cultural heritage in the UK. </p>
<p>After 20 years of the convention, it seems that the UK is now going to join – but what implications will this have for intangible cultural heritage around the country?</p>
<figure>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Morris dancing could soon be protected.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>The DCMS is currently <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/2003-unesco-convention-for-the-safeguarding-of-the-intangible-cultural-heritage/consultation-on-the-2003-unesco-convention-for-safeguarding-of-the-intangible-cultural-heritage">carrying out surveys</a> to engage individuals and community groups in the first stage of implementation, which is to define and identify intangible cultural heritage practices around the UK.</p>
<p>At the same time there are round-table discussions <a href="https://www.eventbrite.co.uk/e/ich-in-the-uk-a-round-table-discussion-england-focus-tickets-798663462917">taking place</a> with anyone interested in what this means for the UK invited to take part.</p>
<p>The question is: what implications this will have for intangible cultural heritage in the UK and the four different countries involved? Scotland has been working on this already for a <a href="https://ichscotland.org/">number of years</a> and has created an inventory of the country’s living culture. In Wales, there has also been <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290019691_The_intangible_Cultural_Heritage_of_Wales_a_Need_for_Safeguarding">some research</a> into its cultural heritage. </p>
<p>The DCMS has already stated that it is not interested in merely listing examples of intangible cultural heritage. But questions remain. </p>
<p>What will this mean for these traditions and practices? How do we decide what intangible cultural heritage entails and what will signing up mean for the groups and the heritages involved? Who will develop the policies? What happens when a particular tradition is recognised (or not) in terms of protection and funding? And how can it be promoted to ensure that all communities can be involved, including those who may be unaware of the convention or the current consultation? </p>
<p>It would also be useful to examine and learn from the experiences of other countries to avoid any obvious pitfalls.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natalie Braber does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>This could see different festivals, folklore or traditional tales, Morris dancing and certain skills and crafts protected.Natalie Braber, Professor, Linguistics, School of Arts and Humanities, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2239332024-03-04T13:41:28Z2024-03-04T13:41:28ZStanley Kubrick redefined: recent research challenges myths to reveal the man behind the legend<p>Even 25 years after his death, Stanley Kubrick remains one of the most widely known directors of the 20th century. Many of the 13 films he made – including <a href="https://theconversation.com/2001-a-space-odyssey-still-leaves-an-indelible-mark-on-our-culture-55-years-on-209152">2001: A Space Odyssey</a> (1968), A Clockwork Orange (1971) and <a href="https://theconversation.com/kafka-is-the-real-ghost-of-kubricks-the-shining-41853">The Shining</a> (1980) – are still revered today and remembered as some of the best movies ever produced. </p>
<p>To coincide with the anniversary of his death on March 7 1999, I have co-authored the first full-length <a href="https://www.faber.co.uk/product/9780571370368-kubrick/">biography of Kubrick</a> in more than two decades. Based on the latest <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/898140">research</a> into Kubrick, access to his <a href="https://www.arts.ac.uk/students/library-services/special-collections-and-archives/archives-and-special-collections-centre/the-stanley-kubrick-archive">archive</a> at the University of Arts London, other repositories around the world, family members, cast and creatives, we have delved into his life in detail that few others have achieved.</p>
<h2>Shy but not reclusive</h2>
<p>During his life Kubrick was famously shy with the media, and frequently <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2010/04/kubrick-199908">interpreted</a> as reclusive. He granted very few interviews, and only when he had a film to publicise. He learned early on that he was not good at promoting his films personally. In the few interviews with Kubrick that survive, he comes across as nervous and ill at ease. </p>
<figure>
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<p>Kubrick was so shy and protective of his private life that few people recognised him publicly. Though born and brought up in New York, he settled in England in the 1960s and remained there. He could wander into Rymans in St Albans and buy stationery (he loved paper, pens and the like) or get a new pair of spectacles and no one would recognise him. It helped that he often used his brother-in-law’s name when doing so. </p>
<p>In fact, Kubrick was such an unfamiliar figure that an <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/1999/mar/14/andrewanthony">imposter</a> went around London’s clubs and bars in the early 1990s pretending to be him. The imposter was only found out when Kubrick started receiving strange phone calls from spurned lovers and bars with huge unpaid drinks tabs. </p>
<h2>Kubrick archive</h2>
<p>His archive only opened in 2007, but it provides an insight into this extremely private director’s world as never before. Kubrick was a hoarder and held on to the miscellany and detritus of his personal and professional worlds. This included high school yearbooks, photographs he took for Look magazine, receipts, bills, invoices, as well as the voluminous amount of material a film production (especially a Kubrick production) generated.</p>
<p>Through studying this archival material, combined with our new interviews, we learned about the human being behind the mythology. Kubrick was a film director but he was also a son, brother, husband, father and friend. </p>
<p>He liked to entertain, chat, make jokes and cook. He loved making American-style fast food and huge sandwiches, often using a microwave as he was a lover of gadgets, adopting new technology as soon as it became available. This was as true of his private life (where he used car phones, pagers and computers) as his working life where he was an early adopter of Steadicam cameras and the Avid editing system. </p>
<p>He had a fear of flying, but it was based on his own knowledge as a trained pilot and frequent monitoring of radio traffic control. It’s not true that he never went over 30mph in a car, as has been <a href="http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/faq/index3.html">claimed</a>. Rather, he loved cars – fast German ones in particular – but frequently crashed them.</p>
<h2>Kubrick at work</h2>
<p>We uncovered much about Kubrick’s working practices too. Kubrick was a master of the insurance claim. He never hesitated to file one following an accident or fire on set. Not only did this help him to recoup his budget but it also gave him precious time to regroup and think about his options. </p>
<p>We also discovered how Kubrick had to beg, borrow and virtually steal to get most of his projects greenlit. It wasn’t until he signed with Warner Brothers in the 1970s – from A Clockwork Orange onwards – that he had a permanent financial backer. But even then he wasn’t guaranteed funding if the project wasn’t right. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A black and white close up of Stanley Kubrick's face." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577010/original/file-20240221-22-d3kke5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1789%2C1078&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577010/original/file-20240221-22-d3kke5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577010/original/file-20240221-22-d3kke5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577010/original/file-20240221-22-d3kke5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577010/original/file-20240221-22-d3kke5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577010/original/file-20240221-22-d3kke5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577010/original/file-20240221-22-d3kke5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kubrick was famously shy in public.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stanley_Kubrick_in_Dr._Strangelove_Trailer_(1).jpg">Mayimbú/Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And those projects included the famously never made <a href="https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20190808-was-napoleon-the-greatest-film-never-made">biopic of Napoleon</a> as the time wasn’t right, or his never-to-be-made Holocaust film, <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/culture/richard-brody/archive-fever-stanley-kubrick-and-the-aryan-papers">Aryan Papers</a>, which lacked a big star and came too close on the heels of Steven Spielberg’s Schindler’s List. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/2001-a-space-odyssey-still-leaves-an-indelible-mark-on-our-culture-55-years-on-209152">2001: A Space Odyssey still leaves an indelible mark on our culture 55 years on</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It is also tempting to wonder what would have happened had he made the film <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2018/jul/15/stanley-kubrick-lost-screenplay-burning-secret-found">Burning Secret</a> in 1956, with MGM studios, with whom he had signed a contract. Would he have become another studio stooge or been fired for being too much of a maverick? What would have been the implications for his career?</p>
<p>While we can only imagine how those projects would have turned out, what remains is an extraordinary body of work that includes thousands of photographs, three documentaries and 13 feature films. Stanley Kubrick may have shunned the limelight, but his films have had a profound influence on the movie and television industries, as well as a lasting impact on popular and political culture.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223933/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nathan Abrams receives and has previously received external funding, including charity and research council grants.</span></em></p>25 years after the death of the legendary director, a new book offers fresh insights into Stanley Kubrick’s personal and professional life.Nathan Abrams, Professor of Film Studies, Bangor UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2231292024-02-14T16:56:01Z2024-02-14T16:56:01ZNorth Korea steps up efforts to stamp out consumption of illegal foreign media – but entertainment-hungry citizens continue to flout the ban<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575396/original/file-20240213-26-yfm4hy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C284%2C3456%2C2012&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">People walking on the street in Pyongyang, North Korea, August 2012.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pyongyang-north-korea-aug-2012-local-1308095560">Chintung Lee/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Consuming and sharing foreign media in North Korea can be punishable by death. But that did not stop <a href="https://www.nknews.org/2024/02/north-koreans-consumption-of-foreign-media-grows-over-last-decade-survey/">more than 83%</a> of those who escaped the country between 2016 and 2020 using increasingly sophisticated means to access foreign music, TV shows and films before they left.</p>
<p>According to a survey report that was released by the South Korean Ministry of Unification, illegal media consumption among those who left in the five years up to 2020 increased by 15% compared with the previous five-year period.</p>
<p>Since the mid-1990s, over 34,000 North Koreans have defected to South Korea. However, North Korea closed its borders during the COVID pandemic, and since then the steady flow of escapees has <a href="https://www.unikorea.go.kr/eng_unikorea/whatwedo/support/">slowed considerably</a>.</p>
<p>The number of informants has dropped and the information they bring may be somewhat dated by the time they reach the South. But many tell a <a href="https://yalebooks.co.uk/book/9780300217810/north-koreas-hidden-revolution/">common story</a> of huddling around a TV or laptop behind locked doors, consuming foreign media that was smuggled into North Korea on USB sticks and SD cards.</p>
<p>Escapees also tell how knowledge of the outside has changed North Korean consumer behaviour, relationships and trust in the Kim family’s regime. This has prompted North Korea’s leader, Kim Jong-un, to adopt increasingly harsh measures to combat access to illegal media.</p>
<h2>Crackdown</h2>
<p><a href="https://en.tjwg.org/publications/">Research</a> that I conducted with my colleagues in 2019 while working for a human rights documentation NGO in South Korea found that public execution had been used by the North Korean state against people convicted of consuming or disseminating foreign media. The <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-68015652">BBC reported</a> one such case having recently taken place. </p>
<p>Forcing friends and neighbours to <a href="https://en.tjwg.org/publications/">witness the punishment</a> of those known to them for such a crime is a powerful deterrent deployed by a state that considers outside knowledge a <a href="https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/44120">profound threat</a> to its ideology and the control of its people. </p>
<p>Shortly after inheriting the leadership in 2011, Kim tried a number of relatively soft approaches to controlling foreign media access, alongside continued punitive measures. They included a suite of <a href="https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/44120">information strategies</a> aimed at making North Korea appear competitive and attractive in the eyes of its citizens, capable of producing its own “popular” content to rival the <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781351104128/south-korean-popular-culture-north-korea-youna-kim?refId=31ae7775-0a75-452a-bc83-dc4d7619c047&context=ubx">mighty force</a> of the (South) “Korean Wave”. </p>
<p>More recently, the North Korean government has capitalised on its <a href="https://www.nknews.org/pro/new-dprk-border-security-and-infrastructure-revealed-by-satellite-imagery/d-chinese-border-security-hurts-north-koreans/">border closure</a> to work harder than ever to keep foreign information out of the country. In 2020, it introduced a new “Law on the Elimination of Reactionary Thought and Culture”. This law sets out specific punishments for both viewers and distributors of foreign media, going further than the existing criminal code. </p>
<p>At the same time, Kim has <a href="https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/k-drama-takes-dark-turn">publicly condemned</a> K-Pop (pop music originating in South Korea) as a “vicious cancer” permeating North Korean society.</p>
<h2>Changing hearts and minds</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.nkmillennials.com/">Testimonies</a> published by organisations working with North Korean escapees show that consumption of South Korean television dramas has inspired young North Koreans to copy the fashion choices and catchphrases popularised by key characters.</p>
<p>North Korean escapees have also <a href="https://www.nkmillennials.com/">reported</a> paying keen attention to the settings they saw in films and dramas. Modern streets, cars and homes, with people displaying relative freedom of choice, expression and movement, all offer North Koreans a glimpse into life under capitalism.</p>
<p>These depictions profoundly contradict the state’s narrative. North Korea presents the South as a depraved hellhole where people are ideologically corrupt and languishing in poverty. </p>
<p>A recent video from North Korea shown to me by the <a href="https://www.kinu.or.kr/eng/index.do">Korea Institute for National Unification</a> shows that the new law on foreign media and culture is being accompanied by television campaigns. These campaigns harshly name and shame citizens seen wearing clothing in foreign styles, particularly with English language writing or slogans – the language of the “American bastards”. </p>
<p>A similar campaign condemns young North Koreans for showing affection in public and mimicking “western style” dating culture. Such behaviour is criticised as corrupt and destructive to North Korean societal purity.</p>
<h2>Building social bonds</h2>
<p>Consuming foreign media does more than just cause North Koreans to question their government’s claim that they live in an “ideal” society, striving to attain a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/dec/03/north-koreas-kim-jong-un-opens-new-city-and-socialist-utopia-of-samjiyon">socialist utopia</a>. It also unsettles the government’s ability to maintain a culture of suspicion and mistrust between citizens. This could potentially <a href="https://www.nknews.org/2023/03/friendship-and-family-networks-are-key-to-getting-outside-info-to-north-koreans/">generate social change</a>. </p>
<p>When asked about his experience watching foreign media with friends and family before his escape, one North Korean man <a href="https://www.nkmillennials.com/">said</a>: “If you’ve watched it together, then no one would report it. They’d go down for it too.” For some North Koreans, consuming foreign media is an activity that builds closeness through shared indulgence in an illegal act.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="North Korean soldiers guarding a border fence." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575571/original/file-20240214-28-yvw98y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575571/original/file-20240214-28-yvw98y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575571/original/file-20240214-28-yvw98y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575571/original/file-20240214-28-yvw98y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575571/original/file-20240214-28-yvw98y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575571/original/file-20240214-28-yvw98y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575571/original/file-20240214-28-yvw98y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">North Korea’s borders have been closed since January 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hyesan-ryanggang-province-north-korea-august-698336161">Stefan Bruder/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Foreign diplomats, humanitarian aid workers and tourists are not yet allowed back into North Korea following the pandemic. So, combined with many fewer escapees arriving in the South, it is difficult to know whether foreign media access and consumption has declined since 2020. </p>
<p>But the Ministry of Unification has pledged to <a href="https://www.nknews.org/2024/02/north-koreans-consumption-of-foreign-media-grows-over-last-decade-survey/">offer an update</a> in a year’s time to evaluate the effect of the new law against foreign culture and the campaign around it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223129/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah A. Son does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A survey shows the impact foreign media is having on North Korea’s residents, despite the government’s harsh crackdownSarah A. Son, Senior Lecturer in Korean Studies, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2220552024-02-08T21:17:53Z2024-02-08T21:17:53ZThe war in Gaza is wiping out Palestine’s education and knowledge systems<p>Gaza’s education system has suffered significantly since Israel’s bombardment and assault on the strip began. Last month, Israel <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-68023080">blew up</a> Gaza’s last standing university, Al-Israa University.</p>
<p>In the past four months, all or parts of Gaza’s <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/1/24/how-israel-has-destroyed-gazas-schools-and-universities#:%7E:text=Palestinian%20news%20agency%20Wafa%20reported,university%20in%20Gaza%20in%20stages.">12 universities</a> have been bombed and mostly destroyed. </p>
<p>Approximately <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/occupied-palestinian-territory/hostilities-gaza-strip-and-israel-flash-update-102-enarhe">378 schools</a> have been destroyed or damaged. The Palestinian Ministry of Education has reported the deaths of over <a href="https://www.unicef.org/media/151126/file/State-of-Palestine-Humanitarian-Situation-Report-No.15-(Escalation)-17-January-2024.pdf">4,327 students, 231 teachers</a> and <a href="https://euromedmonitor.org/en/article/6108/Israel-kills-dozens-of-academics,-destroys-every-university-in-the-Gaza-Strip">94 professors.</a></p>
<p>Numerous <a href="https://librarianswithpalestine.org/gaza-report-2024/?fbclid=IwAR1VqwE8t9HEb46IFQDPJhl8ZFReHyyzgCAXjPfMPIGoThfbSXBEsy-Trog">cultural heritage sites</a>, including libraries, archives and museums, have also been destroyed, damaged and plundered.</p>
<p>But the assault on Palestinian educational and cultural institutions did not begin in response to the Oct. 7 attack. Israel has a long record of <a href="https://www.palestine-studies.org/en/node/430540">targeted attacks</a> on Palestinian institutions that produce knowledge and culture. That history includes targeting and <a href="https://yam.ps/page-11801-en.html">assassinating</a> Palestinian intellectuals, <a href="https://www.aaiusa.org/library/i-knew-ghassan-kanafani">cultural producers</a> and political figures. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/4cY6H8n0zf0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A video clip shared by ‘The New Arab,’ showing the destruction at Al-Israa University in the Gaza Strip.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What is scholasticide?</h2>
<p>The destruction of education systems and buildings is known as “scholasticide,” a term first coined by Oxford professor Karma Nabulsi during the 2008-2009 Israeli assault on Gaza. Scholasticide describes <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jan/10/gaza-schools">the systemic destruction of Palestinian education</a> within the context of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/0377919X.2021.1909376">Israel’s decades-long settler colonization and occupation of Palestine</a>.</p>
<p>Recently, a group of scholars working under the name <a href="https://scholarsagainstwar.org/toolkit/">Scholars Against the War on Palestine</a> broadened the definition to include a more comprehensive picture of what is happening during the current war. They outline the intimate relationship between <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/world/how-israels-scholasticide-denies-palestinians-their-past-present-and-future/article_8f52d77a-b648-11ee-863d-f3411121907b.html">scholasticide and genocide</a>.</p>
<p>They say scholasticide includes the intentional <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/1/14/a-cultural-genocide-which-of-gazas-heritage-sites-have-been-destroyed">destruction of cultural heritage</a>: archives, libraries and museums. Scholasticide includes killing, causing bodily or mental harm, incarcerating, or systematically harassing educators, students and administrators. It includes besieging, closing or obstructing access to educational institutions. It can also include using universities or schools as a military base (as was done with <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-68023080">Al-Israa University</a>).</p>
<p>The magnitude of destruction has led them <a href="https://scholarsagainstwar.org/toolkit/">to conclude:</a> “Israeli colonial policy in Gaza has now shifted from a focus on systematic destruction to total annihilation of education.”</p>
<p>As genocide scholar Douglas Irvin-Erickson says: the original definition of genocide as first drafted by <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9781351214100-2/rapha%C3%ABl-lemkin-douglas-irvin-erickson">Raphael Lemkin in 1943</a> included the idea that “attacking a culture was a way of committing genocide, and not a different type of genocide.” </p>
<h2>The International Court of Justice</h2>
<p>During the recent genocide case against Israel at the International Court of Justice (ICJ), South Africa argued that <a href="https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/192/192-20231228-app-01-00-en.pdf">Palestinian academics were being intentionally assassinated</a>.</p>
<p>Legal representative for South Africa, Blinne Ní Ghrálaigh, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4f_yoal4gx8">told the court</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Almost 90,000 Palestinian university students cannot attend university in Gaza. Over 60 per cent of schools, almost all universities and countless bookshops and libraries have been damaged and destroyed. Hundreds of teachers and academics have been killed, including deans of universities and leading Palestinian scholars. Obliterating the very future prospects of the future education of Gaza’s children and young people.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/192/192-20240126-sum-01-00-en.pdf">On Jan. 26, in a landmark ruling, the ICJ</a> ordered Israel to prevent genocide in Gaza.</p>
<h2>Attempting to eliminate Palestinian futures</h2>
<p>Scholasticide is not an event. It’s part of a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/0377919X.2021.1975478">colonial continuum</a> of attacking and destroying a people’s educational life, knowledge systems and plundering material culture and cultural heritage.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525/jps.2017.46.4.75">targeted killing of the educated class</a> is intended to make it difficult for Palestinians to restore the political and socio-economic conditions needed to survive and rebuild Gaza.</p>
<p>This systematic destruction is at the core of the settler colonial “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14623520601056240">logic of elimination</a>.” It has also been applied to Indigenous Peoples in Canada, the United States and elsewhere. This <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/2201473X.2012.10648833">logic</a> drives a settler population to replace Indigenous peoples in their aim to establish a new society. </p>
<p>For example, this logic was exercised <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/palestine-nakba-9781848139718/">during the 1948 Nakba</a>. Thousands of <a href="https://www.palestine-studies.org/en/node/78440">Palestinian books</a>, manuscripts, libraries, archives, photographs, cultural artifacts and cultural property <a href="https://journal.radicallibrarianship.org/index.php/journal/article/view/54">were looted, destroyed or damaged</a> by Zionist militias. In 1948, <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-Ethnic-Cleansing-of-Palestine/Ilan-Pappe/9781851685554">Palestinian schools were destroyed or damaged</a> or later appropriated for use by the new Israeli state. </p>
<h2>Resistance: Palestinian history and culture</h2>
<p>Despite the ongoing attempts to erase Palestinian history, culture and memory, Palestinians have found ways to resist their erasure. In the 1960s and ‘70s, <a href="https://palestinianstudies.org/workshops/2023/palestinian-revolutionary-tradition-and-global-anti-colonialism">an anti-colonial revolutionary tradition</a>, produced and influenced by intellectual and political thought, was strengthened. </p>
<p>It helped to create <a href="https://www.palestine-studies.org/en/node/1650753">infrastructures</a> for the survival, mobilization and development of the Palestinian people and their national movement. It cultivated transnational relationships of solidarity. It helped displaced Palestinians, separated across geographies, to preserve their identity and reorganize themselves politically.</p>
<p>The intellectual and political thought of this period was <a href="https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/des/article/view/28899">passed onto</a> the generations that followed. It influenced educational and political programs, cultural development and practices of resistance. Especially during the First Intifada from 1987-1993. This enabled Palestinians to stay steadfast in their struggle against colonial violence across time and space. Palestinian education and culture form <a href="https://www.newarab.com/analysis/israels-archaeological-war-palestinian-cultural-heritage">the backbone</a> of the right to self-determination. This is why Israel frequently targets Palestinian education and culture. </p>
<p>Palestinians have endured <a href="https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v32/n20/karma-nabulsi/diary">several periods of intense attacks</a> on their cultural and educational life. This includes the June 1967 war, Israel’s 1982 <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jan/06/israel7">invasion of Lebanon during which a number of the Palestinian Liberation Organization’s institutions were destroyed</a> and the First and Second Intifadas.</p>
<p>Following Israel’s destruction of <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44746845">the Palestine Research Center in Lebanon in 1982</a>, Palestinian poet <a href="https://letterboxd.com/film/palestinian-identity/">Mahmoud Darwish said</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“He who steals land does not surprise us by stealing a library. He who kills thousands of innocent civilians does not surprise us by killing paintings.” </p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="A man in glasses wears a suit and tie" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574465/original/file-20240208-16-vtx98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574465/original/file-20240208-16-vtx98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=737&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574465/original/file-20240208-16-vtx98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=737&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574465/original/file-20240208-16-vtx98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=737&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574465/original/file-20240208-16-vtx98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574465/original/file-20240208-16-vtx98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574465/original/file-20240208-16-vtx98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The poet Mahmoud Darwish wrote about everyday grief. (Photo is from 1980)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Syrian News Agency/Al Sabah)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03626784.2022.2114778">colonial theft</a> continues unabashed. Cultural heritage has been <a href="https://librarianswithpalestine.org/gaza-report-2024/?fbclid=IwAR2QpiHfxSB6939yfyipOLY6zVYTED_rQN7JVxTq33UCinF_-3U1xNuQFzE">annihilated, damaged or plundered</a> in this war. During the bombing of Al-Israa University in January, Israel also targeted the National Museum. Licensed by the Ministry of Antiquities, the museum housed over <a href="https://www.newarab.com/news/israel-obliterates-gazas-last-university-amid-boycott-calls">3,000 rare artifacts, which were looted</a>. </p>
<p>Most academic institutions around the world remain silent about Israel’s scholasticide. But others are speaking out. Globally, this includes <a href="https://lithub.com/israel-has-damaged-or-destroyed-at-least-13-libraries-in-gaza/">Librarians and Archivists with Palestine</a> and some <a href="https://www.brismes.ac.uk/news/destruction-of-palestinian-education-system">academic associations</a> and faculty groups. The ICJ’s recent order to Israel to prevent genocide in Gaza may motivate other scholars and institutions to consider breaking their silence on scholasticide.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222055/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chandni Desai does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Scholars say Israel’s destruction of Gaza’s schools, universities and museums are part of an ongoing project to destroy Palestinian people, identity and ideas.Chandni Desai, Assistant professor, Education, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2215942024-02-08T19:17:23Z2024-02-08T19:17:23ZThe surprisingly Australian history of Chinese dragon parades<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573229/original/file-20240203-25-utkv0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3178%2C1672&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bendigo's 'Moon Face' dragon in front of Bendigo's Gwan Dai Temple (now demolished) at Easter 1900.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Bendigonian/Trove</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Tomorrow will usher in the lunar <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-the-year-of-the-dragon-in-the-chinese-zodiac-associated-with-good-fortune-wisdom-and-success-221833">Year of the Dragon</a>. Families and friends will gather to feast, red packets will be gifted to youngsters, and dancing Chinese lions accompanied by strings of crackers will scare away evil spirits and bring good fortune to businesses. </p>
<p>In celebration of the new year, much-loved Chinese dragons will parade on Australia’s streets, including Sun Loong in <a href="https://bendigochinese.org.au/events/">Bendigo</a> and the Millennium Dragon in <a href="https://www.chinesemuseum.com.au/Event/sunday-11-february-year-of-the-dragon-festival-day">Melbourne</a>. </p>
<p>While dragon parades are popularly viewed as displays of Chinese or Cantonese tradition and culture, their history demonstrates how deeply Australian they also are. </p>
<p>Our historical research shows that until relatively recently Australia’s dragon parade tradition was closely associated with <a href="https://hkupress.hku.hk/index.php?route=product/product&product_id=486">Chinese-Australian philanthropy</a> and engagement with Australian civic life, rather than with Chinese spiritual practice.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573230/original/file-20240203-29-nie5p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573230/original/file-20240203-29-nie5p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573230/original/file-20240203-29-nie5p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573230/original/file-20240203-29-nie5p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573230/original/file-20240203-29-nie5p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573230/original/file-20240203-29-nie5p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573230/original/file-20240203-29-nie5p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573230/original/file-20240203-29-nie5p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bendigo’s ‘Duck Bill’ dragon, photographed here in 1896, was the first processional dragon in Victoria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/139724228#">The Australasian/Trove</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The earliest dragon arrivals</h2>
<p>Australia’s Cantonese immigrants and their descendants have long used dragon processions as ostentatious displays of their culture. Some of the organisers of dragon parades have <a href="https://www.nma.gov.au/explore/features/harvest-of-endurance/scroll/chinese-gold-miners">ancestry dating back</a> to the 19th-century gold rushes. The history of these dragons is almost as old.</p>
<p>The first dragon, nicknamed the “Duck Bill” dragon, was imported <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/88895186/9068693#">from Southern China to Bendigo</a> more than 100 years ago and paraded from 1892 to 1898.</p>
<p>Nearby, Ballarat’s first dragon – also the <a href="https://ehive.com/collections/4819/objects/225102/ceremonial-dragon">oldest surviving dragon</a> – was purchased in 1897. It was paraded until the 1960s. Ballarat’s dragon is held at Sovereign Hill.</p>
<p>The “Moon Face” dragon was Bendigo’s second dragon, paraded for just one year in 1900. Then, in 1901, Bendigo imported its third dragon, “<a href="https://vhd.heritagecouncil.vic.gov.au/places/14363">Loong</a>”. Remarkably, Loong was paraded for more than 100 years (circa 1901-2019) and now resides at the Golden Dragon Museum.</p>
<p>Melbourne also got its first dragon in 1901, which was paraded until about 1915. It’s now held at the See Yup Temple in South Melbourne.</p>
<p>Bendigo’s Chinese communities, their descendants and friends maintained a continuous <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/152218866">dragon parading tradition</a>. <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-01-21/ballarat-processional-dragon-loong-celebrated-lunar-new-year/101858398">Ballarat</a> and Melbourne’s fell away – only to be <a href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article205710499">revived in 1954</a> to mark the visit of <a href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206090246">Queen Elizabeth II</a>. </p>
<p>Meanwhile in southern China, where these parades originated, the tradition almost died out <a href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article131860413">after the Cultural Revolution</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-the-year-of-the-dragon-in-the-chinese-zodiac-associated-with-good-fortune-wisdom-and-success-221833">It's the Year of the Dragon in the Chinese zodiac − associated with good fortune, wisdom and success</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A valued part of local fundraising</h2>
<p>Australian streets have provided a stage for a <a href="https://www.emelbourne.net.au/biogs/EM01197b.htm">variety of processions</a>, with public holidays used to stage open-air fundraising activities (particularly for hospitals). Chinese communities were as keen as everyone else to assist with fundraising, display their culture and participate in festivities. </p>
<p>Historian <a href="https://academic.oup.com/hong-kong-scholarship-online/book/37581/chapter-abstract/331844499?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Pauline Rule</a> has shown that Chinese communities have contributed to public fundraising displays in rural cities since at least 1866.</p>
<p>Bendigo’s Chinese community has helped raise funds for the Bendigo Hospital at its annual Easter fair since 1879. In 1884, the organising committee of Castlemaine’s charity parade specifically sought the involvement of the <a href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article88529764">local Chinese community</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573232/original/file-20240203-25-auz4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573232/original/file-20240203-25-auz4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573232/original/file-20240203-25-auz4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=864&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573232/original/file-20240203-25-auz4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=864&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573232/original/file-20240203-25-auz4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=864&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573232/original/file-20240203-25-auz4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1086&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573232/original/file-20240203-25-auz4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1086&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573232/original/file-20240203-25-auz4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1086&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This wood engraving from 1874 portrays a Chinese procession at the Beechworth carnival.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://find.slv.vic.gov.au/permalink/61SLV_INST/1sev8ar/alma9916553743607636">State Library of Victoria</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The popularity of dragons</h2>
<p>Dragons were expensive and valued, and as such were also loaned to other communities for fundraising displays. In 1897, Bendigo’s Duck Bill dragon travelled to Sydney to participate in the <a href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article169048208">Queen Victoria Diamond Jubilee fundraiser</a>. Then, both Bendigo’s Moon Face and the Ballarat dragon, as well as costumes from Bendigo, Beechworth and Castlemaine, were loaned to raise funds for the <a href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article222244995">Melbourne Women’s Hospital</a> in May 1900.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573233/original/file-20240203-27-hyi43i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573233/original/file-20240203-27-hyi43i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573233/original/file-20240203-27-hyi43i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573233/original/file-20240203-27-hyi43i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573233/original/file-20240203-27-hyi43i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573233/original/file-20240203-27-hyi43i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573233/original/file-20240203-27-hyi43i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573233/original/file-20240203-27-hyi43i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dragons and costumes loaned by Chinese communities in Bendigo, Ballarat, Beechworth and Castlemaine were used for a major fundraising event for the Melbourne Women’s Hospital in May 1900.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article198521830">The Leader/Trove.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That so many Victorian communities could purchase dragons demonstrated their prosperity and joint commitment to Australia philanthropy and public life. It perhaps also encouraged a friendly intercity rivalry. </p>
<p>Processional dragons were so popular that some communities that couldn’t access one would make their own imitation ones.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573231/original/file-20240203-27-pob9l5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573231/original/file-20240203-27-pob9l5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573231/original/file-20240203-27-pob9l5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573231/original/file-20240203-27-pob9l5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573231/original/file-20240203-27-pob9l5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573231/original/file-20240203-27-pob9l5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573231/original/file-20240203-27-pob9l5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573231/original/file-20240203-27-pob9l5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This photo, taken at an unknown date, shows an imitation Chinese dragon parading in Warrnambool.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Warrnambool Historical Society</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Royal welcome</h2>
<p>By the time the Duke and Duchess of York arrived in Melbourne to open the first federal parliament on May 6 1901, Chinese participation in public processions in Victoria was common. Of the five Chinese dragons brought to Victoria in the 19th century, three participated in Federation celebrations.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/32202458">John Fitzgerald</a> shows, many Chinese Australians were as excited about the possibilities of Federation as other Australians. They “shared a grand vision of what Australia might become in the century ahead”. To mark the royal visit, welcome arches were constructed in <a href="https://collections.museumsvictoria.com.au/items/2005960">Melbourne</a>, <a href="https://collections.museumsvictoria.com.au/items/253925">Ballarat</a> and <a href="https://purl.slwa.wa.gov.au/slwa_b1996396_1">Perth</a>.</p>
<p>Thanks to early photography, we can identify the two dragons that paraded in Melbourne. Several photographs show Bendigo’s Loong was one of these. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573234/original/file-20240203-21-irfjui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573234/original/file-20240203-21-irfjui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573234/original/file-20240203-21-irfjui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573234/original/file-20240203-21-irfjui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573234/original/file-20240203-21-irfjui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573234/original/file-20240203-21-irfjui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573234/original/file-20240203-21-irfjui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573234/original/file-20240203-21-irfjui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bendigo’s Loong was paraded in Spring Street, in front of Parliament House, as part of celebrations to welcome the Duke and Duchess of York in May 1901.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://collections.museumsvictoria.com.au/items/2005551">Museums Victoria</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Only a few long-distance photographs <a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/article/melbourne-mystery-dragon/">of the other dragon</a> survive.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573970/original/file-20240207-28-9do2qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573970/original/file-20240207-28-9do2qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573970/original/file-20240207-28-9do2qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=917&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573970/original/file-20240207-28-9do2qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=917&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573970/original/file-20240207-28-9do2qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=917&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573970/original/file-20240207-28-9do2qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1153&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573970/original/file-20240207-28-9do2qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1153&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573970/original/file-20240207-28-9do2qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1153&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of few photographs showing the Melbourne processional dragon during Federation celebrations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://collections.museumsvictoria.com.au/items/761310">G.H. Myers/Museums Victoria</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>They show that, while the dragon’s beard is positioned differently and some decorations are missing, the striped horns and head match the Melbourne dragon held at the See Yup Temple in South Melbourne. According to a 1903 <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/148995216">newspaper article</a>, Melbourne’s Chinese Bo Leong Society had specifically purchased this dragon for the 1901 celebrations, at a cost of 250 pounds.</p>
<p>The third dragon involved in the festivities, the Ballarat dragon, was used to decorate the Chinese arch that welcomed the royal couple during their visit to Ballarat.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573237/original/file-20240204-19-7g6c3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573237/original/file-20240204-19-7g6c3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573237/original/file-20240204-19-7g6c3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573237/original/file-20240204-19-7g6c3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573237/original/file-20240204-19-7g6c3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573237/original/file-20240204-19-7g6c3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573237/original/file-20240204-19-7g6c3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573237/original/file-20240204-19-7g6c3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ballarat’s processional dragon decorated a Chinese arch created to welcome the Duke and Duchess of York to Ballarat in May 1901.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Golden Dragon Museum</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A legacy in Australia</h2>
<p>Astoundingly, these three Federation-era dragons – three of the five oldest surviving <a href="https://www.appeal-democrat.com/news/marysville-dragon-on-display-in-new-york/article_758f1064-6e2d-11e4-8094-23700541fafb.html">imperial dragons in the world</a> – still survive today.</p>
<p>Traditionally, when dragons reach the end of their life they are ritually burned. That these dragons were not is another expression of their Australianness. For immigrant Chinese communities, they have acquired special value as examples of cultural practices of distant homelands. Their cultural difference and beauty also appeal to others. </p>
<p>Each dragon is significant in its own right, but together they are remnants of a significant history of Chinese Australians’ participation in local fundraising and celebration.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221594/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sophie Couchman has undertaken research work for the See Yup Society on a voluntary basis and formerly curator at the Museum of Chinese Australian History.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leigh McKinnon is the Research Officer at Bendigo's Golden Dragon Museum, the home of the world's oldest complete processional dragon Loong. </span></em></p>Some of Australia’s Federation-era dragons are among the oldest surviving imperial dragons in the world.Sophie Couchman, Honorary Research Fellow, Museums Victoria Research InstituteLeigh McKinnon, Research Affiliate, School of Philosophical, Historical, and International Studies, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2207392024-02-01T14:24:22Z2024-02-01T14:24:22ZSlaves of God: Nigeria’s traditional Osu slavery practice was stopped, but the suffering continues<p><em>There are global efforts to fight modern slavery, but a few traditional systems still hold strong in west Africa. These include Osu, Ohu and Trokosi.</em></p>
<p><em>The Conversation Africa’s Godfred Akoto Boafo spoke to Michael Odijie who has <a href="https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-854">researched</a> one of the systems – Osu – and what can be done to finally put a stop to it.</em></p>
<h2>What is Osu?</h2>
<p><a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2459907">Osu</a> is a traditional practice in the <a href="http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/%7Elegneref/igbo/igbo2.htm#:%7E:text=Most%20Igbo%20speakers%20are%20based,%2C%20Ebonyi%2C%20and%20Enugu%20States.">Igbo region</a>, in south-eastern Nigeria. In the past, Osu involved dedicating individuals to local deities, “transforming” them into slaves of the gods. Though such dedications no longer take place, the descendants of past Osu suffer from discrimination and social exclusion.</p>
<p>Historically, there were <a href="https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-854">several ways</a> a person could become an Osu. Some were purchased as slaves and then dedicated to local gods, either to atone for a crime committed by the purchaser or to seek assistance from the deity. An individual might attain the status of an Osu through birth if one of their parents was an Osu or through voluntarily seeking asylum, thus assuming the Osu status. For example, during the transatlantic slave trade, many chose this path: they would run to a shrine and dedicate themselves, to avoid being sold. Once dedicated as an Osu, they were generally ostracised from Igbo communities, yet simultaneously regarded with fear, seen as the slave of a deity.</p>
<p>Another common way to become an Osu was through marriage to an Osu, leading to persistent marriage discrimination even today.</p>
<p>The spread of Christianity, which occurred rapidly among the Igbos in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/colonialism-and-christianity-in-west-africa-the-igbo-case-190019151/A803DBB4AAF24CCEEA20597B37B5E649">20th century</a>, discouraged the practice of worshipping local deities. The historical practice of Osu has ended.</p>
<p>However, a new form of discrimination has taken its place, targeting the descendants of those historically identified as Osu. </p>
<p>One of the most significant forms of modern discrimination occurs in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-journal-of-postcolonial-literary-inquiry/article/abs/abolition-law-and-the-osu-marriage-novel/DDA6F8DDBB3D12D822EE42CC17FE165D">realm of marriage</a>. Freeborn individuals, who have no Osu lineage, are customarily prohibited from marrying someone of Osu lineage. Should they do so, both they and their offspring permanently become Osu, facing the same discrimination. This discrimination has a profound impact on the social and emotional lives of many Igbos of Osu lineage, particularly those of marriageable age. It can be challenging for them to find a spouse.</p>
<p>Another form of discrimination nowadays is social exclusion. In Igbo villages, Osu live in segregated quarters and are barred from social interactions with freeborn community members. They face barriers to accessing certain public amenities, attending community events and participating in communal decision-making processes. </p>
<p>Their descendants are also restricted from holding specific influential positions in the Igbo village power structure, such as the Okpara (the oldest man in the village) and the Onyishi.</p>
<h2>How prevalent is Osu and where is it practised?</h2>
<p>G. Ugo Nwokeji is an Igbo cultural historian who studied slavery in the Igbo region. <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/dispatch/the-descendants-of-slaves-in-nigeria-fight-for-equality">He estimated</a> that the Osu represented 5%-10% of the Igbo population. With an ethnic population of about 30 million <a href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199846733/obo-9780199846733-0143.xml">Igbos</a> in Nigeria, this suggests that between 1.5 and 3 million Igbos suffer from this discrimination. </p>
<p>The vast majority of Osu are found in Imo State, which has about 5.2 million people. But they are in every other Igbo-dominated state as well: Enugu, Anambra, Ebonyi and Abia.</p>
<h2>Why has it been a challenge for governments to end the Osu practice?</h2>
<p>In 1956, <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195382075.001.0001/acref-9780195382075-e-0239">Nnamdi Azikiwe</a>, then the premier of Eastern Nigeria and later the first president of Nigeria, spearheaded the passage of a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/218649">law</a> aimed at abolishing Osu and its social disadvantages. </p>
<p>But the practice continued. No arrests were recorded. Osu is deeply rooted in tradition, making a purely legal approach insufficient.</p>
<p>One reason why eliminating discrimination has been difficult is that identifying an Osu is relatively straightforward for Igbos. They often reside in their own distinct quarters. Therefore, simply mentioning one’s village or family name can reveal one’s Osu status. This situation is a result of a combination of Igbo culture and colonial policy from the 1920s. During this period, individuals of slave origin began to assert themselves, and the British colonial response was to segregate them.</p>
<h2>What other approaches should be tried?</h2>
<p>A new abolition movement is gaining momentum in the Igbo region of Nigeria, fuelled by social media. This has enabled widespread awareness and advocacy, creating a more robust and inclusive dialogue about the Osu system.</p>
<p>One of the leading groups in this new movement is the <a href="https://ifetacsios.org.ng/">Initiative For the Eradication of Traditional and Cultural Stigmatisation in Our Society</a>, a network of campaigners led by Ogechukwu Stella Maduagwu. </p>
<p>Recognising that the Osu system is often viewed as having spiritual significance, the initiative places greater emphasis on the advice of cultural custodians, including traditional rulers. Consequently, it has developed a “model of abolition” that involves consultation with cultural figures, such as chief priests representing the deities, in Igbo villages. Using this model, the organisation successfully conducted an abolition ceremony in the <a href="https://dailypost.ng/2021/04/06/joy-celebration-as-nsukka-abolishes-osu-caste-system/">Nsukka region</a> of Enugu State.</p>
<p>Another leading campaigner is <a href="https://www.globalpeacechain.org/team_members/dr-nwaocha-ogechukwu/">Nwaocha Ogechukwu</a>, a scholar and researcher specialising in religious and cultural discrimination. He has established a platform named Marriage Without Borders to assist young people who face marriage discrimination due to being labelled as Osu. In collaboration with religious leaders, he provides counselling and support to those suffering from the adverse effects of this system.</p>
<p>A challenge for the emerging movement is its localised approach. Without a strategy that encompasses the entire Igbo region, campaigners are unable to collaborate effectively or engage in a unified, sustainable effort. This issue arises from the diverse genealogies of the Osu and the lack of a single traditional Igbo authority. </p>
<p>As a result, the movement has found it difficult to gain widespread traction. It continues to have a village-level focus.</p>
<p>We recommend that the movement align itself with broader human rights campaigns within Nigeria, across Africa and internationally. The Osu system bears resemblances to Ghana’s <a href="https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1190&context=history-in-the-making">Trokosi system</a>. The campaign to abolish <a href="https://theconversation.com/girls-in-west-africa-offered-into-sexual-slavery-as-wives-of-gods-105400">Trokosi</a> achieved notable success because its message resonated on a national level, garnering support from international activists.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220739/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael E Odijie receives funding from UCL Knowledge Exchange </span></em></p>Ending discrimination against the Osu has been difficult because identifying an Osu is relatively straightforward for Igbos.Michael E Odijie, Research associate, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2168592024-01-22T13:29:39Z2024-01-22T13:29:39ZWhy do people have different tastes in music? A music education expert explains why some songs are universally liked, while others aren’t<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566074/original/file-20231215-21-eo0769.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=19%2C0%2C2121%2C1409&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The types of music you listen to can reflect your personality traits. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/group-of-young-friends-listening-to-music-with-royalty-free-image/1156897122?phrase=listening+to+music&adppopup=true">Smile/Stone via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Why do we have a certain taste in music, different than others? – Shirya R., age 11</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>When you turn on the radio, you might hear songs you like and other songs you just skip past. But even the songs you don’t like usually have some fans. Maybe you don’t like older music, but your parents or grandparents might love it <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-old-people-hate-new-music-123834">because they grew up</a> with it. It’s familiar and comfortable. When you’re older, you’ll likely return to music you love too.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=QXuOzQIAAAAJ&hl=en">music education professor</a> who teaches music psychology, I’ve spent a lot of time thinking about music preferences and how music weaves its way through people’s brains.</p>
<p>Some composers produce music with <a href="https://theconversation.com/burt-bacharach-mastered-the-art-of-the-perfect-pop-song-and-that-aint-easy-199660">cross-generational appeal</a>. Look at the song “True Colors,” which artists have remade time and time again. It was originally released in 1986 by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LPn0KFlbqX8">Cyndi Lauper</a>.</p>
<p>Ten years later, Disney World’s Epcot used it as part of a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yUm22pobGU4">pre-show video</a>. Ten years after that, it made its way to our ears again as part of the “Trolls” movie. Now, if you scour the internet, you’ll find lots of covers of this song.</p>
<p>How can this one song appeal to many different people over time, while other songs do not? Why do some people have wildly different tastes in music, even while certain songs can unite people from a variety of backgrounds and generations? </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/3JIpIsgHqV0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">‘True Colors’ from the movie ‘Trolls,’ starring Justin Timberlake and Anna Kendrick.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Researchers have looked at <a href="https://www.ucf.edu/pegasus/your-brain-on-music/">how music works in the brain</a>. They suggest people like music with unexpected twists and turns, which sometimes cause <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-only-some-people-get-skin-orgasms-from-listening-to-music-59719">pleasurable physical reactions</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2020.565815">or chills</a>. This finding suggests that humans have created and listened to music over time <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsw009">because it is pleasurable or rewarding</a>.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jyG8eWrpQ3Y?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">When you listen to music, you might get chills.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Emotions and personality</h2>
<p>Some researchers suggest people experience emotions through music, or that they choose music based on what they want to feel. A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022406">2011 study</a> suggests musical preference may reflect the emotions people feel when listening to music, regardless of the music’s style.</p>
<p>Some people respond to mellow and relaxing music. Others’ emotions are triggered by classical-style music. Still others emotionally react to singer-songwriter music like country, folk and some pop music. Preferences for certain types or styles of music might come from the time and place they’re first heard, or it may simply be specific to each person, regardless of what’s going on around them. </p>
<p>Though people might like certain music at one point in their lives, their music preferences change over time based on their lived experiences. When you’re struggling through a tough time, you might choose music that reflects what you wish was happening and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10824-022-09454-7">search for happy songs</a>. On the flip side, sometimes people <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00404">gravitate toward sad songs</a>. People want to move through grief, so they may search for songs that help them make sense of their emotions.</p>
<p>However, people’s choices don’t account for the whole picture. Musical taste goes <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1062146">deeper than the music type or genre</a>. People who like pop or rock music don’t all like the same pop or rock music. </p>
<p>Studies on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618761659">personality and social media interaction</a> suggest your musical tastes can tell others what kind of personality you have. If someone knows what kind of music you like, that might tell them something about your personality. </p>
<p>Other <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000397">research suggests</a> your music preferences mirror your unique personality. So, people who already know you may be able to suggest music that you would like to hear.</p>
<p>For example, those who are more open might prefer mellow, sophisticated music like Billie Eilish’s “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cW8VLC9nnTo">What Was I Made For?</a>” or intense music like Imagine Dragons’ “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V5M2WZiAy6k">Natural</a>.”</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000397">The research found</a> extroverts may lean toward contemporary music. Agreeable people prefer unpretentious music, like Garrett Kato & Elina’s “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zgxNu8fBrgw">Never Alone</a>.” Conscientious people lean toward <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0o5NTQMzNPo">unpretentious music</a> or intense music like Marshmello’s “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYfejxVZ7lg">Power</a>.” People who are more anxious might prefer many different types of music.</p>
<p>People may like music by artists they like, rather than how the music sounds. Some prefer music from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000293">artists who are like them</a>, especially when they can view their profiles on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618761659">social media</a>.</p>
<p>Why does knowing what music others like matter? Knowing about different people’s musical preferences and personalities <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evVRxrOo5iw">can bridge gaps between people</a> with different personalities and identities. </p>
<h2>The music people stream</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0508-z">study of 765 million songs streamed</a> by people worldwide revealed several reasons people listen to music. People’s preferences tended to change based on the time of day, their age and particular styles of music. Most people listened to more relaxing music at night but more intense music during the day. </p>
<p>Music streamed in Latin America often produced quicker physical and emotional reactions. Music streamed in Asia was usually relaxing. People who stay up later at night listened to less intense music. Depending on where participants lived, the length of the day also played a part in their music listening habits. In short, people’s environments and their individual moods shaped their preferences.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/TOhANADfR04?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Harmony in the Brain: Unraveling the Neuroscience of Music.</span></figcaption>
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<p>So, why do we have different tastes in music? People have complex personalities, and the music they like may be related to this. People’s brains work in unique ways as they process music. Some may have a physical reaction to certain music, while others may not. People may like music because a musician’s views might be like their own views. That said, some songs surprise, intrigue and entertain a wide variety of listeners, which makes them universally liked.</p>
<p>The bottom line? Each person is unique in many ways, and their musical tastes reflect that uniqueness.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Kuehne does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Lots of factors can influence your music taste, from your age and where you’re from to the personality traits you have.Jane Kuehne, Associate Professor of Music Education, Auburn UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2209262024-01-16T14:55:36Z2024-01-16T14:55:36ZWhy South Korea is banning the sale of dog meat<p>The South Korean dog meat trade will officially end in 2027 after a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/jan/09/south-korea-votes-to-ban-production-and-sale-of-dog-meat">bill was passed</a> making the slaughter of dogs and the sale of dog meat for human consumption illegal in the country (though the consumption of dog meat will still be legal). People who violate this new law could be fined up to 30 million won (about £18,000) and be jailed for three years.</p>
<p>The news has been embraced in South Korea as a long-awaited victory by many animal protection organisations. But it has also been received very negatively by pro-dog-meat associations, as the livelihoods of dog meat farmers and retailers will be directly affected by this legislation. </p>
<p>Dog meat is the <a href="https://www.press.purdue.edu/9781612497075/">fourth-most consumed meat</a> in South Korea after pork, beef and chicken. However, the practice of eating dogs has been in sharp decline over the past few decades and has divided South Korean society for more than half a century. </p>
<p>For some, the trade represents resistance against cultural imperialism. For others, it is an obstacle to modernity. All the while, little attention is given to the fate of other animals whose death and commodification as meat are largely normalised and accepted.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A bowl of dog meat soup." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569279/original/file-20240115-23-jei9my.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569279/original/file-20240115-23-jei9my.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569279/original/file-20240115-23-jei9my.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569279/original/file-20240115-23-jei9my.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569279/original/file-20240115-23-jei9my.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569279/original/file-20240115-23-jei9my.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569279/original/file-20240115-23-jei9my.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Bosintang is a traditional Korean soup that uses dog meat as its primary ingredient.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/boshintang-korean-soup-that-includes-dog-499106899">Fanfo/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Stigmatisation of a practice</h2>
<p>Dog consumption has a long history in Korea. Some Korean scholars point to the excavation of dog bones from Korean relics dating to the Neolithic age (roughly from 6000BC to 2000BC) as <a href="https://www.press.purdue.edu/9781612497075/">evidence</a> that dogs have been eaten since at least that period.</p>
<p>But an important moment of national and international friction around the practice occurred in the run-up to the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games. The South Korean government at the time <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/D/bo3637968.html">banned the sale</a> of dog meat temporarily in the traditional markets of the capital and asked dog meat retailers to remove dog carcasses from their stalls to avoid offending foreigners. </p>
<p>This decision was <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10649867.2018.1547959">widely criticised</a> by part of South Korean civil society who saw it as a form of cultural imperialism reminiscent of colonial times when many Korean cultural traditions were erased or stigmatised. This episode aroused feelings of national pride and protection towards the consumption of dog meat.</p>
<p>It was followed by a stronger reaction during the 2002 Fifa World Cup (which was co-hosted by South Korea). Influential South Korean public and political figures <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/629658">took a public stance</a> in favour of dog meat as a national cultural symbol. </p>
<p>Tensions were further reignited before the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, a city in the country’s north-east. It was <a href="https://koreandogs.org/pc2018-sign-project/">reported</a> that the hiding of dog meat restaurant signs and dog carcasses had once again been introduced by the government. </p>
<h2>A practice in sharp decline</h2>
<p>However, there’s no denying that dog meat consumption in South Korea has slumped dramatically, particularly since 2000. In 2002, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07256868.2010.491272">3 million dogs</a> were slaughtered for consumption in South Korea per year. According to animal protection group, Kara, this had fallen to <a href="https://www.animals.or.kr/report/press/51382">just under 1 million</a> by the early 2020s – a third of what it was more than 20 years ago. </p>
<p>In recent decades, a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07256868.2010.491272">civil movement</a> led by animal protection charities has campaigned for the end of the trade. This movement has largely been supported by younger generations who, perhaps also influenced by the development of “pet culture”, are more inclined to challenge centuries of tradition than previous generations.</p>
<p>It could be argued that the COVID pandemic has also played a part in the sharp fall in dog meat consumption in recent years. Until the outbreak of COVID, live animals, including dogs, were often sold and slaughtered in traditional markets. Since then, municipal authorities have opened a dialogue with dog retailers to negotiate the demolition of dog slaughtering facilities. </p>
<p>Ongoing research conducted by one of us (Julien Dugnoille) alongside colleagues (Frédéric Keck and Miwon Seo-Plu) suggests that the pandemic may have facilitated a move away from the status quo on dog meat consumption. This shift has created a discussion around the end of the practice as a way to keep urban spaces free from the risk of diseases that can be spread between animals and humans.</p>
<h2>The perspective of the dog farmers</h2>
<p>Since 2014, some of these municipalities have agreed to compensate dog meat retailers for closing dog meat stalls in traditional markets. However, now that a full ban is coming into effect, dog meat farmers are requesting compensation schemes as this new law will directly affect their livelihoods.</p>
<p>The Korean Dog Meat Association has been <a href="https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2023/12/113_364963.html">arguing</a> that the bill represents an abuse of power that overlooks the perspective of many South Koreans, and that it infringes on the right to choose what one wants to eat. Last December, the Association demanded compensation for farmers of 2 million won per individual dog (about £1,200) and a grace period of ten years after the ban.</p>
<p>While the ban may be good news for Korean dogs, dog lovers and for animal protectionists, it adversely affects those whose livelihoods depend on the domestic trade and who have practised the profession for generations. </p>
<p>The change does not necessarily mean an end to the consumption of dog meat in South Korea. Dog meat consumption will continue to be lawful (presumably supplied by imported meat). </p>
<p>Still, this is a milestone for the Korean relation to dogs that cements the dog’s privileged status, in contrast to other animals whose commodification as meat remains normalised and invisible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220926/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julien Dugnoille received funding from the Korea Foundation and the Academy of Korean Studies to conduct part of the research on which this paper is based.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Knight does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new law has been introduced that officially brings dog meat to an end as a commodity in South Korea.Julien Dugnoille, Senior Lecturer in Anthropology, University of ExeterJohn Knight, Reader in Anthropology and Ethnomusicology, Queen's University BelfastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2163542024-01-10T19:13:24Z2024-01-10T19:13:24ZIn The Culture of Narcissism, Christopher Lasch excoriated his self-absorbed society – but the book’s legacy is questionable<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563787/original/file-20231205-27-b9jmo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C13%2C4633%2C3953&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sum+It/Pexels</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Our cultural touchstones series looks at books that have made an impact.</em></p>
<p>A cultural critic rails against a society that worships celebrity and prizes images over ideas. A progressive intellectual attacks the dominance of corporate elites. A curmudgeonly academic condemns his society’s ignorance of its past and the dumbing down of public education. A psychologically astute writer explores the conflicts eddying around gender and sexuality.</p>
<p>Who are these disparate thinkers, you ask? Not four contemporary pundits, but a single controversialist, writing almost half a century ago. </p>
<p>The American historian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Lasch">Christopher Lasch</a>, who died in 1994, authored a series of books that established him as one of his nation’s leading public intellectuals. The most influential of these, first published in 1979, was <a href="https://wwnorton.com/books/The-Culture-of-Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in An Age of Diminishing Expectations</a>.</p>
<p>This blockbuster earned Lasch audiences with President Jimmy Carter, a National Book Award, and a spread in People magazine, where he shared top billing with Olivia Newton-John. The book was contentious in its time, drawing flak from feminists and Lasch’s erstwhile friends on the Left. It received qualified support from some conservatives, who were otherwise antagonistic to his anti-capitalist principles. Reissued in 2018, this important work warrants a new look.</p>
<p>The Culture of Narcissism’s era now seems very distant. The Vietnam War had ended in American failure only four years earlier. Carter’s presidency was lurching toward its own failure in the midst of an energy crisis, soaring inflation and Cold War tensions. The Reagan revolution was yet to take the nation rightwards. A spirit of decline prevailed as the nation’s pride, confidence and optimism were under threat.</p>
<p>Lasch’s book gave this diminished condition a new diagnosis. The United States was in the grip of a narcissistic culture, a malign transformation of its individualist traditions. Whereas the individualist aspired to the Protestant virtues of self-reliance and self-discipline, the narcissist was self-absorbed and self-indulgent, seeking shallow sociability, pleasure and packaged self-awareness. Modern narcissists have a therapeutic sensibility, Lasch argued, seeing mental health as “the modern equivalent of salvation,” but they feel empty and inauthentic.</p>
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<p>Narcissism can mean many things, and Lasch was at pains to distinguish his understanding from popular alternatives. In an afterword written in 1990, he dismissed the idea that narcissism is a synonym for selfishness or that his book was just another critique of the 1970s as the “me decade”. </p>
<p>Laschian narcissism is not, he says, a moralistic concept for savaging the failings of a society or generation, nor is it another word for arrogance. </p>
<p>Narcissism should instead be understood within a psychoanalytic framework. It is embodied not only in anxiously preening individuals, but in the institutions that produce and nurture them. Following Freud and leading American analysts of his time, Lasch views narcissism as a condition of grandiosity and inner emptiness, in which the person sees the world as their mirror. Narcissism reveals itself in compulsive self-surveillance and fantasies of fame, power and beauty. Its dark side is repressed rage and envy and a tendency to engage in superficial and exploitative relationships.</p>
<p>Lasch equivocated on the extent of this new narcissism. Arguing “every age develops its own peculiar forms of pathology”, he asserted that candidates for psychotherapy in the 1970s no longer complained of traditional neuroses, with their alienated obsessions and phobias. Instead, they presented with disorders of the self. He proposed that many high profile public figures were narcissists, but backs off the claim that narcissistic personalities were more prevalent in the general population than in earlier times. </p>
<p>Lasch saw the reverberations of narcissism throughout American life. Most of his book offers a critical analysis of the manifestations of a narcissistic culture in several domains.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-many-types-of-narcissist-are-there-a-psychology-expert-sets-the-record-straight-207610">How many types of narcissist are there? A psychology expert sets the record straight</a>
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<h2>Family, sex, education, ageing</h2>
<p>Reflecting the preoccupations of his previous book, Haven in a Heartless World (1977), Lasch sees the traditional family as the endangered foundation of society. Under pressure from hedonistic cultural trends and mass consumption, parenting has become indulgent. Mothers and fathers abdicate their authority to child rearing fads, the state, and the therapeutic professions. Authority itself has been discredited, although hierarchies remain as strong as ever in “a society dominated by corporate elites with an anti-elitist ideology”.</p>
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<p>Lasch’s critique of the “appropriation of parental functions” by therapeutic institutions is part of a broader denunciation of a “new paternalism”. He sees a troubling rise in the popular use of therapeutic jargon and in the regulation of private and public behaviour by helping and welfare professions. </p>
<p>There is a gentle irony in Lasch’s use of the concept of narcissism to criticise the “popularization of psychiatric modes of thought” in American society, but his fundamental concern is that understanding deviance as illness erodes self-reliance and personal responsibility. </p>
<p>Lasch’s account of the effects of a narcissistic culture on relations between the sexes is equally pessimistic. It trivialises close relationships and undermines marriage, as women and men flee deep emotional entanglements in search of less demanding forms of connection. </p>
<p>The decline of traditional gender roles brings with it an intensified “sexual warfare” of mutual resentment. Lasch sees feminism as a contributing current in these developments, “often mak[ing] women more shrewish than ever in their daily encounters with men”. In a not entirely convincing show of balance, he also skewers men’s “deeply irrational” feelings of being imperilled by changing gender arrangements.</p>
<p>Mass education is another of Lasch’s targets, excoriated for creating a “spread of stupidity”, an “atrophy of competence” and “new forms of illiteracy”. A progressive might be expected to celebrate the expansion of access to higher education, but Lasch sees a wholesale lowering of standards and a rising ignorance of history, literature and civics. Meanwhile, universities are plagued by grade inflation, commodified degrees, swollen administrative bureaucracies and cafeteria-style curricula.</p>
<p>Behind these grim developments, Lasch sees a decline in the social value placed on personal achievement, a narrow emphasis on relevance and the vocational mission of higher education, and an anti-elitism that erodes the quality and ambitions of education across the spectrum, from community colleges to the Ivy League.</p>
<p>Narcissistic culture also reveals itself in shifting views of ageing. Lasch bemoans a rising “cult of youth” and a dread of getting old, expressed in obsessions with physical appearance and desperate striving for longevity. </p>
<p>Behind this panic is a more basic “cult of the self”. Narcissistic adults cling to the illusion of youth because they are over-invested in personal image and appearance and feel no connection to a future beyond their lifespan.</p>
<p>Lasch is an avid collector of cults: his book also proclaims cults of authenticity, celebrity, compulsive industry, consumption, expanded consciousness, friendliness, intimacy, growth, lost innocence, pragmatism, privatism, self-culture, sincerity, sports, the strenuous life, teamwork, victory and womanhood.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/welcome-to-the-age-of-collective-narcissism-71196">Welcome to the age of collective narcissism</a>
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</em>
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<h2>The book’s legacy</h2>
<p>In an introduction to the 2018 edition, the political commentator E.J. Dionne writes that “The Culture of Narcissism seems to leap across the decades” carrying enduring truths for our time. Just how prescient it was – how much it leaps rather than stumbles – is a matter for debate. The book sounds an early warning for several trends that have endured and intensified, but in other respects it seems dated. </p>
<p>One dated feature is the book’s heavy reliance on psychoanalytic ideas. Outside of small remnant communities of analysts, it is now profoundly unusual to see Freudian jargon littered so freely and unapologetically through works of social criticism, or to come across references to castrating mothers. Lasch wrote at a time when the cultural prominence of psychoanalysis in the literary Anglosphere had reached its peak, only to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01489/full">fall off a cliff</a> in the 1990s. </p>
<p>Intellectual fashions come and go, of course – Norman Mailer and Kurt Vonnegut are no longer literary icons either – but sections of The Culture of Narcissism now speak an almost foreign language, occasionally peddling arrant psychoanalytic nonsense, such as the familial origins and narcissistic basis of schizophrenia.</p>
<p>The Culture of Narcissism’s positions on sex and gender now seem reactionary and almost quaint. The conflicts Lasch examines continue in struggles over gender inequality and sexual violence, and in the manosphere backlash, but few would see them as being in a state of crisis: more a constant low hum of ongoing friction than signs of impending disaster. The idea that feminism has turned women shrewish now seems risible, emanating from a time when inequality at work and in the home still appeared to be the natural state of affairs. </p>
<p>Lasch’s critical remarks on mass education also seem retrograde, especially coming from a time when participation in higher education was much lower and more limited to a social elite than it is today. The proportion of Americans with college degrees is now well over double the proportion in 1979, when it was below one in six. </p>
<p>The declinist view that educational standards are slipping long preceded Lasch’s critique. It persists to this day around the globe, often in reaction to broadened access. With the complaint being so generalised across time and space, it seems questionable to attribute a decline specifically to rampant narcissism in 1970s America, especially as the excellence and scale of the nation’s universities were the envy of the world at the time.</p>
<p>But Lasch was surely correct in identifying narcissism as a major American cultural trend before others had made the connection. Narcissism is now a vastly more popular concept in everyday discourse than it was in 1979. It has become the focus of an enormous psychological literature. Repeated surveys of young Americans have demonstrated steadily <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-Narcissism-Epidemic/Jean-M-Twenge/9781416575993">rising levels</a> of the trait, and it is indispensable in making sense of public figures, recent presidents included.</p>
<p>Equally precocious is Lasch’s emphasis on the rise of images in the social world. His language is anachronistic, but his sentiment resonates in this digital age:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Cameras and recording machines not only transcribe experience but alter its quality, giving to much of modern life the character of an enormous echo chamber, a hall of mirrors.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Lasch could not have foreseen how social media and the internet would saturate us with alluring images, amplify our narcissistic concerns with appearance and self-curation, and foster the shallow and diffuse social relationships and obsession with youth that his book condemned.</p>
<p>More generally, The Culture of Narcissism’s critique of the then new therapeutic mindset rings even truer today. Lasch offered an early diagnosis of the prevailing tendency to frame problems of meaning in psychiatric terms and to identify mental health with personal authenticity. </p>
<p>At a time when therapy-speak is rife, when concepts of mental ill-health <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg25934573-900-why-being-more-open-about-mental-health-could-be-making-us-feel-worse/">continue to expand</a>, and when “authentic” has been crowned as 2023’s <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/wordplay/word-of-the-year">word of the year</a>, it is clear Lasch’s book foretold a psychologised future.</p>
<p>The Culture of Narcissism is a product of its time: what book is not? Even so, it remains an important work of criticism. Whether its central concept can bear the explanatory weight Lasch loads upon it can be queried, but narcissism serves as a novel point of attack on an ambitious range of cultural targets. In this regard, the book still deserves to be read. </p>
<p>In our polarised times, readers might also appreciate a work of criticism that resists political categorisation. Lasch is radical on some issues, but socially conservative on others. He is fierce in his attack on corporate elites, but unabashed in his cultural elitism. He is critical of feminism, but bracing in his attack on male insecurity. He is favourable towards restoring authority and the traditional family, but keen to build new local “communities of competence”. </p>
<p>Lasch’s voice is usually sharp-tongued and dyspeptic – he is against much more than he is for – but it is always interesting.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216354/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Haslam receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>Christopher Lasch’s sharp-tonged a critique of American society was a product of its time, but has things to say about the present.Nick Haslam, Professor of Psychology, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2188722023-12-12T18:01:46Z2023-12-12T18:01:46ZArctic Report Card 2023: From wildfires to melting sea ice, the warmest summer on record had cascading impacts across the Arctic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564907/original/file-20231211-25-r8pwap.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5982%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Giovanna Stevens grew up harvesting salmon at her family’s fish camp on Alaska's Yukon River. Climate change is interrupting hunting and fishing traditions in many areas.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/aYukonRiverDisappearingSalmon/fa2665d81c31479a916a237985eec432/photo">AP Photo/Nathan Howard</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The year 2023 shattered the record for the <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">warmest summer in the Arctic</a>, and people and ecosystems across the region felt the impact. </p>
<p>Wildfires forced evacuations <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/151985/tracking-canadas-extreme-2023-fire-season">across Canada</a>. Greenland was so warm that a research station <a href="https://nsidc.org/ice-sheets-today/analyses/sudden-shift-southern-heat">at the ice sheet summit</a> recorded melting in late June, only its fifth melting event on record. <a href="https://climate.copernicus.eu/surface-air-temperature-august-2023">Sea surface temperatures</a> in the Barents, Kara, Laptev and Beaufort seas were 9 to 12 degrees Fahrenheit (5 to 7 degrees Celsius) above normal in August. </p>
<p>While reliable instrument measurements go back only to around 1900, it’s almost certain this was the Arctic’s hottest summer in centuries.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map shows Arctic temperatures in 2023 and a chart shows changing heat over time." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=891&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=891&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=891&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1120&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1120&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564698/original/file-20231210-27-qjqbgc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1120&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Summer heat extremes in 2023 and over time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/">NOAA, Arctic Report Card 2023</a></span>
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<p>The year started out unusually wet, and snow accumulation during the winter of 2022-23 was above average across much the Arctic. But by May, high spring temperatures had left the <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/terrestrial-snow-cover-2023/">North American snowpack at a record low</a>, exposing ground that quickly warmed and dried, fueling lightning-sparked fires across Canada.</p>
<p>In the <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">2023 Arctic Report Card</a>, released Dec. 12, we brought together 82 Arctic scientists from around the world to assess the Arctic’s vital signs, the changes underway and their effects on lives across the region and around the world.</p>
<h2>Heat’s cascading effects throughout the Arctic</h2>
<p>In an area as large as the Arctic, setting a new temperature record for a season by two-tenths of a degree Fahrenheit (0.1 degrees Celsius) of warming would be significant. Summer 2023 – July, August and September – <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">shattered the previous record</a>, set in 2016, by four times that. Temperatures almost everywhere in the Arctic were above normal.</p>
<p>A closer look at <a href="https://www.gov.nt.ca/en/newsroom/shane-thompson-historic-2023-wildfire-season">events in Canada’s Northwest Territories</a> shows how rising air temperature, sea ice decline and warming water temperature feed off one another in a warming climate.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map shows 2023 spring snow cover duration. A chart shows Arctic snow cover falling since the 1980s." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1035&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1035&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1035&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1300&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564696/original/file-20231210-23-a3z2r8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1300&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Arctic snow cover in 2023 and over time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/">NOAA, Arctic Report Card 2023</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">winter snow cover melted early</a> across large parts of northern Canada, providing an extra month for the Sun to heat up the exposed ground. The heat and lack of moisture dried out organic matter on and just below the surface; by November, <a href="https://cwfis.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/report">70,000 square miles</a> (180,000 square kilometers) had burned across Canada, about a fifth of it in the Northwest Territories. </p>
<p>The very warm weather in May and June 2023 in the Northwest Territories also <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">heated up the mighty Mackenzie River</a>, which sent massive amounts of warm water into the Beaufort Sea to the north. The warm water melted the sea ice early, and currents also carried it west toward Alaska, where Mackenzie River water contributed to early sea ice loss along most of Northeast Alaska and to increased tundra vegetation growth.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map shows Arctic sea surface temperatures in 2023 and a chart shows temperatures rising over time." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1050&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1050&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1050&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1320&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564695/original/file-20231210-21-9359yk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1320&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sea surface temperatures have been rising.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/">NOAA, Arctic Report Card 2023</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Similar warmth in western Siberia also contributed to quickly melting sea ice and to high sea surface temperatures in the Kara and Laptev seas north of Russia. </p>
<p>The Arctic’s declining sea ice has been a big contributor to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.03.004">tremendous increase in average fall temperatures</a> across the region. Dark open water absorbs the sun’s rays during the summer and, in the autumn, acts as a heating pad, releasing heat back into the atmosphere. Even thin sea ice can greatly limit this heat transfer and allow dramatic cooling of air just above the surface, but the past 17 years have seen the <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/arctic-sea-ice/">lowest sea ice extents</a> on record.</p>
<h2>Subsea permafrost: A wild card for climate</h2>
<p>The report includes <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">12 essays</a> exploring the effects of climate and ecosystem changes across the Arctic and how communities are adapting. One is a wake-up call about the risks in subsea permafrost, a potentially dangerous case of “out of sight, out of mind.”</p>
<p><a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/672770">Subsea permafrost</a> is frozen soil in the ocean floor that is rich in organic matter. It has been gradually thawing since it was submerged after Northern Hemisphere ice sheets retreated thousands of years ago. Today, warmer ocean temperatures are <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">likely accelerating the thawing</a> of this hidden permafrost.</p>
<p>Just as with permafrost on land, when subsea permafrost thaws, the organic matter it contains decays and releases methane and carbon dioxide – greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and worsen ocean acidification.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map shows most subsea permafrost off Siberia but also some off Alaska and Canada." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564666/original/file-20231210-25-jz5ezj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Known permafrost zones in the Northern Hemisphere. Greens are subsea permafrost.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.grida.no/resources/13519">GRID-Arendal/Nunataryuk</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Scientists estimate that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2018jc014675">nearly 1 million square miles</a> (2.5 million square kilometers) of subsea permafrost remains, but with little research outside the Beaufort Sea and Kara Sea, no one knows how soon it may release its greenhouse gases or how intense the warming effects will be.</p>
<h2>Salmon, reindeer and human lives</h2>
<p>For many people living in the Arctic, climate change is already disrupting lives and livelihoods.</p>
<p><a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/">Indigenous observers describe changes</a> in the sea ice that many people rely on for both subsistence hunting and coastal protection from storms. They have noted <a href="https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/30d30ab062ea4aadb39b3734dd7770ae">shifts in wind patterns</a> and increasingly intense ocean storms. On land, rising temperatures are making river ice less reliable for travel, and thawing permafrost is sinking roads and destabilizing homes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map with disasters and indicators of trouble in a warming Arctic." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564028/original/file-20231206-29-r7k3zu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Highlights from the Arctic Report Card 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/">NOAA, Arctic Report Card 2023</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Obvious and dramatic changes are happening within human lifetimes, and they cut to the core of Indigenous cultures to the point that people are having to change how they put food on the table.</p>
<p>Western Alaska communities that rely on Chinook salmon saw another year of extreme low numbers of returning adult salmon in 2023, scarcity that disrupts both <a href="https://doi.org/10.5751/es-11972-260116">cultural practices and food security</a>. Yukon River Chinook have <a href="https://www.aykssi.org/wp-content/uploads/1615-AYK_SSI-EQ-Expert-Panel-Report-Illustrated-Summary-April-2020.pdf">decreased in size</a> by about 6% since the 1970s, and they’re producing fewer offspring. Then, in 2019, the year when many of this year’s returning Chinook salmon were born, exceptionally warm river water killed many of the young. </p>
<p>The returning Chinook salmon population has been so small during the past two years that <a href="https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/static/applications/dcfnewsrelease/1499128659.pdf">fisheries have been closed</a> even for subsistence harvest, which is the highest priority, in hopes that the salmon population recovers.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac1a36">inability to fish, or to hunt</a> seals because the sea ice has thinned, is not just a food issue. Time spent at fish camps is <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2021/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-food-access-for-alaska-natives-in-2020/">critical for many Alaska Indigenous cultures</a> and traditions, and kids are increasingly missing out on that experience. </p>
<p>As Indigenous communities adapt to ecosystem changes, people are also working to heal their landscapes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man in colorful jacket and hat stands surrounded by dozens of reindeer." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564916/original/file-20231211-21-nsrchx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Sámi reindeer herder in traditional clothes counts new calves while preparing the herd for the arduous winter months.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/sami-reindeer-herder-in-traditional-brightly-coloured-news-photo/535053696">In Pictures Ltd./Corbis via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Finland, an <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2023/peatlands-and-associated-boreal-forests-of-finland-under-restoration/">effort to restore damaged reindeer habitat</a> in collaboration with Sámi reindeer herders is helping to preserve their way of life. For many decades, commercial logging was allowed to tear up hundreds to thousands of square miles of reindeer peatland habitat. </p>
<p><a href="https://youtu.be/w_DUAzQMH_w?feature=shared">The Sámi</a> and their partners are working to replant turf and rewild 125,000 acres (52,000 hectares) of peatlands for reindeer grazing. Degraded peatlands <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00547-x">also release greenhouse gases</a>, contributing to climate change. Keeping them healthy helps capture and store carbon away from the atmosphere.</p>
<p>Temperatures in the Arctic have been rising <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00498-3">more than three times faster</a> than the global average, so it’s not surprising that the Arctic saw its warmest summer and sixth warmest year on record. The 2023 Arctic Report Card is a reminder of what’s a stake, both the risks as the planet warms and the lives and cultures already being disrupted by climate change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218872/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rick Thoman receives funding from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for serving as an editor for the Arctic Report Card.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew L. Druckenmiller receives funding from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for serving as an editor for the Arctic Report Card.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Twila A. Moon receives funding from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for serving as an editor for the Arctic Report Card.</span></em></p>The early heat melted snow and warmed rivers, heating up the land and downstream ocean areas. The effects harmed salmon fisheries, melted sea ice and fueled widespread fires.Rick Thoman, Alaska Climate Specialist, University of Alaska FairbanksMatthew L. Druckenmiller, Research Scientist, National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC), Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado BoulderTwila A. Moon, Deputy Lead Scientist, National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC), Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado BoulderLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2144512023-12-05T13:17:51Z2023-12-05T13:17:51ZScience is a human right − and its future is enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563006/original/file-20231201-18-5swfti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1506%2C1127&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There was no opposition to designating science as a human right.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/Z8dpgi">United Nations Photo/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Dec. 10 marks the anniversary of the <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/get-involved/campaign/udhr-75">1948 signing of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>, adopted by the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-un-declared-a-universal-human-right-to-a-healthy-sustainable-environment-heres-where-resolutions-like-this-can-lead-188060">United Nations</a> in the aftermath of the Holocaust. Though contested, imperfect and unfulfilled, the declaration remains a milestone in human civilization as one of the earliest times the world came together to distill and assert general principles key to peaceful living on this planet.</p>
<p>Nested in <a href="https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights">Article 27</a> of the declaration is a lesser-known right: the human right to science. As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=P4wXu3IAAAAJ&hl=en">legal scholar</a>, I have immersed myself in the study of this human right for the past six years. This process has allowed me to uncover a <a href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=4054555">multifaceted right</a> containing many entitlements that, together, can reshape the current relationship between science, society and the state.</p>
<p>Even though the international community has paid little attention to this right, and many people may be unfamiliar with it, the human right to science is an important part of the declaration. I believe its dual potential to protect the value of science in society and ensure that science serves humanity is worth discovering and appreciating as a framework to govern scientific progress.</p>
<h2>Short history of the human right to science</h2>
<p>Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights reads: “Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.” </p>
<p>The drafters capitalized on the earlier work of the authors of the <a href="https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/565094?ln=en">American Declaration of Human Rights</a>, which had recognized science as a human right just a few months before. In that context, the Chilean delegation argued that culture, the arts and science are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108776301.004">crucial forms of human expression</a> deserving the highest recognition.</p>
<p>The transition from the American to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was almost seamless. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2023.2269091">No opposition was mounted</a> against its inclusion among the human rights. Rather, the debate focused on the legitimacy of governments, under human rights law, to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108776301.003">impose political aims on science</a>, an issue that could not be ignored after the <a href="https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/education/presidential-inquiries/decision-drop-atomic-bomb">U.S. deployment of atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a> in August 1945. Ultimately, the view that science should be pursued for the sake of truth and not be tied to any specific purpose prevailed.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/5RR4VXNX3jA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The goal of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was to set a standard of human dignity and worth around the world.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The right to science was reaffirmed with the <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-economic-social-and-cultural-rights">International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a> in 1966 and by the <a href="https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc=4slQ6QSmlBEDzFEovLCuW1a0Szab0oXTdImnsJZZVQdxONLLLJiul8wRmVtR5Kxx73i0Uz0k13FeZiqChAWHKFuBqp%2B4RaxfUzqSAfyZYAR%2Fq7sqC7AHRa48PPRRALHB">United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a> in 2020.</p>
<h2>Science as a cultural right</h2>
<p>History is an important guide for the international community as it rediscovers the human right to science. The choice to include science among the cultural rights but distinguish it from other cultural expressions has important consequences for how the human right to science is valued and applied.</p>
<p>By including science among the cultural rights, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights pays tribute to science as an expression of human creativity. As part of culture, science embodies ingeniousness in managing the fragility of the human condition by attempting to know more about it.</p>
<p>The point is well developed in a 2012 report by the then-Special Rapporteur on Cultural Rights Farida Shaheed. There she writes, “The right to participate in cultural life <a href="https://undocs.org/en/A/HRC/20/26">entails ensuring conditions</a> that allow people to reconsider, create and contribute to cultural meanings and manifestations in a continuously developing manner.” The right to science “entails the same possibilities in the field of science, understood as knowledge that is testable and refutable, including revisiting and refuting existing theorems and understandings.”</p>
<p>Science is thus a meaning-making activity that emerges from the scientific community’s concerted effort to deploy human creativity to make sense of the world that people inhabit, including our own selves. This is possible only when human creativity is recognized and guarded. The drafters of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights did not fail to pick up on this cue and included <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2010.03.003">scientific freedom</a> as an element of the human right to science. It asks states to agree to “<a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-economic-social-and-cultural-rights">respect the freedom indispensable</a> for scientific research and creative activity.”</p>
<p>The recognition of scientific freedom as a human right casts science and scientists with a special status in society. They possess the <a href="https://radar.gesda.global/trends/invited-contributions/responsible-anticipation">power and responsibility</a> to do good for humanity. These benefits, though, can materialize only if scientific creativity is unleashed and protected.</p>
<h2>Science’s unique contribution</h2>
<p>The Universal Declaration of Human Rights purposely distinguished “scientific advancement and its benefits” from “the cultural life of the community” and “the arts.” Textual analysis is at the <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-interpretation/">core of legal interpretation</a>, making this choice of words consequential. Parsing cultural rights into three areas – the cultural life, the arts and scientific advancement – and connecting “benefits” to “scientific advancement” signal that what science offers to society is qualitatively different from other forms of culture.</p>
<p>People use a variety of knowledge systems along with science in their daily lives. These include religion, local traditions, indigenous knowledge and superstition. In this mix, science is assigned unique explanatory and practical powers that allow it “to provide the most <a href="https://policylabs.frontiersin.org/content/commentary-science-and-science-systems-beyond-semantics">reliable and inclusive way</a> to understand the universe and the world around and within us.” </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563009/original/file-20231201-27-prtx2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Profile view of scientist looking into a microscope" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563009/original/file-20231201-27-prtx2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563009/original/file-20231201-27-prtx2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563009/original/file-20231201-27-prtx2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563009/original/file-20231201-27-prtx2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563009/original/file-20231201-27-prtx2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563009/original/file-20231201-27-prtx2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563009/original/file-20231201-27-prtx2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Science offers a unique and indispensable way of seeing the world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/female-mixed-race-university-student-using-royalty-free-image/1332763977">Azman Jaka/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The arts uniquely capture universal emotions and can mobilize action, but the artistic experience is inherently subjective and individual. Religion can also organize collective action but is based on conditions of faith rather than trust. By contrast, science stands out as a <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263618">unique source of shared understanding</a> of what happens in the world around us and inside us. As a collective and concerted attempt to discover truths about the physical and social worlds, science offers reliable insights that can be used as a rational basis for collective action, including policy. Furthermore, science is uniquely positioned to produce benefits for humanity in the form of applied knowledge.</p>
<p>An example of the universal and beneficial character of science is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3232561/">knowledge around cardiac pacing</a> that led to the development of pacemakers to treat arrhythmias. Emerging from the confluence of medicine, biology, physics, chemistry and engineering, the basic and applied knowledge behind pacemakers is universal because the principles used to develop them is consistent across the planet and can be replicated by any lab. Furthermore, the devices are incontrovertibly beneficial to any person suffering from <a href="https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/pacemakers/who-needs">certain heart conditions</a>, irrespective of their creed, identity or nationality. </p>
<p>If you are not persuaded, just think about how the <a href="https://doi.org/10.2147%2FOPTO.S257081">development of eye glasses</a> has improved visual impairment around the world.</p>
<h2>Cultivating science for the benefit of humankind</h2>
<p>In 1948, the international community agreed to elevate science as a protected human right. The drafters of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights endowed the generations following them with the challenge of using international law to build a better, more peaceful world. </p>
<p>While not a panacea, reaffirming why science is valuable can help improve how it’s practiced and taught, as well as help scientists <a href="https://theconversation.com/most-americans-do-trust-scientists-and-science-based-policy-making-freaking-out-about-the-minority-who-dont-isnt-helpful-193085">build trust</a> among the public.</p>
<p>Bringing these principles to life requires the public to support science and demand that it serves humankind. The human right to science gives policymakers and the scientific community the tools to realize this agenda. It is up to everyone to make good use of this gift.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214451/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrea Boggio does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Decades ago, the international community codified science as a cultural right and protected expression of human creativity. Reaffirming science’s value can help it better serve humanity.Andrea Boggio, Professor of Politics, Law and Society, Bryant UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2168612023-11-13T16:25:45Z2023-11-13T16:25:45ZWhy the future might not be where you think it is<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558326/original/file-20231108-23-ptpld7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C14%2C4992%2C2649&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/retro-alarm-clock-vintage-old-hand-783743551">Bystrov/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine the future. Where is it for you? Do you see yourself striding towards it? Perhaps it’s behind you. Maybe it’s even above you. </p>
<p>And what about the past? Do you imagine looking over your shoulder to see it?</p>
<p>How you answer these questions will depend on who you are and where you come from. The way we picture the future is influenced by the culture we grow up in and the languages we are exposed to. </p>
<p>For many people who grew up in the UK, the US and much of Europe, the future is in front of them, and the past is behind them. People in these cultures <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2155982">typically perceive time as linear</a>. They see themselves as continually moving towards the future because they cannot go back to the past.</p>
<p>In some other cultures, however, the location of the past and the future are inverted. <a href="https://minorityrights.org/minorities/aymara-and-highland-quechua/">The Aymara</a>, a South American Indigenous group of people living in the Andes, conceptualise the future as behind them and the past in front of them. </p>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1207/s15516709cog0000_62">Scientists discovered this</a> by studying the gestures of the Aymara people during discussions of topics such as ancestors and traditions. The researchers noticed that when Aymara spoke about their ancestors, they were likely to gesture in front of themselves, indicating that the past was in front. However, when they were asked about a future event, their gesture seemed to indicate that the future was perceived as behind. </p>
<h2>Look to the future</h2>
<p>Analysis of how people write, speak and gesture about time suggests that the Aymara are not alone. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25052830/">Speakers of Darij</a>, an Arabic dialect spoken in Morocco, also appear to imagine the past as in front and the future behind. As do some <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/cog-2015-0066/html">Vietnamese speakers</a>. </p>
<p>The future doesn’t always have to be behind or in front of us. There is evidence that some <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21030013/">Mandarin speakers</a> represent the future as down and the past as up. These differences suggest that there is no universal location for the past, present and future. Instead, people <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027721000226#s0090">construct these representations</a> based on their upbringing and surroundings. </p>
<p>Culture doesn’t just influence where we see the position of the future. It also influences how we see ourselves getting there. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Surreal scene, businessman and a signpost arrows showing three different options, past, present and future" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558847/original/file-20231110-15-ngepjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558847/original/file-20231110-15-ngepjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558847/original/file-20231110-15-ngepjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558847/original/file-20231110-15-ngepjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558847/original/file-20231110-15-ngepjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558847/original/file-20231110-15-ngepjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558847/original/file-20231110-15-ngepjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s easy to assume everyone thinks of the future the way you do.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/surreal-scene-businessman-signpost-arrows-showing-1590212740">StunningArt/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the UK and US, people typically see themselves as walking with their faces pointing forward towards the future. For <a href="https://www.newzealand.com/int/maori-culture/">the Māori</a> of New Zealand, however, the focus of attention when moving through time is not the future, but the past. The Māori proverb <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1463949116677923"><em>Kia whakatōmuri te haere whakamua</em></a>, translates as “I walk backwards into the future with my eyes fixed on my past”. </p>
<p>For the Māori, what is in front of us is determined by what can or has been seen. The Māori consider the past and present as known and seen concepts because they have already happened. The past is conceptualised as in front of a person, where their eyes can see them. </p>
<p>The future, however, is considered unknown because it has not happened yet. It is thought of as behind you because it is still unseen. Māori perceive themselves as walking backwards rather than forwards into the future because their actions in the future are guided by lessons from the past. By facing the past, they can carry those lessons forwards in time. </p>
<h2>Different approaches</h2>
<p>Scientists are not sure why different people represent the past, present and future differently. One idea is that our perspectives are influenced by the direction that we read and write in. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01105.x">Research shows</a> that people who read and write from left to right draw timelines in which the past is on the left and the future is on the right, reflecting their reading and writing patterns. </p>
<p>However, people who read from right to left, such as Arabic speakers, often draw timelines with events from the past on the right and the future on the left. However, reading direction cannot explain why some left-right reading people think of the future as “behind”. </p>
<p>Another theory is that cultural values may influence our orientation to the future. Cultures vary in the extent to which they value tradition. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13423-020-01760-5">Researchers believe</a> your spatial concept of the future may be determined by whether your culture emphasises traditions of the past or focuses on the future. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2657288?origin=crossref">In cultures</a> that stress the importance of progress, change and modernisation, the future is normally in front – for example, the UK and the US. However, in cultures that place a high value on tradition and ancestral history, such as in Morocco and indigenous groups such as the Māori, the past is the focus and is therefore usually in front. </p>
<p>These differences may also have implications for initiatives to tackle global challenges. If the future is not always in front, then western campaign mantras about “moving forward”, “moving on” and “leaving the past behind” may lack resonance for many people. </p>
<p>Perhaps, however, if we can learn from other cultures’ representations of time, we may be able to reframe our understanding of some of the world’s most pressing problems. Approaching the future with regular looks over the shoulder to the past could lead to a fairer future for everyone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216861/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ruth Ogden receives funding from Ruth Ogden receives funding from the British Academy, the Wellcome Trust, the Economic and Social Research Council, CHANCE and Horizon 2020.</span></em></p>We use space to understand the passage of time, but don’t assume everyone thinks of the future as in front and the past as behind.Ruth Ogden, Professor of the Psychology of Time, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2142362023-10-09T13:31:59Z2023-10-09T13:31:59ZWitchcraft in Ghana: help should come before accusations begin<p>Witchcraft is generally understood to refer to a supernatural power possessed by an individual. In Ghana, particularly in the northern parts of the country, the subject continues to <a href="https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/Should-witch-camps-in-Ghana-be-closed-down-1023430">spark fierce debates</a>.</p>
<p>In regions such as Northern, Savanna and North East, people accused of witchcraft are banished from their communities. In response, other communities have provided refuge for displaced people. These places of refuge have themselves <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/witch-camps-elderly-women-die-ghana-1754907">sparked controversy</a>. Critics contend that they have become centres of “abuse” and have called for their closure. </p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/profile/821110-matthew-mabefam">lecturer</a> in anthropology and development studies. I set out to understand the controversy around what are often called “witch camps” and whether they should be abolished. I conducted a year long ethnographic study in the Gnani-Tindang community in northern Ghana. Gnani-Tindang provides refuge for people accused of witchcraft who have been banished from their communities.</p>
<p>I conclude from my <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21681392.2023.2232052">findings</a>
that government and NGOs aren’t proving capable of managing the problem, because they are starting at the wrong place. The focus is on witchcraft accusations, by which time people have already been stripped of their “social citizenship” and been forced to relocate. </p>
<p>Engaging with the experiences of people accused of witchcraft and their communities shows that intervening at an earlier point matters more.</p>
<h2>The background</h2>
<p>Victims of witchcraft accusations face alienation or exclusion from their communities. Exclusions can be social, physical, economic or psychological.</p>
<p>Some villages in northern Ghana have become known as places that provide refuge to people banished from their communities. These villages were not created for this purpose. Rather, they are already existing communities that have chosen to provide such refuge. </p>
<p>Banishment happens when someone accused of witchcraft is no longer welcomed in their community. They are asked to leave and never return. Not heeding such advice comes with consequences including violence, abuse, social exclusion and murder. </p>
<p>Sometimes people relocate to a village that’s offering them safety after they’ve been forced to leave their homes following direct threats. In some instances people move when they hear rumours that they risk being accused of witchcraft. </p>
<h2>What people who had been banished told me</h2>
<p>The purpose of my research inquiry was to gain insights into how individuals accused of witchcraft speak about themselves and their circumstances.</p>
<p>The experiences of those accused varied. As one told me:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>They finally threatened that they were going to do their juju, and if I had any knowledge about the child’s sickness, I was going to die within four days. I told them they should go ahead; I was willing to die if I were the one responsible for the child’s sickness. After the ritual, I didn’t die. However, they said I could no longer stay with them in the community.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another gave this account: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>After the death of my husband, the relatives accused me of witchcraft. My in-laws said I killed my husband, but I don’t know anything about it. He fell sick and died afterwards. How can I kill my husband? I was lucky I wasn’t killed. There were lots of chaos, and some of the people suggested that I should be killed. Others disagreed and suggested that I should be brought to Gnani-Tindang … It’s my husband’s people who brought me here.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>We also observed that elderly people with little strength to fend for themselves were often targeted. One person, who was 80 years old, said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Look at me; I’m old and weak now. I can’t do much for myself. But I must fetch water, firewood and beg for food to eat. It is lonely here. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>What next</h2>
<p>Ghana’s parliament has recently <a href="https://www.songtaba.org/wp-content/uploads/Press-Release_antiWitchcraftBill-28072023.pdf">passed</a> an anti-witchcraft bill. It seeks to criminalise the practice of declaring, accusing, naming, or labelling people as witches. Making such an accusation would lead to a prison sentence.</p>
<p>But, in my view, the bill alone isn’t the solution. This is because declaring certain behaviour illegal – and therefore punishable in a court of law – doesn’t address the issue of prejudice and discrimination which often relates to people’s age, gender and economic status. In other words, the law won’t deal with the tensions that emerge when culture intersects with the reality of people who become victims of witchcraft accusations.</p>
<p>Additional steps need to be taken. </p>
<p>Firstly, attention needs to be given to the underlying social issues driving accusations of witchcraft. For example, extreme inequalities among men and women, old and young, rich and poor. Creating avenues that provide a balance in society will have an effect on witchcraft accusation and banishment. </p>
<p>Early gender-tailored education needs to be introduced by the government and development actors on the value of both boys and girls. This is particularly important in the patriarchal societies of northern Ghana. This could help address gender inequalities that lead to witchcraft accusations. Witchcraft accusation is gendered: more women than men are accused, confronted and banished. </p>
<p>There is a need to engage widely with the Ghanaian society about the dangers of witchcraft accusation and to put in mechanisms to protect those who are abused and violated as a result of such accusations. </p>
<p>Finally, there is a need to listen to the voices and experiences of those who are victims of witchcraft accusations. This will ensure that interventions aren’t detached from their reality.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214236/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Mabefam does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Victims of witchcraft accusations face alienation or exclusion from their communities.Matthew Mabefam, Lecturer, Development Studies, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2131032023-09-28T14:16:10Z2023-09-28T14:16:10ZAkan folklore contains ancient wisdom that could benefit Ghana’s western-style education system<p>Philosophies of education serve as frameworks for producing lifelong learners and a knowledgeable and skilled human workforce who develop their societies. Ghana’s education system currently favours a western educational philosophy, relegating its indigenous philosophies to the back burner.</p>
<p>I am an <a href="https://www.ug.edu.gh/distance/staff/dr-samuel-amponsah">academic</a> in the field of curriculum studies. In a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11159-023-09993-x">recent paper</a>, I argue that education in Ghana needs to incorporate more elements based on an authentic Ghanaian framework. Based on the view that education, culture and development should be connected, I highlight the educational strengths of African folklore.</p>
<p>I conclude that aspects of Akan folklore, including its stories and proverbs, its kinship rights and rules, its moral codes, its corporate and humanistic perspective, complement the country’s current westernised education.</p>
<p>It is in this spirit that education lecturer <a href="https://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/corporate/default/Colleges/Education/Schools,-departments,-centres-&-instututes/School-of-Educational-Studies/Department-of-Adult-Basic-Education/Staff-members/Prof-KP-Quan%E2%80%93Baffour">Kofi Poku Quan-Baffour</a> has <a href="http://hdl.handle.net/10500/14348">referred to</a> the Akan proverb <em>Tete wobi ka, tete wobi kyere</em>. It means “heritage has lots to say, heritage has lots to teach”. Folklore holds benefits. </p>
<h2>The case for Akan folklore</h2>
<p>Ghana has about <a href="https://cdn.unrisd.org/assets/library/papers/pdf-files/asante-ssmall.pdf">92 ethnic groups</a>. The largest of these is the Akan. They can be found in eight of the <a href="https://mfa.gov.gh/index.php/about-ghana/regions/">16 regions</a> of the country and in parts of <a href="https://resources.saylor.org/wwwresources/archived/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Akan-People.pdf">Côte d'Ivoire</a> and <a href="https://resources.saylor.org/wwwresources/archived/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Akan-People.pdf">Togo</a>. The influence of the Akan in Ghana and west Africa is not just by virtue of their numerical strength but also due to their strong culture and the spirit that binds them. They have been able to maintain their culture throughout the blows of colonial history.</p>
<p>I argue that Akan folklore can be integrated into the school curricula to teach social skills and emotional intelligence. After all, education seeks to provide learners with the knowledge, skills and attitudes that will make them functional and responsible members of their communities. </p>
<p>This tool may also benefit learners in colleges of education and universities offering Ghanaian languages and related courses. The crucial question here is: where is the place of indigenous pedagogy as a tool in nursing and agricultural training colleges, technical universities and the like? </p>
<p>Without indigenous components in their course curricula, students may graduate from such institutions as professionals who have lost their culture. They will not pass on indigenous values in their own teaching practice. </p>
<h2>Not just proverbs and stories</h2>
<p>Researchers such as <a href="https://www.ug.edu.gh/linguistics/staff/diabah">Grace Diabah</a> and <a href="https://www.ug.edu.gh/vc/about">Nana Appiah Amfo</a> have established the power of folklore types like proverbs to <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/gjl/article/view/181293">deal with</a> important topics like gender. Unfortunately, the focus of education has leaned heavily towards <a href="https://theconversation.com/ghanas-colonial-past-and-assessment-use-means-education-prioritises-passing-exams-over-what-students-actually-learn-this-must-change-211957">examination performance</a> and readying learners for the job market. There is no recourse to the rich culture of the people. The absence of indigenous components in course curricula results in a graduate population without any appreciation for cultural identity. </p>
<p>In their study on <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09751122.2015.11890253">integrating indigenous knowledge in the teaching of intermediate mathematics</a>, for example, James Owusu-Mensah and Kofi Poku Quan-Baffour argue that Akan indigenous knowledge systems such as storytelling and games could make subjects easier for learners to relate to and comprehend.</p>
<p>Furthermore, short Akan sayings add spice to the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369549251_Akan_folklore_as_a_philosophical_framework_for_education_in_Ghana">debate</a> that African philosophies can contribute to sustainable quality education for development. Examples such as <em>Kwan nkyɛn ade yɛfɛ, wᴐde sika na ɛyɛ</em>, which roughly translates to “money is needed for everything” and <em>wᴐnsom ԑne nipa</em> (success accrues from collective efforts) undoubtedly take most Ghanaians back to their roots to learn hard, work diligently and live cooperatively.</p>
<p>The urgent need to preserve the environment and its biodiversity also resonates in traditional taboos. These establish rules on days not to farm, hunt or go fishing. This is also done to keep certain flora and fauna sacred and protected. </p>
<h2>Looking ahead</h2>
<p>My research revealed that there is a need to develop and use an alternative indigenous philosophical framework, drawing on Akan folklore. There is a need to display a sense of commonalities, affirm culture, tradition and value systems, and foster comprehension of the local consciousness in a bid to resolve the challenges people are facing. </p>
<p>In a nutshell, while western philosophies open students up to global understandings and perspectives, Akan folklore grounds them in their own culture. Quality education of the kind proposed in this article will produce students and graduates who are beneficial to their societies while understanding, appreciating, cooperating and contributing to global issues and development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213103/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Samuel Amponsah does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Incorporating Akan folklore in the curriculum will promote quality and lifelong education in Ghana.Samuel Amponsah, Associate Professor, Open Distance Learning, University of GhanaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2134122023-09-20T13:20:17Z2023-09-20T13:20:17ZSuicide in Ghana: society expects men to be providers – new study explores this pressure<p>Suicide is a complex behaviour that is widely regarded as a significant public health issue across the globe. It is influenced by psychiatric, psychological, biological, social, cultural, economic and existential factors. In most countries, the rate of male suicides is between <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0706743718766052">3 and 7.5 times</a> higher than that of females even though suicide ideation (thoughts) and attempts are <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241564779">more frequent</a> for females. </p>
<p>The World Health Organization <a href="https://www.worldlifeexpectancy.com/ghana-suicide">reported</a> in 2020 that approximately 1,993 suicides occurred in Ghana annually. A report in Ghana on suicide attempt trends over four years also <a href="https://www.ug.edu.gh/news/prof-akotia-advocates-change-attitudes-towards-suicide">revealed</a> that 707 suicide attempts occurred in 2018, 880 in 2019, 777 in 2020 and 417 as of June 2021. </p>
<p>Studies continue to reveal a disproportionately high number of males in both suicide and attempted suicide in Ghana. Suicidal behaviour in Ghana is a predominantly <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953610007471?via%3Dihub">male problem</a> – which is one reason it’s of interest to me as a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Johnny-Andoh-Arthur">psychologist who studies</a> men’s mental health. </p>
<p>I undertook a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17482631.2023.2225935">study</a> that focused on the way loss of job and income influenced relationships with close family members prior to suicide. This is not to suggest that loss of income or job is the only cause of men’s suicide in Ghana. Other <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953610007471?via%3Dihub">studies</a> have highlighted chronic illness, substance use, interpersonal conflict and loss, marital challenges, economic difficulties, perceived shame, and mental illness as other contributing factors. </p>
<p>My study used a qualitative research approach, interviewing 21 close relatives and friends of nine men who had all suffered some economic challenges in ways that affected their relationships with family members. All nine had died by suicide. </p>
<p>Even though these men lived in social settings that valued mutual support and reciprocal obligations, some of them suffered abandonment during their economic difficulties. Even those who could depend on spouses in their situation appeared to find that dependency emasculating.</p>
<h2>Men and suicide</h2>
<p>The term <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9560163/">gender paradox</a> in relation to suicide describes the observation where females have higher rates of suicidal thoughts and behaviour than males, yet mortality from suicide is typically lower for females compared to males.</p>
<p>Biologically, it is suggested that <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/24101-testosterone">testosterone</a>, which is linked to impulsivity and aggression, is about ten times higher in males than in females. Thus the likelihood for males to engage in risky behaviours including aggression towards themselves is linked to high testosterone levels. </p>
<p>The high male suicide rate is also connected to gender stereotypes and <a href="https://www.psychiatrist.com/jcp/depression/suicide/suicide-men/">role socialisation</a>. Society expects certain things of men. </p>
<p>The patriarchal nature of most societies in Africa makes being economically independent a key social expectation of being a man. Men are expected to be employed, with a regular income, and to start a family. </p>
<h2>Family support in Ghana</h2>
<p>My study highlighted Ghana’s extended family system. This system encourages support and care for one another, belonging and seeking help in times of adversity. The study found that the deceased men had perceived being a burden, loss of respect, social abandonment and anxiety when faced with crises like job losses and financial difficulties. The relative of one of the deceased stated:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I even got angry the day this incident (suicide) happened. People even said we have been starving him, etc, etc. For Christ sake, he was 27 years. Must I keep on taking care of him? </p>
</blockquote>
<p>A friend of another deceased person said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>His relatives visited him a lot when he was doing well in business but they stopped visiting when his problems started. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Thus a dysfunctional, transactional social system existed around them. The implicit rule appeared to be that the victims were as valuable as their ability to provide for others and be economically independent.</p>
<p>The finding aligns with an earlier <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-47852-0_10">study</a> in Ghana that shows that the motivation for male suicides is not that men seek to reject their social responsibilities. Instead, </p>
<blockquote>
<p>it is an intense sense of personal responsibility towards meeting prescribed social norms and roles associated with gender. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>My study also found that even though it was possible for some of the men to depend on their wealthier wives during economic difficulty, doing so created distress. Depending on their wives and seeing them assume hitherto <a href="https://theconversation.com/women-occupy-very-few-academic-jobs-in-ghana-culture-and-societys-expectations-are-to-blame-200307">“male” roles</a> were seen as emasculating. </p>
<p>A spouse illustrated:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>He felt that due to the problems he was going through, there were some responsibilities I was not supposed to do as a wife that I was doing and all of those thing got him worried. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Where they were intent to live as <a href="https://theconversation.com/death-and-mourning-in-ghana-how-gender-shapes-the-rituals-of-the-akan-people-212398">benevolent patriachs</a> in line with internalised masculine codes, their economic predicament constrained the men’s social roles and created distress. </p>
<p>As another spouse explained:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Things were not going so well with his job, it got to the extent that he could not help people the way he wanted to, and he was worried. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Men as providers</h2>
<p>The findings of this study highlight the patriachal system that defines men partly in terms of their capacity to provide materially for others. Men who strictly adhere to such <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-parenting-in-ghana-shapes-sexist-stereotypes-51823">male norms</a> may struggle to adjust when they have to depend on others, including their spouses. The extended family system should support such men emotionally and materially, but some family members chose to abandon them. </p>
<p>Public education is vital to change unhealthy gender norms that affect men in social and economic adversity. It will enable men to learn effective ways of coping and alternative <a href="https://theconversation.com/young-fathers-in-ghana-are-expanding-the-meaning-of-manhood-153807">ways of being men</a>. Education will also help change societal notions of who a man is and foster more support in times of adversity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213412/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Johnny Andoh-Arthur does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Suicide in Ghana is regarded as taboo for most families.Johnny Andoh-Arthur, Senior Lecturer, Psychology, University of GhanaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2116642023-09-18T01:43:04Z2023-09-18T01:43:04ZContaminations, revisions, reinventions: how cultures, ancient and modern, have influenced each other<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543647/original/file-20230821-15-3kdumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C2723%2C2699&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Replica of a painting from the Chauvet cave in the Anthropos Museum, Brno.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Martin Puchner’s <a href="https://www.allenandunwin.com/browse/book/Martin-Puchner-Culture-9781804182550/">Culture: A New World History</a> examines “the history of humans as a culture-producing species”. At the core of this statement lies the humanities, which emerges as a collective discipline “through a desire to revive a newly recovered past – more than once”.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Review: Culture: A New World History – Martin Puchner (Ithaca Press)</em></p>
<hr>
<p>In his introduction, Puchner qualifies this idea through the case study of the <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1426/">Chauvet Cave</a> in the south of France, where elaborate rock art dating back approximately 30,000-37,000 years was discovered in 1994. He reflects on the creation of this ancient art across generations, and the recovery of its remnants by new generations. </p>
<p>Culture is thus defined as a process of creation through transmission, and revival through discovery. This in turn</p>
<blockquote>
<p>means focusing on special places and institutions of meaning-making, from the earliest marks left by humans in places like the Chauvet cave to human-made cultural spaces such as Egyptian pyramids and Greek theaters, Buddhist and Christian monasteries.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>As far as a general audience is concerned, Culture delivers. It is well written, nuanced and light in style, spinning a series of historical narratives in an erudite and engaging way. </p>
<p>The history is broad in scope. Each of the book’s 15 chapters focuses on a different cultural space and time. It begins with Queen Nefertiti (c.1370-c.1330 BCE), and ends with Nigeria declaring its independence from Great Britain in 1960. </p>
<p>Puchner takes us through his case studies, interweaving each with attendant stories to show that no discrete culture owns its historical narrative completely. </p>
<p>Rather, each narrative is created from cross-pollination or hybridisation, as different peoples have moved in and out of space and time, adding their own blueprint. Every culture is shown to have an immense backstory of influences, contaminations, revisions and reinventions.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-simon-during-on-the-demoralisation-of-the-humanities-and-what-can-be-done-about-it-186111">Friday essay: Simon During on the demoralisation of the humanities, and what can be done about it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Cultural interaction</h2>
<p>A particular focus in Culture is the creation, preservation and transmission of culture through writing, translation and art. These processes, according to Puchner, have entailed travel, trade and global interactions. </p>
<p>In Puchner’s stories, we meet a host of fascinating historical characters. He gives an account of the excavation of the sculptor Thutmose’s workshop, which unearthed arguably one of ancient Egypt’s most iconic artefacts: the famous bust of Nefertiti. This, in turn, leads to a discussion of Nefertiti and her husband, the pharaoh Akhenaten, experimenting with monotheism.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543649/original/file-20230821-17-3qny0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543649/original/file-20230821-17-3qny0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543649/original/file-20230821-17-3qny0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=878&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543649/original/file-20230821-17-3qny0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=878&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543649/original/file-20230821-17-3qny0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=878&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543649/original/file-20230821-17-3qny0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1104&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543649/original/file-20230821-17-3qny0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1104&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543649/original/file-20230821-17-3qny0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1104&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bust of Nefertiti, Neues Museum, Berlin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Philip Pikart/Wikimedia Commons</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is the Muslim sultan of Delhi, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firuz_Shah_Tughlaq">Firuz Shah Tughlaq</a> (1309–1388) – a man with a passion for architecture, inspired by his discovery of a mysterious stone pillar, which he eventually retrieved from its isolated location and brought to Delhi. </p>
<p>And there is the epic journey of the Chinese Buddhist explorer, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> (602-664 CE), author of the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, which Puchner describes as “a classic in cultural mobility”.</p>
<p>Puchner is not naïve about the realities underpinning his stories of cultural interaction, replete as they are with colonialism, destruction, theft, and getting it wrong as much as getting it right. A particularly poignant case study in this respect is <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/tenochtitlan/">Tenochtitlan</a>, the floating Aztec city founded c.1325, which was besieged, looted and destroyed by the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés (1485–1547) in 1521. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543653/original/file-20230821-29-x3j9t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543653/original/file-20230821-29-x3j9t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543653/original/file-20230821-29-x3j9t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543653/original/file-20230821-29-x3j9t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543653/original/file-20230821-29-x3j9t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543653/original/file-20230821-29-x3j9t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543653/original/file-20230821-29-x3j9t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543653/original/file-20230821-29-x3j9t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hernán Cortés (1485-1547) – artist unknown.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Public domain</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This reality check reminds us that we need to do better than we did in the past. Recovery means more than wilful and ambitious archaeological practices. It means more than class-riven scholars locking up the artefacts of antiquity for the eyes of the intelligentsia only. </p>
<p>Recovery is about the constant striving towards “getting it right” and communicating with the broader community. It entails educating the next generation, entrusting them with the preservation of “human inheritance”, so they may proceed with “humility”. </p>
<h2>The necessity of education</h2>
<p>Puchner is interested in the creation of repositories for histories, religious texts, and literature in the form of academies, monasteries, libraries, and even <em>studioli</em> (“little studios”). </p>
<p>He discusses the necessity of education – written and spoken – as a mechanism of preserving culture. His book considers the examples of <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/plato-academy/">Plato’s Academy</a> (the first western university); the <a href="https://www.islamicity.org/60008/baghdad-the-house-of-wisdom-bayt-al-hikmah/">House of Wisdom</a>, also known as the Grand Library of Baghdad, from the Islamic Golden Age (c.8th–13th centuries CE); and the scriptoria or “writing rooms” of the <a href="https://osb.org/our-roots/a-brief-history-of-the-benedictine-order/">Benedictines</a>, the Christian order founded by Saint Benedict in the 6th century.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543651/original/file-20230821-15-j4kcb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543651/original/file-20230821-15-j4kcb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543651/original/file-20230821-15-j4kcb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1093&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543651/original/file-20230821-15-j4kcb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1093&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543651/original/file-20230821-15-j4kcb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1093&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543651/original/file-20230821-15-j4kcb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1373&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543651/original/file-20230821-15-j4kcb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1373&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543651/original/file-20230821-15-j4kcb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1373&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Saint Benedict – Francisco de Zurbarán (c.1640-45).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saint_Benedict_MET_DT10251.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Puchner’s heroic tales of creative and intellectual interaction are chronicled in historical artefacts and documents, such as The Pillow Book by <a href="https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Sei_Shonagon">Sei Shōnagon</a> (c. 966–c.1017). Shōnagon was lady-in-waiting to Fujiwara no Teishi, empress consort to Emperor Ichijō. The Pillow Book is a hybrid text in the form of a diary, which includes stories, anecdotes, gossip, poems and character portraits. </p>
<p>Shōnagon’s adventures become the basis of Puchner’s discussion of the extensive Chinese influence on the culture of the Japanese court – a discussion that is additionally fascinating because the information gleaned from The Pillow Book comes from a female perspective.</p>
<h2>Methods and paradigms</h2>
<p>While Culture makes for some thought-provoking reading, not all of the chapters are consistent or clear in the presentation of ideas. The chapter on Plato, for example, shows Puchner to be out of his depth, with ideas not always meshing. His accounts of the Egyptian influence on Greek culture and Plato the young playwright falling under the spell of Socrates and turning to philosophy are messy and uncertain. </p>
<p>Puchner nevertheless challenges us not to get caught up in the traditional Western paradigm of the ancient Greeks as the creators of culture. As he observes, the Egyptians considered the Greeks to be latecomers, compared to their own monumental history. </p>
<p>His chapter on Rome, which is overtly concerned with the Greek influence on Roman culture, adds little to this extensively researched topic. The intriguing story of a statue of Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of prosperity, which somehow voyaged from South Asia to Campania and was eventually unearthed at Pompeii, though delightfully narrated by Puchner, gets lost along the way. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543652/original/file-20230821-19-pfq61q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543652/original/file-20230821-19-pfq61q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543652/original/file-20230821-19-pfq61q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543652/original/file-20230821-19-pfq61q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543652/original/file-20230821-19-pfq61q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543652/original/file-20230821-19-pfq61q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543652/original/file-20230821-19-pfq61q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543652/original/file-20230821-19-pfq61q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lakshmi – Raja Ravi Varma (c.1906)</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lakshmi_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg">Public domain</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While some chapters, such as the one on Nefertiti, are smooth and coherent, others (Puchner’s discussion of the Muslim philosopher <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-sina/">Ibn Sina</a>’s dreams of Aristotle, for example) could have been better established by a consideration of the function of folklore and aetiological myth in cultural history. A closer reflection on the system of <a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/ancient-medieval/syncretism/a/syncretism-article">syncretism</a> as a historical methodology, now regularly contested by academics, would also have been beneficial to Puchner’s project.</p>
<p>Despite its charm, Culture does not present anything new, particularly to scholars who are deeply engaged in the varied and intricate history of cultural transmissions. Unfortunately, and perhaps inadvertently, the book gives the impression that it is the first to consider cultural hybridisation in a dynamic global context – an impression augmented by the notes, which are light on the vast scholarship on the theme. </p>
<p>This incorrect impression is not helped by the publisher’s hype around the book, which declares: “Puchner argues that the humanities are (and always have been) essential to the transmission of knowledge that drives the efforts of human civilization.” </p>
<p>This is an argument that has been made many times before.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211664/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marguerite Johnson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Martin Puchner’s engaging new history argues that every culture has its backstory of influencesMarguerite Johnson, Honorary Professor, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2123982023-09-07T13:27:51Z2023-09-07T13:27:51ZDeath and mourning in Ghana: how gender shapes the rituals of the Akan people<p>Gender has a significant impact on the socio-economic, political and religious experiences of Ghanaians. For <a href="http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0259-94222017000300016">Akans</a>, the country’s largest ethnic group, descent is traced through the <a href="https://resources.saylor.org/wwwresources/archived/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Akan-People.pdf">maternal line</a>. Property is transferred in this line too. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3773817">Mourning rituals</a> are another area of life that’s shaped by gender in Ghana – as in many other cultures of the world. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07481187.2023.2236983">recent paper</a>, we explored the way Akan mourning rituals reflect the culture’s ideas about gender and reproduce social patterns.</p>
<p>Bereavement is gendered in Akan society: there are strict behavioural prescriptions for males and females. We argue that enacting and reproducing masculinity and femininity in these rituals may have negative health and psychological consequences for both men and women.</p>
<p>Our study is useful for therapists and counsellors to understand the impact of gender and culture when working with people who are dealing with grief and loss. Gender shapes how people make meaning of – and cope with – grief and loss in a specific social milieu. </p>
<h2>Mourning, masculinity and femininity</h2>
<p>The responsibilities of the principal cultural players of Akan death and mourning rituals are assigned according to gender. Males are the major players in organising and supervising the rites. </p>
<p>A key player is the lineage head (<em>Abusuapanin</em>), who is invariably male. </p>
<p>In Akan culture, the lineage head must be informed of all deaths occurring in the lineage. He must, in turn, inform the chief and other authorities of the polity (village or town) of all deaths in his lineage when they occur. </p>
<p>The second major player is the chief mourner, who is also usually a male. According to the customs and traditions of the Akan (and the <a href="https://lawsghana.com/judgement/Ghana/High-Court/363">law courts</a>), the body of a deceased person belongs to the extended family into which one is born. The extended family decides at a meeting who the chief mourner should be. </p>
<p>The choice of chief mourner is very important because he makes decisions such as who will succeed the deceased and how to mourn fittingly. He oversees the proper organisation and execution of all rites pertaining to the death, particularly ensuring that the deceased has a funeral that befits his or her status attained in life and is compatible with the social standing of the family in the community.</p>
<p>Women’s roles in Akan mourning rites, though extensive, are secondary to those of men. Women have the responsibility to bathe and prepare the dead body to be laid in state for mourners to file past it. These women are usually members of the deceased’s family and are well versed in handling dead bodies. </p>
<p>Women also fulfil the role of professional mourners or wailers. Some Akan lineages engage the services of these wailers to add solemnity to the mortuary rites. At ordinary Akan funerals where they are absent, it is the women who lament and wail during critical stages of the process. Men are culturally discouraged from loud wailing and weeping. The expression <em>ɔbarima nsu</em>, which means “a man does/must not cry”, calls on Akan men to refrain from such behaviour to avoid labels of effeminacy. </p>
<p>This norm in the mourning process is consistent with a cultural practice that generally demands that Akan men must not <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10896-015-9781-z#citeas">publicly</a> display their emotions, even in the face of adversity, pain and suffering. </p>
<p>In contrast, a woman who does not weep or lament at the death of a close relative is suspected of being a malevolent witch responsible for the deceased’s death. Thus, the Akan mourning rituals can be culturally and psychologically coercive and oppressive for women. </p>
<p>Cash donations have become an important part of Ghanaian funerals. Both men and women make donations. But the archetype is that men will donate large sums of money to the bereaved family while women announce the donations and heap appellations on the male donors. For example, the compliments that women lavish on men to acknowledge their cash or kind donations may include <em>mo ɔpeafo</em> (well done), <em>mompene no na ɔyɛ ɔbarima amu</em> (let all praise him for he is a real man indeed) and other special names such as <em>ɔdenoho</em> (the affluent or independent one).</p>
<p>The male donor, female announcer gender hierarchy at funerals is another instance of gender role (re)enactment and performance. When men demonstrate economic prowess at funerals and women remain on the fringes as announcers, they are both performing and reinforcing a culturally given gender hierarchy. </p>
<h2>The burden of mourning for males and females</h2>
<p>We concluded from our findings that Akan death and mourning rituals can be culturally and psychologically oppressive against men and women. In the case of women, this is due to the unfair power hierarchy and the patriarchal nature of Ghanaian society. </p>
<p>In the case of men, the cultural expectation that they be emotionally restrained in mourning may have health and psychological consequences. These could <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Osafo-Joseph/publication/322708025_Suicide_among_men_in_Ghana_The_burden_of_masculinity/links/5b7c650d92851c1e1224e539/Suicide-among-men-in-Ghana-The-burden-of-masculinity.pdf">include</a> depression, stress and suicide. The masculine requirement for men to resist crying during bereavement leaves men to suffer alone in silence when they experience emotional pain. </p>
<p><em>Anthony Mpiani, a teaching and research assistant at the Department of Sociology at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Canada, co-authored this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212398/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Gender plays a major role in how mourning is done by the Akan ethnic group of GhanaStephen Baffour Adjei, Senior Lecturer at the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies, Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills Training and Entrepreneurial Development Mensah Adinkrah, Professor, Sociology and Criminal Justice, Central Michigan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2125022023-09-06T12:27:15Z2023-09-06T12:27:15ZTraditional medicine provides health care to many around the globe – the WHO is trying to make it safer and more standardized<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546464/original/file-20230905-503-nlkg3v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C9%2C2114%2C1400&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ayurveda is one form of traditional medicine that can integrate aromatherapy. It's popular in South Asia. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/ayurveda-aromatherapy-with-essential-oil-diffuser-royalty-free-image/1333713382?phrase=ayurveda&adppopup=true">Microgen Images/Science Photo Library</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For approximately <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/25-03-2022-who-establishes-the-global-centre-for-traditional-medicine-in-india">80% of the world’s population</a>, the first stop after catching a cold or breaking a bone isn’t the hospital — maybe because there isn’t one nearby, or they can’t afford it. Instead, the first step is consulting traditional medicine, which cultures around the world have been using for thousands of years.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/traditional-complementary-and-integrative-medicine#tab=tab_1">Traditional medicine</a> encompasses the healing knowledge, skills and practices used by a variety of cultures and groups. </p>
<p>Examples of traditional medicine include <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/herbal-medicine">herbal medicine</a>; <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/acupuncture/about/pac-20392763">acupuncture</a>; <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/tui-na">Tui Na</a> – which is a type of massage originating in China; <a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ayurvedic-medicine-in-depth">Ayurveda</a> – which is an ancient system of promoting health through diet, exercise and lifestyle from India; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Unani-medicine">and Unani</a> – which is another ancient system of health from South Asia, balancing key aspects of the mind, body and spirit. </p>
<p>In recognizing that traditional medicine and other alternative forms of healing are critical sources of health care for many people worldwide, the World Health Organization and the government of India co-hosted their first-ever <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/events/detail/2023/08/17/default-calendar/the-first-who-traditional-medicine-global-summit">Traditional Medicine Summit</a>. The summit took place in August 2023 in Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jW-B8BpLQJE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">August 2023 marked the WHO’s first global summit on traditional medicine.</span></figcaption>
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<p>The summit brought together health care policymakers, traditional medicine workers and users, international organizations, academics and private sector stakeholders from 88 <a href="https://www.who.int/countries">WHO member states</a>. Leaders at the summit aimed to share best practices and scientific evidence and data around traditional medicine. </p>
<p>As researchers interested in how to provide patients both in the U.S. and around the globe with the best <a href="http://gsm.utmck.edu/internalmed/faculty/terry.cfm">possible medical care</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Wng1Wh0AAAAJ&hl=en">we were interested</a> in the summit’s findings. Understanding traditional medicine can help health care professionals create sustainable, personalized and culturally respectful practices.</p>
<h2>Critical health care for many</h2>
<p>In many countries, traditional medicine costs less and is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fheapol%2Fczw022">more accessible</a> than conventional health care. And many conventional medicines come from the same source as compounds used in traditional medicine – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b01285">up to 50% of drugs</a> have a <a href="https://theconversation.com/nature-is-the-worlds-original-pharmacy-returning-to-medicines-roots-could-help-fill-drug-discovery-gaps-176963">natural product root</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vph.2018.10.008">like aspirin</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546451/original/file-20230905-17-3flfzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An elderly man wearing a gray button-down shirt sorts bundles of dried herbs into eight piles, behind him is a wall of wooden drawers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546451/original/file-20230905-17-3flfzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546451/original/file-20230905-17-3flfzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546451/original/file-20230905-17-3flfzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546451/original/file-20230905-17-3flfzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546451/original/file-20230905-17-3flfzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546451/original/file-20230905-17-3flfzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546451/original/file-20230905-17-3flfzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An herbalist sorts herbs at the Great China Herb Company in Chinatown in San Francisco. Herbal medicine is one form of traditional medicine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/TravelTripSanFranciscoChinatown/c09c3fae7725457ca4e548ceda2a2f34/photo?Query=traditional%20medicine&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=377&currentItemNo=1&vs=true">AP Photo/Eric Risberg</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.2147/PPA.S398644">Many factors</a> may influence whether someone chooses traditional medicine, such as age and gender, religion, education and income level, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9962892">distance to travel for treatment</a>. Cultural factors may also influence people’s use of traditional medicine. </p>
<p>In China, for example, as more people have embraced Western culture, fewer have <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.93.7.1082">chosen traditional medicine</a>. In contrast, many African migrants to Australia continue to use traditional medicine to express their cultural identity and maintain <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-021-03424-w">a cohesive ethnic community</a>. A patient’s preference for traditional medicine often has significant personal, environmental and cultural relevance.</p>
<h2>A framework for traditional medicine</h2>
<p>Countries have been pushing the WHO to study and track data on traditional medicine for years. In the past, WHO has developed a “<a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241506096">traditional medicine strategy</a>” to help member states research, integrate and regulate traditional medicine in their national health systems. </p>
<p>The WHO also <a href="https://www.who.int/teams/integrated-health-services/traditional-complementary-and-integrative-medicine">created international terminology standards</a> for practicing various forms of traditional medicine.</p>
<p>The practice of traditional medicine varies greatly between countries, depending on how accessible it is and <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/978924151536">how culturally important it is</a> in each country. To make traditional medicine safer and more accessible on a broader scale, it’s important for policymakers and public health experts to develop standards and share best practices. The WHO summit was one step toward that goal.</p>
<p>The WHO also aims to collect data that could inform these standards and best practices. It is conducting the <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/events/detail/2023/08/17/default-calendar/the-first-who-traditional-medicine-global-summit">Global Survey on Traditional Medicine</a> in 2023. As of August, approximately 55 member states out of the total 194 have completed and submitted their data.</p>
<h2>Acupuncture – a case study in safety and efficacy</h2>
<p>Some traditional medicine practices <a href="https://doi.org/10.7453/gahmj.2014.042">such as acupuncture</a> have shown consistent and credible benefits, and have even started to make it <a href="https://time.com/6171247/acupuncture-health-benefits-research/">into mainstream medicine</a> in the U.S. But leaders at the summit emphasized a need for more research on the efficacy and safety of traditional medicine. </p>
<p>Although traditional medicine can <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/traditional-medicine-has-a-long-history-of-contributing-to-conventional-medicine-and-continues-to-hold-promise">have a range of benefits</a>, some treatments come with health risks. </p>
<p>For example, acupuncture is <a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/acupuncture-what-you-need-to-know#">a traditional healing practice</a> that entails inserting needles at specific points on the body to relieve pain. But acupuncture can <a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/acupuncture-what-you-need-to-know">cause infections and injuries</a> if the practitioner doesn’t use sterile needles or if needles are inserted incorrectly.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546455/original/file-20230905-17-dzwxii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two hands insert a needle into a patient's back, which is partially covered with a towel and which already has seven needles stuck in two lines." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546455/original/file-20230905-17-dzwxii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546455/original/file-20230905-17-dzwxii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546455/original/file-20230905-17-dzwxii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546455/original/file-20230905-17-dzwxii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546455/original/file-20230905-17-dzwxii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546455/original/file-20230905-17-dzwxii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546455/original/file-20230905-17-dzwxii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Acupuncture is an example of a form of traditional healing that’s been implemented on a wide scale in the U.S. It has a variety of benefits, including no risk of addiction.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/AcupuncturePainRelief/0b79ca38552c4b86a845bf4645755106/photo?Query=acupuncture&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=246&currentItemNo=1&vs=true">AP Photo/M. Spencer Green</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Still, acupuncture is the most commonly used traditional medicine practice across countries, with <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/978-92-4-001688-0">113 WHO member states</a> acknowledging their citizens practiced acupuncture in 2019.</p>
<p>Interestingly, <a href="https://news.va.gov/94087/battlefield-acupuncture-an-emerging-and-promising-alternative-to-risky-pain-medications/">battlefield acupuncture</a> has successfully treated many U.S. military members, for example, for pain reduction. It is simple to use, transportable and has no risk of addiction.</p>
<p>There’s also some evidence supporting the use of traditional medicine, including <a href="https://www.va.gov/WHOLEHEALTH/professional-resources/Acupuncture.asp">acupuncture</a>, <a href="https://www.va.gov/WHOLEHEALTH/professional-resources/Meditation.asp">meditation</a> and <a href="https://www.va.gov/WHOLEHEALTH/professional-resources/Yoga.asp">yoga</a> to treat post-traumatic stress disorder. </p>
<p>However, acupuncture practitioners aren’t trained in a uniform way across countries. To provide guidelines for best practice, the WHO developed standardized <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/978-92-4-001688-0">benchmarks for practicing acupuncture</a> in 2021. The WHO aims to develop similar standards for other forms of traditional medicine as well. </p>
<p>Interest in traditional medicine is growing among those who have mainly used conventional medicine in the past. More research and collaborative efforts to develop safety standards can make traditional medicine accessible to all who seek it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212502/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr. Ling Zhao received her medical training in China and PhD in the US. Her research focuses on novel interventions for chronic diseases. She has received research funding from NIH, including NCCIH. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul D. Terry does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More people are seeking out traditional forms of medicine, from acupuncture to herbal medicines. The WHO is working to develop standards to make these healing practices implementable on a wide scale.Ling Zhao, Professor of Nutrition, University of TennesseePaul D. Terry, Professor of Epidemiology, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2093092023-08-10T12:45:59Z2023-08-10T12:45:59ZHeritage algorithms combine the rigors of science with the infinite possibilities of art and design<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541961/original/file-20230809-29902-o57gog.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=53%2C0%2C7168%2C4088&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Artist AbdulAlim U-K (Aikin Karr) combines the fractal structure of traditional African architecture with emerging technologies in computer graphics.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/Cge-WOAsrkz/?img_index=2">AbdulAlim U-K</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The model of democracy in the 1920s is sometimes called “<a href="https://www.populismstudies.org/Vocabulary/melting-pot/">the melting pot</a>” – the dissolution of different cultures into an American soup. An update for the 2020s might be “open source,” where cultural mixing, sharing and collaborating can build bridges between people rather than create divides.</p>
<p>Our research on <a href="https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_TEKN.2016.v13.n2.52843">heritage algorithms</a> aims to build such a bridge. We develop <a href="https://csdt.org">digital tools</a> to teach students about the complex mathematical sequences and patterns present in different cultures’ artistic, architectural and design practices.</p>
<p>By combining computational thinking and cultural creative practices, our work provides an entry point for students who are disproportionately left out of STEM careers, whether by race, class or gender. Even those who feel at home with equations and abstraction can benefit from narrowing the gap between the arts and sciences.</p>
<h2>What are heritage algorithms?</h2>
<p>Traditional STEM curricula often present science as a ladder you climb. For example, you might be told that math starts with counting, then goes to algebra, then calculus and so on. </p>
<p>But our research has found that the global history of science is more like a bush: Each culture has its own branching set of discoveries. Some of these discoveries offer a perspective that’s different from the theorem-proof approach for math or hypothesis-experiment approach for biology. Understanding the rules and techniques that create cultural patterns from the maker’s point of view can help bridge the gap between knowledge branches. We refer to these hybrids of computation and culture as <a href="https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_TEKN.2016.v13.n2.52843">heritage algorithms</a>, and there are examples everywhere. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two photos. On the left, one man in a hat is sitting holding a book, and another person crouches next to him pointing at the page. On the right, two people stand above a table and the person on the right is stamping a blank page." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=225&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=225&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=225&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The authors learn from artisans. Left: Ron Eglash discusses fractal patterns with an Ethiopian crafter. Right: Audrey Bennett tries her hand at Adinkra stamping in Ghana.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ron Eglash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Flying over an African village, you can see the recursive geometry of <a href="https://www.rutgersuniversitypress.org/african-fractals/9780813526140">African fractals</a> in their architecture: circles of circles, rectangles within rectangles, and other “self-similar” structures. These fractal patterns also appear in their textiles, carvings, paintings, ironwork and more.</p>
<p>Other kinds of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09728-6">algorithms underlie</a> the repeating sequences of bent wood arcs that make up Native American wigwams, canoes and cradles. Even <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/henna/index.html">henna tattoos</a> demonstrate the interactions among computation, nature and culture.</p>
<p>These heritage algorithms challenge the <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Reinvention-of-Primitive-Society-Transformations-of-a-Myth/Kuper/p/book/9781138282650">myth of “primitive cultures”</a> – the idea that early Africans had no math past counting on fingers or that Native American agriculture lacked sophistication.</p>
<p>The computational thinking that is embedded in Indigenous artifacts and other creative practices, such as weaving, beadwork and quilting, is not merely decorative. It also reflects different ways of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31293-9_18">thinking about the world</a>. Our interviews with artisans revealed how they visualize <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1997.99.1.112">spiritual concepts</a> in formal techniques and numerical sequences. </p>
<h2>Bringing heritage algorithms to the classroom</h2>
<p>Heritage algorithms give students a way to blend the abstract rigors of math, the grounded legacies of culture and the infinite possibilities of art. To bring these algorithms to the classroom, <a href="https://csdt.org">we have created</a> interactive computer programs and simulations that we call <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3804796">culturally situated design tools</a>, or CSDTs.</p>
<p>Each CSDT was created in collaboration with Indigenous elders, street artists, traditional crafters and others. With the creators’ permission, we transfer their knowledge of pattern creation into digital tools that students enjoy using and teachers enjoy implementing in their lesson plans.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A close up of a brown and white woven fabric" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In a woven Navajo blanket, the line y=x forms a 30-degree angle with the horizontal axis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ron Eglash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s important to craft each CSDT to reflect the way those artisans think about the cultural practice. For instance, the slope of the line y=x, mathematically calculated as “rise over run,” is 1 – for every unit you move up the line, you move a unit to the right. This line forms a 45-degree angle with the x-axis. But when Navajo weavers use this “up one, over one” pattern, the slope is closer to a 30-degree angle. This is because they weave yarn horizontally through vertical cords that are thicker than the yarn. So we made sure to preserve this feature in the weaving simulation we built.</p>
<p>A crucial aspect of CSDTs is that students may use them to follow their interests. This freedom and independence lets students encounter new cultures, delve deeper into their own identity or mix designs from different cultures to create something completely new. </p>
<p>We have seen Black students choose an <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/quilting/appalachian.html">Appalachian quilting simulation</a>, Native American students choose <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/cornrowcurves/index.html">cornrow simulations</a> and white students create <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/beadloom/index.html">beadwork simulations</a>. Students’ creative designs often mix many cultures together – cornrows become “<a href="https://csdt.org/news/powwow/">powwow braids</a>,” and African fractal simulations turn into plants, lungs and river deltas.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A collage of several images, some depicting students holding up a quilt, another of a student working on the quilt, and another of a computer program featuring the quilt design" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students from Harlem Academy create designs using the Appalachian and Lakota quilt CSDTs. Many Appalachian quilts contained the ‘radical rose,’ symbolizing support for abolition.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ron Eglash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Heritage algorithms and CSDTs provide a powerful starting place for students to improve their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/cye.2009.0024">computing skills and confidence</a>. These tools even provide a foundation for a variety of careers, from <a href="https://blog.ted.com/architecture-infused-with-fractals-ron-eglash-and-xavier-vilalta/">architecture</a> to <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/anishinaabearcs/2017overview.html">environmental engineering</a>.</p>
<h2>When computation and culture collide</h2>
<p>The reach of heritage algorithms has recently extended beyond learning environments to contemporary art spaces. Artists are generating a bold new creative style using “ethnocomputing” – an understanding of computer science from a cultural perspective.</p>
<p>You can see fresh interpretations of heritage algorithms in the African fractals embedded in the work of visual artist <a href="https://www.artforum.com/print/reviews/202007/tendai-mupita-83726">Tendai Mupita</a>, the cornrow simulations integrated in the work of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/24/arts/rashaad-newsome-assembly-exhibit.html">Rashaad Newsome</a>, the blending of the African diaspora and technology by <a href="https://nettricegaskins.medium.com/afrofuturist-software-from-conception-to-manifestation-d05389d0874">Nettrice Gaskins</a> and the creative duo <a href="https://iconeye.com/?p=44925">Tosin Oshinowo and Chrissy Amuah</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.hauserwirth.com/hauser-wirth-exhibitions/35571-the-new-bend/#about">An exhibition</a> on display <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5dc84bade8c8347aab560645/t/647f625bf3739e5c9f84d163/1686069851882/Press-Release_TheNewBend_HWNY22-1-1.pdf">in New York City</a>, <a href="https://vip-hauserwirth.com/the-new-bend-somerset/">the U.K.</a> <a href="https://vip-hauserwirth.com/the-new-bend-los-angeles/">and Los Angeles</a> explores the textile techniques of artists inspired by the African American <a href="https://www.arts.gov/stories/blog/2015/quilts-gees-bend-slideshow">quilting tradition of Gee’s Bend, Alabama</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A dark-skinned girl wearing glasses sits in front of a computer screen. Conrow patterns are visible on the screen behind her, and imposed on the right side of the image." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A high school student uses a CSDT to simulate cornrow hairstyle patterns.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ron Eglash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our research on heritage algorithms is partially driven by a philosophical desire to reframe STEM as a source of <a href="https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/black-joy-resistance-resilience-and-reclamation">radical joy</a> for every ethnicity and identity. Inspired by the radical feminist phrase “sex-positive feminism,” we sometimes call our perspective “<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340418728_Race-positive_Design_A_Generative_Approach_to_Decolonizing_Computing">race-positive design</a>” – thinking of race not in purely negative terms of oppression but instead as a rich source of creativity, liberation and a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-022-00815-9">free-thinking mindset</a> for curiosity and scientific inquiry.</p>
<p>This philosophical stance also has <a href="https://csdt.org/publications/">a practical side</a>: <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314263728_From_Sports_to_Science_Using_Basketball_Analytics_to_Broaden_the_Appeal_of_Math_and_Science_Among_Youth">statistically significant</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.17583/remie.2015.1399">improvement</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/2037276.2037281">in STEM scores</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.2006.108.2.347">for underrepresented students</a>. Many teachers have recognized the potential of heritage algorithms for getting students invested in STEM. One teacher using the <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/graffiti/index.html">graffiti tool</a> told us this was the first time students asked if they could stay in her math class after school. Another said she would never teach negative numbers again without the <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/beadloom/index.html">bead loom CSDT</a>.</p>
<p>Heritage algorithms, both in the classroom and beyond, open up a two-way bridge between humanistic and technical knowledge. They offer a space where everyone – teacher and student, young and old, geek and artist – can learn, share and collaborate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209309/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Audrey G. Bennett receives funding from the NEH and NSF. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ron Eglash receives funding from the NSF.</span></em></p>By bridging culture and computation, heritage algorithms challenge the myth of ‘primitive cultures’ and forge a new understanding of science and art.Audrey G. Bennett, University Diversity and Social Transformation Professor, Stamps School of Art & Design, University of MichiganRon Eglash, Professor of Information, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2103432023-08-02T13:27:23Z2023-08-02T13:27:23ZSouth Africa’s new Marriage Bill raises many thorny issues - a balancing act is needed<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539927/original/file-20230728-16043-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Brides attend a mass wedding ceremony at the International Pentecostal Holiness Church, south of Johannesburg.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ihsaan Haffejee/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>South Africa is changing its marriage law to recognise all types of intimate partnerships – irrespective of gender, sexual orientation, or religious, cultural and other beliefs. </p>
<p>The Department of Home Affairs has <a href="https://www.gov.za/speeches/department-home-affairs-invites-public-submit-written-comments-draft-marriage-bill-11-jul">invited public comment</a> on the <a href="https://www.gov.za/documents/marriage-bill-draft-7-jul-2023-0000">Draft Marriage Bill 2022</a>. The bill amends some marriage laws, and prescribes what’s required for marriages to be considered valid, forms of registration, and the property consequences of marriage. As the <a href="https://static.pmg.org.za/48914_7-7_HomeAffairs-4-28.pdf#page=3">preamble</a> shows, it seeks to promote liberal values of equality, nondiscrimination, human dignity and freedom of thought. </p>
<p>While it is innovative for bringing all forms of intimate partnerships under one piece of legislation, the bill raises thorny questions. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/liberalism">Liberalism</a> – or openness to different behaviour, opinions or new ideas – is a strange beast. It pushes accepted conduct to its limits.</p>
<p>For instance, if the bill truly seeks equity, why does it not recognise intimate partnerships such as cohabitation? Why does <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/202307/48914gon3648.pdf#page=20">section 22(6)</a> criminalise marriage between people who are related to each other by adoption or by blood (to certain degrees)?</p>
<p>I have <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=JgVz0yUAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">researched</a> these issues, notably as a member of the Advisory Committee on Matrimonial Property of the <a href="https://www.justice.gov.za/Salrc/ipapers/ip41-prj100E-MatrimonialPropertyLawReview-6Sep2021.pdf">South African Law Reform Commission</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/understanding-the-relevance-of-african-customary-law-in-modern-times-150762">Understanding the relevance of African customary law in modern times</a>
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<p>I believe that even though the bill promotes important constitutional values, it does not sufficiently reflect changing social and economic conditions. Specifically, it ignores polyandry – marriage of a woman to more than one man – and unmarried partnerships. This is significant because other laws recognise <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/a17-061.pdf">civil unions</a>, which include formalised marriage-like partnerships of same-sex couples.</p>
<h2>The thorny issues</h2>
<p>Firstly, radical socioeconomic changes require society to reevaluate traditional assumptions about accepted forms of relationships. Due to urbanisation and the interaction of different cultures, relationships such as cohabitation and polyandry are rising. A couple could live together for reasons such as exorbitant rent, distance to workplaces, and prohibitively high bridewealth (<em>ilobolo</em>). </p>
<p>The bill doesn’t recognise such intimate partnerships, which the Constitutional Court has accorded the same legal status as formal marriages. As the court has <a href="http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZACC/2021/51.html">acknowledged</a>, unmarried partnerships have serious implications for finances, human dignity, property ownership and child custody.</p>
<p>Secondly, the Marriage Bill <a href="https://static.pmg.org.za/48914_7-7_HomeAffairs-4-28.pdf#page=8">defines</a> <em>ilobolo</em> as</p>
<blockquote>
<p>property in cash or in kind … which a prospective husband or the head of his family undertakes to give to the head of the prospective wife’s family in consideration of a customary marriage.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This implies that only (traditionally male) family heads can receive it. The definition does not anticipate a role for women, as happens among the Galole Orma people of <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2744433">northeastern Kenya</a>.</p>
<p>Also, the position of family head could be disputed where the mother is divorced and raised the bride alone. As far back as 1997, the Transvaal High Court <a href="https://www.bbrief.co.za/content/uploads/2019/11/Mabena-v-Letsoalo-1998.pdf">ruled</a> that the bride’s mother could negotiate and receive <em>ilobolo</em>. The bill should therefore redefine bridewealth as “money, property, or anything of value given by the groom or his family to the bride’s family in consideration of marriage and/or to symbolise a union between the groom and bride’s families”.</p>
<p>This definition is consistent with the decreasing role of the extended family in the education or raising of the bride. Uncles and aunts should not benefit from bridewealth if they did not assist in raising the bride. </p>
<p>Thirdly, the bill is silent on the coexistence of a civil law marriage with a customary or religious marriage. For reasons like legal certainty and communal respect, <a href="https://www.saflii.org/za/journals/SPECJU/2018/14.pdf">double marriage is common</a>. Previously, if a couple in a civil marriage subsequently concluded a customary or religious marriage, the state regarded the latter marriage as invalid. </p>
<p>The bill creates ambiguity because it does not stipulate the fate of a subsequent customary or religious marriage. This could affect inheritance, property and child custody because legal systems may govern these issues differently.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africas-courts-and-lawmakers-have-failed-the-ideal-of-cultural-diversity-91508">South Africa's courts and lawmakers have failed the ideal of cultural diversity</a>
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<p>Furthermore, the bill defines polygamous marriage as “a marriage in which a male spouse has more than one spouse at the same time”. This patriarchal definition does not promote equality. It implies that a woman should not marry more than one man. </p>
<p>Finally, the bill imposes an omnibus standard for divorce on all marriages. This standard may complicate divorce under Islamic and customary law, where the standard is relaxed. Also, <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/202307/48914gon3648.pdf#page=19">section 21(1)</a> of the bill states that a marriage may be dissolved by the “continuous unconsciousness of one of the spouses,” without specifying how long a spouse must be unconscious following an injury, for example.</p>
<p>If the thorny issues in the bill are not addressed, the eventual legislation could be challenged as discriminatory. Its amendment would then drain the public purse. </p>
<h2>A balancing act</h2>
<p>Significantly, the bill emerged from the 2022 <a href="http://www.dha.gov.za/images/PDFs/White-Paper-on-Marriage-in-SA-5-May2022.pdf">White Paper on marriages and life partnerships</a>. The advisory committee that worked on the <a href="https://www.justice.gov.za/salrc/dpapers/dp152-prj144-SingleMarriageStatute-Jan2021.pdf">Single Marriage Statute (Project 144)</a> proposed two options for regulating life partnerships in its discussion paper.</p>
<p>These are a <a href="https://www.lssa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/SALRC-discussion-paper-152-on-single-marriage-statute-plus-media-release.pdf">Protected Relationships Bill and a Recognition and Registration of Marriages and Life Partnerships Bill</a>. It appears Home Affairs did not add life partnerships to the bill because it is controversial. But legislative avoidance is unhelpful because it <a href="https://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1727-37812021000100048">postpones inevitable problems</a>. The Constitutional Court <a href="http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZACC/2021/51.html">recognises</a> the right of a woman in a life partnership to inherit or claim maintenance from her deceased partner’s estate. </p>
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<p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lgbtq-rights-african-union-watchdog-goes-back-on-its-own-word-197555">LGBTQ+ rights: African Union watchdog goes back on its own word</a>
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<p>Ultimately, new forms of relationships demand legislative recognition. Law reform should be carefully handled to ensure that non-discriminatory cultural and religious practices <a href="https://repository.uwc.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10566/7355/Diala_law_2021.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">are respected</a>. The bill should strike a balance between preserving these practices, promoting liberal values, and recognising the evolving realities of contemporary relationships.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210343/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony Diala receives funding from the National Research Foundation of South Africa (Grant Number 136532). </span></em></p>The Marriage Bill should strike a balance between preserving non-discriminatory cultural and religious practices and promoting liberal values.Anthony Diala, Director, Centre for Legal Integration in Africa, University of the Western CapeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2098242023-07-14T19:12:44Z2023-07-14T19:12:44ZHollywood on the picket line – 5 unsung films that put America’s union history on the silver screen<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537548/original/file-20230714-19-zejzwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C34%2C3859%2C2549&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Actors Emily Blunt, Robert Downey Jr., Matt Damon, Cillian Murphy and Florence Pugh were among those who walked out of the premiere of 'Oppenheimer.'</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-cast-of-oppenheimer-including-british-actress-emily-news-photo/1531859433?adppopup=true">Henry Nicholls/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Some of Hollywood’s top stars are <a href="https://apnews.com/article/hollywood-actors-writers-strike-1da6262b2506d64822201d53e5d76c43">joining screenwriters on the picket line</a> after the main U.S. actors union voted to take part in an ongoing strike.</p>
<p>SAG-AFTRA, which represents more than 150,000 screen and stage actors, announced on July 13, 2023, that its <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/article/actors-strike-why.html">members would go on strike</a>. </p>
<p>In so doing, they join members of the Writers Guild of America who have been on strike for several weeks. </p>
<p>Battles between Hollywood unions and the studios have <a href="https://laist.com/news/la-history/hollywood-strike-1945-unions-iatse-bloody-friday">taken place since the 1940s</a>. But this is the first time since the Eisenhower administration that the two major Hollywood unions have been on strike at the same time. The action – sparked by a long-running dispute over pay and greater protection against use of artificial intelligence and the rise of streaming services like Netflix – has shut down productions and become increasingly acrimonious. One Hollywood source <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2023/07/studios-allegedly-wont-end-strike-til-writers-start-losing-their-apartments">told a reporter</a> that the studios want these strikes to “drag on until union members start losing their apartments and losing their houses.” </p>
<p>The strikes come at a time when polls suggest <a href="https://news.gallup.com/poll/354455/approval-labor-unions-highest-point-1965.aspx">unions are more popular in the U.S. than at any time since 1965</a>, and the labor movement is experiencing a resurgence of organizing.</p>
<p>Since the mid-1900s, Hollywood studios have depicted the collective efforts of working people to improve their lives and gain a voice in their workplaces and the larger society with both sympathy and hostility. Independent producers, who gained a foothold starting in the 1970s, have generally been friendlier toward workers and their unions. </p>
<p>Some of the most well-known labor movies champion the struggle of the everyday worker: “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0027977/">Modern Times</a>,” released in 1936, stars Charlie Chaplin going crazy due to his job on an assembly line. It features the famous image of Chaplin caught in the gears of factory machinery. “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0032551/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">The Grapes of Wrath</a>,” a 1940 adaptation of John Steinbeck’s novel, tells the story of sharecropper Tom Joad’s radicalization after his family and other migrant workers experience destitute conditions in California’s growing fields and overcrowded migrant camps. </p>
<p>1979’s “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0079638/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">Norma Rae</a>” is based on the life of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/15/us/15sutton.html">Crystal Lee Sutton</a>, who worked in a J.P. Stevens mill in North Carolina. The textile worker and single mom inspires her fellow workers to overcome their racial animus and work together to vote in a union. “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0212826/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">Bread and Roses</a>,” a 2000 film about low-wage janitors in Los Angeles, is based on the Service Employees International Union’s <a href="https://www.labor.ucla.edu/what-we-do/research-tools/campaigns-and-research/justice-for-janitors/">Justice for Janitors</a> movement.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">In an iconic scene from ‘Modern Times,’ Charlie Chaplin gets caught in the gears of factory machinery.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There’s also an anti-labor strain of Hollywood history, particularly during <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691153964/the-second-red-scare-and-the-unmaking-of-the-new-deal-left">the post-World War II Red Scare</a>, when studios purged left-wing writers, directors and actors through <a href="https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/insights/hollywoods-red-scare-spread-stigma-association">an industrywide blacklist</a>. Red Scare-era releases such as 1952’s “Big Jim McLain” and the 1954 film “On the Waterfront” often depicted unions as corrupt or infiltrated by communist subversives.</p>
<p>When I teach labor history, I’ve used films to supplement books and articles. I’ve found that students more easily grasp the human dimensions of workers’ lives and struggles when they are depicted on the screen. </p>
<p>Here are five unsung labor movies, all based on real-life events, that, in my view, deserve more attention. </p>
<h2>1. ‘<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0078008/?ref_=fn_tt_tt_6">Northern Lights</a>’ (1978)</h2>
<p>This is a fictionalized account of a fascinating but little-known political movement: <a href="https://www.history.nd.gov/ndhistory/npl.html">the Non-Partisan League</a>, which organized farmers in the upper Midwest in the early 1900s. </p>
<p>During this period, Midwestern farmers worked long hours to harvest grain that they were then forced to sell for low prices to elevators, while paying high prices to the big railroad companies and banks. Economic insecurity was a part of life, and foreclosures were routine. </p>
<p>The film follows Ray Sorenson, a young farmer influenced by socialist ideas who leaves his North Dakota farm to become a Non-Partisan League organizer. In his beat-up Model T, he travels the back roads, talking to farmers in their fields or around the potbellied stoves of country stores. He eventually persuades skeptical farmers that electing NPL candidates could get the government to create cooperative grain elevators, state-chartered banks with farmers as stockholders, and limits on the prices that railroads can charge farmers to haul their wheat. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">‘Northern Lights’ is based on an early-20th-century farmer-led political uprising in the Midwest.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 1916, the Non-Partisan League did, in fact, elect farmer <a href="https://www.history.nd.gov/exhibits/governors/governors12.html">Lynn Frazier</a> as governor of North Dakota with 79% of the vote. Two years later, the NPL won control of both houses of the state legislature and created the North Dakota Mill, still the only state-owned flour mill, and the <a href="https://ilsr.org/rule/bank-of-north-dakota-2/">The Bank of North Dakota</a>, which remains the nation’s only government-owned general-service bank.</p>
<h2>2. ‘<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0033533/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">The Devil and Miss Jones</a>’ (1941)</h2>
<p>In this screwball comedy with a pro-union twist, Charles Coburn plays John P. Merrick, a fictional New York City department store owner.</p>
<p>After his employees hang him in effigy, the tycoon goes undercover to ferret out the agitators of a union drive led by a store clerk in the shoe department and a union organizer. </p>
<p>As he learns more about their lives, Merrick grows sympathetic to his workers – and even falls in love with one of his employees – none of whom know his true identity. As the workers prepare to go on strike, and even picket his house, Merrick reveals that he owns the store and agrees to their demands over pay and hours – and even marries the employee he’s fallen for. </p>
<p>The film was likely inspired by <a href="http://msr-archives.rutgers.edu/archives/Issue%2016/essays/Opler.htm">the 1937 sit-down strikes</a> by employees of New York City’s department stores. </p>
<h2>3. 'Salt of the Earth’ (1954)</h2>
<p>Decades ahead of its time, this story of New Mexico mine workers deals with issues of racism, sexism and class.</p>
<p>After a mine accident, the Mexican-American workers decide to strike. They demand better safety standards and equal treatment, since white miners are allowed to work in pairs, while Mexican ones are forced to work alone. The strikers expect the women to stay at home, cook and take care of the children. But when the company gets an injunction to end the men’s protest, the women step up and maintain the picket lines, earning greater respect from the men.</p>
<p>Made at the height of the Red Scare, the film’s writer, producer and director <a href="https://www.highonfilms.com/salt-of-the-earth-1954-essay/">had been blacklisted</a> for their leftist sympathies, so the film was sponsored by the International Union of Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers, not a Hollywood studio. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0002095/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">Will Geer</a>, a blacklisted actor who later portrayed Grandpa Walton on the TV drama “The Waltons,” played the repressive sheriff. Mexican actress Rosaura Revueltas played the leader of the wives. The other characters were portrayed by real miners and their wives who participated in the strike against <a href="https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/empire-zinc-strike/">the Empire Zinc Company</a>, which served as the inspiration for the film. </p>
<p>The film itself was blacklisted, and no major theater chain would show it, but has since become a cult favorite among union activists and on college campuses.</p>
<h2>4. ‘<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0280377/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">10,000 Black Men Named George</a>’ (2002)</h2>
<p>Andre Braugher stars as <a href="https://aflcio.org/about/history/labor-history-people/asa-philip-randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a>, who organized the <a href="https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/eras/great-depression/brotherhood-of-sleeping-car-porters-win-over-pullman-company/">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a>, the first Black-run union. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.npr.org/2009/05/08/103933268/pullman-porters-creating-a-black-middle-class">Being a porter on a Pullman railroad car</a> was one of the few jobs open to Black men. But wages were low, travel was constant and trains’ white passengers patronized the porters by calling all of them “George,” after <a href="https://www.nps.gov/people/george-m-pullman.htm">George Pullman</a>, the mogul who owned the company. </p>
<p>The company hired thugs to intimidate the porters, but Randolph and his top lieutenants persisted. They began their crusade in 1925 but didn’t get the company to sign a contract with the union until 1937, <a href="http://www.pennfedbmwe.org/Docs/reference/RLA_Simplified.html">thanks to a New Deal law</a> that gave railroad workers the right to unionize. Randolph became American’s leading civil rights organizer during the 1940s and 1950s and orchestrated the 1963 March on Washington. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Black men stand on a stage holding an American flag and a union flag." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480118/original/file-20220819-26-jduttq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480118/original/file-20220819-26-jduttq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480118/original/file-20220819-26-jduttq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480118/original/file-20220819-26-jduttq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480118/original/file-20220819-26-jduttq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=586&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480118/original/file-20220819-26-jduttq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=586&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480118/original/file-20220819-26-jduttq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=586&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Members of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters display their banner at a 1955 ceremony celebrating the organization’s 30th anniversary.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/fight-or-be-slaves-members-of-the-brotherhood-of-sleeping-news-photo/515296680?adppopup=true">Bettmann/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>5. 'North Country’ (2005)</h2>
<p>Charlize Theron portrays Josey Aimes, a desperate single mom who flees her abusive husband, returns to her hometown in northern Minnesota, moves in with her parents and takes a job at an iron mine. </p>
<p>There, she is constantly groped, insulted and bullied by the male workers. She complains to the company managers, who don’t take her seriously. The male-dominated union claims there’s nothing they can do. Aimes sues the company, which, after a dramatic courtroom scene, is forced to settle with her and other women. </p>
<p>With stellar performances by Theron, Sissy Spacek, Frances McDormand and Woody Harrelson, “North Country” is based on <a href="https://www.womenshistory.org/articles/real-women-north-country">a groundbreaking lawsuit</a> brought by female miners at Minnesota’s Eveleth Mines in 1975 that helped make sexual harassment a violation of workers’ rights.</p>
<p><em>Editor’s note: This is an updated version of an article that was <a href="https://theconversation.com/5-unsung-films-that-dramatize-americas-rich-labor-history-188442">first
published</a> on The Conversation on Aug. 22, 2022.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209824/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Dreier does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As actors join screenwriters in a strike that has shut down movie productions, a labor historian looks back at union action on the silver screen.Peter Dreier, E.P. Clapp Distinguished Professor of Politics, Occidental CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2093232023-07-11T00:11:03Z2023-07-11T00:11:03ZNZ music schools under threat: we need a better measure of their worth than money<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536693/original/file-20230710-21-j4gzbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C5072%2C3374&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Funding for the arts and tertiary education in Aotearoa New Zealand has long been insufficient. Run the two together, as is <a href="https://thespinoff.co.nz/society/23-06-2023/all-the-university-courses-on-the-chopping-block">happening this year</a>, and we find ourselves at a precarious junction.</p>
<p>Arts and humanities departments in general are threatened by job and course losses due to the university underfunding crisis. In music education alone, the cuts have already been extensive. </p>
<p>Te Auaha, <a href="https://www.xn--tepkenga-szb.ac.nz/">Te Pukenga</a>’s creative campus in Wellington, has folded most of its <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/education/129945313/music-programmes-at-te-pkengas-weltec-whitireia-campuses-could-be-gone-by-years-end">music programmes</a>. The Auckland campus of the Music and Audio Institute of New Zealand (MAINZ) is <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/checkpoint/audio/2018884653/audio-students-staff-in-limbo-as-mainz-to-close">closing</a> too. </p>
<p>Schools of music at Auckland, Waikato and Otago universities have all gone through significant restructuring over the past decade. Massey University’s creative programmes may be <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/492835/staff-fear-big-job-cuts-as-massey-university-reconsiders-courses-with-low-enrolments">under review</a>. The future of the New Zealand School of Music at Te Herenga Waka-Victoria University of Wellington is also uncertain.</p>
<p>The country’s creative and critical culture of music will be substantially diminished as a result. How can we sustain vibrant popular, classical, jazz, electronic and experimental music scenes without the institutions that nurture and produce musical talent?</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1673259934719574016"}"></div></p>
<h2>Other measures of wealth</h2>
<p>Music shapes and helps us understand who we are as people and as a culture.
As the pioneering New Zealand composer Douglas Lilburn put it, we need “a music of our own, a living tradition of music created in this country”. </p>
<p>Or as musician and producer <a href="https://thespinoff.co.nz/summer-2022/28-12-2022/maori-music-is-hitting-the-mainstream-and-its-not-by-accident-2">Hinewehi Mohi said</a> more recently: “We need music and we need waiata Māori to really tie us together and create a sense of cultural identity and nationhood.”</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/starved-of-funds-and-vision-struggling-universities-put-nzs-entire-research-strategy-at-risk-207708">Starved of funds and vision, struggling universities put NZ’s entire research strategy at risk</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It may be a truism to say music and other art forms are a public good, but it’s a truth nonetheless. And in tough times the arts become nothing less than an essential service. Studies from <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647756/full">Finland</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-021-00858-y">Germany</a> have shown how
music helped people maintain a sense of community and wellbeing during pandemic lockdowns.</p>
<p>Even just bingeing on streaming services involves consuming the artistic labour of composers, sound designers, dialogue editors and scores of production creatives. In other words, we need the arts and artists, whether or not we’re conscious of it.</p>
<p>Furthermore, the Treasury’s <a href="https://www.treasury.govt.nz/publications/tp/living-standards-framework-2021-html">Living Standards Framework</a> now recognises values beyond the purely fiscal, and that “wealth” and “capital” have broader meanings “not fully captured in the system of national accounts, such as human capability and the natural environment”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536692/original/file-20230710-32332-6pc1g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536692/original/file-20230710-32332-6pc1g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536692/original/file-20230710-32332-6pc1g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536692/original/file-20230710-32332-6pc1g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536692/original/file-20230710-32332-6pc1g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536692/original/file-20230710-32332-6pc1g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536692/original/file-20230710-32332-6pc1g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hinewehi Mohi: ‘create a sense of cultural identity and nationhood’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Short-term fixes and long-term harm</h2>
<p>The social and economic benefits of music are well established, and were substantiated in the key findings of the Ministry of Culture and Heritage’s 2022 <a href="https://mch.govt.nz/valuing-arts-research-report">Valuing the Arts</a> report.</p>
<p>The rewards are both social and individual. Educators, psychologists and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/gm5cg8p2rFpRKpnagQrr/full">employers</a> are well aware of music’s cognitive, intellectual and behavioural <a href="https://theconversation.com/if-you-want-your-child-to-be-more-resilient-get-them-to-join-a-choir-orchestra-or-band-190657">benefits</a> – including how group music making develops teamwork, empathy and grit, all components of resilience.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-to-break-the-cycle-of-crisis-in-aotearoa-new-zealands-arts-and-culture-it-starts-with-proper-funding-199772">We need to break the cycle of crisis in Aotearoa New Zealand’s arts and culture. It starts with proper funding</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A rapidly changing world requires young performers, composers, technologists and thinkers who are able to keep pace. Short-term solutions to financial problems, however, can cause <a href="https://theconversation.com/starved-of-funds-and-vision-struggling-universities-put-nzs-entire-research-strategy-at-risk-207708">long-term harm</a>.</p>
<p>Cuts to the New Zealand School of Music, and other similar programmes across the country, will have broad repercussions, diminishing the depth and breadth of music education. The creative industries will be starved of young talent (echoing labour shortages in other sectors).</p>
<p>Theatre <a href="https://thebigidea.nz/stories/unforgivable-attack-latest-blow-in-gutting-of-nz-theatre-education">faces the same</a> destructive spiral. In a larger society, some damage might be absorbed. In a country of five million it becomes palpable.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1640418406347227149"}"></div></p>
<h2>Better funding models</h2>
<p>The current tertiary funding model uses staff-student ratios as the primary funding metric. But this doesn’t work for music or any discipline where teaching and learning take place in small groups, intensively, often involving one-to-one tuition. </p>
<p>The argument that music and theatre courses should be cut because of low enrolments is perverse. A low staff-student ratio, along with specialist facilities and equipment, are <a href="https://gpseducation.oecd.org/revieweducationpolicies/#!node=41720&filter=all">beneficial</a> for developing both individual talent and outstanding teamwork. Similar needs and costs are not challenged in science education, nor should they be in arts.</p>
<p>This kind of teaching can be time and labour intensive for students and teachers, but it is the only way to produce the results that define excellence. Students don’t learn to perform, compose or engineer compelling music in generic lecture theatres alongside hundreds of others.</p>
<p>Similarly, box-office returns and gross revenues aren’t great measures of true artistic, experiential and cultural value. Stadium shows may indicate commercial viability, but musicians and audiences <a href="https://news.pollstar.com/2019/10/08/underplays-in-overdrive-why-big-artists-are-increasingly-playing-small-venues/">thrive in intimate settings</a> where new ideas and material can be tested and real rapport established.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-show-must-go-on-but-its-time-to-re-think-how-we-fund-the-arts-in-nz-156488">The show must go on, but it's time to re-think how we fund the arts in NZ</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Music and value</h2>
<p>We clearly need a more nuanced and holistic measure of the value of arts and education than the simply financial. As Robert Kennedy <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2012/may/24/robert-kennedy-gdp">famously said</a> of GDP:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It measures neither our wit nor our courage, neither our wisdom nor our learning, neither our compassion nor our devotion to our country, it measures everything in short, except that which makes life worthwhile.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>To that end, the <a href="https://www.tec.govt.nz/">Tertiary Education Commission</a>, the government’s main interface with the sector, should reflect the Treasury’s Living Standards Framework when accounting for the broader social contribution of higher education. </p>
<p>Various precedents already exist in the form of international measures such as the <a href="https://gnhusa.org/genuine-progress-indicator/">Genuine Progress Indicator</a>, the UN’s <a href="https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI">Human Development Index</a>, the <a href="https://www.centreforthrivingplaces.org/about-measurement-policy/thriving-places-index/">Thriving Places Index</a> and the OECD’s <a href="https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/#/11111111111">Better Life Index</a>.</p>
<p>All in various ways try to incorporate the importance of community, culture, work-life balance and overall life satisfaction. It should come as no surprise that wellbeing and participation in music are <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-10373-008">closely correlated</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209323/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dugal McKinnon works for the New Zealand School of Music Te Kōki, Victoria University of Wellington-Te Herenga Waka. </span></em></p>The country’s creative and critical music culture will be substantially diminished if the university funding crisis hits any harder.Dugal McKinnon, Associate Professor, Composition and Sonic Arts, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2092012023-07-06T17:19:16Z2023-07-06T17:19:16ZHow fine dining in Europe and the US came to exclude immigrant cuisine and how social media is pushing back – podcast<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535997/original/file-20230706-27-n7njvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=94%2C0%2C5656%2C3837&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Immigrant chefs feel more constrained in how their food is valued. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/chefs-finishing-dishes-at-kitchen-before-serving-royalty-free-image/495199645?phrase=upscale+food+chef&adppopup=true">Klaus Vedfelt/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The history of restaurants, food and, especially, fine dining, is deeply tied to the history of immigration to the U.S. and French cultural power in the early 20th century. Not surprisingly, the story that leads to Yelp and Anthony Bourdain is not without its share of racism that the modern food world and its tastemakers are still grappling with today.</p>
<p>In this episode of The Conversation Weekly, we speak to three experts who <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=M9A2u_YAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">study food culture</a> and <a href="https://gilliangualtieri.com/">fine dining</a> about the <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=QV8nVH4AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">perceptions and definitions</a> of “good food.” We explore how food trends are deeply tied to immigration, how the history of Western culinary techniques limits the creativity and authenticity of modern restaurants and how social media compares with the Michelin Guide as a tool in the quest for good food. </p>
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<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-561" class="tc-infographic" height="100" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/561/4fbbd099d631750693d02bac632430b71b37cd5f/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>The definition of ‘good food’</h2>
<p>Between ever-increasing culinary skill and creativity, the boom in organic and seasonal ingredients, a growing interest in ethnic food and flavors, and a glut of food media – from the Michelin Guide and Zagat to Instagram and TikTok – there has arguably never been a better time to eat, drink and appreciate a truly good meal.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536012/original/file-20230706-29-kf0lcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A red book." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536012/original/file-20230706-29-kf0lcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536012/original/file-20230706-29-kf0lcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536012/original/file-20230706-29-kf0lcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536012/original/file-20230706-29-kf0lcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536012/original/file-20230706-29-kf0lcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1134&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536012/original/file-20230706-29-kf0lcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1134&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536012/original/file-20230706-29-kf0lcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1134&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Michelin Guide was first published in 1900.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Guidem_michelin_1900.jpg#/media/File:Guidem_michelin_1900.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What defines “good food”? This is a subjective question in many ways, but a chef’s career can single-handedly be made or broken by a review in the <a href="https://guide.michelin.com/en">esteemed pages of the Michelin Guide</a> or The New York Times food section. Even in the world of social media, some restaurants consistently rise to the top of Yelp and Instagram, so there is some consensus idea of what “good food” is.</p>
<p>To understand where the ideas that define good food come from, it’s helpful to understand how the modern restaurant came to be. “At the turn of the 20th century, you have Georges Auguste Escoffier, who, with his friend Ritz, opened the Ritz-Carlton,” explains Gillian Gualtieri, a sociologist at Barnard College in New York City. “The Ritz becomes this training ground for European cooks and chefs, and you then send them out to these glamorous hotels all over Europe to cook for the European and American elites.” </p>
<p>To this day, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-haute-cuisine-to-hot-dogs-how-dining-out-has-evolved-over-200-years-and-is-innovating-further-in-the-pandemic-155939">techniques and even the language developed by Escoffier</a> are taught in culinary schools across the world. </p>
<p>As the world urbanized, more and more people began to eat at restaurants, and the concept of the food critic emerged. These critics wield power. When Gualtieri asked 120 New York chefs whose opinions mattered most, they most valued the opinions of their peers – and the Michelin Guide.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536014/original/file-20230706-18-6t0yr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A taco truck in New York City." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536014/original/file-20230706-18-6t0yr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536014/original/file-20230706-18-6t0yr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536014/original/file-20230706-18-6t0yr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536014/original/file-20230706-18-6t0yr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536014/original/file-20230706-18-6t0yr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536014/original/file-20230706-18-6t0yr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536014/original/file-20230706-18-6t0yr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Immigrant food often gains popularity before becoming prestigious as an immigrant community becomes enmeshed in a country’s culture.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-wearing-face-masks-stand-in-line-outside-timo-tacos-news-photo/1260768765?adppopup=true">Noam Galai/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Immigration and ethnic food</h2>
<p>The Michelin Guide and many of its peers in the legacy food media have historically been gatekeepers of fine dining, focusing on white, Eurocentric restaurants and in many ways controlling what kinds of cuisine are worth paying a premium for. But ethnic food – whether it is Mexican, Japanese or, in the past, Italian food – is a massive part of the U.S. food scene. </p>
<p>As Krishnendu Ray, a professor of food studies at New York University in the U.S., explains, the perceptions of immigrant food are closely <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525/gfc.2017.17.4.141">tied to perceptions of the immigrants themselves</a>. </p>
<p>“What you see is there’s a kind of a early popularity of immigrant foods, first inside the community, and then slowly it spreads outward. Other people start eating, journalists are eating and writing about it, but it does not acquire prestige,” Ray explains. “That changes over time, depending on which immigrant group is coming into the U.S. in the largest numbers and which cohort is slowly moving up in terms of upward mobility.” </p>
<p>After looking at prices of various types of cuisine over the decades and comparing it with immigration trends, Ray found a consistent pattern. Immigrant foods are first considered cheap and not prestigious when lots of immigrants move to the U.S. but slowly gain clout as the people themselves become more culturally established. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536009/original/file-20230706-27-rkjej2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A top-down photo of a plate of food." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536009/original/file-20230706-27-rkjej2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536009/original/file-20230706-27-rkjej2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536009/original/file-20230706-27-rkjej2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536009/original/file-20230706-27-rkjej2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536009/original/file-20230706-27-rkjej2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536009/original/file-20230706-27-rkjej2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536009/original/file-20230706-27-rkjej2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Instagram gaze is a normalized style of posting about food that many food influencers on Instagram use.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/fig-toast-with-edible-flowers-directly-above-view-royalty-free-image/1319831755?phrase=fine+dining&adppopup=true">Alexander Spatari/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Social media influencers as food critics</h2>
<p>In an era of social media, many people are now turning to Yelp, TikTok or Instagram to figure out where they want to get a meal. Zeena Feldman is a professor of digital culture at King’s College in London, in the U.K. She was interested in seeing whether Instagram viewed good food in the same Eurocentric ways as the Michelin Guide, or whether, as she explains it, “because anyone can have a voice on Instagram, underrepresented cuisines from different parts of the world and from less expensive price points might be getting more of the attention there.”</p>
<p>To answer this question, Feldman looked at the reviews of Instagram food influencers in London and New York and then compared them with the Michelin Guide. </p>
<p>“Culturally and economically, Instagram food criticism is a lot more inclusive than Michelin,” says Feldman. “So you have many more cuisines, and especially cuisines outside of the Global North, being represented.” </p>
<p>But Instagram wasn’t completely without flaws. “I started out thinking of Instagram food culture as being something created by amateurs, by just people as obsessed with food as I might be,” says Feldman. “What I found is actually these are professionals, either people making money from promoting content or people aspiring to make money from promoting content. And so what that means is that there’s a certain standardization to how food is being represented on Instagram.” </p>
<p>Most people have seen what Feldman has termed the “Instagram gaze.” These are the overhead shots of well-lit food that, Feldman notes, almost never feature any people. </p>
<p>Feldman thinks that, with so much food media out there, there is more opportunity to find good food, but the definition of that, as she puts it, is “food that you actually enjoy eating.”</p>
<hr>
<p>This episode was produced and written by Dan Merino and Katie Flood. Mend Mariwany is the executive producer of The Conversation Weekly. Eloise Stevens does our sound design, and our theme music is by Neeta Sarl.</p>
<p>You can find us on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/TC_Audio">@TC_Audio</a>, on Instagram at <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">theconversationdotcom</a> or <a href="mailto:podcast@theconversation.com">via email</a>. You can also subscribe to The Conversation’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/newsletter">free daily email here</a>. </p>
<p>Listen to The Conversation Weekly via any of the apps listed above, download it directly via our <a href="https://feeds.acast.com/public/shows/60087127b9687759d637bade">RSS feed</a> or find out <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-listen-to-the-conversations-podcasts-154131">how else to listen here</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209201/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zeena Feldman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gillian Gualtieri does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Krishnendu Ray does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Immigrant chefs and cuisines are often constrained by Eurocentric definitions of what constitutes good food. As immigrant groups become more assimilated into US culture, so does their food.Daniel Merino, Associate Science Editor & Co-Host of The Conversation Weekly Podcast, The ConversationNehal El-Hadi, Science + Technology Editor & Co-Host of The Conversation Weekly Podcast, The ConversationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2083272023-07-04T13:26:56Z2023-07-04T13:26:56ZBelgium’s AfricaMuseum has a dark colonial past – it’s making slow progress in confronting this history<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533840/original/file-20230624-80593-c4qk77.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">DRC Prime Minister Jean-Michel Lukonde (L) at Belgium's AfricaMuseum in 2022. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jasper Jacobs via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe id="noa-web-audio-player" style="border: none" src="https://embed-player.newsoveraudio.com/v4?key=x84olp&id=https://theconversation.com/belgiums-africamuseum-has-a-dark-colonial-past-its-making-slow-progress-in-confronting-this-history-208327&bgColor=F5F5F5&color=D8352A&playColor=D8352A" width="100%" height="110px"></iframe>
<p>Racist displays and stories remain on display in several western European museums. They include grotesque objects depicting African people as “savage” and “wild”. Narratives of a “continent without history” and fantasies of European superiority are still told in ethnographic museums, like the <a href="https://www.humboldtforum.org/en/">Humboldt Forum in Berlin</a> and the <a href="https://www.quaibranly.fr/en/">Musée du quai Branly in Paris</a>.</p>
<p>These museums have been criticised by scholars and activists since the 1970s. Their handling of objects looted during the colonial period, especially from Africa, is seen as an indicator of the political relations between Europe and African nations. </p>
<p>Criticism ranges from the illegitimate acquisition of the objects to the often-racist representation of the African continent and its inhabitants. It also includes the lack of participation by African and diasporic actors.</p>
<p>After initial hesitation, Belgium, a former colonial power, <a href="https://theconversation.com/retracing-belgiums-dark-past-in-the-congo-and-attempts-to-forge-deeper-ties-184903">opened itself</a> to debate about reparations, justice and a common future with its African partners in the late 1990s. </p>
<p>This change in attitude was accelerated by mounting pressure from the <a href="https://www.rosalux.eu/en/article/1796.black-lives-matter-in-belgium-june-july-2020.html">Black Lives Matter movement in Belgium</a>. International advances by other former colonial powers like <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/27/world/americas/colonial-reparations.html">France, Germany and Great Britain</a> in the restitution debate also created impetus. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.africamuseum.be/en/discover/history">AfricaMuseum</a> in the Tervuren suburb is at the centre of these debates in Belgium. It’s an institution in the process of repairing its troubled history. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533646/original/file-20230623-25-2qgxwz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An long shot of a beige building with its reflection showing in a pool of water" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533646/original/file-20230623-25-2qgxwz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533646/original/file-20230623-25-2qgxwz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533646/original/file-20230623-25-2qgxwz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533646/original/file-20230623-25-2qgxwz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533646/original/file-20230623-25-2qgxwz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533646/original/file-20230623-25-2qgxwz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533646/original/file-20230623-25-2qgxwz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The main building of the AfricaMuseum in Tervuren built in the 1900s.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As a white and privileged researcher who focuses on colonial memory, racism and anti-colonial movements in Europe, my perspective on the AfricaMuseum is divided. For more than 10 years, the museum has been part of <a href="http://iwk-jena.uni-jena.de/julien-bobineau/">my cultural studies research</a>. In my view, the museum is marked by a dusty past and has shown little evidence of post-colonial self-reflection. On the other hand, there are <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-65827002">serious efforts</a> to change. </p>
<h2>Colonial looting</h2>
<p>The AfricaMuseum’s forerunner was initiated in 1897 by the Belgian king <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leopold-II-king-of-Belgium">Leopold II</a> (1835-1909). It was a colonial human zoo within the Brussels World’s Fair. A Congolese village was recreated in Tervuren “exhibiting” 60 Congolese residents. Seven of them didn’t survive the exhibition, which lasted several months. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533647/original/file-20230623-25-vgag2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A sculpture of a man drumming while another one holds up a spear ready to attack another man who is lying on the ground. They are in the centre of a room that has knives and swords on display on the walls" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533647/original/file-20230623-25-vgag2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533647/original/file-20230623-25-vgag2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533647/original/file-20230623-25-vgag2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533647/original/file-20230623-25-vgag2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533647/original/file-20230623-25-vgag2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533647/original/file-20230623-25-vgag2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533647/original/file-20230623-25-vgag2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Racist depictions of Africans in the museum in the 1920s.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 1910, the space opened as the Museum of the Belgian Congo and presented ethnographic collections. The colonial institution initially served the purpose of legitimising the <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/King-Leopolds-Ghost-Heroism-Colonial/dp/1447211359">brutal colonial rule</a> in the Congo Basin. It promoted the so-called “civilising mission” in Africa among the Belgian population. </p>
<p>It presented an alleged European superiority, underlined with pseudo-scientific methods and a racist representation of African cultures. </p>
<p>The exhibited objects were mostly looted from colonised territories by Belgian officials, the military and private persons. </p>
<p>There was <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/39892/pdf">little awareness</a> of these material and immaterial injustices in Belgium until the late 1990s. To this day, some <a href="https://www.memoiresducongo.be/en/">conservative positions</a> glorify the Belgian colonial period as a justified and philanthropic undertaking. </p>
<p>Even after the Democratic Republic of Congo’s independence on 30 June 1960, the museum retained its original concept under the name Royal Museum for Central Africa. It exuded a peculiar kind of colonial “nostalgia”. As late as 2001, the US anthropologist Jean Muteba Rahier described the museum as <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/39892/summary">a colonial place frozen in time</a>. </p>
<p>In 2013, the museum was <a href="https://www.africamuseum.be/en/discover/renovation">closed for extensive renovations</a>. It reopened as the AfricaMuseum in December 2018, with the then director Guido Gryseels <a href="https://www.exhibitionsinternational.be/documents/catalog/objects/PDF/9789085867814_01.pdf#page=4">saying</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>… the museum has distanced itself from colonialism as a form of government and accepts responsibility for the part it played in the past in disseminating stereotypes about Africa.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Today, the AfricaMuseum holds over 125,000 ethnographic objects. It has 300,000 geological specimens, 8,000 musical instruments and nearly 10 million biological exhibits. It also holds sound and film recordings. A few human remains are among the museum’s collections. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533652/original/file-20230623-6861-3sw7hp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Wooden sculptures on display behind a glass case." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533652/original/file-20230623-6861-3sw7hp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533652/original/file-20230623-6861-3sw7hp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533652/original/file-20230623-6861-3sw7hp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533652/original/file-20230623-6861-3sw7hp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533652/original/file-20230623-6861-3sw7hp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533652/original/file-20230623-6861-3sw7hp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533652/original/file-20230623-6861-3sw7hp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Congolese sculptures on display at the AfricaMuseum.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julien Bobineau</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The origin and exact circumstances of the acquisition of these objects remain largely unexplained. It can be assumed that most of the collection was illegally looted during the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo">colonial period</a>. </p>
<h2>Recognising African heritage</h2>
<p>Closely related to the question of restitution is a revision of the way Africa and Africans are represented in ethnographic museums. The AfricaMuseum attempted to address this in its 2013-2018 renovation. </p>
<p>Yet, some objects remain placed in a context that allows for a pejorative view of Africa. This is evidenced by the combination of the depiction of Congolese culture and the natural history of humankind in one space.</p>
<p>After <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/29/arts/emmanuel-macron-africa.html">French president Emmanuel Macron</a> triggered more debate over restitution while in Burkina Faso in 2017, the AfricaMuseum focused on addressing the origin of its objects. Reparation and representation of African and diasporic voices became a priority. </p>
<p>This was supported by <a href="https://www.brusselstimes.com/117289/parliament-approves-commission-on-belgiums-colonial-past">political debates</a> in the Belgian parliament in 2021 and 2022. They led to the formulation of <a href="https://restitutionbelgium.be/">ethical principles for restitution</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.africamuseum.be/en/about_us/restitution">A new law was passed</a> that provides a framework for the return of looted objects. This is a starting point for a redefinition of Belgian-Congolese relations. </p>
<h2>Early results</h2>
<p>Belgium has since sent the Democratic Republic of Congo a <a href="https://www.africamuseum.be/de/about_us/restitution">draft bilateral restitution treaty</a>. It proposes, for example, a joint commission to coordinate scientific investigations into the origin of objects in Belgium’s possession. </p>
<p>In June 2021, the ownership rights of almost <a href="https://heritagetribune.eu/belgium/africa-museum-set-to-start-gradual-return-of-looted-artefacts-to-congo/">800 looted objects</a> from the AfricaMuseum were transferred to the Congolese state – though they still haven’t fully returned to Kinshasa. </p>
<p>In February 2022, Belgian prime minister Alexander De Croo presented Congolese prime minister Jean-Michel Lukonde with a list of more than <a href="https://observer.com/2022/03/restitution-ceremony-at-belgiums-africamuseum-precedes-eu-au-summit/">84,000 artefacts</a> from the Congo. Those artefacts have been in Belgium’s possession since colonisation and are now to be examined with a view to possible restitution.</p>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>The restitution of looted objects from former colonies in Africa is an essential component of a post-colonial reparation. </p>
<p>Some European politicians, museum directors and scholars have pointed to an alleged lack of storage facilities in Africa. This argument shouldn’t count. </p>
<p>The vast majority of artefacts were seized from their original context and only transformed into “art objects” in European museums. In Germany, for example, debate flared up this year as to whether restituted Benin bronzes should become the private property of the royal family of Benin – the legitimate owners – <a href="https://english.elpais.com/international/2023-05-19/legitimate-concerns-or-neocolonialism-germany-expresses-worry-about-the-fate-of-the-benin-bronzes-following-their-restitution-to-nigeria.html">or be exhibited in Nigerian museums</a>. This shouldn’t be Germany’s concern.</p>
<p>To put restitution into practice, four things are needed now:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>humility on the European side</p></li>
<li><p>a deeper willingness for cooperation</p></li>
<li><p>funds</p></li>
<li><p>transparent and open dialogue. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>The new Belgian path shows that this seems possible, though there’s still a long way to go.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208327/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julien Bobineau does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The restitution of looted objects from former colonies in Africa is an essential component of post-colonial reparation.Julien Bobineau, Assistant Professor, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität JenaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.