tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/dairy-cows-14317/articlesDairy cows – The Conversation2023-04-12T20:04:44Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2035862023-04-12T20:04:44Z2023-04-12T20:04:44ZResearch reveals a 3,500-year history of dairy consumption on the Tibetan Plateau<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520441/original/file-20230412-28-7dhvoi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C38%2C3206%2C2114&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s not called the <a href="https://public.wmo.int/en/resources/bulletin/third-pole-climate-warming-and-cryosphere-system-changes#">Third Pole</a> for nothing. The Tibetan Plateau forms the major portion of a vast upland area of ice and glaciers that covers some 100,000 square kilometres of Earth’s surface. </p>
<p>It is a cold, arid and unforgiving landscape that couldn’t be more different from the warm plains and valleys that gave rise to our species.</p>
<p>Yet, for thousands of years the Tibetan Plateau has been occupied by <em>Homo sapiens</em>. It has seen the establishment of agricultural societies, and the growth of religions, kingdoms and even empire.</p>
<p>How humans managed not just to subsist but to thrive in this high-altitude landscape is a question that has challenged researchers for decades – and one that has captivated us too. </p>
<p>We know part of the answer lies in Tibetan genes, and a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/blog/accumulating-glitches/how_tibetans_ancestors_adapted_to/">unique adaptation</a> that enables people living in the region to use oxygen more efficiently, avoiding the potentially lethal effects of hypoxia (the condition that arises from a lack of oxygen).</p>
<p>But just as important as avoiding hypoxia was finding enough food in the plateau’s unpredictable, freezing and hyper-arid environment.</p>
<p>Our research, <a href="http://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adf0345">published today</a> in Science Advances, set out to look more closely at early Tibetan diets. To do this, we examined ancient dental plaque, a rich source of dietary information.</p>
<p>Our results show one food in particular may have been crucial to sustained human occupation and expansion across the Tibetan Plateau: milk.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520447/original/file-20230412-296-74mdxy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520447/original/file-20230412-296-74mdxy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520447/original/file-20230412-296-74mdxy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520447/original/file-20230412-296-74mdxy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520447/original/file-20230412-296-74mdxy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520447/original/file-20230412-296-74mdxy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520447/original/file-20230412-296-74mdxy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520447/original/file-20230412-296-74mdxy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Modern pastures on the highland Tibetan Plateau.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Li Tang</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The benefits of not brushing</h2>
<p>Without dentists, ancient people often accumulated thick layers of plaque – also known as calculus – on their teeth. Using a new method called palaeoproteomics, scientists can investigate the food proteins that became trapped and preserved in ancient people’s dental plaque. </p>
<p>Palaeoproteomics allows us to look at types of food, such as milk, that aren’t visible through traditional archaeological approaches, and to identify specific individuals who were consuming them.</p>
<p>Our study analysed all available human skeletal remains on the plateau: a total of 40 individuals, dating to between 3500 and 1200 years ago, from 15 widely dispersed sites. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520433/original/file-20230412-26-bnhy3n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520433/original/file-20230412-26-bnhy3n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520433/original/file-20230412-26-bnhy3n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520433/original/file-20230412-26-bnhy3n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520433/original/file-20230412-26-bnhy3n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520433/original/file-20230412-26-bnhy3n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520433/original/file-20230412-26-bnhy3n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520433/original/file-20230412-26-bnhy3n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of the individuals we studied was a woman, aged 40-55, buried at the Ounie site. Hers were the highest altitude (4654 masl) remains studied, dated to around 601-758 CE.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Li
Tang and Zujun Chen</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our work yielded fascinating results. Preserved in the teeth of many of these people were fragments of proteins derived from milk products. The protein sequences showed the milk originated from domestic herd animals: sheep, goat and probably yak. </p>
<p>We could see dairy foods were consumed by a wide swathe of Tibetan Plateau society, including adults and children, elites and everyday people. Dairy was even present in the earliest Tibetan Plateau skeletons we looked at. </p>
<p>In fact, we found dairy was being consumed as far back as 3,500 years ago – pushing evidence for dairying on the plateau back 2,000 years earlier than records in historical sources, such as the 8th- and 9th-century <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190622671.001.0001/acref-9780190622671-e-670;jsessionid=921CE6414F8F46DF62C6EF4396088722">Tongdian encyclopedia</a>.</p>
<p>Evidence for dairying now corresponds with the earliest evidence for domesticated herd animals on the Tibetan Plateau, which suggests dairying and pastoralism spread together in this region.</p>
<h2>Pushing beyond the cultivation boundary</h2>
<p>Our results showed another interesting pattern: all the milk peptides we identified came from ancient individuals in the highest altitude parts of the plateau. These were the most inhospitable areas, where growing crops was difficult. </p>
<p>In the southern-central and southeastern valleys, where farmable land was available, we did not recover any dairy proteins from people’s calculus.</p>
<p>Dairy, it seems, was vital to human occupation of the parts of the plateau that lay beyond the reach of even frost-tolerant crops. This is a vast area, as less than 1% of the Tibetan Plateau supports crop cultivation.</p>
<p>In the lower-lying areas, long-term habitation has been sustained by cultivating plant foods. But across most of the plateau, the primary mode of subsistence has been pastoralism.</p>
<h2>Dairy-free? Not an option</h2>
<p>While dairy would eventually become central to Tibetan cuisine and culture, our results suggest it was initially adopted out of necessity. It allowed people in the Tibetan Plateau’s most extreme environments to turn the energy locked inside alpine meadow grasses into a protein-rich, nutritional food that was endlessly renewable – because animals weren’t killed to acquire it.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520443/original/file-20230412-26-33hyof.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520443/original/file-20230412-26-33hyof.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520443/original/file-20230412-26-33hyof.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520443/original/file-20230412-26-33hyof.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520443/original/file-20230412-26-33hyof.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520443/original/file-20230412-26-33hyof.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520443/original/file-20230412-26-33hyof.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520443/original/file-20230412-26-33hyof.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Today, dairy is an important part of modern Tibetan food and culture.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Li Tang</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Dairying opened up the Tibetan Plateau to the spread and sustained growth of human populations, which ultimately enabled the emergence of substantial cultural complexity.</p>
<p>In one of Earth’s most inhospitable environments, then, it would appear dairy-free was not an option.</p>
<p>Future work on the plateau will be vital to understanding how the human adoption of pastoralism and dairying reshaped Tibet’s landscapes. And just as critically, it will shed light on what human-induced climate change means for the future of the ecosystems present-day herders rely on.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520445/original/file-20230412-18-6lk30.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520445/original/file-20230412-18-6lk30.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520445/original/file-20230412-18-6lk30.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520445/original/file-20230412-18-6lk30.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520445/original/file-20230412-18-6lk30.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520445/original/file-20230412-18-6lk30.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520445/original/file-20230412-18-6lk30.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520445/original/file-20230412-18-6lk30.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Modern Tibetan pastoralists make butter from yak milk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Li Tang</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-midnight-digs-at-a-holy-tibetan-cave-opened-a-window-to-prehistoric-humans-living-on-the-roof-of-the-world-148927">How midnight digs at a holy Tibetan cave opened a window to prehistoric humans living on the roof of the world</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203586/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Researchers looked at the skeletal remains of 40 people, and found evidence of dairy consumption across a wide swathe of early Tibetan society.Nicole Boivin, Professor, Max Planck Institute of GeoanthropologyLi Tang, Doctoral researcher, Max Planck Institute of GeoanthropologyMichael Petraglia, Director, Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution, Griffith UniversityShevan Wilkin, Researcher at the Institute for Evolutionary Medicine, University of ZurichLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1890462022-08-29T05:16:29Z2022-08-29T05:16:29ZNot like udder milk: ‘synthetic’ dairy milk made without cows may be coming to a supermarket near you<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481469/original/file-20220829-65743-2q6nxr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C0%2C3964%2C2994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The global dairy industry is changing. Among the disruptions is competition from food alternatives not produced using animals – including potential challenges posed by synthetic milk.</p>
<p>Synthetic milk does not require cows or other animals. It can have the same biochemical make up as animal milk, but is grown using an emerging biotechnology technique know as “<a href="https://ecos.csiro.au/whats-brewing-precision-fermentation/">precision fermentation</a>” that produces biomass cultured from cells.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.fao.org/3/CA2929EN/ca2929en.pdf">More than 80%</a> of the world’s population regularly consume dairy products. There have been increasing calls to move beyond animal-based food systems to more sustainable forms of food production.</p>
<p>Synthetic milks offer dairy milk without concerns such as <a href="https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/climate-change/carbon-farming-reducing-methane-emissions-cattle-using-feed-additives">methane emissions</a> or <a href="https://www.rspca.org.au/take-action/dairy-cattle-and-bobby-calves">animal welfare</a>. But it must overcome many challenges and pitfalls to become a fair, sustainable and viable alternative to animal-based milk.</p>
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<img alt="dairy cows on green grass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481472/original/file-20220829-65819-723k9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481472/original/file-20220829-65819-723k9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481472/original/file-20220829-65819-723k9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481472/original/file-20220829-65819-723k9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481472/original/file-20220829-65819-723k9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481472/original/file-20220829-65819-723k9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481472/original/file-20220829-65819-723k9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Synthetic milks offer dairy milk produced without animals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dean Lewins/AAP</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Not a sci-fi fantasy</h2>
<p>My <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10460-022-10338-x">recent research</a> examined megatrends in the global dairy sector. Plant-based milks and, potentially, synthetic milks, emerged as a key disruption.</p>
<p>Unlike synthetic meat – which can struggle to match the complexity and texture of animal meat – synthetic milk is <a href="https://www.afr.com/technology/the-start-up-that-makes-milk-without-using-any-cows-20210725-p58cq6">touted</a> as having the same taste, look and feel as normal dairy milk. </p>
<p>Synthetic milk is not a sci-fi fantasy; it already exists. In the US, for example, the <a href="https://perfectday.com/animal-free-milk-protein/">Perfect Day</a> company supplies animal-free protein made from microflora, which is then <a href="https://perfectday.com/made-with-perfect-day/">used to make</a> ice cream, protein powder and milk.</p>
<p>In Australia, start-up company Eden Brew has been developing synthetic milk at Werribee in Victoria. The company is <a href="https://www.afr.com/technology/the-start-up-that-makes-milk-without-using-any-cows-20210725-p58cq6">targeting</a> consumers increasingly concerned about climate change and, in particular, the contribution of methane from dairy cows.</p>
<p>CSIRO reportedly developed the technology behind the Eden Brew product. The process starts with yeast and uses “precision fermentation” to produce the same proteins found in cow milk. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/research/production/food/eden-brew">CSIRO says</a> these proteins give milk many of its key properties and contribute to its creamy texture and frothing ability. Minerals, sugars, fats and flavours are added to the protein base to create the final product.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/which-milk-is-best-for-the-environment-we-compared-dairy-nut-soy-hemp-and-grain-milks-147660">Which 'milk' is best for the environment? We compared dairy, nut, soy, hemp and grain milks</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="packets of whey protein and chocolate brownie mix" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481473/original/file-20220829-40207-chcr43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481473/original/file-20220829-40207-chcr43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481473/original/file-20220829-40207-chcr43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481473/original/file-20220829-40207-chcr43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481473/original/file-20220829-40207-chcr43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481473/original/file-20220829-40207-chcr43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481473/original/file-20220829-40207-chcr43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">US food-tech company Perfect Day makes ice cream and other ‘dairy’ products without using animals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Perfect Day</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Towards a new food system?</h2>
<p>Also in Australia, the All G Foods company this month <a href="https://www.afr.com/technology/synthetic-milk-start-up-all-g-foods-banks-25m-from-uk-s-argonomics-20220804-p5b79m">raised A$25 million</a> to accelerate production of its synthetic milk. Within seven years, the company wants its synthetic milk to be cheaper than cow milk. </p>
<p>If the synthetic milk industry can achieve this cost aim across the board, the potential to disrupt the dairy industry is high. It could steer humanity further away from traditional animal agriculture towards radically different food systems.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="a bottle of 'zero cow' milk" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481475/original/file-20220829-48396-j0oya3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481475/original/file-20220829-48396-j0oya3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481475/original/file-20220829-48396-j0oya3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481475/original/file-20220829-48396-j0oya3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481475/original/file-20220829-48396-j0oya3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=894&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481475/original/file-20220829-48396-j0oya3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=894&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481475/original/file-20220829-48396-j0oya3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=894&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">All G foods wants its synthetic milk to be cheaper than cow-based milk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">All G Foods</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A <a href="https://www.rethinkx.com/food-and-agriculture">2019 report</a> into the future of dairy found that by 2030, the US precision fermentation industry will create at least 700,000 jobs.</p>
<p>And if synthetic milk can replace dairy as an ingredient in the industrial food processing sector, this could present significant challenges for companies that produce milk powder for the ingredient market.</p>
<p>Some traditional dairy companies are jumping on the bandwagon. For example, Australian dairy co-operative Norco is backing the Eden Brew project, and New Zealand dairy cooperative Fonterra last week <a href="https://www.fonterra.com/nz/en/our-stories/media/fonterra-ramps-up-opportunities-in-complementary-nutrition-partnership.html">annouced</a> a joint venture to develop and commercialise “fermentation-derived proteins with dairy-like properties”.</p>
<h2>Synthetic milk: the whey forward?</h2>
<p>The synthetic milk industry must grow exponentially before it becomes a sizeable threat to animal-based dairy milk. This <a href="https://www.afr.com/technology/synthetic-milk-start-up-all-g-foods-banks-25m-from-uk-s-argonomics-20220804-p5b79m">will require</a> a lot of capital and investment in research and development, as well as new manufacturing infrastructure such as fermentation tanks and bioreactors. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/agriculture-and-food/world-dairy-projections-milk-butter-and-cheese_0ca74b06-en">Production</a> of conventional animal-milk in the Global South now outstrips that of the Global North, largely due to rapid growth across Asia. Certainly, the traditional dairy industry is not going away any time soon. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-milk-the-whole-milk-and-nothing-but-the-milk-the-story-behind-our-dairy-woes-124290">The milk, the whole milk and nothing but the milk: the story behind our dairy woes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman looks at milk in supermarket in Vietnam" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481480/original/file-20220829-43735-15g7ie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481480/original/file-20220829-43735-15g7ie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481480/original/file-20220829-43735-15g7ie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481480/original/file-20220829-43735-15g7ie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481480/original/file-20220829-43735-15g7ie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481480/original/file-20220829-43735-15g7ie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481480/original/file-20220829-43735-15g7ie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Demand for animal milk in Asia has grown rapidly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">RICHARD VOGEL/AP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And synthetic milk is not a panacea. While the technology has huge potential for environmental and animal welfare gains, it comes with challenges and potential downsides.</p>
<p>For example, alternative proteins do not necessarily challenge the corporatisation or homogenisation of conventional industrial agriculture. This means big synthetic milk producers might push out low-tech or small-scale dairy – and alternative dairy – systems.</p>
<p>What’s more, synthetic milk could further displace many people from the global dairy sector. If traditional dairy co-ops in Australia and New Zealand are moving into synthetic milk, for example, where does this leave dairy farmers?</p>
<p>As synthetic milk gains ground in coming years, we must guard against replicating existing inequities in the current food system. </p>
<p>And the traditional dairy sector must recognise it’s on the cusp of pivotal change. In the face of multiple threats, it should maximise the social benefits of both animal-based dairy and minimise its contribution to climate change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189046/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Milena Bojovic does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Synthetic milk offers dairy milk without the concerns such as methane emissions or animal welfare. But is it the whey forward?Milena Bojovic, PhD Candidate, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1738982022-01-12T16:13:38Z2022-01-12T16:13:38ZMilk without the cow: Cellular agriculture could be the future of farming, but dairy farmers need help<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440172/original/file-20220111-19-oqtgov.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=28%2C21%2C1249%2C935&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Dairy cows in the Fraser Valley, B.C.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.evanbowness.ca/cell-ag">(Evan Bowness)</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 175px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/milk-without-the-cow--cellular-agriculture-could-be-the-future-of-farming--but-dairy-farmers-need-help" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>A new wave of cow-less dairy is hitting the market. In the United States, <a href="https://perfectday.com/">Perfect Day</a> is using genetically modified fungi to produce milk protein for ice cream at a commercial scale. And pre-commercial companies, like <a href="https://turtletree.com">TurtleTree</a> and <a href="https://www.bettermilknow.com">Better Milk</a>, are engineering mammary cells to produce human and cow milk in laboratories, although these remain in the early stages of development.</p>
<p>It might be some time before mammal-less dairy arrives in Canadian grocery stores. But these emerging technologies are part of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11111066">fourth agricultural revolution</a> that aims to improve food security, sustainability and agricultural working conditions. With these promises for wins on the horizon, should the diary sector be worried?</p>
<p>As researchers from the Food and Agriculture Institute at the University of the Fraser Valley, in British Columbia, we study food systems in transition. The Fraser Valley is home to 60 per cent of B.C.’s dairy farms, so we’re especially interested in the impacts cellular agriculture might have on the dairy system.</p>
<h2>Animal agriculture’s challenges</h2>
<p>Animal agriculture plays a big role in the global food system. The <a href="https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/">Food and Agriculture Organization states</a> that animal agriculture provides roughly a third of global food protein, supports the livelihoods of over a billion people and contributes to soil fertility.</p>
<p>But animal agriculture is facing increased scrutiny, especially around environmental impacts and animal welfare issues. It is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions, upwards of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/su13116276">16.5 per cent of global emissions</a>, by some estimates.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Students sit near a hand sanitizer dispenser at a university." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440150/original/file-20220110-19-16z8l7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440150/original/file-20220110-19-16z8l7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=747&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440150/original/file-20220110-19-16z8l7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=747&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440150/original/file-20220110-19-16z8l7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=747&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440150/original/file-20220110-19-16z8l7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=939&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440150/original/file-20220110-19-16z8l7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=939&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440150/original/file-20220110-19-16z8l7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=939&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">In 2009, the H1N1 virus, commonly called swine flu, triggered a pandemic and caused widespread illness around the world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Animal agriculture is also vulnerable to extreme environmental conditions and climate change. Recent flooding in B.C. <a href="https://fvcurrent.com/article/dead-sumas-prairie-flood/">killed well over half a million farm animals</a> and threatened to contaminate the sensitive freshwater ecosystems of the Fraser Valley with <a href="https://www.nationalobserver.com/2021/11/19/latest-news/after-floods-oil-slicks-human-and-animal-waste">stored manure and agricultural chemicals</a>. And it’s a known <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/unite-human-animal-and-environmental-health-prevent-next-pandemic-un">risk factor for zoonotic diseases and pandemics</a>, such <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.1289/ehp.117-a394">as H1N1 or the swine flu</a>.</p>
<p>One way to reduce the risks introduced by animal agriculture is to remove — or nearly remove — livestock from the food production equation. <a href="https://new-harvest.org/what-is-cellular-agriculture/">Cellular agriculture</a> uses cell cultures to produce animal products without raising livestock, hunting or fishing. While still in its early phases, this technology could help meet growing demand for animal protein, reduce environmental impacts and address animal welfare concerns.</p>
<h2>How does cellular agriculture work?</h2>
<p>Cellular agriculture makes biologically equivalent or near-equivalent foods to those produced with animals. This is different from plant-based meat and dairy alternatives, such as Beyond Burgers and oat milk, which use plant ingredients that approximate their non-vegetarian counterparts. </p>
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<p>
<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/plant-based-doesnt-always-mean-healthy-173303">Plant-based doesn’t always mean healthy</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>One approach is to use advanced fermentation, where yeasts, fungi and bacteria are genetically modified to produce proteins. The approach is similar to brewing beer, but with highly specialized micro-organisms that follow instructions that have been added to their genetic code.</p>
<p>You may already be eating products created using this technology. Thirty years ago, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the use of a <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1990/03/24/fda-approves-bioengineered-cheese-enzyme/c4292eeb-1c74-45d2-94c3-b0eb09e4866c/">bioengineered form of rennet enzymes</a>, which is widely used in cheese making and replaces the original enzymes which were harvested from calf stomachs. </p>
<p>Today, vats of micro-organisms, genetically modified to carry the appropriate calf gene, supply rennet for about 70 per cent of cheese made in the U.S. It’s functionally identical to the original cheese-making enzymes, but it’s easier, less costly to produce and doesn’t rely on mammals.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A worker walks between large stainless steel tanks in an industrial food site." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440144/original/file-20220110-27-1uz7t8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440144/original/file-20220110-27-1uz7t8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440144/original/file-20220110-27-1uz7t8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440144/original/file-20220110-27-1uz7t8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440144/original/file-20220110-27-1uz7t8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440144/original/file-20220110-27-1uz7t8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440144/original/file-20220110-27-1uz7t8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Food scientists can use microorganisms to grow food ingredients in large vats, eliminating the need for livestock.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another approach, called tissue engineering, uses cells collected from an animal to grow meat, fish or even leather in a controlled environment. The tissues grow, but in a nutrient-rich broth called growth media in bioreactor tanks.</p>
<p>Examples include GOOD Meat’s cellular chicken nuggets, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41587-021-00855-1">first commercially available cellular meat product</a>, and <a href="https://www.wildtypefoods.com/">WildType</a>’s cellular salmon, which is being grown in stainless steel tanks in San Francisco. </p>
<h2>What is at stake for dairy farmers?</h2>
<p>Dairy is an important food commodity in Canada. Over 18,000 farm operators are employed at the roughly 10,000 dairy farms across the country, which together produced 9.5 billion litres of milk and <a href="https://agriculture.canada.ca/en/canadas-agriculture-sectors/animal-industry/canadian-dairy-information-centre/canadas-dairy-industry-glance">earned farms over $7 billion in 2020</a>. </p>
<p>To meet consumer demand and guarantee a fair price to the farmers, the Canadian supply management system controls dairy production volumes and the number of producers at the provincial level using a quota system. Farmers essentially buy the right to sell dairy products. Dairy farms are capital intensive and farmers often carry large debt loads, making it a difficult industry to enter. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Dairy cows stay dry inside a barn at night, with flood waters outside." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440149/original/file-20220110-13-1lhn3fk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440149/original/file-20220110-13-1lhn3fk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440149/original/file-20220110-13-1lhn3fk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440149/original/file-20220110-13-1lhn3fk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440149/original/file-20220110-13-1lhn3fk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440149/original/file-20220110-13-1lhn3fk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440149/original/file-20220110-13-1lhn3fk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flood waters rise outside a dairy barn near Agassiz, B.C., in November 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jonathan Hayward</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Livestock farmers in B.C. had an exceptionally challenging 2021. After a summer of <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/b-c-livestock-owners-scramble-to-move-cattle-horses-caught-in-wildfire-risk-1.6107262">encroaching forest fires</a> and a <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/bc-livestock-farmers-heat-wave-1.6130043">record-breaking heat dome</a>, the year ended with <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/8483965/bc-flooded-farms-weather/">catastrophic floods followed by extreme cold</a>. Fraser Valley farmers were forced to dump 7.5 million litres of raw milk in November when shipping routes were destroyed by flooding, which also killed 428 dairy cows. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/why-farmers-are-dumping-milk-down-the-drain-and-letting-produce-rot-in-fields-136567">Across the country, dairy farmers also dumped milk</a> early in the pandemic — more than <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/8386413/canada-milk-price-increase-dairy-farmers-cdc/">30 million litres</a> in the year ending July 31, 2020, according to one analysis — when demand plummeted due to restaurant closures and other system shocks. </p>
<h2>Planning a just transition</h2>
<p>We see animal-free dairy as possibly having some environmental and food security benefits, but with some trade-offs. </p>
<p>If cellular agriculture competes with conventional dairy in Canada, what would the impact be on dairy farmers? What would happen to the cows? To the farms? To the supply management system in general? </p>
<p>Addressing these questions is critical for developing policy that enables transitions to food systems with lower environmental and carbon footprints while ensuring harms and benefits are distributed equitably — what’s known as the j<a href="https://www.rncanengagenrcan.ca/en/collections/just-transition">ust transition</a>. </p>
<p>Much of our understanding of these just transitions comes from the energy sector, where coal mines have closed and oil production is declining as renewable energy becomes more available and less expensive, changing economies and forcing fossil fuel workers to find other work. </p>
<p>Canada recently developed a just transition <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/climate-change/task-force-just-transition.html">task force</a> to look for ways to reduce the livelihood disruptions that come with phasing out coal. The federal government has also recently <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/natural-resources-canada/news/2021/07/canada-launches-just-transition-engagement.html">initiated consultations</a> for just transition legislation that would direct resources to communities negatively impacted by the transition towards a low-carbon future.</p>
<p>Just transition policies for cellular agriculture could encourage farmers to transition into animal-free dairy production through infrastructure transition grants, support with licensing new technologies, biodiversity conservation and carbon credits for <a href="https://ipbes.net/glossary/land-sparing">land sparing</a>, sanctuary planning for current dairy farms and land back incentives to provide pathways for agriculture towards decolonization. </p>
<p>It’s unclear how soon Canadian dairy farmers will face competition from cellular agriculture, although some have suggested <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/ind.2021.29240.ctu">U.S. beef and dairy sector revenues will decline nearly 90 per cent by 2035</a>. </p>
<p>Is it reasonable to expect Canadian dairy farmers will make way for cellular dairy? Or is up to policy-makers, industry leaders and food systems organizers to ensure this transition leads to a food system that is more sustainable, but also just?</p>
<p><em>Yadira Tejeda Saldana, research collaborations director at <a href="https://new-harvest.org/">New Harvest</a>, co-authored this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173898/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Evan Bowness receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada and Future Skills Centre Canada.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Newell receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada and Future Skills Centre Canada.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah-Louise Ruder receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada and Future Skills Centre Canada.</span></em></p>Technological changes on the horizon will likely disrupt the dairy industry as we know it — plans to mitigate the risks this transition poses to farmer livelihoods and animal welfare should start now.Evan Bowness, Postdoctoral Researcher, Food and Agriculture Institute, University of The Fraser ValleyRobert Newell, Associate Director, Food and Agriculture Institute, University of The Fraser ValleySarah-Louise Ruder, PhD Candidate at the Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1683922021-09-27T15:28:35Z2021-09-27T15:28:35ZA grass native to Africa could transform the continent’s dairy yields. Here’s how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423080/original/file-20210924-19-yfgm1m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cows' milk yields rise when they eat _Brachiaria_ grass.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Eric Ouma/ILRI</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The cows kept by small-scale farmers in Africa are notoriously unproductive. The average dairy cow, for example, produces about <a href="http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL">540 litres of milk</a> per lactation. By contrast, dairy cows in North America that belong to commercial or intensive farmers can produce up to <a href="http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL">10,479 litres of milk</a> per lactation.</p>
<p>One of the main differences between the two animals lies in the quality of their feeds and forage. Simply put, the more nutritious cows’ diets are, the more and better quality milk they produce. And small-scale farms – of which there are about 33 million in Africa, contributing <a href="https://www.ifad.org/thefieldreport/#:%7E:text=In%20Africa%2C%20there%20are%20an%20estimated%2033%20million,reduce%20poverty.%20Zambia%20is%20one%20of%20those%20places">up to 70%</a> of the continent’s food supply – usually cannot afford more nutritious feed. </p>
<p><em>Brachiaria</em> – the genus name of <em>Urochloa</em> – consists of about 100 documented species of grass of which seven species used as fodder plants are of African origin. This grass may hold the key to improving milk yields from cows kept by small-scale farmers. Why is this an important goal? </p>
<p>First, it will help to meet rising demand for animal-sourced foods – like cow milk – as the continent becomes more urbanised and its population grows. Second, it will provide an economic boon to individual farmers and communities more broadly. Finally, there’s potential for <em>Brachiaria</em> itself to become a money maker. Local seed traders will benefit if the grass seed is commercialised.</p>
<p><em>Brachiaria</em> has already proven its worth in some parts of the world. It has <a href="http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd16/12/holm16098.htm">been instrumental</a> to the beef industry’s success in the tropical Americas. Brazil alone now has some <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/CP13319">99 million hectares of land</a> dedicated to <em>Brachiaria</em> grass. </p>
<p>The seed varieties currently used in African agriculture are all imported, most from South America and South East Asia. Long distance transportation and tariffs make these seeds expensive. It would be ideal to develop a quality, climate resilient <em>Brachiaria</em> seed production system on the continent. But where?</p>
<p>We believe the answer lies in Cameroon. Farmers there have long planted Brachiaria seeds, but nobody had ever tested their quality. Our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-94246-w">research</a> filled this gap. Though the overall seed quality was poor, we’ve found that improved cultivation practices can address this issue. Now we’re hard at work to turn Cameroon into Africa’s <em>Brachiaria</em> seed hub.</p>
<h2>A quality grass</h2>
<p><em>Brachiaria’s</em> forage quality was recognised by scientists <a href="https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/54362">in the 1950s</a>. It has a high biomass yield potential and is adaptable to low-fertility soil. South American farmers, especially in Brazil, started using <em>Brachiaria</em> on a large-scale in the early 1970s and it is recognised as being <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/cp/cp13319">key to the region’s booming beef industry</a>. </p>
<p>In Africa, however, interest in the grass grew more slowly. It was not until the early 2000s, when the continent began to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00128325.2015.1041263">feel the effects</a> of population growth and urbanisation that higher demand for animal-sourced foods piqued renewed interest in ways to improve agricultural yields.</p>
<p>As a plant scientist based at the <a href="https://www.ilri.org/">International Livestock Research Institute</a>, I have <a href="https://www.ilri.org/people/sita-r-ghimire">researched</a> <em>Brachiaria</em> grass since 2013. Through various partnerships, colleagues and I have worked on a <a href="https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/69364">climate-smart <em>Brachiaria</em> programme</a> to test the varieties already developed in Australia and South America in various African contexts. They performed well independently, but the next step was to integrate them into the mixed crop-livestock systems typical of the continent.</p>
<p>Farmers responded enthusiastically to the grass: it significantly increased milk production <a href="https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/79797">by up to 40%</a> and caused substantial body weight gain in livestock, by as much as 50% in heifers. Its popularity grew as major journals and media outlets publicised its benefits. However, the seeds that made all this research possible were still unavailable on the continent. We had to import them, an arduous and costly process because of regulations and distance. So we knew that, going forward, we had to look at local seed production.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A close-up view of many small seeds all clustered together." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423082/original/file-20210924-25-xicrl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423082/original/file-20210924-25-xicrl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423082/original/file-20210924-25-xicrl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423082/original/file-20210924-25-xicrl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423082/original/file-20210924-25-xicrl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=689&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423082/original/file-20210924-25-xicrl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=689&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423082/original/file-20210924-25-xicrl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=689&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Brachiaria seeds.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sita Ghimire/ILRI</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It was also crucial to find the best country for the task at hand. While our work in Kenya and Rwanda was promising, it wasn’t as successful as we would have hoped, possibly due to these countries’ proximity to the equator; the fact that night and day are of equal length affected various stages of seed development in species that favour longer days.</p>
<h2>Why Cameroon?</h2>
<p>Cameroon is often called “<a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13146029">Africa in miniature</a>”. It represents the continent’s major climatic zones, creating a perfect place for seed research. </p>
<p>During a visit to Cameroon, I noted that farmers had been growing <em>Brachiaria</em> grass for over 50 years and simultaneously producing the seed for domestic uses. </p>
<p>They also sell surplus seed to neighbours, and seed traders from the Central African Republic and Nigeria. However, the quality of seeds produced in Cameroon was not established until <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-94246-w">our study</a>.</p>
<p>There are ten regions in Cameroon; <em>Brachiaria</em> grass is commonly grown in five. Our team collected seeds from these five regions to determine their quality: trueness to variety, germination percentage, purity, vigour and appearance. The quality was generally too low to meet international standards, but with improved cultivation practices this hurdle can be overcome.</p>
<h2>Production hub</h2>
<p>We are currently engaged in activities that would make Cameroon Africa’s <em>Brachiaria</em> seed production hub. Achieving this would significantly increase seed availability to farmers, reduce the cost of the seeds and facilitate the scaling of <em>Brachiaria</em> grass production across the continent.</p>
<p>To this end, my research team at International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and researchers from the <a href="https://irad.cm/index.php/en/">Institute for Agricultural Research and Development</a> in Cameroon have been working to document the quality of <em>Brachiaria</em> seeds produced in the country’s different regions of Cameroon. We’re also fine-tuning agronomic practices to improve seed quality, as well as training local farmers on improved agricultural practices for the production of quality <em>Brachiaria</em> seeds.</p>
<p>We hope that this partnership between the two institutes will develop Cameroon into the continent’s <em>Brachiaria</em> seed production hub in the next three to five years. This will have numerous economic benefits and make quality seeds available in the African continent at a much lower price.</p>
<p><em>Mwihaki Mundia, BecA–ILRI Hub as Communications Officer, contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168392/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The work discussed in this article was funded by The Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida)</span></em></p>This grass may hold the key to improving milk yields from cows kept by small-scale farmers across the African continent.Sita Ghimire, Principal Scientist - Plant Pathology, Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute HubLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1560912021-03-02T15:06:05Z2021-03-02T15:06:05Z‘Buttergate’ debunked: No evidence butter is harder due to palm supplements for cows<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/387245/original/file-20210302-17-vzg0me.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4735%2C3145&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A recent debate over the consistency of butter has led to attention on cows' feed.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The recent controversies over <a href="https://calgaryherald.com/news/local-news/dairy-farmers-of-canada-responds-to-hard-butter-controversy">the properties of butter and how dairy cows are fed</a> have become a case study in media attention and the weight of evidence behind it. Anecdotal comments about the consistency of butter snowballed into <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1865739843731">sometimes overheated discussion of dairy cows’ diets</a>. </p>
<p>To paraphrase the Anglo-Irish author Jonathan Swift, <a href="https://quoteinvestigator.com/2014/07/13/truth/">sensationalism flies and consideration comes limping after it</a>. Dairy Farmers of Canada announced a committee to consider issues related to palm-based feed supplements for cows, <a href="https://dairyfarmersofcanada.ca/en/consider-using-alternatives-palm-supplements-says-dairy-farmers-canada">but soon after pre-emptively asked farmers to consider avoiding their use</a>. </p>
<p>The problem started with a question about a perceived change in the hardness of butter and moved to whether a contentious product such as palm oil should be used in ingredients for cows’ feed.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1357746758919483393"}"></div></p>
<h2>The weight of evidence</h2>
<p>University professors and other experts are accorded some presumption of basing their comments on rigorous data and analysis when contributing to public discussion of issues. That trust must be supported by being clear about the basis for statements: What is the quantity and quality of the evidence? Is there presently a scientific consensus? What is opinion versus evidence that has at least passed the basic standard of peer review and publication in a scientific journal?</p>
<p>This controversy started over <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/food-and-wine/article-is-your-butter-not-as-soft-as-it-used-to-be-the-pandemic-and-our-urge/">whether butter is harder</a> at room temperature than it used to be. Although that question has melted away, it’s instructive to trace this story from its start.</p>
<p>Consider the difference in value between replying to a social media post and conducting a formal survey of a representative sample of people. It’s not hard to see how you might get a very different view by asking “Does anyone else think that butter is harder?” or “Please rate your satisfaction with the texture of butter from very dissatisfied to very satisfied,” including an option for “no opinion.”</p>
<p>If we wanted to know if butter is hard or harder than it used to be, <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/business/dairy-farmers-lobby-asks-members-to-stop-using-palm-as-it-investigates-buttergate-1.5323703">we would have to measure it</a>. That is not difficult to do, but it has not been done in this case. That might have been the end of it. Astute observations raise questions that research may answer, but without a clear question it is impossible to propose a solution.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/387025/original/file-20210301-13-141xyrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A knife spreading butter on bread" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/387025/original/file-20210301-13-141xyrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/387025/original/file-20210301-13-141xyrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387025/original/file-20210301-13-141xyrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387025/original/file-20210301-13-141xyrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387025/original/file-20210301-13-141xyrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387025/original/file-20210301-13-141xyrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387025/original/file-20210301-13-141xyrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">To definitively know whether the consistency of butter had changed, we would have needed to measure its consistency over time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In this case, the observation was made that some dairy farmers sometimes feed small amounts (about one per cent of the cow’s diet) of palm-based feed supplements to some of their cows. Presumably because butter is 80 per cent milk fat, this led to speculation that there might be an association between this feeding practice and the consistency of butter. Here, there are some data. And also some muddied waters. </p>
<p>While the terminology is possibly confusing, cow’s milk — like human breast milk — contains palmitic acid, a saturated fat. It’s 30 to 35 per cent of the many different fats in cows’ milk, whether the cows eat any palm-based feeds or not.</p>
<h2>Cows’ diets</h2>
<p>Most of what cows in Canada eat is grown on their home farm or locally: corn and alfalfa silage, corn grain and some soybean meal are staples. Dairy farmers set their cows’ diets based on <a href="https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition/nutrition-dairy-cattle/nutritional-requirements-of-dairy-cattle">detailed and ongoing analysis</a> and <a href="https://dairyfarmersofcanada.ca/en/dairy-in-canada/dairy-excellence/canadian-dairy-cow-diet">formulation by professional nutritionists</a>. Veterinarians routinely monitor cows’ health, visiting dairy farms for preventive medicine every week or every other week. </p>
<p>Vegetable-based fat supplements may be included at about one per cent of a dairy cow’s total diet <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817052-6.00009-4">to help counter the energy deficit that can occur in early lactation</a>, or to shore up the cow’s energy supply during the heat of the summer. That has been done to meet seasonally fluctuating market demands for butterfat <a href="https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2017-12924">for decades</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/X55YvgyPgm0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Adam Lock, an expert on dairy cow nutrition and its impact on milk fat, produced a briefing and summary of the current science.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Feeding palm-based supplements to dairy cows will change the palmitic acid content of milk to a small degree. There is no evidence of negative health implications for the cows or the people who consume the milk from these cows. </p>
<p>Cows are not fed palm oil itself but palmitic acid supplements, which may come from palm oil or by-products of palm oil processing. There is no evidence that there has been any change in the feeding of palmitic acid. In fact, the evidence based on data on the fatty acid profile of milk from cows in Québec is that the palmitic acid content of milk has not changed over the last year, and data from 2018 showed <a href="https://www.lapresse.ca/actualites/2021-02-24/vaches-nourries-a-l-huile-de-palme/les-transformateurs-laitiers-condamnent-la-pratique.php">less than a one per cent difference</a> in palmitic acid content in herds that did or didn’t feed supplemental fat — 33 versus 33.5 per cent.</p>
<p>There is little data on whether or how the details of cows’ diets might affect the properties of dairy food. More research is needed, <a href="https://www.lebulletin.com/elevage/non-le-gras-ajoute-a-la-ration-des-vaches-vaches-laitieres-ne-rend-pas-le-beurre-plus-dur-111519">and is being pursued on several fronts</a>. But based on the available evidence, it is improbable that feeding palm-based supplements has had appreciable effects on the properties of butter.</p>
<h2>Informed decisions?</h2>
<p>Not all decisions are, or ought to be, based on scientific data alone. We often have to make decisions in the absence of fulsome evidence, and consider our values as well as hard data. Context helps. Palm oil and its derivatives are used in many foods (check the baked goods, granola bars and hazelnut spread in your pantry, and the margarine in the fridge), cosmetics and biofuels.</p>
<p>There are concerns about the sustainability of palm oil production. Like the coffee, cocoa and forestry industries, there are established <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/industries/palm-oil">international schemes</a> to support sustainable practices in palm production. </p>
<p>Individuals or industries may well make values-based practices and purchasing decisions but they should first consider the best available scientific evidence. Otherwise we’re on a slope more slippery than butter, hard or soft.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/156091/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen LeBlanc receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Canada First Research Excellence Fund, and the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs. In the past 5 years, he has received research funding from Landus Coopertive (an animal nutrition company) and Elanco Animal Health Canada. He received research funding from Dairy Farmers of Ontario in 2013, and from Dairy Farmers of Canada from 2012 to 2016.</span></em></p>A recent controversy over the consistency of butter reflects the need for evidence rather than anecdotal data.Stephen LeBlanc, Professor, Veterinary Population Medicine, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1213062019-08-06T21:50:46Z2019-08-06T21:50:46ZAlmonds don’t lactate, but that’s no reason to start calling almond milk juice<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286888/original/file-20190805-36377-whp7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=50%2C75%2C4124%2C2672&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A rural advocacy group in New Zealand wants milks made from plants, such as almond or rice milk, called juices.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At a conference about <a href="https://proteintech.events/">disruptive innovations in food production</a> last week, dairy industry spokespeople criticised the “milk” labelling of non-dairy products such as almond or rice milks. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.fedfarm.org.nz/">Federated Farmers</a>, a rural advocacy group, prompted media headlines with a suggestion that we should call a beverage made from almonds <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/checkpoint/audio/2018706641/should-vege-products-be-able-to-use-meat-and-dairy-terms">almond juice</a> because it is “definitely not a milk under the definition in the Oxford dictionary”.</p>
<p>In a similar vein, the chief science officer for the dairy cooperative Fonterra, <a href="https://www.fonterra.com/nz/en/about/our-markets.html">the world’s largest dairy exporter</a>, said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>These plant-based milks have a positioning that says they are milk and that they are plant-based. Unfortunately, from a content basis, they are providing inferior nutrition compared to what you find in dairy products.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Their position is that labelling plant-based beverages as milk is misleading consumers into buying nutritionally inferior products. This position is gaining momentum around the world. The US Food and Drug Administration (<a href="https://www.fda.gov/home">FDA</a>) is <a href="https://www.vox.com/2018/8/31/17760738/almond-milk-dairy-soy-oat-labeling-fda">considering making “milk” a label exclusive to dairy products</a>. And the European Court of Justice has already upheld a law <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-40274645">restricting the use of dairy terms on soy products</a> (even though almond milk is exempt). </p>
<p>We disagree. Calling the product “almond milk” makes sense and doesn’t mislead anyone.</p>
<h2>Defining milk</h2>
<p>“An almond doesn’t lactate,” according to <a href="https://reason.com/2018/10/17/an-almond-doesnt-lactate/">FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb</a>, so almonds cannot be milked. But defining milk by its method of production won’t cut it. The US-based company Perfect Day, for example, makes <a href="https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2019/7/15/20694715/vegan-ice-cream-lab-grown-dairy-perfect-day">dairy products</a> without the involvement of any udders or even cows. They genetically modified a protein-creating microorganism to produce the same proteins found in cow’s milk: casein and whey.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lab-grown-dairy-the-next-food-frontier-117963">Lab-grown dairy: The next food frontier</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A more useful way to define something is to look at its intended function. Consider a mouse trap. A mouse trap is a thing that is designed to trap mice. These traps use various materials and trapping mechanisms, but these differences don’t matter. The function of all these traps is the same, so they are all “mouse traps”.</p>
<p>Almond milk and other plant-based beverages function as milks. They go well with cereal, can be consumed by themselves, and provide nutrition. In fact, almond milk has been used widely as an animal milk substitute <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/nut-milks-are-milk-says-almost-every-culture-across-globe-180970008/">since the middle ages</a>. Plant-based milks do what animal milks do, with the advantage of being acceptable for people who cannot or do not want to consume animal milks. </p>
<p>Just like different traps are “mouse traps” because they all have the function of trapping mice, different kinds of consumable liquid, from cows, goats, coconuts, soy or almonds are all “milks” because they all perform the functions we associate with milk. </p>
<h2>Milk and nutrition</h2>
<p>Animal <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/foods/milk">milk is nutrient rich</a> and <a href="https://www.bestfoodfacts.org/is-plant-based-milk-healthy/">more nutrient rich than many plant-based milk</a> alternatives. But, basing the definition of “milk” on nutritional claims might not help the dairy lobby distinguish their products from plant-based alternatives. </p>
<p>As soon as a nutrition threshold is set for milk, plant-based beverages could be fortified with additives until they became milks. Some <a href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/325425.php">soy milks are already fortified</a> with calcium and nutrients to aid calcium absorption. Emulating the higher levels of protein and certain vitamins and minerals (but presumably not fat and sugars) might not be too challenging, especially given the impressive, ongoing advances in food technology.</p>
<p>Given that almond milk performs all of the milk functions we expect, including having some nutritional value, it makes sense to call it “milk”.</p>
<h2>Misleading consumers</h2>
<p>Even if you don’t like functional definitions, consumers are not being misled by product names like “almond milk”. Consumers don’t think that peanut butter has dairy butter in it. They also don’t think that almond milk is cows’ milk with almond flavouring. </p>
<p>The companies making almond milk should not want consumers to think their product has dairy in it. Many consumers of plant-based milks choose them because they want milk but not the <a href="https://nutrition.org/going-nuts-about-milk-heres-what-you-need-to-know-about-plant-based-milk-alternatives/">dairy-related moral or dietary problems</a> that come with it. If many people believed that almond milks contained dairy, the companies would quickly change the name to almond juice. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-future-of-meat-is-shifting-to-plant-based-products-118513">The future of meat is shifting to plant-based products</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Consumers also aren’t misled by the lower nutritional value of plant-based milks (relative to animal-based milks). Only very health-conscious people buy animal milk for a specific nutrition profile. And, <a href="https://www.sph.umn.edu/news/reads-nutrition-facts-food-labels/">very health-conscious people read nutritional labels</a>, so they are not going to be misled by low-nutrition juices masquerading as milks.</p>
<p>Being misled about a product can have harmful effects. Requiring cars to be sold with a recent warrant of fitness is important because it can prevent the expensive mistake of “buying a lemon”. Labelling poisons as such is even more important because poison-related consumer mistakes could be deadly. But we need to find a workable balance between adequately protecting consumers and not placing too many burdens on producers.</p>
<p>Consumers realise that almonds don’t lactate, and that plant-based milks are designed to be functional alternatives to animal-based milks. So, the name “almond milk” doesn’t mislead anyone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121306/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New Zealand’s dairy industry is arguing consumers are being misled if the term “milk” is used for plant-based products such as almond or coconut milk, but consumers are savvier than that.Dan Weijers, Senior Lecturer in Philosophy, Co-editor International Journal of Wellbeing, University of WaikatoNick Munn, Senior Lecturer in Philosophy, University of WaikatoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1057742018-10-30T21:57:03Z2018-10-30T21:57:03ZIn defence of Canada’s dairy farmers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242525/original/file-20181026-7074-qw35ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Canada's dairy industry is being increasingly put at risk in trade negotiations. A visit to a Canadian dairy farm illuminates why the industry should be protected. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>At 8 a.m. one recent morning, when the milking of 110 cows was complete, I helped Jeannie van Dyk feed her calves and give them clean bedding. Van Dyk has not lost any calves due to excellent biosecurity and their housing and feeding regimes.</p>
<p>All the calves at Lellavan Farms in Noel Shore, N.S., are fed warm water, which helps them avoid getting chilled. The calf hutches are modular, allowing them to be taken down for cleaning. The space is being moved to a positive air-pressure system to ensure protection from disease. </p>
<p>The calves are fed milk twice daily, individually according to size, appetite and age. Then they’re taught to drink from a bucket and they start solid food at around three weeks.</p>
<p>At 8:20, the milk tanker arrived, collecting 8,000 litres that would soon reach homes across the province. The conversation at the farm shifted from cows to macro forces shaping the Lellavan Farm family’s world: Supply management and international trade deals.</p>
<h2>At the centre of trade talks</h2>
<p>Our dairy industry has been in the news a lot in recent years as a focal point in Canada’s many international trade negotiations.</p>
<p>First, there was the <a href="http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/index.aspx?lang=eng">Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement</a> between Canada and the European Union, known as CETA. Then came the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, <a href="https://international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/cptpp-ptpgp/index.aspx?lang=eng">dubbed the TPP</a>. Most recently there was the sticky renegotiation of NAFTA, resulting in the new United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement, <a href="https://international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/usmca-aeumc/index.aspx?lang=eng">or the USMCA.</a> </p>
<p>Every farmer in Canada rides the waves of these negotiations. Concessions and deals are cut in faraway urban environments, sometimes with little input from the rural communities that depend on agriculture for cultural and physical survival.</p>
<h2>Day kicks off in darkness</h2>
<p>I’ve worked with the agricultural industry for more than 20 years, in at least four different countries. But until this past Thanksgiving weekend at Lellavan Farms, I didn’t really know what it was to be a dairy farmer, to stomp a mile in their muddy boots, kicking my day off in the darkness at 4:30 a.m.</p>
<p>As we worked our way through the various chores, I chatted with Jeannie about her job, her farm and what these trade agreements mean to her. The three aforementioned agreements have collectively given other countries access to more than nine per cent of the Canadian milk market.</p>
<p>That is more milk than is produced in all of Atlantic Canada. Van Dyk shared with me a <a href="https://www.agropur.com/sites/default/files/documents/Analysis_of_%20impacts_of_supply_management_Canadian_dairy_inudstry-EN.pdf">report commissioned by Agropur Dairy co-operative</a>, whose members are spread across five Canadian provinces, called <em>Analysis of the potential impacts of the end of supply management in the Canadian dairy industry.</em> </p>
<p>It says opening up the Canadian dairy system risks a net loss of $2.1 to $3.5 billion of Canada’s GDP. Approximately 24,000 direct jobs would be affected.</p>
<h2>A spike followed by a decline</h2>
<p>Other studies suggest that countries that have transitioned away from supply management, such as Australia, have seen an initial spike in dairy production, <a href="http://www.momagri.org/UK/focus-on-issues/A-glimpse-of-the-world-abolition-of-supply-management-in-Australia_1667.html">then a steady reduction in production,</a> farms and farmers. Many producers have been <a href="http://www.agrifoodecon.ca/uploads/userfiles/files/dairy%20policy%20reform-cautionary%20july-18.pdf">forced to exit the industry</a> due to soft market conditions.</p>
<p>Van Dyk tells me that she writes 50 business cheques each month to local companies, a substantial contribution to the local economy. Her farm employs people from the community and hosts a student each summer, so future farmers have applied knowledge.</p>
<p>Being a dairy farmer is more than a job. It’s a way of life. The recent concessions in trade agreements are eroding farmers’ livelihoods, and thus that way of life.</p>
<p>Granted, it’s a challenging life. I often ask farmers why they do it.</p>
<h2>Love of their animals</h2>
<p>The answer is always the same: Love. Canadian dairy farms are not just milk factories. They are collections of people who love what they do and the animals in their care. That gets them through 20-hour days in the summer.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242528/original/file-20181026-7071-pjvba9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242528/original/file-20181026-7071-pjvba9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242528/original/file-20181026-7071-pjvba9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242528/original/file-20181026-7071-pjvba9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242528/original/file-20181026-7071-pjvba9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242528/original/file-20181026-7071-pjvba9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242528/original/file-20181026-7071-pjvba9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Canada’s dairy farmers care about their livestock. In this 2016 photo, Andy Benson poses with a calf he saved a month earlier by performing CPR on his dairy farm in Bellisle Creek, N.B.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Ron Ward</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Jeannie and her husband John are proudly mentoring their two sons into the management of the 600-acre crop and 300-head farm. They all showed me how incredibly innovative farmers are as well as their dedication to the welfare and comfort of their animals. </p>
<p>Lellavan Farms just installed a $2.2-million dairy barn designed around the principal criteria of animal welfare, comfort and safety. Jeannie knows every single animal. As we walked around and interacted with them, it was clear they knew her. They showed affection.</p>
<p>In the language of reports, the Agropur report states that the dairy industry “contributes to the regional fabric and territory occupations.”</p>
<p>I’ll put it this way: You cannot separate farming from the fabric of rural Canada. The families, animals and land are fully integrated into the community and landscape. The survival of rural Atlantic Canada, in particular, is dependent on this, and it is something we must keep in mind during all of our trade negotiations.</p>
<p>Agriculture is our future; it’s that simple.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/105774/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Gray does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Countries that have phased out supply management systems in the dairy industry have seen an initial spike in production, then a steady decline. That’s why Canada should protect its dairy farmers.David Gray, Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/844942018-10-02T10:17:01Z2018-10-02T10:17:01ZHeat is a serious threat to dairy cows – we’re finding innovative ways to keep them cool<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/238373/original/file-20180927-72336-1lkqzil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C11%2C65%2C161&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cooling dairy cows with fans and misters at Pacheco Dairy in Kerman, Calif., during a heat wave in 2006. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/AP-A-CA-USA-ARG-HEAT-DEAD-LIVESTOCK/a857e8ba341cdb11af9f0014c2589dfb/57/0">AP Photo/Gary Kazanjian</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>California is the nation’s top milk-producing state and home to nearly 1.8 million dairy cows. California is also hot, especially for cows, which have trouble keeping cool when the weather gets warm. And when cows get too hot, their milk production decreases. Severe overheating can threaten cows’ health and their ability to get pregnant and carry calves to term.</p>
<p>Dairy farmers use fans and sprayers to cool cows in their barns, but there is a substantial need for better options. Existing systems use a lot of energy and water, which is costly for farmers. And climate change is raising temperatures and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-much-has-global-warming-worsened-californias-drought-now-we-have-a-number-46445">stressing California’s water supplies</a>.</p>
<p>With funding from the <a href="http://www.energy.ca.gov/">California Energy Commission</a>, we are among the animal scientists and engineers collaborating at UC Davis to test new innovations and measure how they affect electricity and water consumption, as well as cows’ health and behavior. We are also evaluating the cost of these technologies and their potential for large-scale adoption in commercial dairies in California. </p>
<h2>The threat of heat</h2>
<p>Daytime temperatures are regularly over 72 degrees Fahrenheit for more than five months of the year in California’s Central Valley, the state’s main dairy region. Above this threshold, cows start to feel the heat. Cows are particularly sensitive to hot weather: Their body temperature is 101.5 degrees Fahrenheit, three degrees higher than humans, and they create a large amount of heat as they break down feed in their stomachs and produce milk. </p>
<p>When outdoor temperatures rise, it becomes increasingly difficult for cows to dissipate body heat to the outdoor environment. As they try to regulate their body temperature, their respiration rates begin to increase. Then they start to drool and breathe with their mouths open, much like dogs panting. If they cannot cool themselves, their body temperature will increase. These are all considered signs of heat stress. Once it sets in, cows will produce less milk. They may have trouble getting and staying pregnant, and in severe cases may die.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/238375/original/file-20180927-48641-98e3z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/238375/original/file-20180927-48641-98e3z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/238375/original/file-20180927-48641-98e3z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/238375/original/file-20180927-48641-98e3z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/238375/original/file-20180927-48641-98e3z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/238375/original/file-20180927-48641-98e3z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/238375/original/file-20180927-48641-98e3z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/238375/original/file-20180927-48641-98e3z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Commercial dairy farms typically house hundreds of cows (shown: McMahon’s E-Z Acres Dairy Farm, Homer, N.Y.).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/P4cowc">Chesapeake Bay Program/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When summer heat skyrockets, humans can jump into a swimming pool or retreat indoors under the air conditioning and feel relief, at least until we see our electrical bills. Dairy cows do not have these luxuries. To cool cows, dairy farmers use a combination of shade, fans and water, usually when cows are in their barns. The cows are gently sprayed while they eat, usually for four to five hours per day, and while they wait to be milked. </p>
<p>These strategies help cows regulate their body temperature, but use large quantities of water and electricity. The average California dairy farm <a href="https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/dairy/pdf/Annual/2017/COP_Annual2017Data.pdf">spends US$140,000 annually on utilities</a>. </p>
<p>Furthermore, these systems may be insufficient during extreme heat waves. During one stretch in 2017, temperatures in the Central Valley of California reached highs above 90 degrees Fahrenheit for 53 days in a row. Extended hot spells like this increase the instances of heat stress in dairy cattle. </p>
<h2>Other ways to cool with water</h2>
<p>Our study is comparing four different systems for cooling cows. Two of them utilize evaporative cooling processes, which take advantage of the fact that when water changes from a liquid to a gas, it absorbs a lot of heat. This process produces cooler, more humid air, but can also be used to cool liquid water. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/vLfWnX0ahtc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">When water evaporates, it absorbs energy from the surrounding air, cooling the air. Evaporative cooling systems are commonly used in dry environments, where water readily evaporates.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our first cooling technology uses mats buried approximately 4 inches underneath the sand bedding where cows lie down. Water flows through the mats and absorbs heat from the cows through conduction. The heated water then flows to a device called a Sub-Wet Bulb Evaporative Chiller, where it is cooled using a high-efficiency evaporative cooling process and returned to the mats to absorb more heat from the cows. Because the chiller produces cool water using evaporation, it is ideally suited for hot and dry climates like California. </p>
<p>The second technology uses targeted direct evaporative cooling, sometimes referred to as a “swamp cooler,” and fabric ducts to blow cool air on the cows in the areas where cows eat and rest. Swamp coolers are simple systems that work by passing hot, dry air over water to cool it down.</p>
<p>For comparison, we also are testing two cooling systems that use traditional spray water and fans, similar to current technology on most California dairy farms. However, with one system we are working to reduce water use and improve cooling by moving the fan closer to the spray water to promote evaporation from cows’ bodies. As water evaporates off of the cows, it takes heat with it. To conserve water, we also are testing spraying the water for a shorter period of time.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/238376/original/file-20180927-48662-10frb5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/238376/original/file-20180927-48662-10frb5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/238376/original/file-20180927-48662-10frb5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=258&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/238376/original/file-20180927-48662-10frb5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=258&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/238376/original/file-20180927-48662-10frb5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=258&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/238376/original/file-20180927-48662-10frb5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/238376/original/file-20180927-48662-10frb5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/238376/original/file-20180927-48662-10frb5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Options for cooling cows using water-filled mats (A) or air blown through fabric ducts (B).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Paul Fortunato</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>During our first test phase, we tested all four treatments on 32 cows at UC Davis and collected data on their respiration rates, body temperature, milk yield and behavior, as well as weather, water use and energy use. Data analysis is underway. We anticipate that we will identify at least one option that will cool cows as effectively as current options, but will also save water, energy or both. Next summer we will test the most effective and efficient technology against the traditional spray and fan approach on a Central Valley dairy farm.</p>
<p>Finding better ways to keep dairy cows cool is a high priority for this industry, as well as for cows’ welfare. We hope our findings can help California dairies improve their productivity and keep cows safe and cool, while helping California meet its energy and climate goals.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84494/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alycia Drwencke receives funding from the California Energy Commission. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cassandra Tucker receives funding from the California Energy Commission. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Theresa Pistochini receives funding from the California Energy Commission.</span></em></p>Dairy cows are sensitive to heat, so farmers cool them down with sprinklers and fans. Researchers are designing better, more efficient systems to keep cows comfortable through hot California summers.Alycia Drwencke, Graduate Student, University of California, DavisCassandra Tucker, Professor of Animal Science, University of California, DavisTheresa Pistochini, Engineering Manager, Western Cooling Efficiency Center, University of California, DavisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1018432018-08-22T12:23:00Z2018-08-22T12:23:00ZHow climate change will affect dairy cows and milk production in the UK – new study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232897/original/file-20180821-149472-17bl7a8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cows-stuck-stall-eating-hay-sunset-706524715">Valerio Pardi/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The unusually hot summer of 2018 has proved challenging for farmers across the UK. Among other things, the scorching weather and lack of rain has <a href="http://www.itv.com/news/anglia/2018-07-17/heatwave-is-last-straw-for-some-crop-farmers/">damaged crops</a>, and <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-44704958">the grass</a> used to feed farm animals too.</p>
<p>Unfortunately the unusual may become more usual as the effects of climate change are <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-models-predict-the-world-will-be-anomalously-warm-until-2022-101542">felt more frequently across the world</a>. The high ambient temperatures and humidity seen this year, as well as extreme weather conditions such as flooding, are a significant challenge to the future of farming. </p>
<p>Pasture-based systems of dairy production, which are very common in the UK, are particularly sensitive to environmental factors. In fact, dairy cows are more likely to be vulnerable to the effects of climate change than cows that are housed, because housing provides shelter and technological options to mitigate the extremes of weather. </p>
<h2>Heat stress in cows</h2>
<p>For our recent study, our team looked at how climate change might impact <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0197076">UK milk production</a>, given what we already knew about how it affects dairy cows. In particular, we wanted to quantify the effects of heat stress on milk production. </p>
<p>Heat stress in cows occurs when ambient temperature and humidity go above animal specific thresholds. These thresholds are estimated by the <a href="http://www.coolcows.com.au/go-on-alert/thi.htm">temperature humidity index (THI)</a>. At present, the current British temperature and humidity is considered moderate on this scale, but is expected to get worse. It is open to debate, and depends on the cattle themselves, but generally a THI of more than 70 is regarded to be the point when heat stress becomes a problem and less milk is produced.</p>
<p>Using 11 different climate projection models, and 18 different milk production models, we estimated potential milk loss from UK dairy cows as climate conditions change during the 21st century. Given this information, our final climate projection analysis suggests that average ambient temperatures in the UK will increase by <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0197076">up to about 3.5°C</a> by the end of the century. This means that THIs during the summer, in some parts of the country, will lead to significant heat stress for cows if nothing is done to alleviate the hot weather’s effects. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232894/original/file-20180821-149475-1t8zsri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232894/original/file-20180821-149475-1t8zsri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232894/original/file-20180821-149475-1t8zsri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232894/original/file-20180821-149475-1t8zsri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232894/original/file-20180821-149475-1t8zsri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232894/original/file-20180821-149475-1t8zsri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232894/original/file-20180821-149475-1t8zsri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Grazing on a summer’s day.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/backlit-cow-grazing-field-sunset-672070138?src=D6qR88DqSNK8br0NI20upA-1-82">Gavayec/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Lactating cows initially respond to mild heat stress by sweating, panting, drinking more, and seeking shade when possible. At higher temperatures cows eat less feed, which leads to a fall in milk production. In south-east England – the region with the highest incidence of heat stress – the average annual milk losses due to heat stress <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0197076">is projected</a> to exceed 170kg/cow. Cows in the UK currently produce an average of about 7,500kg of milk each year so these future losses would be about 2.4% of their production. </p>
<p>However, climate change projections also suggest the UK would experience more heatwaves, and these would lead to even greater losses of milk. For example, the hottest area (south-east England) in the hottest year in the 2090s is predicted to result in an annual milk loss exceeding 1,300kg/cow, which is about 18.6% of annual milk yield. </p>
<p>In economic terms, south-west England is expected to be the region most vulnerable to climate change because it is characterised by a high dairy herd density, and so potentially a high level of heat stress-related milk loss. In the absence of mitigation measures, the estimated heat stress-related annual income loss for this region by the end of this century may reach £13.4m in average years, and £33.8m in extreme years.</p>
<p>However, by the end of the century we predict dairy cattle in large portions of Scotland and Northern Ireland could experience the same level of heat stress as cattle in southern England today. </p>
<h2>Mitigation now</h2>
<p>These predictions assume that nothing is done to mitigate the problems of heat stress. But there are many parts of the world that are already much hotter than the UK where milk is produced, and much is known about what can be done to protect the welfare of the animals and minimise economic losses from heat stress. These range from simple adaptations, such as the providing shade, to installing fans and water misting systems. </p>
<p>Cattle breeding for increased heat tolerance is another potential, which could be beneficial for maintaining pasture-based systems. In addition, changing the location of farming operations is another practice used to address economic challenges worldwide. Even though there is little indication that movement of dairy farming operations is a feasible strategy to decrease the risks of environmental challenges in the UK, regions with little or no prediction of conditions leading to heat stress (for example some parts of Scotland) may become increasingly important for UK dairy farms that depend on the availability of pasture.</p>
<p>In any case, we estimate that by 2100, heat stress-related annual income losses of average size dairy farms in the most affected regions may vary between £2,000-£6,000 and £6,000-£14,000 (in today’s value), in average and extreme years respectively. Armed with these figures, farmers need to begin planning for a hotter UK using cheaper, longer-term options such as planting trees or installing shaded areas.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/101843/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andreas Foskolos works for Aberystwyth University. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jon Moorby receives research grant funding from Defra, BBSRC and the Welsh Government. </span></em></p>By 2100, heat stress in cows could see average sized dairy farms losing up to £14,000 a year.Andreas Foskolos, Research Fellow in Ruminant Livestock Modelling, Aberystwyth UniversityJon Moorby, Reader in Livestock Nutrition, Aberystwyth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1000672018-07-23T14:30:08Z2018-07-23T14:30:08ZWhy Ethiopia’s dairy industry can’t meet growing demand for milk<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227996/original/file-20180717-44073-1r7tz9v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ethiopia produces about 4 billion litres of milk per year.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr/Morgana Wingard, USAID</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The demand for dairy products is rising rapidly in Ethiopia. Prices are being <a href="https://news.ilri.org/2018/07/11/research-spurs-increases-in-milk-production-productivity-and-sale-in-ethiopia/">pushed up</a> as demand is met by imported products, particularly powdered milk. The Conversation Africa’s Moina Spooner asked Azage Tegegne for insights into the challenges facing the sector.</em></p>
<p><strong>What does Ethiopia’s dairy sector look like?</strong></p>
<p>With a population <a href="http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/ethiopia-population/">of about</a> 110 million people, Ethiopia is the second-most populous country in Africa. This is a huge market opportunity for milk and milk products. Ethiopia also has one of the highest cattle populations in Africa, <a href="https://www.export.gov/article?id=Ethiopia-Livestock">estimated at</a> 60 million heads. Though camels, goats, and to a lesser extent sheep, are used as milk animals about 90% of milk comes from cows. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, milk production and consumption is <a href="https://nabc.nl/uploads/content/files/Fact%20sheet%20Dairy%20sector%20Ethiopia.pdf">very</a> low. This is driven by a number of factors.</p>
<p>In rural areas the animals used by smallholder farmers are local breeds which aren’t selected for milk production. And animals are managed in a traditional way, meaning they mostly depend on natural pasture with no supplementary feeds and that the quantity of milk is low. Milk is mainly used for household consumption, not marketed and any surplus is usually converted into butter and sold in local markets.</p>
<p>The situation is very different in more urban areas where farmers use crossbred, as well as high grade, dairy animals. They have access to artificial insemination, use more intensive systems, concentrate feeds and have access to animal health services. But these farmers account for only 1% of the dairy cattle population in the country. They supply milk to consumers in major urban centres, mainly through the informal market, though some is also sold to processing plants. </p>
<p>But because this system uses such a tiny proportion of the dairy cattle population, milk supply is low. </p>
<p>The country produces <a href="https://news.ilri.org/2018/04/23/ethiopia-sets-out-the-futures-for-its-growing-poultry-dairy-and-meat-subsectors/">about</a> 4 billion litres of milk per year. Per capita consumption is very low, estimated at about 20 litres, though rising consumption levels in Addis Ababa have brought it to about 40 litres. </p>
<p>The Food and Agriculture Organisation recommends that the per capita consumption of milk be <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PglHAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT270&lpg=PT270&dq=FAO+recommended+per+capita+consumption+of+100+liters+milk&source=bl&ots=tDp9S9MocO&sig=n-D0DOKt9RNvpYV7suKclXM2lx8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjdzpm866rcAhWsI8AKHXNECDIQ6AEIhgEwDA#v=onepage&q=FAO%20recommended%20per%20capita%20consumption%20of%20100%20liters%20milk&f=false">about</a> 200 litres, meaning 22 billion litres of milk is required. At the current production rate, there’s an annual shortage of about 18 billion litres. </p>
<p><strong>What challenges does the sector face?</strong></p>
<p>There are many.</p>
<p>The first is that local breeds provide about 1.5 litres per cow per day. In the UK the average cow <a href="http://www.theorganicfarmer.org/Articles/cow-high-milk-production">produces</a> about 25 - 30 litres. The local breeds used in Ethiopia also have a short lactation length of about 150 days. <a href="http://www.milkproduction.com/Library/Scientific-articles/Housing/Cow-comfort-15/">Ideally</a> for improved dairy breeds it is about 305 days. </p>
<p>Although there is a <a href="https://www.ilri.org/node/40602">National Artificial Insemination Centre</a>, smallholder farmers have limited access to improved dairy genetics. Improved dairy animals are very few, estimated <a href="https://dairyethiopia.files.wordpress.com/2018/05/dairy-cattle-crossbreeding-program-in-ethiopia.pdf">at about</a> one million, and they’re often too expensive for smallholders to buy. The artificial insemination delivery system is also weak and less effective. </p>
<p>There is also a critical shortage of feeds and water. Livestock mostly feed on grass hay and crop-residues – like cereal and pulse straws. Most of it is poor quality, highly affected by seasons and low in quantity. Supplementary feeds, like cereal bran and oil cakes, are either too expensive or in short supply. </p>
<p>Dairy production also needs good quality water. Availability and unreliable supply is a major constraint.</p>
<p>Another problem is that Ethiopia’s animal health services are weak. There are public animal health posts in rural villages. But, in most cases, they are poorly equipped and there is limited access to regular vaccinations. As a result, cows experience infertility problems, high abortion rates and calf mortality. </p>
<p>There is neither a national herd registration and identification system nor a milk recording scheme to provide information for genetic improvement and management decisions.</p>
<p>There is also a lack of education. Most dairy farmers lack formal education and have little to no training in dairy farming. There are no institutions which provide training courses targeted to smallholder farmers which means that farmers get most of their information from each other.</p>
<p>Farmers also aren’t organised. A smallholder-based production system, and the perishable nature of milk, means there’s a need for a strong collective system. But there are few dairy cooperatives that collect milk from their members and supply processing plants. Also, due to a lack of chilling plants in rural areas, the cooperatives only collect morning milking. </p>
<p>And finally, there is a lack of institutional capacity. The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Resources is responsible for the dairy sector but it has limited implementation capacity. </p>
<p><strong>What new technologies and practices do farmers need to adopt to address these?</strong></p>
<p>First, farmers need to change their attitude and think of dairy farming as a business. They need to invest in it and change their subsistence mode of production into a more market oriented system. This will require additional inputs and improved management.</p>
<p>Farmers need access to proper feed, water and good quality dairy cows. Animal health care is also vital and so farmers must adopt a strict management system to minimise disease incidence, including annual vaccinations. </p>
<p>Farmers also need to improve their management skills. They need these to be able to run proper animal housing and milking, feed systems, reproduction, milk hygiene and handling, record keeping and collective action and marketing systems.</p>
<p><strong>What should the government be doing?</strong></p>
<p>The Ethiopian government has identified dairy development as one of the economic drivers of the country and <a href="https://lives-ethiopia.org/2013/08/26/state-minister/">has taken</a> steps to support this. But to transform the dairy sector, there are still areas that need the government’s special attention. It needs to:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Establish a National Dairy Board to improve production, promote dairy consumption and regulate the sector.</p></li>
<li><p>Provide appropriate incentives to the private sector so the sector develops. These include access to land, water, electricity, removal of taxes and import regulation.</p></li>
<li><p>Promote the dairy sector. For instance integrating milk in child feeding programs.</p></li>
<li><p>Establish targeted dairy extension systems, like dairy advisory services and technical management support.</p></li>
<li><p>Improve the availability of vital inputs from production to processing such as quality forage seed, veterinary drugs and milk processing equipment.</p></li>
<li><p>Support dairy development and marketing through cooperatives .</p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100067/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Azage Tegegne does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In Ethiopia most of the milk comes from local breeds which aren’t suited to milk production.Azage Tegegne, Principal Scientist, LIVES Project Manager, Deputy to the Director General's Representative in Ethiopia, International Livestock Research Institute Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/990232018-07-12T07:42:57Z2018-07-12T07:42:57ZEradicating cattle disease M. bovis in New Zealand may be costly, even impossible, but we must try<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227047/original/file-20180711-70045-1i945mt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A phased eradication of M. bovis means that an additional 126,000 cows will need to be culled, at an estimated cost of NZ$886 million.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In May this year, the New Zealand government decided that it would attempt to <a href="https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/plan-eradicate-mycoplasma-bovis">eradicate Mycoplasma bovis</a>, a bacterial disease that affects cattle.</p>
<p>A phased eradication means that an additional 126,000 livestock will need to be culled, at an estimated cost of NZ$886 million. </p>
<p>Here’s what we know, what we don’t know and what’s at stake. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-agricultures-biggest-threat-needs-a-global-approach-16512">Australian agriculture’s biggest threat needs a global approach</a>
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<h2>How do we know this is a new incursion?</h2>
<p>M. bovis causes mastitis and arthritis in adult cattle and pneumonia in calves. It is found around the world, but <a href="https://www.mpi.govt.nz/protection-and-response/mycoplasma-bovis/resources-for-mycoplasma-bovis/documents-guidance-and-fact-sheets/">New Zealand was one of the last disease-free countries</a> until the detection of infected cows on a dairy farm in July 2017. </p>
<p>We can’t be sure that M. bovis didn’t arrive in New Zealand before the current outbreak, but the Ministry of Primary Industries has tested for the disease over the years and not found it. This has involved checking animals with symptoms similar to those caused by M. bovis as well as large-scale test of bulk tank milk in 2007. </p>
<p>In addition, all countries with M. bovis – including Australia, where less than 4% of dairy herds are affected – have had outbreaks of <a href="https://www.dairyaustralia.com.au/news-listing/mycoplasma-bovis-in-australia?id=B38A06C53C0746FAA8D53272476658C7">untreatable mastitis and arthritis</a> due to M. bovis. No such outbreaks were recorded in New Zealand until July 2017. </p>
<p>In Australia, the disease was <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378113516304631?via%3Dihub%20https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002203021730721X?via%3Dihub">first reported in the 1970s</a>, but it was not until 2006 that it was seen in the main dairying areas of New South Wales and Victoria where it caused outbreaks of mastitis. It is difficult to prove a negative and we certainly don’t have enough data to show it was definitively <em>not</em> in New Zealand before 2015. But the history of the disease in Australia shows that it can be detected even if it is rare. </p>
<p>Furthermore, the evidence so far from the investigation of the outbreak has been that all the infected farms can be traced back to cattle movements. If the disease had been here before, then tracing would likely have identified clusters of farms with no connections.</p>
<h2>Is eradication feasible?</h2>
<p>We do not currently know how the disease came into New Zealand. The only likely route, via imports of infected cattle, has been ruled out because live cattle imports ceased before 2015. In any case, live cattle imports have only come from Australia and the strain of bacteria in New Zealand is not the Australian one. Semen, embryos and illegal imports of veterinary products such as vaccines remain the most likely source, but all of these are very low risk. Although M. bovis can survive in these products, the chance of them being infected and that infection spreading to cattle is very low.</p>
<p>Without knowing where the disease came from, we cannot prevent it happening again. However, the risk of semen or embryos bringing in disease hasn’t changed in the last 20 years, so if it did indeed arrive via this route, it was simply bad luck. </p>
<p>So even if – after eradication – we did nothing to change the way semen, embryos or vaccine imports are regulated, it is possible that New Zealand would still remain free of M. bovis.</p>
<h2>How can we get rid of M. bovis?</h2>
<p>Authorities will use a systematic process of testing to identify infected herds. The biggest component will be testing the bulk tank milk of all dairy herds in the country. Tracing from infected herds will help to identify more infected herds and more traces. This is effectively a continuation of the current process with the aim of eliminating the disease.</p>
<p>The key problem with eradication is that currently the whole herd needs to be culled if one animal is infected because infection can only be detected at the herd level. This comes with significant cost and negative impact on affected farmers.</p>
<p>However, culling entire herds doesn’t necessarily influence the chances of a successful eradication process. The main issue is that we currently do not know exactly how many infected cattle or infected farms there are. It is going to take time to identify all the infected farms and it is possible that the number is much higher than the models suggest. This could make eradication impossible. </p>
<p>Tracing animal movements between farms is another key issue, and the lack of <a href="https://www.newsroom.co.nz/2018/05/15/109635/why-nait-failed-and-whats-being-done-to-fix-it">accurate recording</a> is hindering our response to the outbreak. For an eradication to be successful, farmers have to get better at keeping track of where animals are moved.</p>
<p>The decision to eradicate the disease is based on science, but it is not a scientific decision alone. Rightly, it is a political call, with the decisions being taken by the government with support from the industry. Eradication may prove to be impossible, but that does not mean we shouldn’t try. It just means that, unfortunately, the disease had spread far more widely than our current models suggest.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/99023/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Laven does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New Zealand has decided to attempt an eradication of the cattle disease Mycoplasma bovis, which means culling thousands of infected cattle.Richard Laven, Associate Professor Production Animal Health, Massey UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/794692017-12-13T11:23:51Z2017-12-13T11:23:51ZGold rush opportunists, hippie goat ladies, Latino newcomers: California entrepreneurs dream of cheese<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198638/original/file-20171211-9396-2ppeyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=182%2C82%2C3245%2C2443&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Humboldt Fog chèvre, born in a dream.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.cypressgrovecheese.com/resources/press-kit.html">T.Depaepe</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The idea for Humboldt Fog goat’s milk cheese first came to Mary Keehn in a dream. She fell asleep on an airplane and awoke with a vivid picture in her mind of how the cheese looked. And then she set out to realize her vision – in the process, helping to launch a late-20th-century American renaissance in artisan cheese-making.</p>
<p>But the dream didn’t come from nowhere. In Keehn’s telling, the revelation occurred on a transatlantic flight home from France, where she’d gone in 1992 as a young cheese-maker looking for new inspiration by tasting traditional French cheeses and visiting their makers. Indeed, a wheel of Humboldt Fog melds elements of two iconic French cheeses, with a Morbier-like ribbon of ash running through chalky paste more reminiscent of a soft-ripened Valançay. The result is thoroughly distinct.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.cypressgrovecheese.com/about-us/our-story.html">story of Keehn’s Cypress Grove Cheese</a> is a quintessential telling of the California dream. Not merely an entrepreneurial success story, it is a narrative of self-reinvention. The California dream is about moving west (or, as in Keehn’s case, farther north, to Humboldt County from Sonoma) to start anew, seeking not so much to get rich quick as to envision and inhabit a new identity. Cypress Grove’s heroine embodies characteristics that could describe the American artisan cheese industry as a whole: scrappy, innovative and unapologetically indebted to European tastes and know-how – condensing themes that emerged through anthropological research I conducted across the United States for my book, “<a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520270183">The Life of Cheese</a>.”</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/vWqH0SXhEEM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A day in the life of Humboldt Fog.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Back to the land, making cheese</h2>
<p>Mary Keehn acquired her first goats in 1970, wanting to feed fresh goat’s milk to her first daughter, whom she was herself then weaning. For years, Keehn and her family lived as self-sufficiently as possible. Overwhelmed with more goat’s milk than her human companions could or were willing to drink, she began experimenting in her kitchen and learned to make fresh cheese, or chèvre. </p>
<p>A friend who was opening a restaurant told Keehn, now a divorced mother of four, “If you start a [licensed] cheese factory, I’ll buy your cheese.” And in 1983 – without any official training, apprenticeship or business experience beyond selling her goats’ breed stock – Keehn launched <a href="http://www.cypressgrovecheese.com/cheese/">Cypress Grove</a>. For nine years, prior to the trip to France and subsequent introduction of Humboldt Fog, Cypress Grove sold fresh chèvre and fromage blanc, cheeses more wholesome than gourmet.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mary Keehn with a new wheel of Humboldt Fog.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.cypressgrovecheese.com/resources/press-kit.html">Cyprus Grove</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Indeed, Keehn was one of a number of Americans involved in the back-to-the-land movement who, in the early ‘80s, began making cheese by hand for commercial sale. Located in the Northern California coastal town of Arcata, Keehn grew Cypress Grove into a successful business with national distribution and name recognition that employs over 40 workers – a far cry from its modest origins. In 2010, Keehn sold the company to the Swiss corporation Emmi, although her daily involvement continues.</p>
<p>Today’s cheese lovers can drive (or internet browse) along the <a href="http://cheesetrail.org/trail-map/">California Cheese Trail</a>, stretching from Crescent City near the Oregon border south to Los Angeles. It leads to artisan microdairies as well as Kraft Foods subsidiaries. Created in 2010 by a Marin County dairy farmer’s daughter on the model of wine-tasting maps, the California Cheese Trail today features 72 cheese-making operations. Nationwide, the <a href="http://www.cheesesociety.org/events-education/state-of-the-industry/">American Cheese Society</a> counts more than 900 artisan and specialty cheese operations.</p>
<p>Reflective of the state’s cultural diversity, the variety in California cheese-making is neither new nor unique to the state. But it is indicative of how <a href="https://www.crcpress.com/Edible-Identities-Food-as-Cultural-Heritage/Brulotte-Giovine/p/book/9781138634947">food-making traditions</a> in the United States are often animated by personal narratives of innovation rather than, as in Europe, adherence to customary tradition.</p>
<p>Since 2000, the number of California’s artisan cheese producers has grown exponentially. But while hippie goat ladies have been celebrated as cheese-making pioneers, they are not without precedent. The California dream of a century earlier saw a similar flourishing of cheese-making activity in port cities up and down the Pacific Coast.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">San Francisco harbor at Yerba Buena Cove was so busy during the Gold Rush that ships could wait days to unload.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2004664511/">Sterling C. McIntyre, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Gold rush roots for new cheese markets</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.marinfrenchcheese.com/">Marin French Cheese Company</a>, in Petaluma, California, claims to be the oldest continuously operating cheese factory in the United States. In 1865, with Lincoln in the White House and the Civil War coming to an end, Marin French (originally Thompson Brothers Cheese Co.) got its start when Jefferson Thompson, a dairy farmer, recognized an emergent market niche in the nearby port town of San Francisco. </p>
<p>The now late Jim Boyce, who purchased Marin French in 1998 from Thompson’s descendants, related the company’s history to me in the course of my <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520270183">own research</a>. During the California Gold Rush between 1849 and 1855, European stevedores who sailed into what’s now called San Francisco Bay delivering goods to support the mining enterprises got “caught up in the fever” themselves. Many abandoned ship to seek their own fortunes mining.</p>
<p>After the gold rush went bust, workers returned to the bay to make a living at the dockyards. As Boyce said to me, “Now, in any workman’s bar or inn… the beer gives them hydration and carbohydrate but no protein,” so “typically in a workman’s bar there’s a jar of pickled eggs or something like that – pig knuckles, sausage.” But in the Bay Area at that time agriculture had yet to be fully developed. “There weren’t any eggs,” Boyce explained, as there were no commercial hen farms. So according to Boyce, enterprising dairy farmer Jefferson Thompson said to himself:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“in a moment of marketing brilliance, ‘I wonder if they’d eat cheese, instead?’ So he starts making these little cheeses, three-ounce cheeses, more or less. And he hauls them off to the docks, and they put them on the table in a bowl, and they were an immediate hit! Why? Because these are European stevedores: They knew cheese! They ate it breakfast, lunch and dinner. And that was the origin of the company.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/_Te1OHOtLk","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>With new migrants come new tastes</h2>
<p>If Mary Keehn’s Humboldt Fog exemplifies personal insight and passion, Jefferson Thompson’s Breakfast Cheese (now Marin French’s <a href="http://www.marinfrenchcheese.com/history/petite-breakfast/">Petite Breakfast</a>) celebrates the generation of new markets. It’s a reminder that the California dream of entrepreneurial reinvention requires not only creative genius but also the appreciative taste of willing consumers.</p>
<p>The Gold Rush brought European deckhands eager to eat soft-ripened cheeses. Marin French was at the ready, hand-ladling Camembert. In the late-20th century, hippie eaters of “health foods” gave way to American Europhiles who valued a diversity of distinctive tastes.</p>
<p>Here it is worth remembering that California, nearly all the up way to present-day Arcata, was until 1848 part of Mexico. Cross-cutting immigrant histories have long underwritten the California dream – and they still do.</p>
<p>The California Cheese Trail declares <a href="http://ariza-cheese.com/">Ariza Cheese</a>, established in 1970, to be “the oldest artisan Mexican cheese-maker in Southern California.” It specializes in Salvadoran cheeses in addition to crumbly Mexican Cotija. You will find Ariza just off Alondra Blvd. in the city of Paramont, east of Compton in LA County.</p>
<p>In 2015, four of the company’s long-term employees – immigrants from Mexico and El Salvador – <a href="https://laopinion.com/2015/02/01/ariza-la-adquisicion-de-un-sueno/">purchased</a> the company with the aid of <a href="http://www.concernedcapital.org/">Concerned Capital</a>, a social benefit corporation that invests in low- to moderate-income communities by helping to transfer business ownership to workers.</p>
<p>In 21st-century narratives of new beginnings are echoes of earlier immigrant worlds. Dreams upon dreams – while consumers continue to savor California cheeses with wide-ranging inspirations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79469/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heather Paxson receives funding from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. She is on the Academic Advisory Committee of Oldways Cheese Coalition.</span></em></p>California’s artisan cheese-making industry has followed the changing tastes of the state’s population waves, from the mid-1800s through today.Heather Paxson, Professor of Anthropology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/801782017-06-29T01:05:58Z2017-06-29T01:05:58ZTake that chocolate milk survey with a grain of salt<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175921/original/file-20170627-24760-mrp8tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1310%2C0%2C3784%2C2383&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">And don't expect chocolate ice cream, either.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/barneymoss/15207454576">Barney Moss</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s been all over the news lately: a survey by <a href="http://www.usdairy.com/">the Innovation Center for U.S. Dairy</a> suggests that <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/06/15/seven-percent-of-americans-think-chocolate-milk-comes-from-brown-cows-and-thats-not-even-the-scary-part/">7 percent of American adults</a> believe <a href="http://www.foodandwine.com/news/survey-finds-too-many-people-still-think-chocolate-milk-comes-brown-cows">chocolate milk comes from brown cows</a>.</p>
<p>The takeaway of much of this reporting is that Americans are science illiterate as well as <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/how-is-chocolate-milk-made-survey-brown-cows-2017-6">uninformed about how their food is produced</a>. This interpretation is intuitive: research has suggested that <a href="http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/09/10/what-the-public-knows-and-does-not-know-about-science/">Americans lack understanding of many scientific concepts</a> and the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2015/01/29/americans-are-still-scientifically-illiterate-and-scientists-still-need-a-pr-team/">story line of Americans as woefully ignorant of science</a> is perennial. As a society, we are also urbanizing and <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-economy/farm-labor/">fewer people work in agriculture</a>, so it’s unsurprising that many don’t know how food is made. These survey results line up with this prevailing wisdom.</p>
<p>But is this what the survey is actually telling us? To us as researchers studying science communication and public understanding of science, factors in the survey itself and in the way the media report on it raise questions about how much to read into these findings.</p>
<h2>Survey’s results aren’t publicly available</h2>
<p>Researchers are trained to look for the original methods whenever they read a new study, especially if the results are surprising. Learning how the study was done provides information that helps determine whether the science is sound and what to make of it.</p>
<p>The chocolate milk survey is described as a nationally representative survey of 1,000 American adults, but this is impossible to verify without seeing how respondents were selected. Likewise, how the survey was conducted – whether it was a phone or online survey, for instance – can have significant impacts on its accuracy. Research suggests that <a href="http://www.pewresearch.org/2015/05/13/from-telephone-to-the-web-the-challenge-of-mode-of-interview-effects-in-public-opinion-polls/">phone surveys may be less accurate than online surveys</a> because they require people to give their responses out loud to another person instead of quietly clicking away in privacy.</p>
<p>For instance, someone who holds racist views may feel comfortable checking a box about it but might avoid openly professing those opinions on the phone to a stranger. It’s unlikely the chocolate milk survey ran into such problems, but depending on the questions asked, other challenges may have presented themselves.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Just to clarify, the recipe includes chocolate and milk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/shutterbean/6757209625">tracy benjamin</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Likewise, it’s difficult to interpret the results of the chocolate milk question without seeing how it was worded. Poorly phrased or confusing questions abound in survey research and complicate the process of interpreting findings.</p>
<p>An NPR interview with Jean Ragalie-Carr, president of the National Dairy Council, is the closest we can get to the actual wording of potential responses: “<a href="http://www.npr.org/2017/06/16/533255590/alarming-number-of-americans-believe-chocolate-milk-comes-from-brown-cows">there was brown cows, or black-and-white cows, or they didn’t know</a>.” But as Glendora Meikle of the Columbia Journalism Review points out, we don’t know <a href="https://www.cjr.org/analysis/brown-milk-study-cows.php">if those were the only options presented</a> to respondents.</p>
<p>This matters. For instance, if respondents associate <a href="http://www.dairyspot.com/dairy-farming/dairy-farming-facts/types-of-cows/">some color cows with dairy production</a> and other color cows with beef production, it’s easy to see how <a href="http://www.cattlenetwork.com/cattle-news/Differences-between-beef-and-dairy-are-not-always-black-and-white-212016371.html">people could become confused</a>. If this is the case, they’re not confused about where chocolate milk comes from, but about the difference between dairy cows and beef cows.</p>
<p>Social scientists call this a <a href="http://psc.dss.ucdavis.edu/sommerb/sommerdemo/intro/validity.htm">problem with validity</a>: the question doesn’t really measure what it’s supposed to measure. Of course, without seeing how the question was worded, we can’t know whether the chocolate milk question had validity.</p>
<p>Indeed, early media coverage focused on the 7 percent statistic but left out the fact that 48 percent of respondents said they don’t know where chocolate milk comes from. This gives context to the 7 percent number. While it’s conceivable that 7 percent of the population doesn’t know that chocolate milk is just milk with chocolate, the idea that a full 55 percent — over half of adults — don’t know or gave an incorrect response begins to strain credulity. This points toward a confusing survey question.</p>
<p>We reached out to Lisa McComb, the senior vice president of communications for Dairy Management, Inc., about the survey. She confirmed that it’s not publicly available. “The purpose of the survey was to gauge some interesting and fun facts about consumers’ perceptions of dairy, not a scientific or academic study intended to be published,” she told us.</p>
<h2>Story feeds a popular narrative — and media missed it</h2>
<p>Questions about the original findings aside, there’s reason to explore how the media covered the chocolate milk survey.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At least they knew cows produce milk?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usdagov/9733479421">USDA Photo by Bob Nichols</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The results were instantly shared and republished by a mind-boggling number of outlets (<a href="https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?date=today%201-m&q=%22chocolate%20milk%22%20%22brown%20cows%22">a Google Trends search</a> for “chocolate milk” and “brown cows” shows a spike beginning June 15th). This factoid likely garnered such massive attention because it feeds into a popular narrative about American ignorance and science illiteracy.</p>
<p>Our research suggests that people who are often accused of being <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/who-are-you-calling-anti-science/">“anti-science” are not necessarily as unscientific</a> as one might think. The rapid spread of this story is likely related to the desire, <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/bob-burnett/the-birth-of-the-stupid-p_b_10127988.html">unfortunately prominent among many liberals</a>, to see and label other people as ignorant.</p>
<p>Studies suggest we are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28557511">more likely to accept new information when it confirms</a> what we already want to believe. In this case, the chocolate milk statistic fits well with the notion that Americans are fools, so it’s accepted and republished widely despite the numerous red flags that should give scientifically minded people pause.</p>
<p>But the fact remains that many reporters and news outlets decided to run the story without having seen the original results, instead citing one another’s reporting. This led to some interesting challenges when trying to fact-check the survey: <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/06/15/seven-percent-of-americans-think-chocolate-milk-comes-from-brown-cows-and-thats-not-even-the-scary-part/">The Washington Post</a> links to <a href="http://www.foodandwine.com/news/survey-finds-too-many-people-still-think-chocolate-milk-comes-brown-cows">Food & Wine’s</a> coverage, which linked to the <a href="https://dairygood.org/undeniably-dairy">Innovation Center’s website</a>, which originally publicized the survey results. The Innovation Center, in turn, links to a story on <a href="http://www.today.com/food/does-chocolate-milk-comes-brown-cows-t112772">Today.com</a>, which linked right back to the Food & Wine article. This type of circular reporting without seeking out the original source can lead to the spread of misinformation. Unfortunately, as news stories quickly pop up and go viral online, it’s all too likely that we will continue to see such problems in the future. </p>
<p>Importantly, none of this disproves the notion that some adults believe chocolate milk comes from brown cows. It certainly does nothing to undermine the need for increased science education in the United States or suggests that a better understanding of our food production system wouldn’t be beneficial to society. All of these points are still valid. Likewise, this isn’t necessarily evidence that the survey itself is flawed. As McComb notes, the survey is not a scientific one and isn’t meant to be taken as evidence of Americans’ knowledge (or lack thereof) of dairy products. The problem is that it’s being reported on as though it is.</p>
<p>So this survey did point out a lack of science understanding. Ironically, rather than showing Americans’ ignorance of chocolate milk’s origins, the fact that media coverage of this survey was reported so widely and with so few caveats instead showed that many people are not skeptical of the science they read.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80178/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Millions of Americans believe brown cows produce chocolate milk? The way the media reported this factoid raises questions about science literacy – but different ones than you may think.Lauren Griffin, Director of External Research for frank, College of Journalism and Communications, University of FloridaTroy Campbell, Assistant Professor of Marketing, University of OregonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/360322015-01-12T06:22:15Z2015-01-12T06:22:15ZHard Evidence: is the UK heading towards mega-dairy farms?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68501/original/image-20150108-23812-vfbg44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Is Daisy doomed to a life indoors?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-196815971/stock-photo-cow-in-farm.html?src=csl_recent_image-1">Tanathip Rattanatum</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The dairy sector in the UK is going through a period of high uncertainty. Not only are suppliers having to cope with retail price wars and the fact that milk prices are being reduced by the <a href="http://www.farmersguardian.com/home/hot-topics/dairy-industry/why-are-uk-milk-prices-falling?/67400.article">increasing alignment</a> of domestic and world dairy prices, they are also facing the fact that milk quotas <a href="https://www.gov.uk/end-of-the-milk-quota-scheme">will be eliminated</a> in March, which promises to fully expose the sector to market forces. </p>
<p>So it is not surprising that recent discussions have focused on how the dairy sector in the UK should adapt. <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/panorama/hi/front_page/newsid_9294000/9294893.stm">Some view</a> the future as inevitably going towards mega-dairy farms, imitating those existing in the US, where thousands of cows are milked under huge sheds without seeing the sun, in something that is closer to an intensive factory than a farm. </p>
<p>Whether this comes to pass depends on whether these mega-dairy farms are the only solution to maintain the competitiveness of the sector and therefore its survival. In the UK there are just a handful of dairy farms with herds of over 1000 cows, whereas in the US they can be ten times that size. The prospect raises two questions: are farms whose practices resemble mega-dairies, including feeding cows in-house all year round, more profitable, and does this necessarily mean low animal welfare standards?</p>
<h2>Don’t chew cud, chew numbers</h2>
<p>First some context. The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/agriculture-in-the-united-kingdom">average price</a> received by farmers in 2014 (up to October) was 32.17p/litre (though it can vary by over 10p/litre depending on the nature of a farmer’s supply contract). This is much about 6.7 times higher than the average milk price received in 1973, though in fact the price has fallen since then once you adjust for inflation. This doesn’t take into account the effect of the cost of production, however. If the cost of production has fallen faster than the wholesale price of milk, this might not be a problem. </p>
<p>Unfortunately historic production costs are not available. But we do have historic feedstuff costs going back to 1988 from the department of agriculture, which are the highest component of costs (more than double labour, which is second). So these can give us some idea of what has been happening. As can be seen from the chart that I have used these figures to plot below, this suggests that the true price of milk that farmers receive has fallen since 1995. </p>
<p><strong>The true farmers’ price of milk</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68476/original/image-20150108-23816-1t2o26m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68476/original/image-20150108-23816-1t2o26m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68476/original/image-20150108-23816-1t2o26m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68476/original/image-20150108-23816-1t2o26m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68476/original/image-20150108-23816-1t2o26m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68476/original/image-20150108-23816-1t2o26m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68476/original/image-20150108-23816-1t2o26m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68476/original/image-20150108-23816-1t2o26m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cesar Revoredo/Defra</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The decrease in milk prices reflects how competitive the sector has become, partly because retailers drive down prices and partly because of increasing competition from other food products. The chart below shows the decline in purchases of milk products, driven by a strong decline in the consumption of full-fat milk that has not been replaced by skimmed milks (note that cheese consumption has been rising but not very strongly). </p>
<p><strong>UK weekly dairy consumption per capita</strong> </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68478/original/image-20150108-23810-16jgkco.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68478/original/image-20150108-23810-16jgkco.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68478/original/image-20150108-23810-16jgkco.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=242&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68478/original/image-20150108-23810-16jgkco.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=242&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68478/original/image-20150108-23810-16jgkco.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=242&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68478/original/image-20150108-23810-16jgkco.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68478/original/image-20150108-23810-16jgkco.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68478/original/image-20150108-23810-16jgkco.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Family Food/Defra</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This drop in demand for milk products has led to a structural adjustment in the sector, reducing both the number of dairy cows and dairy farms in the UK. Here’s the trend going back to the mid-1990s:</p>
<p><strong>Dairy farms and dairy cows</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68479/original/image-20150108-23798-l1pnkh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68479/original/image-20150108-23798-l1pnkh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68479/original/image-20150108-23798-l1pnkh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68479/original/image-20150108-23798-l1pnkh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68479/original/image-20150108-23798-l1pnkh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68479/original/image-20150108-23798-l1pnkh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68479/original/image-20150108-23798-l1pnkh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68479/original/image-20150108-23798-l1pnkh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">DairyCo/Defra</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Notice that the number of cows has been falling more slowly than the number of farms. This implies that the number of cows per farm has been growing, which might suggest that we are heading towards mega-farms. It is also worth pointing out that there has not been a corresponding drop in the volume of milk being produced. This is because yields per cow have been growing steadily thanks to a combination of technological advances and more high-yielding cows. </p>
<p><strong>Milk production and yields</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68480/original/image-20150108-23786-3b8sim.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68480/original/image-20150108-23786-3b8sim.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68480/original/image-20150108-23786-3b8sim.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68480/original/image-20150108-23786-3b8sim.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68480/original/image-20150108-23786-3b8sim.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68480/original/image-20150108-23786-3b8sim.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68480/original/image-20150108-23786-3b8sim.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68480/original/image-20150108-23786-3b8sim.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Defra</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25306285">recent UK survey</a> by Scotland’s Rural College found that of the country’s 863 dairy farms, the traditional British dairy management style of all-summer grazing and winter-only indoor feeding was practised by less than a third of respondents, and on average, herd sizes were larger within systems that feed indoors. This would mean that the proportion of cows being milked in such farms will be rather higher. </p>
<p>This decline in grazing has happened in many countries. Reasons include difficulty in controlling feed rations for high-yielding animals, uncertainty of grass supply in some countries, practical difficulties such as walking distances and lying times, and the availability of a stable labour force. High-yielding cows <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25306285">can also demand</a> up to five times as much energy, which can be difficult to achieve by a grazing and silage-based diet. This can mean that some additional feeding is required.</p>
<h2>Moo-ney, moo-ney, moo-ney</h2>
<p>But if this is the trend, what about profitability? Interestingly well managed grazing-based farms do not seem to be less profitable than those that rely more on indoor feeding. Milkbench+, the dairy benchmarking agency, found it is possible to produce milk efficiently at almost any scale and at any level of outputs, as detailed in this figure: </p>
<p><strong>Profitability and herd size</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68486/original/image-20150108-23792-vycb3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68486/original/image-20150108-23792-vycb3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68486/original/image-20150108-23792-vycb3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68486/original/image-20150108-23792-vycb3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68486/original/image-20150108-23792-vycb3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68486/original/image-20150108-23792-vycb3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68486/original/image-20150108-23792-vycb3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68486/original/image-20150108-23792-vycb3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25306285">Milkbench+</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But while the above figures are based on profitability per litre of milk produced, a very important point is that most probably very small herds will not provide sufficient income for owners. This can make the size of the enterprise a key aspect, depending on the farmer’s objectives. </p>
<h2>The welfare question</h2>
<p>Grazing-based systems have on average fewer cows than farms with indoor-based feeding systems. And certainly, housing and management style can affect the welfare of dairy cows. It <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/oct/02/-sp-battle-soul-british-milk">has been reported</a> that the British public is opposed to indoor dairy systems – though many will not be aware that traditional British systems have cows spending winters indoors anyway. </p>
<p>The Farm Animal Welfare Council <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25306285">says that</a> housed dairy cows in the UK can have an acceptable standard of welfare as long as suitable housing is provided together with skilled animal husbandry and veterinary practice. Nevertheless, continually housed dairy cows can be <a href="http://www.ciwf.org.uk/farm-animals/cows/dairy-cows/welfare-issues/">susceptible to</a> a range of health issues in feet and legs and are at greater risk of health disorders such as mastitis and retained placenta. </p>
<p>There are techniques that may lower the incidence of some health issues, however. And dairy cows maintained in grazing systems may also be at risk of health issues such as lameness and milk fever and are also exposed to prevailing weather conditions.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68512/original/image-20150108-23801-14xubwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68512/original/image-20150108-23801-14xubwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68512/original/image-20150108-23801-14xubwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68512/original/image-20150108-23801-14xubwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68512/original/image-20150108-23801-14xubwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68512/original/image-20150108-23801-14xubwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68512/original/image-20150108-23801-14xubwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68512/original/image-20150108-23801-14xubwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Milky as charged?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&searchterm=milk&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=96837358">Somchai Som</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are still a variety of dairy management systems in use but there does certainly seem to be a clear trend towards farming that feeds more time indoors. If larger farms don’t necessarily mean more profitability – or lower welfare standards, thanks to our UK legislation – it may well be that farmers are making up for lower margins by seeking to generate more income from their holdings. </p>
<p>A couple of positive closing thoughts: We always have the option of buying our dairy products from farmers that support higher welfare standards. And a shift towards larger indoor farms is unlikely to result in US-style mega-dairy farms – we simply don’t have the space.</p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/hard-evidence">Hard Evidence</a> is a series of articles in which academics use research evidence to tackle the trickiest public policy questions.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/36032/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bethan's PhD is funded by the Scottish Government.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cesar Revoredo-Giha does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The dairy sector in the UK is going through a period of high uncertainty. Not only are suppliers having to cope with retail price wars and the fact that milk prices are being reduced by the increasing…Cesar Revoredo-Giha, Senior Economist and Team Leader of Food Marketing Research, Scotland's Rural CollegeBethan Thompson, PhD Student, The University of EdinburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.